Marketing Research

Unit-I
Introduction to Marketing Research
What is marketing research?
In simply form, marketing research is the systematic process of gathering information through which
causes of marketing problem can be addressed. Every organisation requires various marketing
information to design effective marketing programme and to satisfy consumer needs and wants. Many
organisations distribute their goods through their own channel or through other channel of
distribution. So, many manufacturers have no direct contact with their customer and marketing
managers are also separated from their final consumer and hold little information about consumer's
attitude, preference and opinions. In this situation, manager may fail in designing suitable marketing
plan, policies and programme. Manager may requires various information in the field of marketing
such as; What is the best target market for the product or service offered by organisation?, Which
product features and facilities mostly satisfy consumer wants?, What price should be charged?, Which
distribution channel will be suitable for target market?, Is consumer responding present promotion
techniques? etc. All these questions answer can be obtained through marketing research by contacting
with final consumers.
As per American marketing association
"Marketing research is the function which links the consumer, customer and public to the marketer
through information-information used to identify and define marketing opportunity and problems;
generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve
understanding of marketing as a process".
Hence, marketing research collects required information to address various marketing
problems, analyzes and communicates findings for making improvement.
Marketing research as a process:-

Designs the method for

collecting information

Specifies required
Information

Feedback

Manages and implements

data collection process
Implementation

Communicates
The findings

Analyzes the result

Kinds of marketing research

Different types of marketing research can be undertaken to address particular marketing problem.
There is no specific criterion for classifying marketing research but on the basis of particular
marketing problem and their implication, it can be classified as follows:-

Marketing Research
1. Marketing research concerned with identifying and developing new product.
2. Marketing research for testing marketing of new product.
3. Marketing research to measure changes in brand's market share and their usage rate.
4. Marketing research concerned with testing effectiveness of advertisement and evaluating
marketing strategy.
Importance of marketing Research:
To find target market
Size of target market, attitude, opinion, preference, lifestyle of its member.
Selection of product and service
Product features, benefits, size, weight, ingredients, position of
Competitors product
Price determination
Value of product, price of substitute product,
Setting channel of distribution
Separate channel of distribution for different target market, Effect on price, margin effect on
channel member

Selection of appropriate promotion technique.

(For details see page no.6 to 10 of Boyd & Stasch "marketing research)
Interaction (relation) between management and marketing research
Management complaints to the researcher:

Research is not problem oriented; it just provides plethora of facts only not a actionable research.
Researcher involves in techniques only, they do not pay willingness to involve in management
problems.
Research is slow, vague, and questionable validity.
Researcher ignores management.

Researcher complaints about management:

Management ask for specific information about parts of problem only.

Management do not appreciate the value of research, they provide lip service only.
Management do not allow sufficient time to the research.
Management pays more dependency on research; they do not understand that research is a
clutch not a tool.

Marketing Research
Scientific method and the research process
Meaning of scientific research
Marketing is more art than a science.
Scientific research must produce same result.
Scientific research uses most scientific methodology available.
Two general traits of scientific method are: Validity
Reliability
Validity is that characteristic of research that measures what it claims to measure. For examples; to
measure TV viewer audience attitude towards particular programme can be measure by setting
additional mechanical device in TV, to determine the audience are watched that programme or not
when they are turned on TV.
Reliability is that characteristics of scientific method which should reflect same result if any research
is repeated again and again by other researcher.
Distinction between scientific and non-scientific research
Objectivity of investigator
Accuracy of measurement
Continuing and exhaustive nature of investigation
The marketing research process
1. Specifying research objectives
2. Preparing a list of needed information
3. Designing the data collection project
4. Selecting a sample type
5. Determine the sample size
6. Organizing and carrying out the field work
7. Analyzing the collected data and reporting the findings

Marketing Research

Unit-II
Research objectives
Describing apparent problem (Problem identification)
Problem of declining sales
Specifying research objectives
Finding possible causes of declining sales
Declining market demand
Increase competition
Loss of cooperation from distributors and dealers.
High prices
Product quality
Ineffective promotion
Others
Listing needed information

Well specified list of needed information

Designing data collection project

Structured project or unstructured project can be applied.

Company records can be reviewed.
Interview with knowledge individuals within the company.
Information about demand, competition, distribution, prices & product quality can be
gathered through interview with long established distributors and dealers.

Identification of opportunity
Developing marketing plan
Developing marketing plan might be based on single marketing research project but two or
more marketing research project may provide sufficient information for planning activities.
Marketing manager may require various helpful information such as; market share, retail sales of own
product and competitors brand, % of consumer trying their brand, uses and repurchase pattern of
consumer etc. Most of such information can only be obtained from large-scale descriptive studies.
Thus, managers may use marketing research information from a number of sources when developing
their marketing plans, for this approach following procedure should be followed: Specifying the objective of research.
Using the needed information.
Designing the data collection project.
Selecting among alternatives
Through gathering information manager may develop various alternatives for e.g.
Introduce a new product
Make no change

Marketing Research
For selecting best course of action, manager should gather various information related to these
isolated alternatives by using following procedure: Specifying the objective of research.
Using the needed information.
Designing the data collection project.
Selecting alternatives without research
Sometimes manager may choose available course of action with out carrying some kinds of
research. Using managers experience and judgement, certain probable alternative can be observed. If
there is no sufficient information for selecting best alternative, he may use Decision Tree analysis:Decision Tree analysis:Decision Tree analysis is a diagram with four major components:(i) A decision fork
(ii) Out come fork
(iii) Probability associated with each alternative.
(iv) Reward or penalties associated in each outcome.
To illustrate Decision tree diagram assume that Asian Thai Food introducing new family pack
noodles.

