THE URBAN POOR, THE INFORMAL CITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

POLICY IN NIGERIA
Geoffrey I. NWAKA
Professor of History,
Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The main poi!y !haenge a""resse" by the paper is ho# to support an" reguate the urban
informa se!tor in a #ay that promotes sheter an" iveihoo" for the poor, an" at the same time ensures a
safe, heathy an" so!iay a!!eptabe environment$ ho# to ensure that the strugge against urban poverty
an" sum "#eing "oes not resut in a !ampaign against the urban poor an" sum "#eers themseves. The
paper e%amines ho# urban poverty an" the informa !ity have "eveope" in Nigeria over the ast &' years$
the e%tent to #hi!h government poi!ies an" programmes have hepe" or !onstraine" the poor, an" ho#
these sums an" irreguar settements !an be upgra"e" an" progressivey integrate" into the urban
mainstream. It !onsi"ers ho# housing an" panning !o"es, stan"ar"s an" reguations inherite" from the
"is!riminatory poi!ies an" segregation of the !oonia perio" have !ontinue" to inhibit the a!!ess of the poor
to affor"abe housing an" tenure se!urity$ ho# the ina"e(uate provision of #ater, sanitation an" #aste
management has e" to the sprea" of a #i"e variety of #ater)borne an" fith)reate" "isease. The
!on!u"ing se!tion !onsi"ers the essentia eements of a strategy to improve the informa se!tor an" the
!on"itions of the poor, paying parti!uar attention to the roes #hi!h state an" o!a authorities, the
internationa "eveopment !ommunity an" the urban poor themseves !ou" pay in a !oaborative effort to
bui" safer, heathier, more in!usive an" more e(uitabe !ities.
INTRODUCTION
Poverty aeviation "ominates the internationa "eveopment agen"a of the *+st !entury,
an" one of the primary !on!erns of the ,iennium -eveopment Goas is to improve the heath
an" iving !on"itions of at east +'' miion sum "#eers aroun" the #or" by the year *'*'. .UN)
Habitat, *''/0. Up to the +12' poverty #as argey asso!iate" #ith the rura areas in "eveoping
!ountries$ but the situation has !hange" #ith the "ramati! in!rease in the numbers an" proportion
of the popuation iving in urban areas, an" a !orrespon"ing in!rease in the eve of urban poverty.
The I34 estimates that the proportion of the urban #or5 for!e engage" in the informa se!tor is
highest in sub)Saharan Afri!a, an" a!!ounts for more than &' per !ent of urban empoyment in
t#o)thir"s of the !ountries surveye" in +111 .Popuation 6eports, *''*0. These sums an"
irreguar settement have be!ome so pervasive in Afri!a that they no# outnumber egay panne"
"eveopments, an" their so!ia egitima!y appears to be no onger in (uestion$ but the appaing
environmenta !on"itions asso!iate" #ith them !onstitute a ma7or threat to the heath an" #e)
being of the urban !ommunity. The urban setting has many potentia heath a"vantages be!ause
it re"u!es the unit !ost of provi"ing goo" (uaity #ater suppy, sanitation, "rainage an" preventive
an" !urative heath !are$ but #ithout these essentia prere(uisites, !on!entrating peope an" their
#astes in !ro#"e" sums #ou" !ertainy in!rease heath ris5s an" the sprea" of infe!tious an"
parasiti! "isease. As the Wor" Heath 4rgani8ation has emphasi8e", it is the home not the !ini!
that ho"s the 5ey to a better heath "eivery system. In Nigeria an" other "eveoping !ountries,
9the urban poor are at the interfa!e bet#een un"er"eveopment an" in"ustriai8ation an" their
"isease patterns refe!t the probems of both. :rom the first they !arry a heavy bur"en of
infe!tious "isease an" manutrition$ #hie from the se!on" they suffer the typi!a spe!trum of
!hroni! an" so!ia "isease9 .Werna et a, +11;, p. *'+0.
The main poi!y !haenge a""resse" by the paper is ho# to support an" reguate the
urban informa se!tor in a #ay to promote sheter an" iveihoo" for the poor, an" at the same
time ensure a safe, heathy an" so!iay a!!eptabe environment$ ho# to ensure that the strugge
against urban poverty an" sum "#eing "oes not resut in a !ampaign against the urban poor
an" sum "#eers. The paper e%amines ho# urban poverty an" the informa !ity have "eveope"
in Nigeria over the ast &' years$ the e%tent to #hi!h government poi!ies an" programmes have
hepe" or !onstraine" the poor, an" ho# these sums an" irreguar settements !an be upgra"e"
an" progressivey integrate" into the urban mainstream. It !onsi"ers ho# housing an" panning
!o"es, stan"ar"s an" reguations inherite" from the "is!riminatory poi!ies an" segregation of the
1
!oonia perio" have !ontinue" to inhibit the a!!ess of the poor to affor"abe housing an" tenure
se!urity$ ho# the ina"e(uate provision of #ater, sanitation an" #aste management has e" to the
sprea" of a #i"e variety of #ater)borne an" fith)reate" "isease su!h as "iarrhea, typhoi" an"
!hoera$ the various forms of i)heath asso!iate" #ith maaria mos(uitoes an" other pests an"
"isease ve!tors$ the probems of manutrition an" foo" !ontamination, espe!iay in the fast
gro#ing street foo" an" !atering in"ustry$ an" the high in!i"en!e of respiratory infe!tions among
#omen an" !hi"ren, !ause" by in"oor poution from open !oo5ing fires an" stoves.
Attention is "ra#n to the heath "isparities bet#een the ri!h an" poor areas of the !ities,
an" to the e(uity impi!ations of su!h repressive government poi!ies as the so)!ae" <War
Against =nvironmenta In"is!ipine9 un"er the ,iitary in the +12's, an" the more re!ent for!e"
evi!tion of over /'',''' inhabitants of ,aro5o in 3agos Isan" by the 3agos State Government.
The paper aso "is!usses the more pragmati! poi!ies of the +11's to support the poor through
the estabishment of the Nationa -ire!torate of =mpoyment to promote s5is training an" sef)
empoyment, an" the setting up of >ommunity an" Peopes ?an5s to provi"e mi!ro)!re"it an"
other forms of finan!ia an" business servi!es. The aim is to i"entify the essons that !ou" hep
to promote a more positive vie# an" poi!y regar"ing the urban poor an" the informa !ity.
