INTRODUCTION

The terms nuclear battery is used to describe a device which uses energy from the
decay of a radioactive isotope to generate electricity. Like nuclear reactors they
generate electricity from atomic energy, but differ in that they do not use a chain
reaction. Compared to other batteries they are very costly, but have extremely long
life and high energy density, and so they are mainly used as power sources for
equipment that must operate unattended for long periods of time, such as
spacecraft, pacemakers, underwater systems and automated scientific stations in
remote parts of the world.

Nuclear battery technology began in 1913, when Henry Moseley first demonstrated
the beta cell. The field received considerable in-depth research attention for
applications requiring long-life power sources for space needs during the 1950s and
1960s. In 1954 RCA researched a small atomic battery for small radio receivers and
hearing aids. Since RCA's initial research and development in the early 1950s, many
types and methods have been designed to extract electrical energy from nuclear
sources. The scientific principles are well known, but modern nano-scale technology
and new wide band gap semiconductors have created new devices and interesting
material properties not previously available.

Batteries using the energy of radioisotope decay to provide long-lived power (1020
years) are being developed internationally. Conversion techniques can be grouped
into two types: thermal and non-thermal. The thermal converters (whose output
power is a function of a temperature differential) include thermoelectric and
thermionic generators. The non-thermal converters (whose output power is not a
function of a temperature difference) extract a fraction of the incident energy as it is
being degraded into heat rather than using thermal energy to run electrons in a
cycle. Atomic batteries usually have an efficiency of 0.15%. High efficiency
betavoltaics have 68%.

1. THERMAL CONVERTERS
Their output power is a function of a temperature differential.

1.1. Thermionic Converter

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits
electrons over a space charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful
power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and
provide an ion supply (by surface ionization) to neutralize the electron space charge.
The converters of this installation are thermionic diodes of the type with cesium
vapor. The electrodes of the diodes are constituted by coaxial cylinders. The interior
cylinders form the emitters (positive electrodes or cathodes), and the external
cylinders form the collectors (negative electrodes or anodes). The nuclear fuel rods
(fissile material) of the atomic reactor are placed on the inside of the cathode
cylinders which receive directly the heat produced in the rods by the nuclear
reactions. In this manner the cathodes are maintained at a sufficiently elevated
temperature (of the order of 2,000 K.) in order that an electron emission takes place
from the cathodes toward the anodes, maintained by a cooling system with a much
lower temperature (of the order of l,000 K.). The diodes, connected in series, are
aligned along a common axis and placed on the inside of a cylindrical jacket, made
of an electric insulating material, which is a good heat conductor' The cooling of the
anodes is realized by the circulation of an alloy (N-aK) in the molten state about the
insulating jacket which is in
contact with the anodes.

FIGURE 1 is a cross-sectional
view through a direct thermionic
energy converter in accordance
with the present invention, along
line II.

FIGURE 2 is a perspective view, partially in cross-section, of the direct thermionic

energy converter .

The converters are diodes formed by C and A blocks disposed in a checkerboard

manner, that is in vertical columns and horizontal rows in which the blocks of the two
types alternately succeed one another both in the same columns and in the rows.
The C blocks constitute the cathodes or emitters and the A blocks the anodes or
collectors, the materials being suitably chosen (for example, copper for the
collectors, and tantalum, molybdenum, or thoriated tungsten for the emitters).
In each vertical column the blocks are separated by very slight intervals 1 which
form the inter-electrode spaces of the diodes. Thus, in the example of FIGURE 1,
each column, counting five blocks, forms four inter-electrode spaces and comprises
consequently four diodes. Each block, disposed between two other blocks of the
same column, constitutes by its two horizontal faces the anodes or cathodes of two
diodes, connected in opposition. On the other hand, the A blocks of the columns 1,
2, and 3 are electrically connected to the C blocks adjacent the following columns by
way of conductors 2. Similar conductors 2 are connected to the C blocks of the first
column and to the A blocks of the last or fourth column.
The chains PQ and TU comprise each four diodes in series. Between the points R
and S, one has two chains in series, connected in parallel. By connecting together
the points P, R, T, on the one hand, and the points Q, S, U, on the other, one
obtains an assembly of four series chains, connected in parallel. One may thus
regulate, at will, the voltage and the output to be obtained by choosing the number of
diodes in each chain or horizontal row and the number of chains to be connected in
parallel. The C and A blocks are hollow and open at the two extremities thereof. On
the inside of the C blocks are disposed nuclear fuel cores 3 (fissile material, for
example, uranium carbide UC), the length of the cores being greater than that of the
C blocks which surround the same. The hollow spaces of the A blocks are utilizable
for the passage of a coolant liquid.
Walls 4 of a refractory material, which is an electrical insulation and good heat
conductor such as glucina, is provided about the assembly and between the
columns of the blocks, which may serve at the same time as moderator for the
atomic reactor, formed by the cores 3.
The connecting conductors 2 between elements of neighboring columns traverse the
insulating partition walls 4. On the other hand, for sake of convenience of the