Competitors
Reaction (0.7)

-Rs.1, 00,000

No competitors
Reaction (0.3)

Using metallic wrapper

Rs. 5, 00,000
Competitors
Reaction (0.5)

Using normal wrapper

-Rs. 2, 00,000

No competitors
Reaction (0.5)

Rs. 4, 00,000
Decision Fork

Outcome Fork

Outcome
Probabilities

Reward or
Penalty
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Decision Fork
The left side diagram which shows all alternatives course of action is known as decision fork.
In above diagram, using metallic wrapper and normal wrapper is the decision fork which consists two
branches, the number of branches increase with its number of alternatives available.
Outcome Fork
Every alternative course of action may create outcomes. In above diagram, the second branch
moving to the right from decision fork is known as outcome fork and competitors reaction and no
competitors reaction are outcome of decision fork. Its sensitiveness depends upon the decision fork.
Outcome probability
It shows the chances of occurring possible outcomes. In above diagram, the 0.7 in 1 st top
branch associated with decision fork using metallic wrapper and 0.3 in the top second branch
associated with using metallic wrapper are the probabilities of each outcome.
Outcome reward or Penalty
The forth part of above diagram consisting amount realized if particular outcome occurred, is
known as outcome reward or penalty. In the above diagram, - Rs. 1,00,000 means the company loose
Rs. 1,00,000 if it uses metallic wrapper and competitors react, Rs. 5,00,000 means the company can
earn Rs. 5,00,000 if it uses metallic wrapper and competitors do not react.
Calculation of expected value
When decision tree completed, manager should take decision for implementing particular
decision based on expected value. As above diagram, if company take decision using metallic
wrapper the expected value will be:= 0.7 x 1, 00,000 + 0.3 x 5, 00,000 = 80,000
If normal plastic wrapper is used:= 0.5 x 2, 00,000 + 0.5 x 4, 00,000 = 1, 00,000
Hence, considering expected value, company should take second decision, using plastic
wrapper because it has higher expected value than first decision.

Marketing Research

Unit-III
Types of research
Exploratory research design
Exploratory research has no formal design so it uses both sources of data; secondary and primary.
Study of secondary data
Research on marketing activities
Report published from research organizations.
Trade association's data.
Company records; accounting data, sales data etc.
Research reported published by professional in trade journals and government documents.
Survey of individuals with ideas (Gaining thoughts, feelings and attitudes from individuals)
Use widely diversified groups (Heterogeneous group) because every individual in those
group do not have ideas due to; limited experience with problem in hand, lack of ability as
observers, inability to express their ideas.
Use those who have any association with the efforts to market the product.
Use individuals with ideas like; top executives, sales manager, area sales manager, or others
who are associated with companies or related products; sales representatives, wholesaler,
retailer and consumers( having long experience with product, who needs such product)
Do not concentrate investigation among better educated or more articulate persons because
they give similar ideas.
To find new ideas, give possible freedom of response to the respondents.
Depth interview
Depth interview consist direct questions to consumers about their attitude and motives. Most
people do not give their clear attitude and ideas about why they make particular purchase decision. In
this technique, interviewer attempts to influence respondent to talk freely about the subject of interest.
In this technique, interviewer does not use fixed list of questions but they use immediate questions
(from an outline mind) related to subject matter. If some idea of interest is passed over too quickly,
the interviewer may seek additional information by "probing.
Advantages
1. It provides further information which can not be obtained through normal interview.
2. Interviewers has a great flexibility so, he can stimulate respondent to reveal more of their and
attitude.
Disadvantages
1. Interviewers may fail to hold respondent within subject matter.
2. It requires high cost because well trained interviewer with knowledge of psychology and
sociology, should be used.
3. Any biasness on the part of interviewers may be reflected in the result.
Focus group interview
In this technique, 6 to 12 consumers brought together at one place to discuss the topic of
interest. To elaborate facilities for such group discussion can be tape recorded or video recorded
which permits marketing and advertising executives to watch proceedings. The main objectives of
focus group interviews, is to obtain qualitative and subjective evidence about things by talking about
product , emotional and behavioural reaction to advertisement, life style relationship to product
category and specific brand and unconscious consumer motivation relative to the product and its
promotion.

Marketing Research
Focus group process
After making focus group, the moderator provides a brief comment about purpose of the
meeting and suggests a specific topic for open discussion.
Start talking about the general product category and specific product within that category
that they use.
From discussion moderator may move the group to talk about how they feel about the
product interest and their attitude and behaviours towards and cause why the use
particular product and not others.
The interviews are usually taped so that moderator can concentrate the discussion on
track with out fear of loosing information and to bring the discussion back to the area of
interest when it has wandered in to irrelevant areas.
Moderator must be related to that focus group that they are accepted as one of the group
not as director or superior than other individuals in the group. For examples; woman
moderator for female group, Young moderator for young group.
Selecting sample for focus group
Many running group should be kept until the researcher is getting no more new ideas.
Test have shown groups of 8 produce more and better ideas than groups such as 4 to 20, but
there is no objective evidence that shows 8 is better.
Individuals should be selected on a Quota-basis (product and brand usage, frequency of
purchase etc.
Individuals in a group should be experimented with product and articulate.
It is often useful to have different focus groups for different important market segment rather
than to have several segments represented in the same group. For e.g. to obtain information of
Short-term family planning product, we should include:Wife & husband with children
Wife & husband without children
Wife & husband at the level of Bachelor, honeymooners, full nest, empty nest and
dissolution.
Working & non- working woman etc.
Problems in focus group interviews: Moderators skill and experience is crucial to the success of focus group. He should be well
trained in psychology and sociology.
Conducting interviews, analyzes the result, draw conclusion and recommendation etc. depend
upon the skill and imagination of moderator.
Dominant personalities may take over and lead the discussion in their own ways.
Projective technique
This is other types of surveying individuals for getting more information than their surface feelings.
In this technique
Descriptive studies
Descriptive studies are designed to describe something. For examples; characteristics of users
of a given product, degree of variation in using product with income, sex etc.
Descriptive research attempts to obtain a complete and accurate description of a situation.
Descriptive data do not show direct cause and effect relationship. For e.g. Purchase of product and
income may vary together but this does not prove high income is the cause of purchase.
Types of Descriptive studies

