Politics in the Light of Levinas Ethics: An Application

of Levinas Ethical Responsibility and Justice

Jay Michael L. Cordero
3
rd
Iloilo Philosophical Association (IPA) Inc. Conference
July 30-31, 201
!he"e# $thics in Politics
Emmanuel Levinas, a Jewish born French philosopher is one of the influential contemporary philosopher
who made the concern for the Other person the central topic of his philosophy. Ethical responsibility and
the concern for the Other are the main themes of his work especially in !otality and Infinity and
%ther&ise than 'ein( or 'eyond $ssence.

!ccordin" to Levinas, one has a tremendous or infinite

responsibility to the Other whose face demands that one should not left the Other alone but one has to
respond to the need of the Other. #$he otherness of the Other is concreti%ed in the face of the other
human.&
'
One cannot not respond to the call of the face of the Other. !ccordin" to Levinas #( cannot)not
hear the appeal of the Other.&
*
$he relevance of Emmanuel Levinas+ philosophy of ethical responsibility
in the political settin" can be seen in relation to the back"round by which his philosophy was developed,
which is in a
millennia of fratricidal stru""les, political or bloody, of imperialism, scorn and
e,ploitation of the human bein")century of world wars, the "enocides of the -olocaust
and terrorism. unemployment and continual desperate poverty of the $hird world.
ruthless doctrines and cruelty of fascism and national socialism)
/

(n this paper, ( wish to evaluate politics and to situate the philosophy of Levinas in a more concrete and
practical way by applyin" his concept of responsibility as availability and service to the Other.
0olitics is the concern for the Other. 1imon Critchley even described politics #as the art of response to the
sin"ular demand of the Other.&
2
0olitics is not 3ust a personal affair of politicians but rather it is concerned
with the welfare of the people, it is concerned with the common "ood of the society. $he main concern of
politics is to provide people with a 3ust and humane society. #0olitics is at the heart of all Levinas+ work,
1
By Other Levinas refers to other human beings aside from ones self. It indicates
the ethical rather than just the real object of selfs ethical meaning, see Emmanuel Levinas,
Routledge Critical Thinkers by Sean and.
!
"driann #e$er%a&, To the Other: An Introduction to the Philosophy o Emmanuel
Levinas 'Indiana( #urdue )niversity #ress, 1**+,, 1*. ereafter, Peper!ak, To the Other.
+
-udi .is&er, The Inhuman Condition '/ordrecht( 0lu1er "cademic, !223,, 12.
ereafter, "isker, The Inhuman Condition#
3
4%e&iel 5ana 6&h1ana%i, 78o Be uman Is 8o Be -es$onsible 5or 8he Other( "
9ritical "nalysis Of Levinas 9once$tion Of -es$onsibility:, Phronimon, .ol.13, ;o. 1 '!21+,,
1++. ereafter, $kh%ana!i, To &e 'uman.
<
Simon 9ritchley, Ethics, Politics, (u)*ectivity 'London( .erso, 1***,, !=>.
whether as the traumatic back"round or as the chan"in" conte,t of his intellectual development.&
4
$he
concern for the welfare of the people is the basic foundation of politics accordin" to Levinas and that we
reco"ni%e the Other even before society is formed. 1ean -and wrote5
Levinas view of politics and society)is "rounded in a primary and never surpassed
concern for the nei"hbor to whom ( am connected by an ori"inal and non6contractual
bond)$here is a primary command that establishes this pro,imity, a preconditional non
indifference to the nei"hbor, who is defined not "eo"raphically or biolo"ically, but
morally. $he nei"hbor is therefore already all of humanity, even prior to the introduction
of the society)
7