connection, all of the blocks are provided with small support plates 5 which are
embedded in the insulating walls 4 without being in contact with each other. These
support plates 5 may, of course, be suppressed if one obtains another manner of
supporting the blocks.
The operation of the atomic reactor being assured by an adequate dimensioning of
the cores 3 and of the absorbing walls 4, the emitters C, heated directly by the heat
produced in the cores 3 by the nuclear reactions, find themselves carried at a high
temperature (of the order of 2,000 K.). The diodes then produce an output, an
electron emission taking place from the emitters toward the collectors. The latter are
maintained at a temperature of the order of 1,000 K. by a circulation of refrigerating
fluid on the inside of the A blocks. This fluid may be constituted advantageously by a
molten metal or alloy, for example, NaK.
The electric current, produced in the diodes, may be utilized in external loads, and
the heat due to the nuclear reactions of the reactor is thus converted directly into
electrical energy. The thermionic diodes may be of a vacuum type or filled with gas
(for example, cesium vapor), the latter being generally preferred in practice, for they
permit to utilize more important interelectrode spaces than the vacuum-type diodes.
In case of utilization of cesium vapor diodes, the described installation comprises
reservoirs (not illustrated in the drawings) which supply this gas to the interelectrode
spaces of the diodes in a conventional manner.
Significant research on advanced low-temperature thermionic converter technology
for fossil-fueled industrial and commercial electric power production was conducted
in the US, and continued until 1995 for possible space reactor and naval reactor
applications. That research has shown that substantial improvements in converter
performance can be obtained now at lower operating temperatures by addition of
oxygen to the caesium vapor, by suppression of electron reflection at the electrode
surfaces, and by hybrid mode operation. Similarly, improvements via use of oxygencontaining electrodes have been demonstrated in Russia along with design studies
of systems employing the advanced thermionic converter performance.

1.2. Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG, RITEG) is an electrical generator that

uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the decay of a
suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect.
The design of an RTG is simple by the standards of nuclear technology: the main
component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material (the fuel). Thermocouples
are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each thermocouple

connected to a heat sink. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat which flows
through the thermocouples to the heat sink, generating electricity in the process.

A
thermocouple
is
a
thermoelectric
device
that
converts thermal energy directly
into electrical energy using the
Seebeck effect. It is made of two
kinds
of
metal
(or
semiconductors) that can both
conduct electricity. They are
connected to each other in a
closed loop. If the two junctions
are at different temperatures, an
electric current will flow in the
loop.

The radioactive material used in RTGs must have several characteristics:

I.

It should produce high energy radiation. Energy release per decay is

proportional to power production per mole. Alpha decays in general release
about 10 times as much energy as the beta decay of strontium-90 or cesium137.

II.

Radiation must be of a type easily absorbed and transformed into thermal

radiation,
preferably alpha
radiation. Beta
radiation can
emit
considerable gamma/X-ray
radiation through bremsstrahlung secondary
radiation production and therefore requires heavy shielding. Isotopes must
not produce significant amounts of gamma, neutron radiation or penetrating
radiation in general through other decay modes or decay chain products.

III.

Its half-life must be long enough so that it will release energy at a relatively
constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy
released per time (power) of a given quantity is inversely proportional to halflife. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will
release power at half the rate per mole. Typical half-lives
for radioisotopes used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although
isotopes with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications.

IV.