Marketing Research
1. Case method
Case method is considered as one variation of the survey of individuals with ideas. It involves
the comprehensive study of one or a few specific situations and lends itself particularly to the study of
the complex situation. When one situation or unit is examined the process is called the case method
and each unit is called a case. It emphasis on obtaining a complete description and understanding the
relationship among factors.
Case method design
Most of the collected cases are typically studies to find three factors: Features common to all cases in the general group.
Features not common to all cases but common to certain sub-group.
Features unique to a specific case, perhaps the outstanding units.
Hypothesis can be formulated from comparison and of these similarities and difference.
Advantages:1. Reliable and influence information are obtained from study of entire situation.
2. Case study is a description of a real situation.
Disadvantages:1. Case studies involve detailed description of complete situation. So, it is difficult to develop
formal method of observation or recording.
2. Case study holds lack of objectivity carries over into the analysis of case data, which may
lead to unwarranted conclusion.
3. In analyzing case, it is difficult to generalize situation because cases are selected subjectively.
2. Statistical method
Statistical method is widely used method in marketing research. Statistical methods are used
in analyzing the collected data. Statistical methods cease to identify individual cases and focuses
instead on classes, average, percentage and measure of dispersion and other statistical procedure. For
examples; data compiled in accounting department showing sales by type of customer by
geographical area provide an example of statistical method.
In descriptive research statistical method is the short and suitable method for describing
present situation existing at a particular time. For examples; if manufacturer draw hypothesis that
most of rapidly sales of personal computer are being made to well educated families and to families
with children interested in computers. Such data can be described as follows:Ownership of personal computer:Number
Own personal computer
100
Do not own personal computer 900
Total

Percentage
10
90

1000

100

Ownership of personal computer and education of household head:No college

Num. %
Own personal computer
20
5
Do not own personal computer 380
95
Total
400
100

College Total
Num. %
Num.
80
13
100
520
87
900
600
100

%
10
90
1000

100

Ownership of personal computer & teenage children in home:No teenagers

Teenagers

Total

Marketing Research
Own personal computer
12
Do not own personal computer 688
Total

Num. %
2
98
700
100

88
212

Num.
29
71
300

%
100
900
100

Num. %
10
90
1000 100

Advantages
1. More accurate generalization.
2. Easily understandable and short way to describe facts.
Disadvantages
1. It requires large number of interview and observation.
2. Each individual item may loose its identity.
3. Inability to prove cause and effect relationship.
Experimentation
Experiment will refer to that research process in which one or more variables are manipulated
under conditions that permit the collection of data that show the effect, if any, of such variables in
unconfused fashion.
Under most circumstance, experiments must create artificial situations so that they can
obtain the particular data needed and can measure the data accurately. In this , situations are created
artificially, for testing purpose and it gives researchers more control over factors they are studying. If
they can control the factors present in a given situation, they can obtain more conclusive evidence of
cause-and effect relationship between two of them.
Selected experimental design
To have appropriate knowledge about experimental designs, the researcher has to know:Experimental variables:- This is the variables for which particular experiment is conducted. Such
as; Advertising, Shelf display and training.
Experimental Units: - This is the particular object on which particular experiment is conducted; they
are the bases of experiment and sources of data collection. Such as; a group of consumer, a store,
some sales representative.
Measurable Unit: - This is the standard on which experiment result can be measured. Such as;
Number of remembering the brand name, Unit sold, Calls made.
After only design
According to after only design, applying the experimental variable (Advertising) to an
experimental group (Consumers) and measuring dependent variable (Recall of brand name) after, and
only after the application of experimental variable.
As above discussion, before and after are used to mean measurement of the dependent
variable before and after it is exposed to experimental variable. In notation it can be shown as
follows:Experimental group
Experimental variable introduced
Yes
After measurement
Yes (x1)
Effect of experimental variable = (x1) Implicit before measure
The after only experimental design is often used with new product when the before
measurement is known be zero. In this results are compared to an estimated breakeven or minimum
acceptable volume as base and the before measurement is implicit estimated on the basis of past
experience.
Before after design

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In this design, experimenters measure the dependent variable before exposing the subject to
the experimental variable and again after exposure to the experimental variable. The difference
between two is considered as the effect of the experimental variables.
As notion:Experimental group
Before measurement,
yes (X1)
Experimental variable introduced
yes
After measurement
yes (X2)
Effect of experimental variable = (X2) - (X1)
For examples:Effect of television commercial for sampoo.
Experimental group
(250 consumers)
Before measurement (% of preferring brand x in 1st drawing)
4.2 % (X1)
Experimental variable introduced (Brand x commercial)
yes
After measurement (% preferring brand x in second drawing)
12.4 % (X2)
Effect of experimental variable (Brand x commercial) (X2) - (X1) = 12.4%- 4.2%= 8.4%
In above examples:Dependent variable (Preference for sampoo brands)
Experimental subject/units (consumer)
Experimental variable (sampoo commercials)
Uncontrolled variables
History:- One factor that could cause the "after" measurement to differ from the "before"
measurement is history. If two measurements were several days, even month, apart, the effect of
history might become major factor. As above example of shampoo, if a period of several months were
involved, advertisement activities of other brands or changes in hair style( sift from curly to straight
or silky etc.) could make major changes in the "after" measurement.
Maturation:- The biological and psychological changes that take place with the passage of time are
called maturation.
Pre-test effect:- It is a third factor which influence the validity of the before-After design. As
above examples of shampoo; preference of particular shampoo, made in before design could easily
influence their response to the after measurement.
Measurement of variation:- Measurement of variation is that factor which may cause variation in
the before and after measurement that may be confused with the effect of experimental variable.
If respondents are in controlled situation, the measurement variation may be small that does not
change between before and after measurement.
"Before-after with control group" design
This is classical experimental design which shows the effect of experimental variable only. In
this technique, two types of sample groups named "Experimental group" and "Control group" are
selected and both groups is treated as interchangeable for experimental process. Both group is
measured at same time but no experimental variable is introduced on control group. The difference
obtained between before and after measurement of control group is treated as the result of
uncontrolled variables and denoted as (Y 1 Y2). Moreover, the difference between before and after
measurements of experimental group is treated as the result of experimental variable and denoted as
(X1- X2). But the total effect of experimental variable is determined by subtracting the difference of
two measurement in control group ((Y1 Y2) from the difference of two measurements in
experimental group and it is denoted as (X1- X2) - (Y1 Y2).