!s Levinas is concerned with one+s relationship to the Other especially with the Other+s physical need
this led Levinas to consider politics as havin" the primary duty of promotin" people+s welfare. Levinas
thinkin" is "reatly influenced and shaped by his #concern for the welfare of the people.&
8
Levinas ethical
concept of responsibility is intimately connected and applicable to the political conte,t since #ethics is not
serious if it does not concreti%e itself in 3udicial and political institutions.&
9
Ethical responsibility to the
Other is concreti%ed in one+s responsibility in the face of the Other. $he Other is presented by his #face.&
:
(n the vulnerability of the face of the Other, says Levinas, we e,perience an appeal5 we are bein" called,
addressed. #For Levinas the face is the face of destitution and poverty.&

$he response to the vulnerability

of the Other is e,perienced as responsibility.&
'
Levinas conception of #).responsibility has a si"nificant
appeal to the mar"inali%ed, to the poor, and the e,cluded people of the world.&
*
$he face of the Other is
>
Sean and, Emmanuel Levinas 'London( -outledge, !22*,, *3. ereafter, 'and,
Emmanuel L+vinas#
=
Ibid., <<.
?
;igel 0 @immermann, 70arol Aojtyla and 4mmanuel Levinas on the 4mbodied Self(
8he 5orming of the Other as 6oral SelfB/isclosure:, The 'eythrop ,ournal, .ol. <2, ;o. >
'!22*,, *?3. ereafter, -immermann, .o*tyla and Levinas.
*
#e$er%a&, To the Other, 1=*.
12
78he face is one of the most $o1erful meta$hors that Levinas uses to s$ea& about
the Ccharacter of the human Other '"utrui,. 8he faceC$rojects a ga%e that over1helms and
ma&es demands of the subject. So, its $resence is also intimidatingC8he face call the
Subject into dialogue...8he face has a double character( "s that fragile $art of the body, it is
vulnerable and 1ea&, and as such, calls for hel$. But the face also command or obligate me
against my 1ill, as 1hen the face of the $oor $erson begging for money from me, ma&es me
feel guilty 1hen I dont res$ond favorably.: D" footnote from To )e human is to )e
responsi)le or the Other.
11
#eter "tterton and 6atthe1 9alarco, On Levinas 'Belmont, 9alif.(
8homsonEAads1orth, !22<,, !*. ereafter, "tterton and 9alarco, On Levinas.
1!
6aF 6anen, 7#henomenology Online G 4thical #henomenology:,
#henomenologyonline.com, last modiHed !213, accessed Iune !<, !213,
htt$(EE111.$henomenologyonline.comEinJuiryEorientationsBinB$henomenologyEethicalB
$henomenologyE.
1+
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 133.
not 3ust e,pressin" a prohibition not to kill the Other but the face of the Other is also e,pressin" a
command #to "ive with full hands.&
/

!driaan 0eper%ak describes the command of the face in the followin" words5
)the other imposes its eni"matic irreducibility and nonrelativity or absoluteness is by
means of a command and a prohibition5 ;ou are not allowed to kill me. as you must
accord me a place under the sun and everythin" that is necessary to live a truly human
life. $his demands not only the omission of criminal behavior but simultaneously a
positive dedication. the other+s facin" me makes me responsible for him<her, and this
responsibility has no limits.
2