For spaceflight use, the fuel must produce a large amount of power
per mass and volume (density). Density and weight are not as important for
terrestrial use, unless there are size restrictions. The decay energy can be

calculated if the energy of radioactive radiation or the mass loss before and
after radioactive decay is known.
The first two criteria limit the number of possible fuels to fewer than 30 atomic
isotopes within the entire table of nuclides. Plutonium-238, curium-244 and
strontium-90 are the most often cited candidate isotopes, but other isotopes such as
polonium-210, promethium-147, caesium-137, cerium-144, ruthenium-106, cobalt60, curium-242, americium-241 and thulium isotopes have also been studied.
RTGs have been used as power sources in satellites, space probes and unmanned
remote facilities such as a series of lighthouses built by the former Soviet Union
inside the Arctic Circle. RTGs are usually the most desirable power source for
robotic or unmaintained situations that need a few hundred watts (or less) of power
for durations too long for fuel cells, batteries, or generators to provide economically
and in places where solar cells are not practical. Safe use of RTGs requires
containment of the radioisotopes long after the productive life of the unit.

1.3. Thermophotovoltaic Cells

Thermophotovoltaic cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except

that they convert infrared light (rather than visible light) emitted by a hot surface, into
electricity.
Components of Thermophotovoltaic System:
The traditional use of photovoltaic conversion has been converting solar flux into
electrical power in spacecraft. The present section introduces the
thermophotovoltaic system which converts the photon flux radiated from a heat
source into electrical power.

1. The heat source contains thermal energy at temperature, TH, and a radiator
to emit photons for conversion. Chemical, solar thermal, and nuclear
sources have all been used or considered for TPV applications. The
temperature of the heat source is important to system performance because
higher efficiencies are generally possible with higher radiator temperatures.

2. The spectral control

components increase system
efficiency by ensuring that
photons reaching the TPV device
have sufficient energy for the
photoelectric effect. Selective
emission tailors the output
spectrum of the heat source
radiator by the use of a selective
or filtered radiator. Reflective
spectral control places a filter/reflector at the surface of the TPV device.
Transmissive spectral control reflects unused photons out of the device and
back to the heat source radiator.
3. The thermophotovoltaic cell is identical in principle and function to the
photovoltaic cell. It convert light down into the infrared range of the spectrum.
4. The cold reservoir of a thermophotovoltaic system maintains the cell at
some low temperature, TC. It provides the necessary thermal sink to ensure
that thermal energy flows through the power converter.
Region 1 in this device
is the substrate upon
which it is grown. This
substrate also acts in
some cases as the
base (current collector).
Region 2 is the base
where distinct from
region 1. Region 3 is an
emitter,
which
is
diffused into the device. Regions 4 and 5 are front and back contacts.

Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric

couples and can be overlaid on thermoelectric couples, potentially doubling
efficiency. The University of Houston TPV Radioisotope Power Conversion
Technology development effort is aiming at combining thermophotovoltaic cells
concurrently with thermocouples to provide a 3 to 4-fold improvement in system
efficiency over current thermoelectric radioisotope generators.

1.4. Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC)

The alkali-metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC) is an electrochemical system

which is based on the electrolyte used in the sodium-sulfur battery, sodium betaalumina. The device is a sodium concentration cell which uses a ceramic,
polycrystalline -alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), as a separator between a high
pressure region containing sodium vapor at 900 - 1300 K and a low pressure region
containing a condenser for liquid sodium at 400 - 700 K. The -alumina solid
electrolyte is the critical material in operating AMTEC devices. It is an ionic
conductor for the alkali metal with which it is made; for sodium BASE, the nominal
composition is Na5LiAl32O51. The electrolyte is fabricated as a polycrystalline
sintered ceramic stabilized with Li.
In an AMTEC cell, BASE is used as the
separator between high and low pressure
sides, and the ceramic is coated on both
sides with thin film, porous metal
electrodes. Vapor phase sodium atoms
are oxidized at the high pressure
sodium/electrode/BASE
interface
and
sodium ions are conducted through the
BASE to the low pressure side. Electrons
are collected in the porous electrode on
the high pressure side and travel through
an external load to recombine with sodium
ions at the BASE electrode interface on the
low pressure side of the BASE. After
recombination of electrons and sodium
ions, sodium vapor travels through the
porous electrode, leaves the electrode as
vapor and is collected on a cold
condenser, from which it can be recirculated as a liquid to the hot, high pressure
side of the BASE [1,2].
In the AMTEC cycle, liquid sodium at T1 is pumped into the hot zone by the capillary
wick where it absorbs thermal energy and reaches T2. Sodium evaporates from the
pump and comes into contact with the anode on the high pressure side of the BASE
and the sodium ionizes. The pressure difference between the anode and cathode
sides of the BASE drives Na' across the separator and the electrons travel through
the load. At open circuit, Na' is driven toward the low pressure side by thermal
kinetic energy, and a potential difference is created by charge build-up on the
cathode side.

