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12
Introduction
The
Hall
Effect
can
be
used
to
illustrate
the
effect
of
a
magnetic
field
on
a
moving
charge
to
investigate
various
phenomena
of
electric
currents
in
conductors
and
especially
semi-conductors.
When
a
current-carrying
conductor
is
placed
in
a
magnetic
field
of
magnitude
B
that
has
its
direction
perpendicular
to
the
current,
a
voltage
difference
will
appear
magnetic.
This
voltage
is
called
the
Hall
voltage
and
is
the
discovery
of
E.H.
Hall
in
1879.
This
Hall
voltage
is
proportional
to
the
product
of
the
current
and
component
of
normal
to
the
current.
More
recently,
the
Hall
Effect
is
widely
employed
throughout
industry
in
modern
Hall
Effect
gauss-meters.
Consider
the
simplified
case
shown
in
Fig.
1,
where
the
current
through
the
sample
is
in
the
negative
x-direction.
The
sample
has
dimensions
a,
b,
b,
and
c.
Dimension
b
is
the
distance
between
the
probe
tips
in
the
y-direction
Fig.
1
and
is
not
labeled
therein.
The
magnetic
field
is
perpendicular
to
and
is
in
the
positive
z-direction.
Figure
1:
Simplified
Diagram
of
Hall
Effect
Apparatus
The
three
probe
resistance
network
is
shown.
Experiment
12
Hall
Coefficient
for
Positive
Carriers
If
the
carriers
are
positively
charged,
they
are
then
moving
in
the
negative
x-
direction
in
Fig.
1.
The
magnetic
field
exerts
a
force
on
them
that
will
be
in
the
positive
y-
direction
of
magnitude
given
by
! = ! = !
(1)
where
!
is
the
average
velocity
of
the
carriers
in
the
x-direction.
These
carriers
will
thus
be
forced
toward
the
top
edge
of
the
slab,
which
will
then
develop
a
higher
potential
than
the
bottom
edge.
An
electric
field
EH
will
grow
until
the
force
on
a
charge
carrier
due
to
the
magnetic
field
is
just
canceled
out,
preventing
further
buildup
of
charge.
This
electric
field
will
be
given
by
! = ! = ! / = !
.
(2)
The
current
density
in
the
x-direction
is
given
by
! = !
(3)
where
is
the
average
density
of
the
carriers.
Thus,
the
Hall
field
is
given
by
! = ! / .
(4)
This
is
customarily
written
! = ! !
(5)
and
the
Hall
Coefficient
!
is
thus
given
by
the
positive
number
! = 1/ .
(6)
Typical
units
for
!
are
cubic
meters
per
Coulomb.
The
Hall
Coefficient
for
Negative
Carriers
The
force
on
minus
charges
due
to
the
field
is
still
in
the
positive
y-direction,
as
negative
carriers
have
to
be
traveling
in
a
direction
opposite
to
the
current.
In
this
case,
negative
carriers
will
be
forced
upward
and
the
upper
edge
of
the
slab
will
develop
a
lower
potential
than
the
top.
An
electric
field
pointing
in
the
positive
y-
Experiment
12
direction
will
grow
until
the
electric
fields
upward
force
just
balances
the
downward
force
due
to
the
magnetic
field.
This
electric
field
will
be
given
by:
! = ! = ! = ! .
(7)
Since
the
current
density
is
given
by
! = ! ,
(8)
the
Hall
electric
field
will
be
! !
! = !!! = ! ! .
(9)
In
this
case,
the
Hall
coefficient
is
negative:
!
RH
=
! !
.
Thus,
for
carriers
of
either
sign,
the
Hall
coefficient
is
!
! = !"
.
(10)
(11)
An
experimental
measurement
of
the
Hall
coefficient
thus
allows
one
to
determine
both
the
sign
and
the
density
of
the
charge
carriers
in
a
material.
Historically,
it
was
this
effect
which
first
conclusively
established
that
current
is
carried
in
metallic
conductors
by
negatively
charged
particles.
In
materials
which
possess
positive
and
negative
charge
carriers,
the
expression
for
the
Hall
coefficient
is
considerably
more
complicated.
In
metals,
which
have
a
large
density
of
conduction
electrons,
!
is
small
and
negative.
In
a
semiconducting
material
with
a
small
excess
of
positive
charge
carriers
over
negative
charge
carriers,
the
Hall
coefficient
can
be
large
and
positive.
For
copper,
a
typical
value
is
-6
x
10-11
m3/C,
and
for
the
semiconductor
bismuth,
-4
x
10-7
m3/C,
nearly
10,000
times
larger.
(This
is
not
the
accepted
value
for
this
particular
sample.)