The !on!u"ing se!tion !onsi"ers the essentia eements of a strategy to improve the
informa se!tor an" the !on"itions of the poor, paying parti!uar attention to the roes #hi!h state
an" o!a authorities, the internationa "eveopment !ommunity an" the urban poor themseves
!ou" pay in a !oaborative effort to bui" safer, heathier, more in!usive an" more e(uitabe
!ities. :or this the paper e%pores the UN !onferen!es of the +11's, espe!iay the urban
"imension of Agen"a *+ of the 6io =arth Summit, an" the Habitat Agen"a of the Istanbu >ity
Summit #hi!h a"vo!ate the prin!ipes of enabement, "e!entrai8ation an" partnership as
essentia for improve" urban governan!e an" sustainabe urban "eveopment. It aso "ra#s from
su!h other goba initiatives as the WH4@s Heathy >ities Programmes, an" the >ities Aian!e for
>ities Without sums sponsore" by the Wor" ?an5, the UN)Habitat an" other "eveopment
partners #hi!h propose effe!tive #ays to ensure more in!usive an" e(uitabe !ities, an"
a"e(uate sheter for a. The paper suggests that #hat is nee"e" is not ess government, ess
!ontro, or min"ess "ereguation of e!onomi! an" panning a!tivities, but rather a more
enightene", more integrate" an" parti!ipatory, an" more e(uitabe form of state intervention that
#ou" eiminate nee"ess restri!tions, an" provi"e a more appropriate an" fe%ibe reguatory
frame#or5 that is !ompatibe #ith o!a !on"itions an" yet reasonaby effi!ient an"
environmentay responsibe. We sha !onsi"er ho# best to re!on!ie the Ainforma@ an" the
Aforma@ !ity, an" ho# the positive attributes of the informa se!tor an" other non)forma institutions
of !ivi so!iety !an be harnesse" an" eniste" in the !urrent !ampaign for goo" governan!e,
poverty re"u!tion an" e!onomi! re!overy in Nigeria.
POLICY ISSUES AND DEBATES
4pinions "iffer #i"ey on #hat the appropriate attitu"es an" poi!ies to#ar"s the informa
se!tor an" the poor shou" be. Some of the more optimisti! a"vo!ates of the informa se!tor ten"
to present it in romanti! terms as a form of popuar "eveopment, a vita sour!e of empoyment
an" in!ome for the poor, the see"be" of o!a entrepreneurship, an" a potent instrument in the
!ampaign to !ombat poverty an" so!ia e%!usion .-ani"a +11B$ -e Soo +121, *'''0. They
"ismiss earier !hara!teri8ation of the se!tor as easy to enter, re(uiring itte money an" s5is,
et!., #hi!h e" to the mis!on!eption that the se!tor re(uire" no form of offi!ia support. They aso
!on"emn the arge number of reguations an" bureau!rati! pro!e"ures from the "ifferent
institutions an" eves of government #hi!h ten" to stife entrepreneurship, an" to inhibit the
reai8ation of the fu potentia of the informa se!tor .-uran")3asserve et a, *''*$ ,!Ausan,
+12B, +11*0.
4n the other han" !riti!s, in!u"ing many panners an" government authorities "ismiss
the se!tor as an anomay, a sour!e of "isor"er, an" an obsta!e to the "eveopment of a mo"ern
e!onomy .Abumere et a, +112$ Sa!hs, +11B0. They !on"emn the sums, heath ris5s, inse!urity
an" e%poitation asso!iate" #ith the se!tor, an" hope that i5e other transitory phases in the
!ourse of "eveopment, the se!tor #i #ither a#ay #ith time an" e!onomi! progress. =ven those
#ho i"eai8e the se!tor re!ogni8e that it is at best a mi%e" bessing. <In)so)far as informa se!tor
a!tivities "o not respe!t ega, so!ia, heath an" (uaity stan"ar"s, an" furthermore "o not pay
2
ta%, they vioate the rues of fair !ompetition9 .Sa!hs, +11B0. In"ee" they argue that the se!tor
has run its !ourse, is no# saturate", an" may 7ust be repi!ating the "isguise" unempoyment that
prevais in the rura areas. These !onfi!ting positions pose a "iffi!ut "iemma for panners an"
poi!y ma5ers, an" ten" to reinfor!e the ambivaen!e an" hostiity of offi!ia attitu"es to#ar"s the
se!tor. If the informa se!tor thrives be!ause of its informaity, an" be!ause rues an" reguations
are minima, "oes it ma5e sense to try to formai8e an" integrate it into the forma e!onomy #ith
a#s, !o"es an" stan"ar"s that !ou" "isrupt its a!tivities an" gro#thC 4n the other han", #hat
about the heath ha8ar"s, as #e as the rights an" safety of the vunerabe groups that #or5 in
the se!torC .6ogerson, +11;, +11B$ I34 +11+0.
These un!ertainties about the informa se!tor are part of the age ong "ebates about the
rura an" urban paths to "eveopment, an" "oubts about #hether urbani8ation in genera is
harmfu or benefi!ia. Stereotypes about Aurban bias@ suggest that the ao!ation of nationa
resour!es is usuay s5e#e" "isproportionatey in favor of the urban areas. It is sai" that if
!on"itions in these !ities !ontinue to be improve", more an" more peope #ou" be attra!te" to
them to aggravate the probems of unempoyment an" s(uaor$ that the #orsening heath an"
environmenta probems of the !ities are !ause" by the unreguate" a!tivities of the informa
se!tor, #hi!h, if ao#e" to !ontinue, !ou" ma5e the !ities univabe an" unsustainabe for
present an" future generations of to#ns peope. Ho#ever, the "rive for sustainabiity has often
ten"e" to emphasi8e the <green agen"a9 for ong term environmenta se!urity, an" to overoo5
the more pressing <bro#n agen"a9 for improving the appaing iving an" #or5ing environment of
the urban poor .Har"oy an" Satterth#aite, +121, N#a5a, +11', +11;0. Unti re!enty the !on!ern
for environmenta prote!tion in Nigeria has ten"e" to fo!us on non)urban issues su!h as soi
erosion, "esertifi!ation, oi spiage, the "umping of ha8ar"ous #astes, et!. giving ony s!ent an"
argey negative attention to the #orsening "efi!ien!ies in housing, #ater suppy an" sanitation,
poution, #aste management, foo" safety an" se!urity, et!., #hi!h "ire!ty affe!t pubi! heath
an" #efare. The improvement of urban !on"itions has often been sought in"ire!ty through
migration !ontro an" other poi!ies to !ontain or reverse the tren" of urbani8ation. This approa!h
has not ony faie" to stop the inevitabe an" irreversibe pro!ess of urbani8ation, but has pushe"
the !ities to gro# in a "isor"ery #ay, an" for urban probems to a!!umuate.