The AMTEC units, placed behind the radiation shadow shield, arc heated by a
multitude of sodium heat pipes, which are thermally coupled to the reactor's Na heat

pipes
(Figure7).
The AMTEC units
in
the
SAIRS
power system are
grouped into six
blocks of three or
four units each.
Each
AMTEC
block is cooled by
a
multitude
of
potassium (K) heat
pipes, assembled
into a separate
radiator panel. The heat rejection radiator panel for each AMTEC block is made of
two sections, a stationary forward section attached to the AMTEC units and a rear
conical deployable section, which is folded on to the stationary section in the stowed
launch configuration. The K-heat pipes in the forward fixed and rear deployable
sections of the radiator panels are hydraulically coupled using flexible joints. The
surface of the radiator is covered with CC composite armor to protect against
impact by meteoroids. The SAIRSs hexagonal core, fast spectrum nuclear reactor is
cooled using a total of 60 1.5-cm- OD. Mo-14% Re sodium heat pipes. To minimize
the physical penetrations through the radiation shadow shield behind the reactor, the
Na-heat pipes exiting the reactor vessel and the axial BeO reflector are bent around
the shadow shield before entering the radiator cavity.

1.5. Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG)

Stirling Radioisotope Generator is a Stirling engine driven by the temperature

difference produced by a radioisotope.
An ASRG produces electricity by a triple energy transformation. It first turns the
thermal energy from the hot radioisotope fuel into the high-speed kinetic motion of a
small piston and its companion displacer. In turn, this magnetized piston oscillates
back and forth through a coil of wire, thereby generating a flow of electrical energy
(using a property of physics known as Faradays Law).
Inside the ASRG, the oscillating piston and its companion displacer are sealed
inside a closed cylinder, suspended in helium gas. The displacer moves in sync with
the piston, rapidly forcing the helium gas back and forth between the hot side
heated by the radioisotope fuel at one end, and a passive cooler at the other end.

The steady alternating expansion and contraction of gas within this Stirling heat
cycle drives the magnetized piston through the coil of wire more than 100 times per
second, thus creating an alternating current of electricity.
Each ASRG contains two sets of
pistons and displacerseach
set known together as an
Advanced Stirling Convertor.
The two convertors are aligned
endto-end in the middle of the
generator; this configuration
helps to cancel out the small
linear vibrations produced by
the pistons when their motion is
synchronized. The helium gas
sealed inside each converter
also functions as a hydrostatic bearing, keeping the displacer and the piston from
rubbing the walls of the cylinder and eliminating almost all physical wear. This
enables the ASRG to be designed for a long operating lifetime of 17 years.
A controller connected by electrical cables to the ASRG synchronizes the two
pistons, provides data about the status of the ASRG to the spacecraft carrying it,
and transforms the alternating current (AC power) produced by the generator into
about 130 watts of direct current (DC power) at a voltage that a spacecraft can use.
The far end of each convertor is connected to a General Purpose Heat Source
(GPHS) that contains the radioisotope fuel heat source. The ASRG uses two of the
identical GPHS modules, the same type used in the MultiMission Radioisotope
Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) that powers the Curiosity Mars rover. The
GPHS contains the power sources nuclear fuel within several layers of rugged and
heat resistant carbon-carbon material, graphite and iridium metal.
These tough layers help ensure the safety of the power source in the unlikely event
of an accident during launch of an RPS-powered mission or in an accidental
atmospheric reentry during an Earth-swingby maneuver. In addition, the nuclear
radioisotope fuel in an RPS (plutonium dioxide) is used in a ceramic form that would
break primarily into large, non-inhalable and non-soluble pieces, rather than fine
particles that could be harmful to human health or the environment.
The energy conversion process used by an ASRG allows it to use about one quarter
of the plutonium-238 used in previous radioisotope systems to produce a similar
amount of power. This greater efficiency helps extend the limited supply of this
special material.
NASA and the scientific community are studying a wide variety of missions that
might require an ASRG, from orbiters, landers and rovers to balloons and planetary

boats. Possible destinations for future missions that would carry an ASRG include
Mars, Saturns moon Titan, Jupiters moon Europa, or the outer planets Uranus and
Neptune. It may be possible to build a small Stirling-powered RPS that would use
only one GPHS module, to power smaller spacecraft, highly mobile missions, or
those that might require a network of small stations.