Note
that
when
a
steady
state
has
been
reached,
the
charge
carriers
drift
in
the
x-
direction,
although
the
total
electric
field
makes
some
angle
,
called
the
Hall
angle,
with
respect
to
the
x-axis.
This
angle
is
usually
small
and
can
be
written
as
= tan = ! /!
.
(12)
From
Fig.
1
it
can
be
seen
that
if
two
probe
contacts
are
placed
oppositve
each
other
at
the
top
and
bottom
faces
of
the
slab
and
the
voltage
between
them
is
measured,
the
Hall
field
can
be
found
from
the
relation
Experiment
12
! !
! = ! = !"# !!!"##"$ = !!!
(13)
where
!
is
the
distance
between
the
pointed
contacts,
i.e.
the
effective
width
of
the
Hall
probe.
Also,
from
Fig.
1,
if
is
the
total
current
through
the
sample,
in
the
x-direction,
the
current
density
!
will
be
!
! = !"
.
(14)
Thus,
! =
!!
!! !
!!!
!"
!!
(15)
where
the
measured
Hall
voltage,
! ,
is
corrected
by
the
ratio
of
the
strip
width
()
to
the
transverse
distance
between
the
probe
tips
( ! ).
These
dimensions
are
given
on
the
apparatus
table.
This
experiment
is
difficult
because
the
Hall
voltage
is
usually
very
small,
typically
a
few
hundred
microvolts
in
the
present
apparatus.
Therefore,
special
precautions
have
to
be
taken
to
minimize
stray
voltages.
One
problem
is
that,
due
to
the
large
current
which
flows
along
the
sample
in
the
x-direction,
there
is
a
large
potential
gradient
in
the
x-
direction.
If
the
probes
on
opposite
sides
of
the
sample
are
not
exactly
opposite
each
other,
the
voltage
measured
between
the
probes
will
be
due
in
part
to
this
potential
gradient,
rather
than
due
to
the
Hall
effect.
In
the
present
apparatus
a
resistance
network
has
been
incorporated
to
cancel
out
this
effect.
The
apparatus
is
diagrammed
in
Fig.
2.
Figure
2:
Three-Probe
Network
Attached
to
the
Sample
On
one
side
of
the
sample
there
are
mounted
two
probes,
P2
and
P3,
at
distances
of
about
1
cm
on
either
side
of
the
point,
which
is
truly
opposite
the
single
probe
P1.
Between
P2
and
P3
is
connected
a
potentiometer,
R1.
By
adjusting
the
potentiometer
wiper
arm,
the
Experiment
12
potential
of
the
arm
may
be
made
equal
to
that
of
any
point
between
P2
and
P3.
In
practice,
to
set
the
wiper
arm
to
the
potential
of
that
point
which
is
exactly
opposite
P1,
a
sensitive
galvanometer
is
connected
between
P1
and
the
arm,
the
current
is
set
flowing
through
the
sample,
which
is
removed
from
the
magnetic
field
so
that
B
=
0,
and
the
arm
is
adjusted
until
no
deflection
is
seen
on
the
galvanometer.
In
principle,
even
if
the
current
is
changed,
no
further
adjustment
of
the
wiper
arm
should
be
necessary.
Another
source
of
inconsistent
results
is
the
presence
of
temperature
differences
between
the
wires
used
in
making
the
electrical
connections
in
this
apparatus.
Such
temperature
differences
can
cause
voltages
of
thermoelectric
origin
big
enough
to
mask
the
Hall
voltage
at
lower
magnetic
fields.
Banana
plugs
or
clip
leads
should
not
be
allowed
to
touch
cold
metal
tabletops
and
should
not
be
touched
with
warm
fingers.
This
warning
should
be
followed
particularly
for
that
portion
the
circuit
containing
the
sample,
probes,
and
galvanometer.
Incorrect
readings
of
the
Hall
voltage
would
also
result
if
a
current
were
allowed
to
flow
through
the
contract
P1,
for
this
would
result
in
an
additional
potential
drop
across
the
sample.
The
apparatus
has
therefore
been
designed
so
that
measurements
are
taken
when
no
current
flows,
by
matching
the
Hall
voltage
against
another
measurable
voltage
from
a
standard
reference
source.
The
apparatus
for
these
measurements
is
shown
in
Fig.
1.
A
standard
reference
cell
of
about
1.5V
emf
is
connected
in
series
with
a
3000-ohm
resistor
and
a
2-ohm
resistor.
Across
the
2-ohm
resistor
is
a
10-turn
potentiometer
R2,
whose
wiper
arm
can
pick
off
any
voltage
from
0
to
about
900
V.
A
sensitive
microvoltmeter
V,
which
draws
essentially
no
current
is
conducted
to
the
arm
of
this
potentiometer;
this
microvoltmeter
is
used
for
actually
taking
the
voltage
readings.