>urrent resear!h suggests that the path to urban sustainabiity ies in greater reaism in
bui"ing an" managing a more in!usive an" so!iay e(uitabe !ity. This #ou" invove revie#ing
!ontinuousy the egisative an" a"ministrative environment in or"er to improve the se!urity of
an" an" housing tenure for the poor, to upgra"e sums, an" to strengthen urban o!a
governan!e through broa")base" partnerships that ta5e the nee"s an" parti!ipation of the poor
an" the informa se!tor fuy into a!!ount .:ernan"es et a, +112$ N)A=6US, *''+0.
THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN NIGERIA: FROM NEGLECT TO RECOGNITION
Nigeria is the ;
th
argest oi pro"u!ing !ountry in the #or", an" the argest an" potentiay
the ri!hest !ounty in Afri!a. It has the argest !on!entration of ba!5 peope in the #or" ) #ith a
an" area of !ose to one miion s(uare 5iometers, an" a popuation of #e over +*& miion.
=stimates at the turn of the !entury suggest that D/.& per !ent of the popuation ive in urban
areas, an" is pro7e!te" to rea!h &' per !ent by the year *'+', an" ;& per !ent by *'*'. The rate
of urban gro#th is thought to be &.& per !ent, roughy t#i!e the nationa popuation gro#th rate of
*.1 per !ent. ,ore than seven !ities have popuation that e%!ee" one miion, an" over &'''
to#ns an" !ities of various si8es have popuations of bet#een t#enty an" five hun"re" thousan".
Greater 3agos, the former nationa !apita, has gro#n from +.D miion in +1;/ to /.& miion in
+1B&$ is !urrenty about si% miion, an" pro7e!te" to be *D miion by *'*'. Information on the
si8e an" empoyment stru!ture in the informa se!tor is har" to obtain, but estimates suggest that
the se!tor a!!ounts for bet#een D& an" ;' per !ent of the urban abour for!e, up from about *&
per !ent in the mi" A;'s. 3ife e%pe!tan!y at birth is about &* years$ infant mortaity rate is as high
as +1.+ per +'''$ an" the per !apita in!ome in Nigeria is thought to be US- *BD .45unoa, *''+$
N#a5a, +11*0.
The "eveopment of the informa se!tor foo#s !osey the genera pattern of urban
"eveopment in the !ountry. =a!h phase in the "eveopment of the !ities an" the e!onomy has
its o#n "ynami!s in informa se!tor "eveopment. A arge number of the !ities pre)"ate ?ritish
!oonia rue )) as !entres of tra"itiona poiti!a an" reigious authority .Earia, ?enin, So5oto,
3
Aro!hu5#u, Ie Ife, et!.0 or as !entres of interna an" internationa tra"e a!ross the Sahara an"
the Atanti! .Kano, 3agos, >aabar0, or as miitary fortifi!ations that attra!te" arge numbers of
farmers an" !raftsmen for "efense an" reate" purposes .Iba"an, Abeo5uta, et!.0. These native
to#ns, #ith arge in"igenous popuations, subse(uenty ha" =uropean 6eservations an" migrant
(uarters grafte" onto them "uring !oonia rue, but they have often retaine" their tra"itiona
!hara!teristi!s ) #ith tra"itiona !ompoun" houses, !ustomary attitu"es an" pra!ti!es regar"ing
foo" han"ing, #aste "isposa an" persona hygiene, urban agri!uture an" ivesto!5 5eeping.
The areas of informaity in su!h !ities are very e%tensive.
?ritish !oonia rue neither anti!ipate" nor approve" of the gro#th of arge Afri!an urban
popuations. Athough many port !ities, rivers ports, rai)si"e to#ns an" a"ministrative !entres
o#e" their gro#th to the a!tivities generate" by =uropean presen!e, !oonia offi!ias remaine"
unre!on!ie" to the i"ea of rapi" urban gro#th, an" ten"e" to see the !ities as an unfortunate by)
pro"u!t of !oonia a!tivities #hi!h ha" to be firmy !ontaine" in or"er to avoi" poiti!a subversion
an" so!ia "isorgani8ation. The to#ns #ere not !on!eive" or promote" as !entres for in"ustria
pro"u!tion for 7ob !reation an" sef)sustaining gro#th, but rather as sma en!aves for
a"ministration, !oonia tra"e an" transportation. The poi!ies an" institutions for urban
"eveopment, #here they e%iste", #ere very restri!tive an" myopi!, espe!iay in the !riti!a areas
of an" use !ontro, panning an" the provision of infrastru!ture an" servi!es. Panning an"
housing #ere use" as an instrument of segregation an" so!ia poi!y ) to ensure that the sma
!ommunity of =uropeans #as prote!te" in segregate" high (uaity resi"entia reservations.