2. NON-THERMAL CONVERTERS
Non-thermal converters extract a fraction of the nuclear energy as it is being
degraded into heat. Their outputs are not functions of temperature
differences.

2.1 Direct Charging Nuclear Battery

The operating principle of the Direct Charge Nuclear Battery (DCNB) is the direct
collection of charged particles emitted from a source electrode on an opposite
electrode. DCNB can be built using beta or
alpha emitters.

In the simplest case, the DCNB is a

radioactive source on or in a conductive foil
facing a metal foil on which the
electrostatic charge is accumulated. The
source and metal foil are separated by a
dielectric. The scheme of the direct charge
cell with load for describing the charging
process is shown in Figure 9.

English physicist H.G.J. Moseley constructed the first of these. Moseleys apparatus
consisted of a glass globe silvered on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on
the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from the radium created a flow
of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the
sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build
experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive
elements.

The primary generator

consists of a capacitor
which is charged by the
current
of
charged
particles
from
a
radioactive
layer
deposited on one of the
electrodes. Spacing can
be either vacuum or
dielectric.
Negatively
charged beta particles or
positively charged alpha particles, positrons or fission fragments may be utilized.
Although this form of nuclear-electric generator dates back to 1913, few applications
have been found in the past for the extremely low currents and inconveniently high
voltages provided by direct charging generators. Oscillator/transformer systems are
employed to reduce the voltages, then rectifiers are used to transform the AC power
back to direct current.

On the other hand, the Direct Charge Nuclear Battery has these features:
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

Open circuit voltage (multiplied on elementary charge) of DCNB is

comparable with the average energy of charging particles, i.e. several,
several dozen, or several hundred kilovolts;
Conversion efficiency of DCNB was demonstrated at a few percent. But,
theoretical analysis performed by G. Miley, et al., shows that the theoretical
efficiency of the Direct Charge Nuclear Battery reaches 15-17%;
In the design of nuclear batteries with direct charge radiation sensitive
materials, like semiconductor voltaics and phosphors, are absent. Therefore,
power loss with time is from isotope decay only and the lifetime such type of
battery is reliably longer;
During operation of nuclear batteries with direct charge, temperature,
pressure, and humidity sensitive materials are absent. Therefore, these
devices can work in a wide range of environmental conditions;
Some applications of nuclear batteries, such as electrostatic motors which
require high voltage, can be provided without up-conversion.

2.2. Betavoltaics

Betavoltaics are generators of electrical current, in effect a form of battery, which

use energy from a radioactive source emitting beta particles (electrons). A common
source used is the hydrogen isotope, tritium. Unlike most nuclear power sources,
which use nuclear radiation to generate heat, which then is used to generate
electricity (thermoelectric and thermionic sources), betavoltaics use a non-thermal
conversion process; converting the electron-hole pairs produced by the ionization
trail of beta particles traversing a semiconductor.
Betavoltaic devices are self contained power sources
that convert high energy beta () particles emitted from
the decay of radioactive isotopes into electrical current.
As shown in Fig. 11, a typical betavoltaic device, in its
simplest form, consists of a layer of beta-emitting
material placed adjacent to a semiconductor p-n
junction or Schottky diode. A convenient way to
understand the fundamental operation of a betavoltaic
device is to consider it as the "nuclear" analog to the
familiar solar cell, where, in place of the sun, a betaemitting isotope provides the source of ionizing
radiation. When the semiconductor material is
bombarded by high energy beta particles, electron-hole pairs are generated by
impact ionization (see Fig. 11). Since the average kinetic energy of typical beta
particles used for betavoltaic devices is in the kiloelectron volt (keV) range, a single
beta particle can be responsible for generating multiple electron-hole pairs.
According to the Klein formula, the average kinetic energy required to beta-generate
an electron-hole pair of energy equal to the semiconductor band gap (E g) is 2.8 Eg +
0.5 eV. In addition, during the conversion process,
1.8 Eg eV and 0.5 eV are lost by emission of
acoustic and optical phonons, respectively.
Similar to photovoltaics, electron-hole pairs that
are beta-generated inside of or within a minority
carrier diffusion length of the depletion region are
separated by the built-in electric field and drifted
apart (see Fig. 12). The accumulation of separated
electron-hole pairs in the quasi-neutral regions of
the semiconductor, electrons on the n-side and
holes on the p-side, results in the junction
becoming forward biased and current flowing through an externally connected load.
Despite their operational similarities with photovoltaic devices, betavoltaic devices
are usually strictly limited to low power applications. This is directly related to the fact

