Design for Variable Loading

It has been established by experiment that

components fail when loads area repeated and
reversed several million times even though the
stresses involved do not reach the elastic limit of
the material. Fatigue failure is characterised by an
absence of elongation and of reduction at the point
of failure, and is particularly dangerous for
components with discontinuities since these
always produce points of stress concentration.

Lecture Content

Significance of the Endurance Limit.

Endurance Limit Modifying Factors.
Graphical determination of fatigue strength under
fluctuating lad conditions.

Solution Results Summary

Ultimate Tensile Strength

950 MPa

Endurance Limit (based on

material/loading condition)

257 MPa

Modified Endurance Limit

(for actual conditions)

127 MPa

Graphical Determination of Fatigue

Strength Under Fluctuating Load
In practice the cyclic stress applied to an element
may be considered as a combination of an
alternating stress superimposed on a constantly
applied mean stress.
Stress

Stress
Amplitude, a
Mean Stress, m

Stress Range, r ( 2 a )

Modified Goodman Diagram

The Modified Goodman Diagram can be constructed

for any material when the ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength and endurance limit for
a completely reversed stress are known. It is
considered that if a variable stress is superimposed
on a steady stress, the plotted results will
determine a maximum and a minimum stress line
between which safe operating conditions can be
maintained.

Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
Alternating
Stress, a

Ultimate tensile strength, Su

Yield Strength, Sy
Modified endurance limit, Se

Su

Sy

Se

Sy

Se

Su

Mean Stress, m

Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
Alternating
Stress, a

Ultimate tensile strength, Su

Yield Strength, Sy
Modified endurance limit, Se

Su

Sy

Se

Sy

Se

Su

Mean Stress, m

Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
Alternating
Stress, a

Ultimate tensile strength, Su

Yield Strength, Sy
Modified endurance limit, Se

Su

Sy

Se

Sy

Se

Su

Mean Stress, m

Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
Alternating
Stress, a

Ultimate tensile strength, Su

Yield Strength, Sy
Modified endurance limit, Se

Su

Sy

Se

Sy

Se

Su

Mean Stress, m

Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
Alternating
Stress, a

Ultimate tensile strength, Su

Yield Strength, Sy
Modified endurance limit, Se

Su

Sy

Se

max

Se

max

max

Sy

Su

Mean Stress, m

Complete Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Su
Alternating
Stress, a

S yt

Se
S yc

S yt

Se

S yc

Su

Mean Stress, m

Complete Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Su
Alternating
Stress, a

S yt

Se
S yc

S yt

Se

S yc

Su

Mean Stress, m

Complete Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Su
Alternating
Stress, a

S yt

Se
S yc

S yt

Se

S yc

Su

Mean Stress, m

The diagram can be simplified considering the

symmetry about the diagonal axis and by
rotating it through 45 .

Complete Simplified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Stress
Amplitude, a

Sy

Se

S uc

S yc

S yt

S ut

Mean Stress, m

Complete Simplified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Stress
Amplitude, a

Sy

Se

S uc

S yc

S yt

S ut

Mean Stress, m

Complete Simplified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Stress
Amplitude, a

Sy

Se

S uc

S yc

S yt

S ut

Mean Stress, m

Complete Modified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Su
Alternating
Stress, a

S yt

Se
S yc

S yt

Se

S yc

Su

Mean Stress, m

Complete Simplified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:

UTS, Su;Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se

Stress
Amplitude, a

Sy

Se

a
S uc

S yc

max

S yt

max

S ut

Mean Stress, m

Should either the yield strength, or the

ultimate tensile strength, be unobtainable, a
further simplification can be made.

Simplified Goodman Diagram

Known parameters:
UTS, Su or Yield Strength, Sy ;Mod. End. limit, Se
Stress
Amplitude, a
Modified Goodman Line

Se

Soderberg Line

S uc

S yc

S yt

S ut

Mean Stress, m

Design for Variable Loading

Worked Example

Determine the diameter of a hot drawn mild steel bar

(Sut=430MPa and Sy= 215 MPa) which is subject
to a tensile preload of 50 kN and a fluctuating
tensile load which varies between 0 and 100 kN.
The design of the bar ends is such that a stress
concentration factor of 2 is appropriate for a
corresponding fillet radius of 5 mm. The bar
should have an infinite life and is subject to a
factor of safety of 2.