Eoning an" sanitation be!ame an obsession .Sto!5, +122$ 4muta, +12;0. Sa"y, the a#s, !o"es,
reguations an" institutions "esigne" for the sma popuations envisage" in !oonia !ities, an" for
<sanitary segregation9 have been inherite" #ith itte rethin5ing by post)!oonia a"ministrations,
an" have naturay been (ui!5y overta5en an" over#heme" by the pro!ess of rapi" urban
gro#th an" post)!oonia transformation. The e%pansion of the private se!tor an" the pursuit of
import)substitution in"ustriai8ation in the years after in"epen"en!e gave a boost to urban
empoyment an" urban gro#th in the forma an" informa se!tors. In post)!oonia Nigeria an"
other Afri!an !ountries many anaysts have observe" a
ne# pro!ess of urbani8ation uneashe" by the masses of reativey o# in!ome
migrants, #ho have fo!5e" into the !ities sin!e in"epen"en!e, an" are see5ing
to sove their probems of a!!ommo"ation an" empoyment informay, an" on
their o#n terms... the urban poor are no# "ominant, an" in most !ases are
transforming the !ity to meet their nee"s, often in !onfi!t #ith offi!ia a#s an"
pans .,abogun7e, +11*, +11&$ Stren +1210.
Prior to the +1B's, the informa se!tor #as not !onsi"ere" as a separate se!tor as su!h.
Their a!tivities #ere !assifie" variousy as tra"itiona !rafts an" petty tra"e in the subsisten!e
se!tor, or as sma s!ae in"ustries #ithin the forma se!tor, an" treate" as su!h. Some effort #as
ma"e to upgra"e #hat #as !onsi"ere" their o# eve of pro"u!tivity an" o# stan"ar" of
#or5manship through the estabishment of sma In"ustria -eveopment >entres, I->, an" ater
the Sma)S!ae In"ustry >re"it S!heme, SSI>S, to provi"e te!hni!a a"vi!e an" training, an" to
offer sma oans. No effort #as ho#ever ma"e to prote!t informa se!tor pro"u!ts from
!ompetition #ith importe" mass pro"u!e" goo"s, hen!e many informa se!tor operators ten"e"
to gravitate to#ar"s tra"ing, servi!es, transportation, et!. .,eagher, +111$ -i5e, +11B0.
With the e%pansion of the oi in"ustry in the +1B's, after the "isruptions of the !ivi #ar,
the urban popuation e%pan"e" rapi"y be!ause of the in!rease in urban base" opportunities in
a"ministration, !onstru!tion, !ommer!e an" servi!es, an" the gra"ua reegation of rura
agri!uture. The optimism of the oi boom an" the prevaiing internationa poi!y posture as
refe!te" in the +1B; Habitat I, en!ourage" government to un"erta5e e%tensive programmes of
panning an" pubi! servi!e "eivery, in!u"ing ambitious programmes of pubi! housing an" the
!entrai8ation of an" !ontro un"er the ,iitary. The a"ministrative "e!entrai8ation brought about
by the !reation of ne# states .t#eve in +1;B, an" no# /;0 from the four former regions, an" the
!reation of severa o!a governments .no# BB10 fostere" the gro#th of many arge an"
se!on"ary to#ns that serve" as state !apitas an" o!a government hea"(uarters. The urban
informa se!tor e%pan"e" !orrespon"ingy to meet the in!rease" "eman" of o# in!ome #age
earners for mo"eratey pri!e" !onsumer goo"s an" servi!es. ?ut the forma se!tor sti
4
monopoi8e" mu!h of the support that government provi"e", an" itte effort #as ma"e to foster
forma)informa se!tor in5ages.
>ontrary to #hat the a"vo!ates of "ereguation ha" presume", the e!onomi! re!ession of
the +12's an" the austerity measures that a!!ompanie" stru!tura a"7ustment affe!te" the
informa se!tor a"versey on both the "eman" an" suppy si"es, as mar5ets !ontra!te" an" input
!osts rose. >ut)ba!5s in pubi! spen"ing, "rop in rea #ages, an" pubi! se!tor retren!hments
s#ee" the ran5s of the informa se!tor beyon" its absorptive !apa!ity. ,any forma se!tor
enterprises forge" ne# in5s, sometimes e%poitative in5s, #ith the informa se!tor to !ope #ith
the "iffi!uties of the e!onomi! !risis .,eagher an" Funusa, +11;0. The bor"ers bet#een the
Aforma@ an" the Ainforma@ se!tors be!ame burre". Government response to this situation #as
!ontra"i!tory in some respe!ts, in!u"ing both in!entives to the se!tor by the estabishment of
training an" !re"it fa!iities, an" repression by the over8eaous prose!ution of the so !ae" War
Against =nvironmenta In"is!ipine an" for!e" evi!tions on a arge s!ae.
PATTERNS OF OFFICIAL RESPONSE
The informa se!tor en!ompasses a #i"e range of areas of informaity )) environmenta,
spatia, e!onomi! an" so!ia, !overing business a!tivities, empoyment, mar5ets, settements an"
neighbourhoo"s. =a!h of these areas has impi!ations for pubi! poi!y. The informa se!tor has
sin!e the eary "ays of nationa in"epen"en!e been the ma7or provi"er of an" an" housing in the
!ities, as ony about *' to D' per!ent of the physi!a "eveopments in the !ities is !arrie" out #ith
forma government approva, an" therefore provi"e" #ith urban infrastru!ture an" servi!es.
.Abumere +12*$ Popuation 6eport, *''*0. Government offi!ias often argue that the pra!ti!a
"iffi!uties of upgra"ing irreguar settements an" !onne!ting them to urban infrastru!ture an"
servi!es ten" to reinfor!e their so!ia an" physi!a e%!usion$ #hie others argue that offi!ia
restri!tions on the avaiabiity of an", an" the bureau!rati! pro!e"ures of government
"epartments en!ourage the gro#th of more an" more irreguar settements on the fringes of the
!ities an" on empty pubi! an".