that the typical flux of beta particles emitted from a beta source is a minute fraction
of the photon flux emitted by the sun. As a result, betavoltaic devices typically
generate currents on the order of nano- to micro-amperes, which are several orders
of magnitude smaller than currents generated by similarly sized photovoltaic
devices.
When selecting a beta source for a betavoltaic device, fluence rates and isotope
half-lifetimes are important aspects that must be considered. Obviously, utilizing long
half-lifetime isotopes that can generate sufficient beta particle fluxes is critical to the
design of long-lasting betavoltaic power sources. However, the effects of radiation
damage in the semiconductor material must also be taken into account. Ideally, the
maximum kinetic energy (Emax) of the beta particles emitted from the beta source
should be smaller than the radiation damage threshold of the material (Eth).
Otherwise, the emitted beta particles would have sufficient energy to displace atoms
in the semiconductor lattice. Radiation induced defects in the semiconductor
material can result in shortened minority carrier diffusion lengths, increased leakage
currents, and overall device performance degradation.
Betavoltaics fill a unique nicke among
energy
storage
devices.
Their
distinguishing feature is their longevity, but
in addition, the energy density of a tritium
or 147Pm powered betavoltaic battery can
be many times greater than that of a lithium
battery. In the defence market, tritium
based betavoltaics are already being
introduced to power the encryption keys in
field-programmable gate arrays. Although
their power requirements are quite low (150
nW), the arrays tend to experience extreme
temperatures that can cause chemical batteries to fail. A betavoltaic decice trickle
charging a second secondary battery or capacitor can provide burst power in the
range of milliWatts to watts, for critical device operations such as wireless
communications which can be used in extreme conditions. Implanted medical
devices are a natural application for betavoltaic power sources, whose long life
spans can help minimize trauma to patients, like pacemakers, with other possibilities
including defibrillators, cerebral neurostimulators, cohlear implants, brain computer
interface devices, etc.

2.3. Alphavoltaics

Alphavoltaic power sources are devices that use a semiconductor junction to

produce electrical particle from energetic alpha particles. The concept of an alpha
voltaic battery was proposed in 1954 as disclosed in W. G. Pfann and W. van
Roosbroeck.
In an alpha voltaic battery a radioactive substance that emits energetic alpha
particles is coupled to a semiconductor p/n junction diode. As the alpha particles
penetrate into the p/n junction, they decelerate and give up their energy as electronhole pairs. These electron-hole pairs are collected by the p/n junction and converted
into useful electricity much like a solar cell. The main reason alpha voltaic batteries
are not commercially successful is that the alpha particles damage the
semiconductor material so as to degrade its electrical performance in just a matter of
hours.
Referring to FIG. 14,
an
alpha
voltaic
battery
10(1)
in
accordance
with
embodiments of the
present invention is
illustrated. The alpha
particle
emitter14(1)
emits energetic alpha
particles which are
converted by the alpha
voltaic battery 10(1)
into energy. The alpha particle emitter 14(1) comprises Am-241 which is thermally
diffused in the metal foil 16 and is then over-coated with another metal, such as
silver.
The absorption and conversion layer 12(1) prevents alpha particles from the alpha
particle emitter 14(1) from damaging one or more p/n junctions in the layer of
semiconductor material 18(1). The absorption and conversion layer 12(1) also
successfully converts the photons or energy from the alpha particles into electronhole pairs for collection by the p/n junction in the layer of semiconductor
material18(1). The thickness of the absorption and conversion layer 12(1) depends
upon the energy or the alpha particles and the resulting penetration depth in the
absorption and conversion layer 12(1). The thickness of the absorption and
conversion layer 12(1) can be chosen to prevent any radiation damage to the layer
of semiconductor material 18(1) or to permit partial amounts of the energy to be