Solution
1. Strength values from test specimen data:
Ratio (Se/Su)
Material

Cycle
s

U.T.S.
(MPa)

Reversed
Bending

Reversed Axial Loading

Reversed
Torsion

Mild Steel

107

380

+/-0.6

+/-0.55

+/-0.36

Medium Carbon
Steel (annealed)

107

620

+/-0.5

+/-0.45

+/-0.3

Low alloy Steel

107

950

+/-0.45

+/-0.4

+/-0.27

High Strength
Steel

107

1540

+/-0.38

+/-0.32

+/-0.2

High Strength
Alloy

108

500

+/-0.3

+/-0.24

+/-0.16

Solution

Sut = 430 MPa

Un-modified endurance limit for reversed torsion:

Se 0.55(430) 236MPa
'

Solution - Surface Finish, ka

Ka=0.68
Surface
factor, ka

1.0
0.8

X
Polished
Ground
Machined/Cold
Drawn

0.6
0.4
0.2

Hot Rolled
Forged

0.5

1.0
1.5
Tensile strength, Su (GPa)

Solution Size Effect, kb

For Axial Loading:

S 'e 0.566 9.68x105 Suc Suc

Assuming
Suc Sut

Se 0.566 9.68x10 430 430 225MPa

'

This is the book value endurance limit

including size factor.

Solution - Stress Concentration, ke

Applicable to both ductile and brittle materials
when subject to fatigue loading.
1
ke
1 qKt 1

Where

q = notch sensitivity
Kt= stress concentration factor (from
charts, calculation etc.)
(If q unknown, err on the safe side and make equal to
unity)

Notch Sensitivity Chart For Steel and Aluminium Alloys

Notch radius = 5 mm. Extrapolate to
determine suitable value for q
1.0

0.8

Notch

0.6

Steel: Sut = 1.4GPa

Sut = 1.0GPa

Sensitivity 0.4
q
0.2
0

Sut = 0.7GPa
Sut = 0.4GPa
1.0

Aluminium Alloy
2.0
3.0
Notch Radius, r (mm)

4.0

Solution - Stress Concentration, ke

1
1
ke

0.56
1 q( K t 1) 1 0.8(2 1)

Solution Other Factors

All other modifying factors are assumed to have no
effect and hence equal unity.

kc k d k f 1

Solution Modified Endurance Limit, Se

Se Se ka kc 225x0.56 x0.68 86MPa

'

Remember Se already includes a size factor, kb

Solution Applied Stress

Stress range

Stress amplitude

Mean stress

Static stress

Solution Applied Stress

Static Stress
Stress Range

Mean Stress

static

Fs
50 x103
63.7 x103

2
d
A
d2
4

100 x103 127.3x103

range

2
d
A
d2
4
range 63.7 x103
amplitude

2
d2
Frange

mean

127.3x103
static amplitude
d2

amplitude
0.5
mean

Solution

Determine the limiting values of mean stress and

stress amplitude by constructing a Goodman
diagram based on the strength of the component
material and the modified endurance limit.

Stress
Amplitude,
MPa

Solution Goodman Diagram

S y (215)

Se (86)

S y (215)

Sut (430)

Mean Stress, MPa

Stress
Amplitude,
MPa

Solution Goodman Diagram

S y (215)

Se (86)

S y (215)

Sut (430)

Mean Stress, MPa

Stress
Amplitude,
MPa

Solution Goodman Diagram

S y (215)

Se (86)

Safe
S y (215)

Sut (430)

Mean Stress, MPa

Stress
Amplitude,
MPa

Solution Goodman Diagram

S y (215)

a
0.5
m

Se (86)

S y (215)

Sut (430)

Mean Stress, MPa

Stress
Amplitude,
MPa

Solution Goodman Diagram

S y (215)

critial

63MPa; mcritical 125MPa

a
0.5
m

Se (86)

critial

critial

S y (215)

Sut (430)

Mean Stress, MPa

Solution
From the Goodman Diagram:
Including Factor of Safety:

critical

mcritical

125MPa

125

62.5MPa
2

Relating to strength calculation:

m

critical

127.3x103

62.5MPa
2
d

3
127
.
3
x
10
d 2
, d 45.1mm
6
62.5 x10

Design For Variable Loading

15. For a design application, explain why the
endurance limit of the material is
modified form the book value. What factors
should be taken into account when making
this adjustment.
16. Construct
(i)
a
Complete
Modified
Goodman Diagram and (ii) a Complete
Simplified Goodman Diagram. List the
parameters required for each.

Design For Variable Loading

17.

A cylindrical component is to be
manufactured form mild steel (Sut = 430 MPa
and Sy = 215 MPa) and a modified endurance
limit has been established (Se = 100 MPa). If
the component is subject to both an axial
tensile preload of 50 kN and a fluctuating
load in which the ratio of the stress amplitude
to the mean stress is 0.8. Determine the
diameter of the cylinder if it is subject to a
safety factor of 1.5.