In respe!t of housing an" planning, ony about *& to /' per!ent of Nigerians, mainy top
government fun!tionaries, professionas an" other ri!h an" priviege" peope en7oy a "e!ent
(uaity of urban ife. The vast ma7ority of the houses, espe!iay those in informa settements are
!ro#"e", stru!turay "efe!tive, an" sometimes o!ate" in areas that "o not provi"e a"e(uate
"efenses against "isease ve!tors an" other heath ha8ar"s. The ega!ies of !oonia panning
an" housing have ten"e" to reinfor!e physi!a an" so!ia segregation in the !ities. The Nigerian
To#n an" >ountry Panning 4r"inan!e intro"u!e" by the !oonia regime in +1D; remaine"
virtuay un!hange" unti +11*, not be!ause it #as #or5ing satisfa!toriy but be!ause it #as
argey ignore" an" by)passe" by rapi" gro#th an" spontaneous "eveopment. ,ost of the
egisation an" by)a#s for environmenta heath an" sanitation appear to be remin"ers of !oonia
segregation an" oppression, an" have very itte !urrent reevan!e or egitima!y. :or instan!e,
resi"entia areas are no# #i"ey use" for sma businesses in !ompete "isregar" of the offi!ia
8oning arrangements to separate areas of presume" in!ompatibe a!tivities. Athough a revise"
Nigerian Urban an" 6egiona Panning 3a# #as intro"u!e" in +11* to a""ress some of the
anormaies of the +1D; a#, the a"ministrative an" te!hni!a institutions nee"e" to impement the
provisions of the ne# egisation are yet to be put in pa!e .=gun7obi, *''*0 Aso, the Nigerian
3an" Use -e!ree or A!t, intro"u!e" in +1B2 to streamine the #i"e variety of pre)e%isting an"
pra!ti!es, to !urb an" spe!uation, an" fa!iitate e(uitabe a!!ess to an" for bona fi"e pubi! an"
private uses has been marre" by offi!ia arbitrariness an" bureau!rati! "eays, an" no#
!onstitutes a ma7or bo!5age on an" suppy e%!ept for the ri!h an" #e !onne!te" in"ivi"uas
.N#a5a +11*$ Amis an" 3oy" +11'0.
In respe!t of housing, Nigerian has e%perimente" #ith virtuay a the approa!hes that
#ere fashionabe in the +1;'s, +1B's an" A2's ) vi8, sum !earan!e #hi!h !ause" mu!h "istress
an" so!ia "iso!ation$ sites an" servi!es s!hemes #hi!h trie" to open up ne# an", an" have it
sub)"ivi"e" into resi"entia pots for "istribution$ sum or s(uatter upgra"ing #hi!h trie" to fit ne#
infrastru!ture an" servi!es into area"y "isor"ery an" !ro#"e" settements, et!. Aso foo#ing
Habitat I in +1B;, an" the oi boom of the +1B's an" eary 2's, Nigeria embar5e" on eaborate
programme of pubi! housing, but, typi!ay, ony about t#eve per!ent of the pro7e!te" a""itiona
5
/'',''' housing units for +1B')BD, an" t#enty five per !ent for +1B&)2' #as a!tuay a!hieve".
The enormous resour!es earmar5e" for the purpose #ere misappropriate" or other#ise "iverte"
to the !onstru!tion of miitary barra!5s an" other pro7e!ts of "oubtfu priority. None of the housing
programmes a"van!e" the housing !on"itions of the poor in irreguar settements but instea"
ten"e" to provi"e subsi"i8e" housing for high an" mi""e in!ome groups an" other #e
!onne!te" persons .N#a5a, +11*0.
The environmenta !on"itions in most to#ns an" informa settements remain appaing
an" ife)threatening. Water suppy an" sanitation are grossy ina"e(uate for "omesti! an"
persona hygiene, ea"ing to a high in!i"en!e of "iarrhea, !hoera an" other "isease.
>ommer!ia an" "omesti! #astes are not propery "ispose" of, #ith the resut that arge voumes
of rubbish are eft to itter the streets an" to a!!umuate in open "umps #here fies an" other
"isease !arrying inse!ts an" ro"ents proiferate. The open "rains are often !ogge" an" e%u"e
unpeasant o"or. Pot)hoes in the streets, poos of stagnant #ater, an" #aste #ater gushing from
bathrooms an" 5it!hens provi"e bree"ing sites for maaria mos(uitoes, an" other "isease
ve!tors. :oo" !ontamination an" poisoning, espe!iay in the rapi"y gro#ing street foo"s an"
!atering in"ustry, pose a serious threat to pubi! heath$ an" air poution, espe!iay from
e%posure to to%i! fumes from open !oo5ing fires an" stoves in poory ventiate" homes, is
responsibe for a #i"e variety of respiratory infe!tions among #omen an" !hi"ren .II=-G-ANI-A
*''+$ Har"oy an" Satterth#aite, +121$ ,!Granahan et a, +1110.
Government authorities an" panners have ten"e" to bame these probems on the
informa se!tor, an" have sought to "ea #ith the !haenge of informaity through in!rease"
po#ers of !ontro an" reguation, by insisting on ega tites to an", pubi! housing, mortgage
finan!e, et!.$ but these !onventiona approa!hes have usuay by)passe" the poor, sti eaving the
informa se!tor as the "ominant provi"er of an" an" housing in arge parts of the urban an" peri)
urban areas.
Informa se!tor poi!ies in the +12's #ere very repressive, #hie the response to the
se!tor in the +11's #as mu!h more pragmati! an" promotiona. The miitary a"ministration of
Genera ?uhari #hi!h overthre# the Se!on" 6epubi! #as so "issatisfie" #ith the state of the
environment that it "is!ontinue" #ith the i"ea of !entra panning atogether. Instea" it initiate" an
aggressive !ampaign for environmenta a#areness an" sanitation as the fo!us of the fifth phase
of the so)!ae" AWar Against =nvironmenta In"is!ipine@ WAI. A arge number of environmenta
tas5 for!es #ere set up by State ="i!ts to organi8e pubi! enightenment !ampaigns, an" to
enfor!e environmenta "is!ipine through mobie sanitation !ourts. Spe!ia "ays of the month
#ere set asi"e for genera !ean up by everybo"y )) to unbo!5 "rains, !ean resi"entia an" #or5
pa!es, an" remove heap of rubbish. The !eanest !ities #ere promise" one miion naira pri8e,
an" a "efinite improvement in the environment appeare" to have been a!hieve", at east
temporariy. Unfortunatey, the potentia merit of the programme #as marre" by over8eaous
offi!ias an" the miitary "rive for (ui!5 resuts. The !ampaign soon be!ame asso!iate" #ith the
misgui"e" "rive to !ontain urban gro#th, an" to restrain the informa se!tor, as the se!tor #as
bame" fro a sorts of evi so!ia infuen!e )) ittering the streets, obstru!ting traffi!, !reating
various forms of poution an" nuisan!e, !rime, pira!y, prostitution, foreign e%!hange
mapra!ti!es, et!. Informa se!tor enterprises su!h as ha#5ing an" other forms of street
business #ere in!essanty harasse" an" !ompee" to reo!ate in remote an" ina!!essibe
outs5irts of the to#ns. Kios5s, iega stru!tures an" shanty to#ns in 3agos, Kano, Port Har!ourt
an" other state !apitas #ere rai"e" an" ruthessy "emoishe" .?raimah, +121$ N#a5a, +11;0.