deposited into the layer of semiconductor material 18(1) and to decrease the selfabsorption of photons by absorption and conversion layer 12(1).
The emitted photons in the absorption and conversion layer 12(1) are either emitted
towards the layer of semiconductor material 12(1) or are substantially reflected at
the interface between the metal foil 16 and the absorption and conversion layer12(1)
towards the layer of semiconductor material 12(1). Since the photons have energy
greater than the bandgap of the p/n junction in the layer of semiconductor material
18(1), the photons are absorbed in the p/n junction layer of semiconductor material
12(1) creating electron-hole pairs that are converted into useful electricity. This
generated electricity or power is transferred to a load 20(1) which is coupled
between the absorption and conversion layer 12(1) and the layer of semiconductor
material 18(1) across the p/n junction.
Alphavoltaic batteries have at least two unique properties when compared to
conventional chemical batteries that make them outstanding candidates for deep
space missions:
I.
II.

The alpha emitting materials have half-lives from months to 100's of years, so
there is the potential for everlasting batteries; and
Alpha voltaic batteries in accordance with the present invention can operate
over a tremendous temperature range. Ordinary chemical batteries all fail at
temperatures below 40 C., while alpha voltaic batteries have been
demonstrated to work at 135 C.

2.4.

Optoelectric Nuclear Battery

An opto-electric nuclear battery is a device that converts nuclear energy into light,
which it then uses to generate electrical energy.
A nuclear-cored battery that emits alpha, beta, or gamma radiation and is
surrounded by a ceramic phosphor material. The ceramic material within the ceramic
phosphor material is a high temperature ceramic and is used to shield and absorb
the radiation emitted by the nuclear core while the phosphors are excited by the
radiation causing them to produce energy in the form of photons. Structural defects
are used to increase the bandwidth of the ceramic material and phosphor material
such that photons are produced and radioactive radiation is prevented from being
emitted past the ceramic material. Surrounding the ceramic phosphor material is a
photovoltaic layer that transforms the photons into a flow of electrons to create a
sphere. Surrounding a plurality of these spheres is a conductive material that is an
intermediate layer that carries the spheres. A P and N layer sandwiches the spheres
therebetween to harness the electron flow created by the photovoltaic layer to create
the nuclear-cored battery.

FIG. 15 shows an atomic battery or

nuclear-cored battery 10. Nuclear-cored
battery 10 is created by producing a plurality of energy sources in the form of
spheres 12 (FIG. 16) that each have a nuclear core 14 that emits alpha, beta, or
gamma radiation. Nuclear core 14 is comprised of any radioactive material including,
uranium, uranium carbonate, uranium oxide, strontium, and strontium oxide.
The nuclear core 14 is surrounded by a ceramic phosphor material 16 that is in one
embodiment a crystalline having a carbon defect such that the ceramic phosphor
material 16 in combination with the nuclear core forms a light dissipating material 17.
In one embodiment, the ceramic phosphor material comprises a high temperature
ceramic. In another embodiment this high temperature ceramic comprises a matrix
having Al2O3:C. In yet another embodiment zinc sulfide, or another high
temperature ceramic having a carbon defect is used. The ceramic material within the
ceramic phosphor material 16 is used to shield and absorb the radiation emitted by
the nuclear core 14 while the phosphors are excited by the radioactive radiation of
the nuclear core 14 causing the phosphors to produce energy in the form of photons.
In another embodiment lanthanides are used as a defect for the phosphors. The
carbon defect increases the bandwidth of the ceramic material, and the lanthanides
are used to increase the bandwidth of the phosphors. Thus, the ceramic material
prevents radiation from being emitted past the ceramic phosphor material 16, yet
this material 16 is still able to produce photons.
Another example of a material that is added to the ceramic phosphor material 16 to
manipulate the output frequency of the photons being emitted is yttrium oxysulfide
doped with titanium and magnesium material that forms a crystal that emits red to
orange wavelengths of light. Thus for red and orange wavelengths the ceramic
phosphor material comprises the matrix MOS:Mg,Ti,Eu wherein MO is chosen from
a group consisting of MgO, ZnO, ZrO, CuO, Yttrium Oxide, or Gallium Oxide.
The excitation of the base light emitter, such as Al2O3:C, causes the stimulation of
the crystals and the combined frequency gives the final output color. Thus the output
frequency of the ceramic phosphor material 16 is manipulated to any color in the
visible spectrum.