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An example of experiment conducted by ABC co. may clear this "Before-after with control
group" design. Its summarised result is given as follows.
Experimental
Control
Group
Group
(Exposed to advertising
(not exposed to advertising
Campaign)
campaign)
"Before measurement
(% purchasing in past 4 weeks) 19.4 % (X1)
19.4 % (Y1)
Experimental variables
(Exposed to advertising of products)
Yes
No
"After" measurement
(% purchasing in past 4 weeks at
the time of second interview)
20.5 %
16.9 %
Effect of experimental variable = (20.5 % -19.4 %) (19.4% - 16.9%)
= (1.1 %) (-2.5 %) = 3.6 %
The effect of uncontrollable variables like; History, maturation, pre-testing and measurement of
variability will be same in "Before-after with control group" design. Moreover, in this design,
interaction effect (effect between pre-testing and the experimental variable) should be considered as
a weakness of this design. An example of experiment conducted by United Nation is presented here
to clarify interaction effect. To identify the attitudes of peoples on United Nation, the members of
sample "A" were interviewed (before). After this, a publicity campaign was conducted in the city for
several months and sample "B" was then interviewed to determine the effect of campaign. But no
result were discovered, the main cause of this result was, the second sample were not better informed
and had no different attitude than the members of the 1st(A) sample had, prior to the publicity
campaign. At last, the first sample was re-interviewed and observed definite changes in the attitude
and information about the United Nation, due to well aware about the publicity campaign.
"After only with control group" design
In this design, the experimental and control groups are selected in such a way as to be
equivalent. No before measurement is made in both groups (experimental group and control group).
The effect of the experimental variable is determined by computing the difference between the two
after measurement(X1-Y1). As notion:Experimental group
Control group
"Before" measurement
No
No
Experimental variable
Yes
No
"After" measurement
Yes (X1)
Yes (Y1)
Effect of experimental variable = X1-Y1
This design is free from pre-test and interaction effect because no pre-measurement is made.
"Continuous dairy panel" design
In most marketing experiments, the subjects/units (individuals, dealers and so on) from whom
information is to be obtained are selected by some sampling procedure. The subject once used to
obtain required information; these subjects are not used again. However, in this design, a sample once
recruited, and information is obtained from the members continuously or at the interval over a period.
Such fixed and permanent sample of this type is known as a Panel. Then, measurements are taken
at certain intervals and experimental variables (such as new package and size) are introduced when
desired. Any measurement can be considered before measurement for the introduction of
experimental variables thereafter. Similarly, any measurement can be used as after measurement for
preceding variables. As notion:
Experimental group
First measurement
yes(X1)
Second measurement
yes(X2)
First experimental variable
yes

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Third experimental variable
Second experimental variable
Fourth measurement
Fifth measurement
Third measurement variable

yes(X3)
yes
yes(X4)
yes(X5)
yes

Problems in marketing experimentation

Lack of theoretical base
Time factors
Cost of experimentation
Administrative problem of experimentation

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Unit-VI
Attitude measurement
Attitude includes internal vision of consumer towards particular product. if attitude of consumer is
measured or identified, marketer can find the way how they can change existing consumer attitudes to
the latter. Product positions in certain markets are based on estimates of the attitude of different
market segments toward similar product. Most of market segmentation is based on attitudinal
segmentation. Attitude measurement is also key factor to measure the effectiveness of advertisement
and changes in attitudes that may be caused by the advertising. Knowledge of attitudes helps the
marketer to predict consumer reactions towards product and advertising massage.
Attitude includes:
Consumer's predisposition to respond to a product or services (Favourable & unfavourable).
Composed beliefs (emotional feelings)
A readiness of individual to respond behaviourally to the object (image).
Characteristics of attitude:
Attitudes are complex and not fully understood.
Attitude can be changed but they tend to be persistent.
There is no widely accepted scale for measuring attitude.
Method of collecting attitude data
Generally, there are two types of method for collecting attitude data:
1. Questionnaire method
(a) Self report:
In this method, individuals are asked several questions to report their own attitude and on the basis of
these report attitude is measured.
(b) Verbal reaction to partially structured situation:
In this method, individuals are shown different product with different position and are asked to
comment.
(C) Performance on objective task:
In this method, individuals are asked to report on factual matters and their attitudes are inferred from
their knowledge about product.
2. Observation method:
(a) Overt actions
In this method, individuals are given opportunity to select items and they preferred. Then, that
activity is observed sincerely and obtains their attitude.
(b) Physiological reaction:
In this method, individuals are exposed to the item then their questioning pattern, sweating product in
hand, eyesight ness and changing voice pitch is absorbed.
Specific method of measuring attitude
Non-disguised and non- structured technique
The terms disguise and structure refer to whether the respondent knows the purpose of the interview
and whether there is a formal structure or procedure for the questioning. The process of following a
prescribed sequence of specific questioning is referred to as structured study while other is nonstructured. On the other hand, disguised/non-disguised means whether the respondent is clear about
the objective of study or not.

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Depth interview
Depth interviews are most commonly used technique, which uses non-disguised and nonstructured framework to obtain required information. To be effective, highly trained interviewers
should conduct depth interviews with psychology specialist. In this technique, interviewers get
respondents talking about the subject of interest and encourage talking as freely as possible.
Interviewers skills are key factor in depth interview.
Interviewer must be careful in questioning that influences the answer of respondent or not.
Researcher must use their knowledge of human behaviour to analyze the response and to
discover the attitude they suggest.
Depth interviews are costly, both in the data collection and analysis stages.
Focus group interview
Focus group interview is the most common and same as depth interview where groups are
interviewed at one time. This method added further advantage of stimulation that each respondent
receives from the others in-group. It holds all advantages and dis-advantages of depth interview
including possibility of group domination by one or few individuals.
Disguised and non- structured techniques
Many people are unable to express their conscious and unconscious attitudes through direct
interview. Disguised methods, usually refers as to projective techniques where it is believed that
respondents reveal elements of their attitudes that they would not reveal in response to direct
questioning. Unconscious attitudes, which cannot be expressed by the respondent due to socially unacceptance, can be explored by this projective technique.
Word association
This is the simplest and oldest way for measuring attitudes. In this technique, respondents are
presented with a number of different words, one at a time. Considering each word, they are asked to
give the first word related to that word, if it is related to the subject of interest, respondents may
indicate some of their attitude towards the subject with their responses. Due to "free-associating" with
certain words respondents may be revealed their inner feelings about the subject matter. Then, on the
basis of answer provided by respondent with reasons are note down and taken in to account for
analysis.
Character
Easy method like game "Antachhari"
Skilled and experienced researcher to interpret result.
Due to time limit, persons may be unable to express their view.
Sentence completion
In this method, respondents are presented with a number of incomplete sentences and asked
to complete them. On the basis of respondents knowledge they may provide more information about
the subject, but due to time limit, respondents may be unable to provide information as per
investigator's purpose.
Story completion
In this technique, respondents are provided a part of history and asked to complete this story or a
complete story also can be provided to the respondents then, respondents are asked to give conclusion
in their own words.