The miitary approa!h #as !ertainy not a permanent soution to the probem, as it !ause"
so mu!h "is!ontent an" "istress, an" provo5e" many human rights a!tivists. The government of
Genera ?abangi"a #hi!h overthre# ?uhari sho#e" itte enthusiasm for environmenta
sanitation, an" has !re"it for initiating a number of rura an" urban so!ia programmes to a""ress
the poverty an" austerity that !ame in the #a5e of Stru!tura A"7ustment, notaby the #e fun"e"
-ire!torate for :oo", 6oa"s an" 6ura Infrastru!ture, -::6I, an" the -ire!torates for
=mpoyment, N-=, for ,ass ,obii8ation, ,A,S=6, an" so on. :or the urban informa se!tor
the most reevant initiatives #ere the estabishment of the Peope@s ?an5, the >ommunity ?an5s
an" the Nationa -ire!torate for =mpoyment. A!!ess to !re"it is important to sma business
6
aspiring to gro# an" be!ome more profitabe. ?et#een +11' an" +11* the government
estabishe" as many as D'+ >ommunity an" Peopes ?an5s, mo"ee" on the Asian e%perien!e,
an" on the prin!ipes of tra"itiona rotationa !re"it system. These ban5s #ere to provi"e sma
oans an" other forms of finan!ia an" business servi!es for the poor an" informa se!tor
enterprises, #ith the #hoe !ommunity a!ting as guarantor for oan repayment. Within t#o years
these ban5s together ha" buit up assets of over 12+ miion naira, mobii8e" over ;D' miion in
savings an" "eposits, an" "isburse" +&' miion naira as oans an" a"van!es .,abogun7e, +11&0.
Unfortunatey, re!ent stu"ies suggest that ony about +' per !ent of informa se!tor #or5ers
intervie#e" #ere a#are of ho# to ta5e a"vantage of the fa!iities offere" by the ?an5s, an" the
=mpoyment -ire!torate. >ivi servants, miitary offi!ers@ #ives, an" other #e !onne!te" persons
appear to have hi7a!5e" the s!heme, often getting oans far in e%!ess of the approve" offi!ia
ma%imum .-i5e, +11B$ Hafani, +11;0.
The Nationa -ire!torate for =mpoyment, estabishe" earier in +12BG22, #as meant to
promote sef)empoyment through training an" !re"it for unempoye" youths, but the main
orientation of the programme #as to reverse rura)urban migration by en!ouraging investment in
rura agri!uture. The informa se!tor #as thought to be area"y saturate", athough the
government aso aun!he" the Nationa 4pen Apprenti!eship S!heme, as part of the N-=, to
support the pa!ement of apprenti!es in informa se!tor #or5shops, an" suppement their
pra!ti!a training #ith other forms of forma training for s5is they #ou" nee" in future for their
enterprises. Again, ony a sma per!entage of unempoye" youths an" apprenti!es benefite"
from the s!heme, #hi!h #as un"ermine" by un"erfun"ing an" other forms of mapra!ti!e .-i5e,
+11B0.
EMERGING NEW TRENDS AND POLICY DIRECTIONS
Sin!e the Wor" ?an5 an" the Unite" Nations system of organi8ations are the argest an"
most infuentia agen!ies for "eveopment assistan!e, the poi!ies an" "eveopment agen"as they
a"vo!ate ten" to provi"e the internationa poi!y !onte%t for nationa an" even o!a poi!ies an"
programmes for "eveoping !ountries. The main eements of goo" governan!e #hi!h these
agen!ies pres!ribe as essentia for sustainabe urbani8ation an" the improvement of human
settements in!u"e the prin!ipes of enablement, decentralization an" partnership. The
enabing strategy impies that the tra"itiona #efare state approa!h, in #hi!h government sought
to be the primary provi"er, shou" give #ay to a ne# roe for government as enaber an" fa!iitator
that !reates the right environment an" in!entives for the forma an" informa private se!tor an"
!ivi so!iety organi8ations to !ontribute to the "eveopment pro!ess. ?ut government is aso to
intervene #here ne!essary to enabe mar5ets to operate effe!tivey, to ensure so!ia e(uity, an"
to prote!t the poor an" "isa"vantage" groups. There is aso a ne# emphasis on a more
!oaborative approa!h to "eveopment that #ou" integrate an" mutuay support the
"eveopment ob7e!tives of the various sta5eho"ers. :or instan!e, the Habitat Agen"a urges that
Partnerships among !ountries an" among a a!tors #ithin !ountries from pubi!,
private, vountary an" !ommunity)base" organi8ations, the !ooperative se!tor,
non)governmenta organi8ations an" in"ivi"uas are essentia to the a!hievement
of sustainabe human settements "eveopment an" the provision of a"e(uate
sheter for a an" basi! servi!es .UN)Habitat, +1120.
There is aso gro#ing internationa !onsensus that the !risis of governan!e in "eveoping
!ountries is at the heart of the #orsening urban environmenta heath !on"itions. -e!entrai8ation
is !onsi"ere" essentia be!ause government is more effe!tive #hen po#er is share", an" #hen
the eve of government nearest to the peope is given suffi!ient authority an" resour!es to
respon" effe!tivey to o!a nee"s. Nigeria has sin!e the +12's trie" to restru!ture the !ountry@s
poiti!a system, an" to "e!entrai8e the stru!ture of a"ministration by !reating /; states from the
four former regions, an" as many as BBD ne# o!a governments. ?ut "e!ision ma5ing an"
resour!es ao!ation have remaine" highy !entrai8e". 3o!a government an" muni!ipaities sti
remain un"er the ega an" poiti!a infuen!e of the higher eves of government #hose ea"ers
appear to have "ifferent poiti!a interests an" priorities. There remains an urgent nee" for
genuine "e!entrai8ation to open up more poiti!a spa!e at the o!a eve an" en!ourage more
broa")base" parti!ipation, a!!ountabiity, in!usiveness an" so!ia sustainabiity.