Below is a list of examples of different ceramic phosphors and the color wavelengths
of the photons that are emitted by each depending on the amount of each element
provided:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

GreenA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Europium Oxide,

Strontium Carbonate, and Dysprosium Oxide.
BlueA mixture of polycrystalline carbon coped Alumina, Europium Oxide,
strontium Carbonate, and Dysprosium Oxide.
YellowA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Europium Oxide,
Strontium Carbonate, Barium Carbonate, and Dysprosium Oxide.
OrangeA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Yittrium
Oxysulfide, Europium Oxide, Strontium Carbonate, and Dysprosium Oxide.
RedA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Yttrium Oxysulfide,
Europium Oxide, and Magnesium Titanium.
WhiteA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Europium Oxide,
Strontium Carbonate, Neodymium Oxide, and Dysprosium Oxide.
VioletA mixture of polycrystalline carbon doped Alumina, Europium Oxide,
Calcium carbonate, and Neodymium Oxide.

Surrounding the ceramic phosphor material 16 is a photovoltaic layer 18 that

transforms the photons into a flow of electrons to create an energy source, or sphere
12. One will appreciate that in one embodiment the photovoltaic layer 18 is made of
an amorphous silicon that also is altered with defects by, for example, doping the
material with magnesium in order to manipulate a stimulating frequency of the
photovoltaic layer 18. Other examples of defects include titanium and chromium.
Thus the output frequency of the photons generated by the ceramic phosphor
material 16 is manipulated or tuned while manipulating or tuning the stimulating
frequency of the photovoltaic layer 18 so that the most efficient amount of light
created by the ceramic phosphor material 16 is converted into an electron flow by
the photovoltaic layer 18.
After a plurality of spheres 12 are created a battery is formed by surrounding a
plurality of spheres 12 with a conductive material 20 that is an intermediate layer that
carries the spheres 12. This conductive material 20 comes into direct contact with
the spheres 12 and in one embodiment is a conductive polymer, one example of
which is a sulfidized polymer. One such conductive polymer is poly(3,4ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrenesulfonate. A P and N layer 22 comprising a P
layer 22 aand an N layer 22 b sandwiches the spheres therebetween to harness the
electron flow created by the photovoltaic layer 18to create the nuclear-cored battery
10. Additionally, a layer of insulating material 23 can be used to surround the P and
N layer 22.

Finally, spheres 12 in one embodiment are in powder form and will range in size
from 50 microns to sub micron in size depending on the application and output.
Nonetheless, in another embodiment a metal is added to the nuclear core 14 of the
battery 10 in order to increase the size of the spheres 12 for macro-sized
applications.
Major disadvantages of Opto-electric Nuclear Battery:
I.
II.
III.

High price of the radionuclides.

High-pressure (up to 10 MPa (100 bar)) heavy containment vessel.
A failure of containment in this form of device would release high-pressure
jets of finely divided radioisotopes, forming an effective Dirty Bomb.

The inherent risk of failure is likely to limit this device to space-based applications,
where the finely divided radioisotope source is only removed from a safe transport
medium, and placed in the high-pressure gas, after the device has left Earth orbit.

SUMMARY

There is no argument that batteries are the necessities of modern life, powering
everything from cell phones to vehicles. The traditional batteries, powered up by
chemical reaction that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy, are
omnipresent and very economical but they have their own limitations.
These chemical batteries can be used only for a certain period of time and even the
rechargeable ones can be recharged only a specific no of times. Nuclear batteries
boast of their longevity as their working is directly dependent on the half-life of the
radioactive core.
Although at the moment chemical batteries are a lot safer than the nuclear batteries
for general purposes, but their use it limited to normal working conditions as they
tend to fail in extreme conditions. Right now nuclear batteries can be used and are
generally used in extreme conditions only where there is less manual labor and
minimal chances of a widespread hazard.
Nuclear batteries are already being used in space exploration, underwater systems,
automated satellite stations in remote parts of the world, for medical applications and
various other purposes. With further scientific advancement in the field of nuclear
batteries aiming to decrease the risk factor for the user and/or the environment,
nuclear batteries can be used to power the future.