$he Other commands us to be responsible and to answer to the call of the Other. One is called to serve the
Other and to respond to the Other+s needs. =esponsibility is considered by Levinas as a service to the
Other. 0olitics is one of the most crucial aspect of human society that has the utmost duty of respondin"
to the need of the people. >overnment officials and politicians are task to be responsible to the Other,
who are in need, who are hun"ry, who are oppressed and persecuted. (t is the politicians who are tasked to
be responsible for the welfare of the Other. Of course, all of us are responsible for each Other, as Levinas
would say, ?( am responsible for everyone else6but ( am more responsible for all Others.+ -owever,
politicians are elected to the position as havin" the primary duty to serve the people and to be what
Levinas calls bein"6for6the6other. !s politicians they have to serve the people and to make sure that they
promote 3ustice and provide the need of the people. 0oliticians are called to serve the people, to be for
others, and not for itself. Levinas ethical philosophy shows that in facin" the human Other it #inhabits the
hori%on of one+s e,perience and present themselves as a demand to oneself.&
4
(n facin" the human Other
there is a demand that one must answer the needs of the Other. $he face e,presses a command, #$hou
shalt not kill.& $his command of the face of the Other can be translated as #be for me.& $his command
from the face of the Other not to kill the Other is also e,pressed not 3ust by the persecuted one+s or
victims of political killin" and in3ustices but it is also echoed by the poor and the destitute. $he face of the
poor, the widow and the orphan calls us not to let him<her die alone. @y turnin" away from the call of the
Other we are also turnin" away from ourselves. !ccordin" to Levinas #?bein" for the Other+ defines who (
am.&
7
Our relationship with others define us, it is our relation with the others that constitute our very own
bein". $he Other who calls us to be responsible #present themselves as a demand to oneself and)call
13
"tterton and 9alarco, On Levinas, !*.
1<
#e$er%a&, To the Other, !!.
1>
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 1+3.
1=
Ibid.
AsomeBone to "et outside the sphere of one+s own self6satisfaction and preoccupations.&
8
@ein"6for6itself
accordin" to Levinas #is a mode of bein" in which the 1elf is preoccupied with itself, and therefore
indifferent to the Other.&
9
$his is the mode of bein" that is e"oistic since it is simply concerned of itself
rather than the welfare of Others. Chen one becomes a public servant it is where #one lives for the Other
and no lon"er for ?itself.+&
':
#Levinas tells us, AthatB the face of the Other appeals to us and this appeals
concerns us.&
'
$he call and demand from the face of the Other concerns us and this concern for the
Other cannot be simply dismissed as Levinas would describe #ethical responsibility as an insomnia or
wakefulness precisely because it is a perpetual duty of vi"ilance and effort that can never slumber)love
cannot sleep, can never be peaceful or permanent. Love is the incessant watchin" over of the other.&
''

0oliticians are called to serve the Others, they are called to "et outside of themselves and not simply to
use their position to satisfy one+s self satisfaction and desire but as a public servant one must "et out of
himself and of his personal preoccupations. One cannot see the face of the Other, especially the face of
those who are in need if one is simply preoccupied of his personal satisfaction and of his own self. $here
is a need to reco"ni%e the face of those who are in need. 1ince Levinas characteri%ed responsibility as a
service to the Other. ! public servant is one who is not only called to serve the Other but to be responsible
to the Other. !s a public servant one is bind to the people he is servin". #For Levinas, responsibility is a
?place+ where ( AoneB bind himself AoneselfB to the Other.&
'*

Levinas pointed out that responsibility is intimately connected with service. Levinas #makes an intrinsic
link between the words, ?responsibility+ and the ?Other.+ -e maintains that to be responsible means to
make oneself available for service of the Other in such a way that one+s own life is intrinsically linked
with the Other+s life.&
'/
0ublic servants must make themselves available to the service of the Other, this is
the most concrete manifestation of bein" responsible to the other. (n bein" responsible to the Other one
must make himself available for the Other. (t is in makin" one+s self available to the Other that one can
respond to the need of the other. One cannot respond to the need of the Other if one is not available for
the Other. !vailability to respond makes one capable of bein" responsible to the Other. Chen one is not
available, how can one respond to the need of the OtherD $he "ivin" of oneself demands that one not
simply reco"ni%e the need of the Other but one must be available to the Other. $his is a "reat challen"e to
our politicians or public servants who must make themselves always available in order to respond to the
1?
Ibid.
1*
Ibid., 1+=.
!2
@immermann, .o*tyla and Levinas, *?*.
!1
.is&er, The Inhuman Condition, !*.
!!
-ichard ". 9ohen, /ace To /ace .ith Levinas '"lbany, ;.K.( State )niversity of ;e1
Kor& #ress, 1*?>,, +2. ereafter, Cohen, /ace To /ace#
!+
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 1+>.
!3
Ibid., 1+>.
need of the people. 0erhaps they fail to respond to the need because in the first place they were not
available to "et to know people+s needs, they do not make themselves available to "et out of their
comfortable, air conditioned and lu,urious offices to see the face of the poor, the orphan or the destitute.
Failin" to be available for the Other is tantamount to failin" bein" responsible for the Other. (sn+t it the
case that we often fail to be responsible because we fail to make ourselves available to the OtherD Ce fail
to make ourselves available and respond to our obli"ations and duties to the OtherD
$his unavailability to the Other and the refusal to acknowled"e the face of the Other who is in need is
indeed a form of irresponsibility. Cardinal $a"le at the hei"ht of the pork barrel scandal admonishes out
politicians to at least make themselves available to "o to the slums or the sEuatter areas at ni"ht and see
the faces of the people who sleep in a piece of cartoon or tarpaulin shiverin" in the cold ni"ht hopin" that
at least by the faces and situation of these desperate people, the Other, the poor, the destitute, the orphans
their hearts will be touched. $his is what Levinas means by substitution. (t is not simply characteri%ed as
compassion for the Other. !ccordin" to Levinas substitution is not a #psycholo"ical event of compassion,
but it is puttin" oneself in the place of the Other, who is distinct from me.&
'2
$he call of the face of the
Other does not 3ust remain in the mind but rather it pierces throu"h the heart. #$he sufferin" of the Other
would be intolerable, not 3ust for him, but also for me.&
'4