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Pictorial technique
In this technique, different types of picture with different situations are provided to the
respondent and then asked to give description about them. There are two popular techniques in
pictorial technique:
Thematic Apperception: In this technique, different ambiguous pictures are presented and
respondents are asked to tell a story. The researcher may ask a number of questions to stimulate
thinking.
Cartoon test: In this method, cartoons are shown in a specific situation pertinent to the problem. One
or more of the balloons indicating the conversation of characters is left open and the respondent is
asked to fill it in.
Non-disguised/structured techniques
In this technique, more objective measurement system is adopted which facilitates to compare
data each other and provides scales for measuring attitude. Generally, there are two types of scale;
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measurement scale, which serves to rank respondent according
to some characteristics; such as Favorability but such scale do not measure the degree of favorability
of different ranking (like, dislike and neither like nor dislike). Interval scale; it provides ranking as
well as measures the degree of ranking or distance between rank position in equal units (extremely
like, quite like, slightly like, neither like nor dislike, quite dislike, extremely dislike).
Graphic rating scale
This is most widely used scale for rating themselves by respondents, it provides different
scaling points. For examples: For a recent car buyer, following task can be given: How important was each of the following in your purchasing decision? (Make tick mark)
Extremely
Very
Some
Not
not
imp.*
imp.
What
very
at all
imp.
imp.
imp.
Dealer's finance plan

Passenger capacity

Styling

Warranty coverage

* Imp = important
Different rating scales:Seven points verbal unbalanced scales:
Extremely Acceptable
Quite Acceptable
Neither one or nor other Slightly Unacceptable
Extremely unacceptable
11 points numbered scales:
100 Absolutely certain
90
80
70
60

Strongly possible

50

Slightly
Quite unacceptable

Acceptable

Equal possible
40
30
20
10
0

slightly possible
Absolutely no chance

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6 points verbal unbalanced scale:
Excellent
Very good
Fair
Not so good

Good
Poor

Don't know

Graphic scales are relatively simple to construct and it permits the use of various degree of gradiation.
The selection of scales (5 points verbal, numerical and verbal as well as numerical etc.) depends upon
the information required by the researcher based upon particular problem. Ordinal scales rank points
but say nothing about the relative distance but interval scale provides relative distance between
various points. The level of distance between points depends upon the assumption made by researcher
but it does not provide accurate size of distance like (Very good is twice as far from neutral as "fairly
good").
Semantic differential
It is special types of graphic rating scale, which is widely used for study of brand
(competitive brand) and company image. The main characteristics of semantic differential are the use
of two opposing adjectives such as: a continuum division in to seven segments using the degree of
each segment separates good/bad or clean/dirty etc. and it.
The opposing adjective used in specific projects are determined by the objective of the
project. These scales can be used to obtain total attitude scores. Pairs of adjective should be selected
which is relevant to the attitude measurement. For examples:
Perception of national brand
Higher quality
3
2
1
0
1
2
Lower price
3
2
1
0
1
2
More dependable
3
2
1
0
1
2
Attractive package
3
2
1
0
1
2
Hence, after selecting each rating scale of each adjective for
summed to obtain an overall attitude score for each brand.

3 Lower quality
3 Higher price
3 Less dependable
3Unattractive package
each brand these values are

Ranking
In most of the rating scales, respondents rate brands on a scale without reference to other
brand. But in this ranking technique, brands are ranked with respect to particular attitudes being
measured. For examples;
For tea
Nidhi
Muna
Koshi
Century

For tooth paste

Colgate
Pepsodent
Brighter
Babool

Multiple items scale

The graphic rating scales provide a measure of the respondent's reaction to each element but
are not good for summarizing all elements into one measure. In this technique, multi items scales is
developed, the two of the best scales are as follows:(a) Thrust one:
This is the method of scaling where large number of statements related to that attitude in
question is collected from various respondents, then these total statements are sorted into 11 piles and
respondents are asked to indicate agreement and disagreement with each statement. For examples:
following statements are collected from respondents to measure attitude towards TV commercials,
which must cover total attitude given, by respondents.
1. Law should prohibit all TV commercials.
2. Watching TV commercials is a complete waste of time.

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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Most of TV commercials are petty bad.

Most TV commercials are monotonous.
TV commercials do not interfere too much with enjoying TV.
I have no feeling one way or the other about most TV commercials.
I like TV commercials at times.
Most TV commercials are interesting.
I like to buy products advertised on TV wherever possible.
Most TV commercials help people select the best product available.
TV commercial are more fun to watch than regular programme.

(b) Likert scale:

In this technique, after collecting statement from respondents and summarizing in different
point as Thrustone. Respondents are asked to give scaling of each statement as follows:Agree very strongly
Disagree
Agree fairly strong
Disagree fairly strong
Agree fairly strong
Disagree very strong
Agree
don't know
Undecided
Then total attitude regarding TV commercials can be computed.
Disguised / structured technique
Disguised and structured technique is specific technique where respondents dont know the
specific topic so they will not be biased in their response. In this technique, many objective questions
are asked to respondents with answer vary from correct answer. Most of the questions are provided to
the respondents where they are not likely to be able to answer correctly but they are forced to guess
correct answer. The guessing errors is treated as reveal of their attitude on the subject matter. For
examples; in the study of noodles the disguised and structured technique can be used by asking
following questions:
(a) What should be the average cost of noodles if you would serve it as breakfast?
Ans: (a) Rs. 2 (b) Rs. 3 (c) Rs. 8 (d) Rs. 8 +
(b) Do you think, the cost of noodles of 75g + is reasonable as 250 ml soft drink?
Ans: (a) If yes Rs..(b) If no Rs.(c) By +/- Rs
Do, ready made noodles are less costly than home prepare breakfast?
Ans: (a) If yes, by Rs(b) If no, by Rs..(c) Dont know etc.
Moreover, other questions regarding mineral, Vitamin, Protein etc. can be constructed to
selected brand of noodles.