7
These !ar"ina prin!ipes of goo" governan!e, as #e as the genera !on!ern for poverty
re"u!tion are refe!te" in the "ifferent goba initiatives of the ast "e!a"e #hi!h see5 to
impement the programmes of a!tion of the ma7or UN >onferen!es an" "eveopment goas. In
a""ition to the Sustainabe >ities Programme, the UN)Habitat an" its partner organi8ations have
aun!he" the Goba >ampaigns for Urban Governan!e, an" for Se!ure Tenure that see5 to
promote more in!usive !ities, an" to gui"e nationa governments an" o!a authorities on the
nee" for improve" governan!e pra!ti!es, for se!ure an" an" housing tenure an" ho# to !ombat
the in!i"en!e of for!e" evi!tions. The >ities Aian!e for >ities Without Sums, sponsore" by the
Wor" ?an5, see5s, i5e the ,iennium -eveopment Goas, to a!hieve a signifi!ant improvement
in the ives of miions of sum "#eers #ithin the ne%t "e!a"e. As #e, the WH4@s Heathy >ities
Programme see5s to highight the heath an" environmenta "imensions of urban "eveopment,
an" to promote a more integrate" approa!h to urban management an" human settement
"eveopment.
THE WAY FORWARD
The #ay for#ar" ies in a"apting the essons of internationa resear!h an" e%perien!e to
o!a !on"itions, an" in the !oaborative efforts of state an" o!a authorities, the internationa
"eveopment !ommunity an" the informa se!tor #or5ers themseves. The overa goa shou" be
to bui" a better fun!tioning, more in!usive, heathier an" so!iay sustainabe !ity.
In the ne# urban partnership propose" above, local governments are on the front ine,
an" shou" be given greater authority, "is!retion an" enhan!e" !apa!ity to mobii8e o!a support
an" resour!es, an" ta5e everybo"y@s nee"s an" vie#s into a!!ount in formuating an"
impementing "eveopment poi!ies an" programmes. The !on!ept of 3o!a Agen"a *+,
promote" by the =arth Summit in 6io an" the Internationa >oun!i for 3o!a =nvironmenta
Initiatives, I>3=I, is base" on the premise that o!a governments are better pa!e" than "istant
!entra or regiona authorities to bro5er an" harmoni8e the ne# partnerships among various
sta5eho"ers.
To pay their roe effe!tivey o!a governments nee" improve" te!hni!a, a"ministrative
an" finan!ia !apa!ity through genuine "e!entrai8ation an" in!rease" support from nationa an"
internationa "eveopment agen!ies, in!u"ing non)governmenta organi8ations. As #e, it is
essentia to in!rease the eve of o!a parti!ipation by ao#ing the poor more s!ope for their o#n
initiatives, an" greater infuen!e on pubi! poi!ies an" servi!e provision. The various
asso!iations an" organi8ations of o!a governments an" o!a government empoyees in Nigeria
su!h as A3G4N an" NU3GA shou" a!t more for!efuy as interme"iaries in poi!y "iaogue, an"
through net#or5ing promote the e%!hange of i"eas, e%perien!es an" resour!es. Above a, the
ongoing !onsutations in the !ountry to revie# the +1B; 3o!a Government Gui"eines, in or"er to
strengthen the position of o!a governments shou" be sustaine", an" hopefuy gui"e" by the
re!ommen"ations of the Poiti!a ?ureau of +12B on the matter.
At the national level, government must a""ress s(uarey the unresove" !onstitutiona
(uestion of intergovernmenta reations in the Nigerian fe"era system, to ensure greater
"e!entrai8ation of roes, an" a more e(uitabe ao!ation of resour!es among the three tiers of
government ) fe"era, state an" o!a. As part of !reating the supportive an" enabing
environment referre" to above, government at the fe"era an" state eves shou" !ontinuousy
revie# an" up"ate e%isting egisation in respe!t of urban panning, bui"ing stan"ar"s,
infrastru!ture an" environmenta reguations et!. in or"er to ma5e them more reaisti!, attainabe
an" !ompatibe #ith o!a !on"itions. Whie government an" panners shou" retain ong term
!ontro to guarantee pubi! safety an" environmenta heath, o!a !on"itions "i!tate that panning
shou" be!ome more fe%ibe, more a"visory an" promotiona, an" see5 to me"iate !onfi!ting
interests an" vaues, rather than a"here to the tra"itiona preo!!upation #ith 8oning, reguation
an" !ontro to preverse the san!tity of pubi! an" private property, an" to stop sums from
forming. Some a"7ustments an" !ompromises have to be ma"e to ensure enhan!e" se!urity of
an" an" housing tenure for the poor in or"er to give them a suffi!ient sta5e in an" in!entive to
improve the (uaity of #here they ive an" #or5. Informa se!tor settements an" a!tivities must
be "e!riminai8e" to ensure so!ia harmony an" sustainabiity .I34, +11+$ Tripp, *''/0.