$he Other is callin" us to put ourselves in their place to suffer as they do, to be hurt as they were hurt.
Ce cannot simply turn our back away from the "a%e of the Other for our own selfishness is also
detrimental and would lead to our own destruction. #One always ?answers+ to the appeal Aof the OtherB,
one cannot escape the responsibility it brin"s6silence is not an option, it too will be a way to answer.&
'7
Our inescapable "uilt in toward our lack of responsibility to the Other is best characteri%ed by Levinas in
comparison to a Fessus $unic. Levinas wrote that the #irremissible "uilt with re"ard to the nei"hbor is
like a Fessus $unic in my skin would be.&
'8
$he Fessus $unic is from a story in >reek Mytholo"y where
-ercules, an ancient >reek hero killed Fessus the centaur by a poison arrow when he attempted to rape
Geianeira. @efore the centaur dies he told Geianeira that she must kept his blood since it is a powerful
love potion that will keep -ercules in love with her forever. 1he kept a sample of the centaur+s own blood
and applied it to -ercules own clothin" when she was in doubt of his love. !las, the blood was actually a
poison and -ercules clothes be"an to burn him. $his depiction of Levinas wants to tell us that
responsibility burn towards our skin that we cannot take it off, the #Other burns himself or herself into my
!<
Ibid., 132.
!>
.is&er, The Inhuman Condition, 11+.
!=
Ibid., 12.
!?
4mmanuel Levinas, Other%ise Than &eing or &eyond Essence, trans., ". Lingis
'#ittsburgh, #a.( /uJuesne )niversity #ress, 1**?,, 12?. ereafter, Levinas, Other%ise Than
&eing#
skin, and penetrates me.&
'9
#=esponsibility for Levinas is the Fessus $unic ( cannot take off despite the
pain it causes me.&
*:
$his story is also showin" us how selfish desires can lead to one+s self destruction.
Eventually, and perhaps it+s becomin" a reality that by stealin" from the "overnment would make a
politician send himself to 3ail.
(n seein" the face of the poor one hears the command that is to be responsible to the Other. -owever, the
problem is that we don+t see the face of the poor because we either hide from them or that we hide them.
Ce are afraid to see the face of the poor. (n turnin" our back a"ainst the face of the poor we are turnin"
our back a"ainst our very own human nature 1ince accordin" to Levinas, #( am a human bein" in the sole
measure that ( am responsible for the Other AanotherB.&
*
Chen we fail to treat our fellow human bein"s as
human bein"s do we not fail to treat too ourselves as human bein"sD 0erhaps the traditional definition of
man as rational bein" that distin"uishes as from other bein"s is best better complemented by Levinas that
we are bein"s who are responsible for each Other. Ce have the capability to respond to the need of the
Other who may not be related to us.
Levinas concept of #responsibility seeks the "ood of the Other. (t does not look for the reco"nition from
the Other.&
*'
$o be responsible to the Other one must seek the "ood of the Other. 0olitics aims towards
promotin" the common "ood, it is the common "ood that every politician must seek to advance and
protect. $o be responsible to the Other we must protect the Other from harm and that entails that one must
be willin" to sacrifice for the Other, #(n responsibility)AoneB is called to sacrifice his her autonomy.&
**
0ublic service is not to seek for pleasure and satisfaction of one+s desire for power, wealth and influence it
is even the opposite. 0ublic service demands sacrifice for the Other. (n service one must learn to sacrifice
for the Other. =esponsibility thus, aside from availability for the Other also entails sacrifice for the Other,