The
galvanometer
G
is
extremely
sensitive
and
is
used
only
for
detecting
the
null,
which
is
the
position
of
the
wiper
arm
at
which
no
current
flows
in
the
galvanometer
and
at
which
the
wiper
arm
must
be
at
a
potential
equal
to
the
Hall
voltage.
Procedure
The
sample
consists
of
a
thin
strip
of
bismuth
to
which
three
probes
are
attached.
It
is
encased
in
Plexiglas
for
protection.
The
dimensions
of
the
strip
are
given
on
page
12.6
in
the
supplementary
notes.
Slide
the
sample
and
its
holder
out
from
the
gap
between
the
pole
pieces
of
the
magnet.
The
sample
is
extremely
delicate
and
fragile.
Vibration
and
handling
may
cause
changes
in
contact
resistance
internally,
so
move
it
slowly
and
by
the
stand
on
which
it
mounts.
Be
sure
that
magnet
power
is
off.
On
the
strip
current
power
supply,
set
the
voltage
knob
to
25
volts,
full
scale,
and
the
current
control
to
1,000
milliamperes,
full
scale.
Turn
on
this
power
supply
and
set
the
voltage
so
that
0.5
amperes
is
read
on
the
D.C.
ammeter
that
rests
alongside
the
galvanometer.
Set
R2
to
zero.
Turn
the
galvanometer
on;
set
the
sensitivity
switch
to
either
Direct
or
1.
Set
the
potentiometer
R1
to
about
midrange.
The
light
spot
on
the
scale
of
the
null-
detecting
galvanometer
should
now
be
visible.
If
not,
readjust
the
potentiometer
until
the
Experiment
12
galvanometer
reads
zero.
The
position
of
the
wiper
arm
should
now
correspond
exactly
to
the
point
on
the
sample
opposite
the
single
probe
P1.
(This
can
be
tested
by
changing
the
current
;
however,
when
actually
taking
measurements,
should
never
be
changed.)
Now
insert
the
sample
into
the
exact
center
of
the
magnet
gap.
Note
that
you
may
now
have
a
noticeable
deflection
on
the
null-detecting
galvanometer.
This
is
due
to
remnant
magnetization
in
the
magnet
iron.
Turn
on
the
magnet
power
supply
and
increase
the
current.
Note
the
effect
on
the
galvanometer.
Pull
the
probe
from
the
magnet
and
rotate
the
probe
180.
Then
reinsert
it
into
the
magnetic
field.
Does
the
galvanometer
react
as
you
would
expect?
Increase
the
magnet
current
and
record
the
Hall
voltage
as
a
function
of
by
adjusting
the
potentiometer
R2
until
null
readings
are
obtained,
taking
voltage
measurements
directly
from
the
microvoltmeter
V.
Plot
the
Hall
voltage
versus
magnetic
field.
Can
you
fit
a
straight
line
through
the
points?
Should
the
Hall
coefficient
vary
with
changes
in
?
Using
Linfit
or
an
equivalent
linear
regression
program,
determine
the
best
value
of
the
Hall
coefficient
of
the
sample.
From
this,
determine
the
density
of
charge
carriers
in
this
particular
sample
of
Bi,
and
compare
it
with
the
number
of
atoms
per
unit
volume
of
bismuth.
The
Hall
angle,
which
is
the
angle
between
the
direction
of
the
current
in
the
sample
and
the
Hall
electric
field,
varies
as
the
magnetic
field
varies.
Calculate
the
Hall
angle
in
the
sample,
in
both
radians
and
degrees,
given
a
Hall
voltage
of
500
microvolts.
For
this
calculation,
in
Eq.
(12),
set
!
equal
to
(0.81
0.02)
volts/meter
at
=
0.5A.
There
is
extensive
literature
on
the
Hall
Effect
in
bismuth
that
indicates
strong
dependences
of
the
coefficient
on
temperature,
impurity
concentration,
impurity
type,
and
direction
of
field
with
respect
to
crystal
axes.
Both
positive
and
negative
coefficients
are
reported
for
very
low
concentrations
of
impurities
(e.g.
0.001
%)
at
room
temperature.
The
polarity
of
charge
carriers
in
this
particular
sample
can
be
determined
by
applying
the
rationale
of
Eq.
(1).
First
determine
the
direction
of
the
force
deflecting
the
charges,
then
examine
the
nulling
circuit
polarity
to
determine
the
sign
of
the
charge
carriers.
Experiment
12
Supplementary
Notes
Dimensions
of
the
Bismuth
Strip:
Length
Width
Distance
between
probe
tips
in
the
Y
direction
Thickness