In"ee", !urrent resear!h suggests that sums an" irreguar settements gro# not ony
be!ause the peope #ho ive in them are poor, but be!ause of overreguation, the suggishness
8
of government to provi"e a"e(uate an" affor"abe an", an" faiure to harness the energies an"
resour!es of the poor in the right "ire!tion. The !reation of a "ua an" parae urban systems )
the Aforma@ an" Ainforma@, the Aega@ an" Aiega@ shou" give #ay an appropriate mi% an" range of
tenure systems an" stan"ar"s #ithin the same !ity, provi"ing s!ope for in!rementa improvement
over time as resour!es improve. <What is re(uire" is not s!aing "o#n bui"ing stan"ar"s that
everyone shou" bui" up to, but minimum stan"ar"s that everyone !ou" start #ith9 .,!Ausan in
N)A=6US, /''*$ :ernan"s et a, +1120. Whie the "is!re"ite" !oonia To#n an" >ountry
Panning A!t of +1D; has been repa!e" by the +11* Urban an" 6egiona Panning 3a#, none the
Nationa Panning >ommission, State Panning ?oar"s, an" 3o!a Government Panning
Authorities envisage" in the impementation of the provisions of the ne# a# have yet be!ome
operationa .=gun7abi, *''*0. There is aso a ong stan"ing nee" to revie# the !entrai8e"
approa!h to an" use !ontro intro"u!e" by the +1B2 3an" Use -e!ree, an" to move to#ar"s a
more "e!entrai8e" an" "eivery system, that #ou" be more fe%ibe, an" #ou" aso in!orporate
tra"itiona !on!epts an" pra!ti!es that are sti #i"ey a"opte" in most urban an" peri)urban
areas. This is in ine #ith the !urrent a"vo!a!y for en"ogeni8ing forma institutions to re!on!ie
them to o!a !on"itions, an" give them greater so!ia egitima!y. 6e!ent resear!h by a Wor"
?an5 team has stresse" the nee" to restore <the stru!tura an" fun!tiona "is!onne!t bet#een
informa in"igenous institutions roote" in the regions history an" !uture, an" forma institutions
mosty transpante" from outsi"e9 .-ia, +11;0. In"ee" many Nigerian an" Afri!an !ities sti oo5
i5e houses buit from the roof "o#nH
a the institutions of mo"ern urbani8ation are in pa!e ) the ban5s, the fa!tories,
the ega system, the unions, et!.$ but a these appear to be suspen"e" over
so!ieties that have no firm !onne!tions to them, an" #hose in"igenous
institutions, even #hen oriente" in the right "ire!tion, a!5 the ne!essary
s!affo"ing to !onne!t to their mo"ern surrogates .,abogun7e, +11&0.
:urthermore, #hie some of the anti)urban, ba!5)to)an" poi!ies to !ontain an" reverse rapi"
urbanisation no# appear to be unhepfu, it may be ne!essary to e%pore more a!tivey nationa
poi!ies to so# "o#n the rate of popuation gro#th in the !ities an" ese#here through
programmes for repro"u!tive heath an" famiy panning, #hi!h, together #ith purposefu
urbanisation poi!ies, !ou" hep to o#er fertiity, an" overbur"ene" thus ease pressure on the
!ities an" urban servi!es .Popuation 6eports, *''*0.
International development assistance aso nee"s to be revie#e" an" better !o)or"inate"
to give greater priority to poverty re"u!tion an" improve" so!ia servi!es. Ne# safety nets nee"
to be evove" be!ause of the "ramati! in!rease in urban poverty foo#ing the e!onomi! !risis
an" stru!tura a"7ustments of the +12's an" A1's. The Habitat Agen"a urges muti)atera an"
biatera "eveopment agen!ies, the UN agen!ies, regiona "eveopment organi8ations an" NG4s
to provi"e ne# an" a""itiona finan!ia assistan!e an" te!hni!a support for !apa!ity an"
institution bui"ing in or"er to a!hieve the goa of AA"e(uate Sheter for A@. There is an even
greater urgen!y to a""ress the stru!tura !auses an" roots of poverty in the "eveoping #or"
through <positive a!tion on the issues of finan!e, e%terna "ebt, internationa tra"e an" transfer of
te!hnoogy9 .UN)Habitat +112$ Satterth#aite, *'''0. The ma7or "eveopment agen!ies shou" be
given more support to "isseminate information on best pra!ti!es that !ou" gui"e governan!e an"
human "eveopment poi!ies in the "eveoping #or".
The "ifferent goba "eveopment initiatives sponsore" by the Wor" ?an5, the UN-P, UN)
Habitat, WH4, I>3=I, as #e as the NG4s nee" to be better !o)or"inate" to !ompement ea!h
other, an" to be abe to i"entify gaps in the internationa "eveopment effort. Aso, the ne#
a"vo!a!y for "e!entrai8e" !o)operation among "onors has the potentia to promote North)South
!ity)to)!ity reations for mutua benefit, an" to !hanne resour!es an" e%pertise "ire!ty to o!a
governments an" muni!ipaities, an" to other "eserving o!a partners.
:inay, the informal sector operators shou" not be !ontent merey #ith sef)hep an"
being eft aone to fen" for themseves. With their "iverse an" #i"ey "isperse" enterprises an"
settements, an" their genera orientation to#ar"s their rura hometo#ns, they are usuay more
"iffi!ut to organi8e an" to "eveop mu!h nee"e" !ivi! engagement. ?ut they nee" better
organi8ation an" sef)reguation to be abe to engage more !onstru!tivey #ith government an"
9
other "eveopment partners, an" to in!rease their po#er to obby, negotiate an" infuen!e pubi!
poi!y in favour of their se!tor .Wor" ?an5, *''D0. They !ou" poo resour!es through A!ustering@
an" other #ays of !ooperation that foster mutua support to hep their businesses to gro# an"
mature .6ogerson, +11B0. >oe!tivey they must !urb some of the so!iay una!!eptabe A!oping
strategies@ that ten" to "is!re"it them, su!h as a"uteration, !rime, an" other sharp pra!ti!es, an"
!onfine themseves to genuine a!tivities for iveihoo" #hi!h are ony te!hni!ay Aiega@ in the
sense of not !onforming #ith offi!ia reguations an" bureau!rati! norms that are often arbitrary
an" ine(uitabe. After a
a mo"ern e!onomy !an be ma"e up of se!tors an" a!tivities #ith very "ifferent
si8es, types of te!hnoogy, styes of organi8ation an" "egrees of integration into
o!a, nationa, regiona an" internationa mar5ets... The fun"amenta raison
"@etre of any e!onomi! system is the #ebeing of the in"ivi"uas, their famiies
an" !ommunities. =!onomi! po#er, the gro#th of nationa in!ome, the in!rease
of profit, the enargement of a firm are ony instruments. -eifie", they be!ome
obsta!es to the #efare of the popuation. To mo"erni8e the e!onomy is to use
the best te!hni(ues avaiabe to ao# the in"ivi"ua to #or5, to !reate, to earn an
in!ome, an" to enfor!e the rights of empoyees an" #or5ers .-ani"a, +11B, p.
+20.
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12