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Unit-VII
Introduction to sampling
Sampling Technique
Sampling error
Sampling error cannot be found in census enquiry where whole universe is investigated. Sampling
errors are attributed to fluctuation of sampling. Sampling error would not be occurred if sample are
selected properly with adequate size. Following are the causes of sampling error:
1. Improper selection of sample.
2. Substitution
3. Faculty demarcation of statistical units.
4. Errors due to variability of population and wrong method of estimation.
Data collection error:
Data collection errors generally arise when data are not properly absorbed, approximated and
processed. These are not chance error. Such errors are present in both census as well as sample
method of survey. Data collection errors are generally arise due to following reasons:
1. Improper or ambiguous definition of the various terms.
2. Incomplete questionnaire and defective methods of interviewing.
3. Lack of trained & qualified investigator and Personal bias of investigator.
4. Failure of respondents to give correct answer.
5. Improper coverage and inadequate or incomplete response.
6. Error in compilation and tabulation.
1. Probability sampling
Probability sampling is that technique where each and every items of universe has an equal
and independent chance of being selected. Selection of items does not depend upon the choice of
investigator but the chance decide which item is to be included as sample.
(a) Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling refers to that sampling technique in which each and every items of the
population is given an equal chance of being included in sample. The selection is not effected by the
bias of investigator and it depends completely on the element of chance. Random is not used here in
the sense of Haphazard or Hit or miss but random samples are characterstised in this way where
samples will be representing group of the universe.
Method of random sampling
(i) Lottery sampling: Under this method, all items of universe are numbered on separate slip of
identical size and shape then, these slip are folded and mixed in a separate container or drum and
samples are selected randomly by drawing slip from container.
(ii) Using table of random numbers: Lottery method, which has been discussed above, consumes
more time and efforts if population is large so, in this situation most practical method is adopted using
random table numbers. These tables have been constructed in such way that various digits from 0 to 9
appear with approximately the same frequency and independently of each other. The method of
drawing random sample using random number table are as follows:
Each of the universe/population must be identified and given a serial number.
Any random number can be selected from either row or column using random number table
and further random number is selected serially either by row wise or column wise.
The units of universe, which correspond to the number in table, would constitute the sample.
Thus if a sample of 100 units out of 5000 is to be chosen, the first 100 numbers which appear
row wise or column wise up to a value of 5000 would constitute the sample.
Several standard tables of random number are available, but Tippetts random numbers table is most
popular and very much useful table, from which, following are the first 40 numbers from Tippetts
tables.
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911 3170 5624

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4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
2370 7483 3408 2732 3563 1089 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8126 4433 8776
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
For examples: if we have to draw 400 students out of 4000 universe, following will be the sample
units. (Selection being made by row wise)
2952 3992 3170 1545 1396 1300 2693 2370 3408 2762 3563 1089
0560 1112 2754 1405 and so on.
If we have to select 10 students out of 400, the sample will be:
295
266
279
317
056
244
167
396
353
300
If we have to select 5 students out of 50, the sample will be:
29
23
05
27
41
(b) Stratified sampling
In this technique, random selection is not taken from the universe as a whole but from
different parts or strata of a universe. The universe first is divided into a number of groups or strata
and then from each stratum, certain items are chosen based on a simple random sampling. The
universe can be stratified on the basis of economic, sociological character, geographical distribution
of area or on the basis of age, sex, income, occupation etc. After division of universe into various
strata, number of sample size should be determined to various strata or sub-groups then samples are
selected from each sub-group based on simple random technique. For examples; If we have to select
100 workers out of 1000. We can subdivide 1000 workers into; Un-skilled, Semi-skilled and Skilled
or Wages less than 400, 400 to 800 and 800 and above.
Merits
1. More representatives.
2. Reduce uncertainty of random sampling against bias of deliberate selection.
3. Greater accuracy.
4. Administrative convenience (economy in time and cost by area categorization)
Demerits
1. Difficult in assigning weights to different strata or sub-groups.
2. Difficult in determining sample size for each sub-group.
(c) Systematic sampling
In this technique, one unit is selected qt random from the whole universe and other units are
selected at a specified interval from the selected unit. The space interval is calculated taking into
account of sample size and size of universe. The space interval can be calculated by: K (space
interval) = N (size of universe) / n(sample size)
For examples: If we have to select 100 units out of 1000 units.
K = N /n = 1000 / 100 = 10
Thus, If from the first 10 numbers, the unit 6 is selected at random, the sample will be:
6
16
26
36
46
56
66
76
86
96...up to 996.
Merits
1. Simple and convenient.
2. Representative sampling technique.
Demerits
1. Sample may not be more representative.
(d) Cluster sampling
In this method, the universe is divided into some recognisable sub-groups named cluster.
After this, a simple random sample of these cluster is drawn and then all the units belonging to
selected cluster constitute the sample.
For example; If we have to conduct opinion an opinion poll in Biratanagar municipality. At first stage
Biratanagar municipality can be divided in to wards and few wards can be selected randomly. In

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second stage, each wards can be sub-divided in to various villages and a sample of villages can be
taken randomly. In third stage, certain number of household can be selected randomly from each
village selected for interviewing.
(e) Area sampling
Area sampling is a special form of cluster sampling in which sample items are clustered on a
geographic area basis. In this method, universe is divided on the basis of geographic area and sample
is taken randomly from each divided geographic area.
(2) Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is that type of sampling where chances of choosing each unit in
universe does not hold equal chances or probability in choosing samples. Selection of sample from
universe depends upon the investigators discrination.
(a) Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is one in which a sample is obtained by selecting such units of
universe which may be conveniently located and contracted. Such a sample neither selected on the
basis of rules of probability nor even on the basis of judgement of the investigator. Therefore, such
samples are generally biased in one direction or other because they are hardly represents the universe.
(b) Judgement Sampling
In this technique, investigators choose what they believe to be the best sample for that particular
study. For example, a sales manager might select a sample of retail store in a city that they regarded
as representative. This approach cannot be produced satisfactory results but there is no objective
way for evaluating the accuracy of sample result. Despite of these limitations, this approach may be
useful when total sample size is completely small.
(c) Quota sampling
The most popular and useful non-probability sampling is quota sampling. In this technique,
certain sample size or quota is determined from each divided strata. However, in this method quota is
established within strata either by using proportional or disproportional method. Then researcher
collects required information from these quotas. For examples; a new automobiles company wishes to
determine sample of current users to obtain their reaction about new brand, manufacturer can use
quota sampling stratified age and sex as follows:
Stratum
Quotas
Men (married)
50
Women (married)
40
Men (unmarried)
100
Women (unmarried)
80 etc.