sacrifice for the "ood of the Other. Levinas in %ther&ise !han 'ein( even speaks of not 3ust a simple
sacrifice for the Other but a sacrifice that one does not simply out of one+s abundance. One+s
responsibility to the Other entails that one must make sacrifice, he characteri%es it as #the duty to "ive to
the Other even the bread out of one+s own mouth and the coat from one+s own shoulders.&
*/
Fotice that
Levinas does not simply speak that one must "ive one+s e,tra or surplus. $his form of sacrifice entails that
one must #"ive away the very ones that one has and depends upon.&
*2
E%ekiel Mkhwana%i even "oes
beyond this simple sacrificin" of material thin"s by declarin" that #(t e,tends to sacrificin" one+s life for
!*
.is&er, The Inhuman Condition, ?3.
+2
"tterton and 9alarco, On Levinas, >?.
+1
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 1+>.
+!
Ibid.
++
Ibid.
+3
LLvinas, Other%ise Than &eing, <<.
+<
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 1+=.
the Other.&
*4
$his surely is a very difficult and may even sound radical to many. 0ublic officials are not in
the position in order to enrich themselves but rather to serve the people. $heir powers and privile"es must
be used to promote the common "ood and welfare of the people. !ccordin" to =udi Hisker in writin"
about Levinas says, #$he ri"hts ( have at my disposal, which the 1tate accords me, are only there to allow
me to serve the Other better. Just as the cry of the Other will always prevail over all the rules of a 3ustice
that cannot serve as my e,cuse.&
*7
$he power that a public servant has as "ranted by the 1ate must be
used to promote the welfare of the people and must be used in order to serve the Other better. 0ublic
office is a service to the Other. #$he Other, throu"h his or her neediness and vulnerability, invites me to
offer myself and what ( have in service and sustenance.&
*8
(n !otality and Infinity Levinas wrote, #$o
reco"ni%e the Other is to reco"ni%e a hun"er. $o reco"ni%e the Other is to "ive.&
*9
Levinas also reminds us that in responsibility one does not look for the reco"nition from the Other. $his
is perhaps stron"ly and concretely in opposed to the actions of many public servants who are fond of
advertisin" their accomplishments and pro3ects by puttin" their names in bi" tarpaulins. $his is what we
commonly referred to as #epal&. Levinas reminds us that in responsibility towards the Other #bawal an"
epal.& Ce are responsible to the Other for the "ood of the Other not in order to "ain reco"nition or
prominence. $his is basic since service is somethin" that one does for the Other and in its very nature
does not seek for reco"nition. One does not "ive service to the Other in order to be simply reco"ni%ed by
the Other. $he kind of service that Levinas talks about entails that one must be #under the control and
authority of another.&
/:
0ublic servants as they are called to serve the Other must make themselves
available to the service of the Other. $hey are not the one who must control and sub3u"ate the people but
since they referred to as public servants they must be the one who is under the control and authority of the
people. Levinas even describes the sub3ect as the #hosta"e.& $o be a hosta"e means one is put under one+s
own control and held a"ainst one+s own will. ! public servant as a servant of the people is held hosta"e by
the people to serve them and to be responsible for them. Chen one is in the position of the hosta"e one
under the authority of the Other and thus it is the people who has the authority since it is the people who
are bein" served.
$he responsibility that one has for the Other is describe by Levinas as asymmetrical. Ce don+t become