Unit VIII

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Data collection
Field work procedure
There are various data collection forms or designs of data collection project but selection of
data collection project depends upon the data required for particular problem. But there is no
appropriate method or standard for selecting for selecting sample as well as fieldwork procedure for
collecting data, which provides greater accuracy. Data collected will not be accurate unless the field
force executes its job properly. Fieldwork procedure adopted in collecting data is one of the major
sources of error in typical research project (such as; questionnaire, telephone interview, personal
interview). Errors may occur in each step. To obtain accurate data and to appraise the validity and
reliability of data collected, it is necessary to know the procedure used to collect data in field.
Fieldwork involves the selection, training, supervision and evaluation of individuals who collect data
in the field. In summary fieldwork, procedure may involve following procedure: Select more dispered location.
Specific interviewer should be appointed at all new location (taking help from local
newspaper and educational institution).
Field workers have to train to provide knowledge about purpose of the study, how to locate
and approach respondent, to establish rapport, to ask questions and to obtain and record
accurate answer.
Monitoring locations.
Verification for identifying the interviewers where actually made.
Shopping centre interview will be more beneficial for better control and reduction of cost.
Common sources of error in fieldwork
Errors in selecting respondents.
Non-response error (failure to get data from selected respondents)
Errors in stimulating response.
Errors in interpreting and recording answer.
Cheating (filling questionnaire without interview)
Minimizing errors.
Selection of trained workers (interviewers or observer)
Administrative procedure for handling projects in the field.
Supervision of fieldworks and the data collection process.
Quality and cost control.
Validation of fieldwork (For further study see page no. 445 to 451 of Boyd book).

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Unit 9
Preparation and tabulation of data
Preparation of raw data
For preparing raw data, legible and accurate, researcher should follow procedure into following
steps: Preparing raw data: Editing & coding.
Entering data in to computer.
Tabulating the data.
Determine significant difference exist between categories.
Explain why difference exists.
Making recommendation.
(For further study see page no. 467 to 493 of Boyd book).
Tabulating data

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Unit 10
Data analysis
Sampling statistics
Comparing the percentage obtained from two samples.
Comparing the percentage obtained from one sample with an expected or hypothesized
percentage, and
Comparing the average values, (non-percentage) obtained from two samples.
Following procedure can be applied for each of these (above situations)
1. Observed important difference.
2. Set null hypothesis.
3. Calculate appropriate statistics.
4. Compare calculated value with critical value.
5. Observed relationship.
Z-test
(a) Finding relationship between two sampled data.
If we have to compare a sample percentage with an expected percentage:pq
Sp =
n
Where,
Sp = standard error of a percentage
P = Expected percentage
q = 100% - p
n= sample size
Z = (Expected percentage observed percentage) / sp
Again, if we have to compare two average values (non-percentage)
Sx = S / n
Where Sx = estimated standard error of mean
S = standard deviation of the sample
N = number of observation in the sample
For examples:
A survey of milk consumption of 50 household in city A is 8 quarts, another 14 quarts, another 7
quarts, still another 18 quarts and so on. Average consumption of 50 household is 10 quarts per
month. A similar survey of city B shows that average consumption is 8 quarts per months/household,
the standard deviation of sample is 2.5 quarts and estimated S.E. of the mean (Sx) is 0.35 quarts.
SA(S.D.of sample city A) = (8-10)2 +(14-10)2 + (7-10)2 + (18-10)2 (50-1) = 2.8 quarts.
SXA = 2.8 / 50 = 0.39 quart.
SXB = 2.5 / 50 = 0.35 quart.
S(difference) = (SXA)2+(SXB)2 = (0.39)2+(0.35)2 = 0.52 quart
Z = (10-8) / 0.52 = 3.85
Hence, the calculated value of Z is greater than critical value Z at 95% level of significance i.e.
3.85>1.96 so null hypothesis is rejected which states that milk consumption rate of milk in city A and
B are significantly different.
Use t- test where sample size is small or less than 30:n
Confidence level

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5
10
15
20
25
30

90 %
2.02
1.81
1.75
1.72
1.71
1.70
1.64

95 %
2.57
2.23
2.13
2.09
2.06
2.04
1.96

99 %
4.03
3.17
2.95
2.84
2.79
2.75
2.58

Chi-square test (2 test)

Chi-square test can be used when data satisfy following conditions: There must be two set of observed data, these data should be available in table form (R rows
x C columns) or frequency distribution form (one row x C columns) or (R rows x one
column)
The two set of data must be based on the same sample size.
Each cell in data contains an observed or expected count of five or larger.
The different cells in a row or column must represent categorical variables(age, sex and
occupation)
Process of applying (2)
1. Observe an important difference data applicable for 2 test.
2. Set null hypothesis.
3. Calculate appropriate statistics 2 using following formula:K
2 = (fi- Fi) 2 / Fi
k =1
Where, K = number of cells
i = the ith cell (where i = 1,2,.K)
f = the observed count in the ith cell.
Fi = the expected count in the ith cell.
Degree of freedom (D.f.) = K-1
4. Compare with critical value of 2 considering degree of freedom.
Appling Chi-square ( 2) for comparing an observed frequency with an expected frequency
distribution:For example, Himalaya detergent company has information showing that 42 % of the households
national wide use liquid detergents. Because the company wishes to know if there are regional
variations in use of this product type, it surveys 100 households in each of the companys five sales
region. Results show that the number of households (out of 100) using liquid detergents in the five
regions are 50, 41, 35, 47 and 39 respectively.
( 2) = (50-42)2 /42 + (41-42)2 / 42 + (35-42)2 / 42 + (47-42)2 / 42 + (39-42)2 / 42 = 3.52
Degree of freedom = K 1 = 5 1 = 4
Hence, calculated value of chi-square (3.52) is less than critical value of chi-square (7.78),
considering degree of freedom 4 at 90 % level of confidence. So, null hypothesis is accepted which
states that there is no significant difference between national wide usages rate and regional usages
rate.
Appling Chi-square ( 2) for comparing two tables of observed data:If two observed data are not in same sample size, to obtained equal sample sized data, large sampled
data should be scaled down, for example:National consumption of ice cream and household income.