responsible for the Other and e,pect in return that the Other must also be responsible for us. (n "ivin"
+>
Ibid., 1+*.
+=
.is&er, The Inhuman Condition, +<.
+?
Bruce Koung, 7"n Introduction to Levinas:, last modiHed !213, accessed Iune !<,
!213, htt$(EEenglish.byu.eduEfacultyEyoungbElevinasElevinas+int.$df. ereafter, 0oung,
Introduction to Levinas#
+*
4mmanuel Levinas, Totality and In1nity: An Essay on E2teriority, trans., "l$honso
Lingis '#ittsburgh( /uJuesne )niversity #ress, 1*>*,, =<.
32
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 131.
service to the Other we do not demand that the Other must also be responsible to us. !ccordin" to
Levinas the Other+s responsibility towards us is not our business but it is theirs. #$he relation between the
Other and me is asymmetrical. (ts appeal concerns me. ( am whether ( like it or not, responsible for this
Other.&
/
$his relation that ( have with the Other is #independent of the fact that my appeal would
concern her or him, that s<he would in turn, would feel responsible for me.&
/'
Chen we are asked to be
responsible to the Other it is not a matter of reciprocity accordin" to Levinas, we are responsible for the
Other without e,pectin" or demandin" that the Other would also be responsible for us too. $his is usually
the problem when politicians see their responsibility to the Other not as asymmetrical but as reciprocal
because they demand somethin" in return to their service. (t is the responsibility of the public officials to
improve people+s life, it is the responsibility of the public officials to promote the common "ood, and it is
their responsibility to implement pro3ects for the people. $his responsibility they have to the Other is
independent of whatever they will receive in return. (t is their responsibility to the people thus they must
not demand for kickbacks on the pro3ects they implement. For Levinas, #$o take care of the Other+s need
without remuneration or reward is the very meanin" of ethical asymmetry.&
/*
$hey must not demand that
their responsibility to the people must also be paid by the people in return. $his is what Levinas mean that
#Ethics is not first of all a matter of ?reciprocity,+ ( do not owe certain thin"s to the Other only in return
for what has been done to me.&
//
Levinas in referrin" to the act of responsibility declares that #virtue is its
own reward.&
/2
$his standard accordin" to Levinas is not to be imposed to the Other, to demand that the
Other be also responsible for us is to e,ploit the Other.
/4
0eper%ak in commentin" on Levinas concept of
ethical asymmetry writes, #( can and sometimes must sacrifice my life for some other, but ( can never
claim that another should sacrifice his or her life for me, for this would be a sort of murder.&
/7
Levinas on Justice
Levinas concept of 3ustice is related to his concept of the #third party.& $he concept of the third party is
the brid"e from which Levinas thou"ht crosses from ethics to politics. Ce are not only concern before the
Other that faces us but we are also responsible to the Others. Our responsibility to the Other who faces us
is not simply e,clusive to the Other who is facin" us.
/8
Our responsibility to the Other reaches to all other
human bein"s and this #implies my responsibility for social 3ustice and worldwide peace.&
/9
$he so called
31
.is&er, The Inhuman Condition, 1<>.
3!
Ibid.
3+
"tterton and 9alarco, On Levinas, +2.
33
Koung, Introduction to Levinas, +1.
3<
Cohen, /ace To /ace, +1.
3>
Koung, Introduction to Levinas, +1.
3=
#e$er%a&, To the Other, 1=!.
3?
Ibid., 1>=.
3*
Ibid.
third party is #revealed ?in+ and ?throu"h+ the face of the Other, it follows that ( am related to many others
who ur"e me with eEual absoluteness to dedicate myself to them.&