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(Income)
Users categories
Low
Medium
Low
Heavy consumers
50
250
100
Moderate consumers
100
350
200
Light consumers
250
225
50
Non-users
200
175
50
Totals
600
1000
400
300 households whose favourite TV programme is A.
(Income)
Users categories
Low
Medium
Low
Heavy consumers
18
55
44
Moderate consumers
12
48
42
Light consumers
12
18
15
Non-users
11
15
12
Totals
51
136
113
National wide sample scaled down to 300 using common factor 300/200 i.e. 0.15.
(Income)
Users categories
Low
Medium
Low
Heavy consumers
8
38
15
Moderate consumers
15
53
30
Light consumers
38
34
8
Non-users
30
26
8
Totals
91
151
61

Total
400
650
525
425
2000
Total
117
102
44
37
300
Total
61
98
80
64
303

( 2) = (44-45)2 /15 + (42-30)2 / 30 + (15-8)2 / 8 + (12-8)2 / 8 + (55-38)2 / 38 + (48-53)2 /53 + (18-34)2 /

34 + (15-26)2 / 26 + (18-8)2 / 8 + (12-15)2 / 15 + (11-38)2 / 38 + (10-30)2 / 30
= 134.7
Degree of freedom = (R-1) (C-1) = (4-1) (3-1) = 3x2 = 6
Hence, calculated value of chi-square134.7 is less than critical value of chi-square (16.81),
considering degree of freedom 6 at 99 % level of confidence. So, null hypothesis is rejected which
states that there is a statistically significant difference between national wide usages rate and 300
observed household due to preferring advertisement programme A.
Analysis of variation
It is applied to that data resulting from experiments using only one test variable. For e.g. to
test to measure the sales effectiveness of three different packages, to measure the sales effectiveness
of four different prices. Both of these tests involve only one variable; different packages in the first
case; different prices in the second case and the analysis of variance is called a one-way analysis of
variation.
In one-way variance, three types of variation must be calculated:(a) The total variation
t

Total variation =

(X

X )2

k 1

Where,
T = the number of items in the set of data
K = the kth item (k = 1, 2,.......t)
Xk = the value of item k.
X = the mean of all t items.
Total variation = Variation between columns + variation within columns (unexplained)
(b) Variation between column means when compared with the total mean.
Between column variation = n1(x1-total mean) 2+ n2(x2-total mean) 2

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Where,
N1 = no. of observation in column 1.
N2 = no. of observation in column 2.
X1 = the mean of column 1.
X2 = the mean of column 2.
(c) Variation within each column of data when compared with the mean of that column
(unexplained variation).
This within column variation can be determined by calculating the variation of the numbers
in each column relative to the column mean, and adding up this variation for all columns.
(d) Determine the number of degree of freedom.
Determination of the number of degrees of freedom (d..) associated with the total variation and
with each variation components.
Total d.. = (total number of observation) -1
Determination of the number of degrees of freedom associated with the between column
variation.
Between-column d.. = total number of columns(c) -1
(e) Calculate the estimated variance.
Estimated variance =

Variation
d. f .

Between- column estimated variance = Variation between the two column means / d..
Within column estimated variance = with in column variation / d..
(f) Calculation of appropriate statistics used with analysis of variance- the F statistic.
F-statistic = Between-column estimated variance / Unexplained estimated variance (within column)
(g) Compare the calculated and critical values of F.
For examples:
From the data given below, set up a table variance analysis and find out if the mean of
various samples differ significantly among themselves.
Sample1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
9
13
19
14
11
12
13
10
13
10
17
13
9
15
7
17
8
5
9
16
50
55
65
70
Solution
Calculation of the means of various samples
Mean of sample1 ( X 1 ) = 50/5 = 10
Mean of sample 2 ( X 2 ) = 55/5 =11
Mean of sample 3 ( X 3 ) = 65/5 = 13
Mean of sample 4 ( X 4 ) = 70/5 = 14
Calculation of grand mean
X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 10 11 13 14 48
X

12 Or
4
4
4
X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 50 55 65 70 240 12
n1 n 2 n3 n 4
5555
20
Calculation of sum of squares between the samples (SSC)

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n1 ( X 1 X ) 2 n 2 ( X 2 X ) 2 n3 ( X 3 X ) 2 n 4 ( X 4 X ) 2
5(10 12) 2 5(11 12) 2 5(13 12) 2 5(14 12) 2 5 4 5 1 5 1 5 4 20 5 5 20 50

Alternatively, SSC also can be find out by calculating the difference between sample mean and
it's grand total mean and totalling squared of these deviation as follows:
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Total
( X1 X )2

4
4
4
4
4
20

( X 2 X )2

1
1
1
1
1
5

( X 3 X )2

(X 4 X )2

1
1
1
1
1
5

4
4
4
4
4
20

50

Calculation of sum of squares within samples (SSE)

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
2
2
2
X1
(X1- X 1 )
X2
(X2- X 2 )
X3
(X3- X 3 )
X4
(X4- X 4 )2
9
1
13
4
19
36
14
0
11
1
12
1
13
0
10
16
13
9
10
1
17
16
13
1
9
1
15
16
7
36
17
9
8
4
5
36
9
16
16
4
16
58
104
30
Total sum of the square within the samples (SSE)
= (X1- X 1 )2 + (X2- X 2 )2 + (X3- X 3 )2 + (X4- X 4 )2 =16 + 58 + 104 + 30 = 258
Calculation of total sum of squares (SST)
SST = SSC + SSE = 50 + 208 = 258
Alternatively, correctness of SSC and SSE can be verified by calculating the deviation of each item of
various samples from grand mean, square up the deviations and their total as, follows:
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
2
2
2
X1
(X1 - X )
X2
(X2 - X )
X3
(X3 - X )
X4
(X4 - X ) 2
9
9
13
1
19
49
14
4
11
1
12
0
13
1
10
4
13
1
10
4
17
25
13
1
9
9
15
9
7
25
17
25
8
16
5
49
9
9
16
16
36
63
100
50
Thus, total sum of squares within sample is
= 36+63+109+50 = 258
Calculation of F-ratio- ANOVA table
Sources of
Sum of
Variation
squares
Between samples
50
Within samples 208
Total
258

Degree of
freedom
3
16
19

Mean
squares
16.67
13.00

F- ratio
1.28

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Unit 11
Research presentation

29