2:
(n response to problem of how we
can be responsible to a multiple others Athird partyB who face us, Levinas talks about 3ustice. -ow can we
respond to all the Others are facin" usD !ccordin" to Levinas, #( must divide my time and ener"y in order
to respond to more than one revelation of the infinite.&
2
Levinas notion of 3ustice appeals to those who
are in char"e of the common "ood and welfare of the society to be responsible not 3ust to one but to all
Others. 0olitical, social and 3udicial system is the one #that balances and "uarantees at least the minimum
of the absolute demands e,pressed by the Other+s presence.&
2'
$he appearance of the Other reveals one+s
#duty of 3ustice.&
2*
(t is with the introduction of the third party that #necessitates a passa"e to 3ustice
which in turn calls into place the political state, with 3uridical institutions and bill of ri"hts.&
2/
$he
political state has the primary duty to promote 3ustice, thus, public servants are called too to relate to the
Other with 3ustice. $hus, #0olitics was born as the many ?others+ emer"ed as claimants of
responsibility.&
22
1ince the introduction of the third party becomes essential to Levinas concept of 3ustice,
thus #there is actually an inherent relation in Levinas between the ethical and political.&
24
Levinas
concludes that the aim of politics is to provide a 3ust and human society.
!s a conclusion, Levinas is callin" on us to respond to the need of the Other to be a public servant means
to be responsible to the Other and to be responsible to be responsible to the Other entails that one must
serve the Other. =esponsibility towards the Other implies that one must be available for the Other. 0ublic
service is a way of servin" and bein" responsible to the Other. $his service to the Other is asymmetrical.
One is called to serve and to be responsible without demandin" that the Other will return the same. $he
face of the poor, the destitute, the orphan and the widow calls us to respond and to be available. Ce must
heed the call of the face, we must respond to the command of the face, we must be responsible to the
Other.
-eferences(
"tterton, #eter, and 6atthe1 9alarco. !22<. On Levinas. Belmont, 9alif.(
8homsonEAads1orth.
<2
Ibid., 1>?.
<1
Ibid.
<!
Ibid.
<+
Ibid., !!*.
<3
6&h1ana%i, To &e 'uman, 13+.
<<
Ibid., 13>.
<>
'and, Emmanuel Levinas, *3.
9ohen, -ichard ". 1*?>. /ace To /ace .ith Levinas. "lbany, ;.K.( State )niversity of
;e1 Kor& #ress.
and, Sean. !22*. Emmanuel Levinas. London( -outledge.
Levinas, 4. 1*>*. Totality and In1nity# An Essay on E2teriority. 8ranslated by ".
Lingis. #ittsburgh( /uJuesne )niversity #ress.
MMMMMMMMMMM. 1**?# Other%ise than &eing or &eyond Essence. 8ranslated. ". Lingis.
#ittsburgh( /uJuesne )niversity #ress.
6anen, 6aF. #henomenology Online G 4thical #henomenology.
#henomenologyonline.9om. Last modiHed !213. "ccessed Iune !<, !213.
htt$(EE111.$henomenologyonline.comEinJuiryEorientationsBinB
$henomenologyEethicalB$henomenologyE.
6&h1ana%i, 4%e&iel 5ana. 8o Be uman Is 8o Be -es$onsible 5or 8he Other( " 9ritical
"nalysis Of Levinas 9once$tion Of 7-es$onsibility:. Phronimon, .ol. 13, ;o. 1,
'!21+,( 1++B13*.
#e$er%a&, "driann. 1**+. To The Other: An Introduction to The Philosophy O
Emmanuel Levinas. Indiana( #urdue )niversity #ress.
.is&er, -udi. !223. The Inhuman Condition. /ordrecht( 0lu1er "cademic.
Koung, Bruce. "n Introduction to Levinas. Last modiHed !213. "ccessed Iune !<,
!213. htt$(EEenglish.byu.eduEfacultyEyoungbElevinasElevinas+int.$df.
@immermann, ;igel 0. 0arol Aojtyla and 4mmanuel Levinas on the 4mbodied Self(
8he 5orming Of the Other as 6oral SelfB/isclosure. The 'eythrop ,ournal, .ol. <2,
;o. > '!22*,( *?!B**<.