Convection

tive cells in the atmosphere can be seen as clouds, with

stronger convection resulting in thunderstorms. Natural
convection also plays a role in stellar physics.

1 Terminology
This gure shows a calculation for thermal convection in the
Earths mantle. Colors closer to red are hot areas and colors
closer to blue are cold areas. A hot, less-dense lower boundary
layer sends plumes of hot material upwards, and likewise, cold
material from the top moves downwards.

The term convection may have slightly dierent but related usages in dierent scientic or engineering contexts
or applications. The broader sense is in uid mechanics,
where convection refers to the motion of uid regardless
of cause.[2][3] However in thermodynamics convection
often refers specically to heat transfer by convection.[4]

Convection is the concerted, collective movement of

groups or aggregates of molecules within uids (e.g.,
liquids, gases) and rheids, either through advection or
through diusion or as a combination of both of them.
Convection of mass cannot take place in solids, since
neither bulk current ows nor signicant diusion can
take place in solids. Diusion of heat can take place in
solids, but that is called heat conduction. Convection can
be demonstrated by placing a heat source (e.g. a Bunsen
burner) at the side of a glass full of a liquid, and observing the changes in temperature in the glass caused by the
warmer uid moving into cooler areas.

Additionally, convection includes uid movement both by

bulk motion (advection) and by the motion of individual
particles (diusion). However in some cases, convection
is taken to mean only advective phenomena. For instance,
in the transport equation, which describes a number of
dierent transport phenomena, terms are separated into
convective and diusive eects, with convective
meaning purely advective in context.

2 Examples and applications of

convection

Convective heat transfer is one of the major modes of

heat transfer, and convection is also a major mode of
mass transfer in uids. Convective heat and mass transfer
take place both by diusion the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the uid and by advection,
in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale
motion of currents in the uid. In the context of heat
and mass transfer, the term convection is used to refer
to the sum of advective and diusive transfer.[1] In common use the term convection may refer loosely to heat
transfer by convection, as opposed to mass transfer by
convection, or the convection process in general. Sometimes convection is even used to refer specically to
free heat convection (natural heat convection) as opposed to forced heat convection. However, in mechanics
the correct use of the word is the general sense, and different types of convection should be properly qualied for
clarity.

Convection occurs on a large scale in atmospheres,

oceans, planetary mantles, and it provides the mechanism
of heat transfer for a large fraction of the outermost interiors of our sun and all stars. Fluid movement during
convection may be invisibly slow, or it may be obvious
and rapid, as in a hurricane. On astronomical scales, convection of gas and dust is thought to occur in the accretion disks of black holes, at speeds which may closely approach that of light.

2.1 Heat transfer

Main article: Convective heat transfer
Convective heat transfer is a mechanism of heat transfer occurring because of bulk motion (observable movement) of uids.[5] Heat is the entity of interest being
advected (carried), and diused (dispersed). This can
be contrasted with conductive heat transfer, which is
the transfer of energy by vibrations at a molecular level

Convection can be qualied in terms of being natural,

forced, gravitational, granular, or thermomagnetic. It
may also be said to be due to combustion, capillary action,
or Marangoni and Weissenberg eects. Heat transfer by
natural convection plays a role in the structure of Earths
atmosphere, its oceans, and its mantle. Discrete convec1

2 EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION

A convection cell, also known as a Bnard cell is a characteristic uid ow pattern in many convection systems.
A rising body of uid typically loses heat because it encounters a cold surface. In liquid this occurs because
it exchanges heat with colder liquid through direct exchange. In the example of the Earths atmosphere, this
occurs because it radiates heat. Because of this heat
loss the uid becomes denser than the uid underneath
it, which is still rising. Since it cannot descend through
the rising uid, it moves to one side. At some distance,
its downward force overcomes the rising force beneath it,
and the uid begins to descend. As it descends, it warms
again and the cycle repeats itself.

2.3 Atmospheric circulation

A heat sink provides a large surface area for convection to eciently carry away heat.

through a solid or uid, and radiative heat transfer, the

transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves.
Heat is transferred by convection in numerous examples
of naturally occurring uid ow, such as: wind, oceanic
currents, and movements within the Earths mantle. Convection is also used in engineering practices to provide
desired temperature changes, as in heating of homes, industrial processes, cooling of equipment, etc.
The rate of convective heat transfer may be improved
by the use of a heat sink, often in conjunction with a
fan. For instance, a typical computer CPU will have a Idealised depiction of the global circulation on Earth
purpose-made fan to ensure its operating temperature is
kept within tolerable limits.
Main article: Atmospheric circulation

2.2

Convection cells

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of

air, and is a means by which thermal energy is distributed
on the surface of the Earth, together with the much slower
(lagged) ocean circulation system. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to
year, but the basic climatological structure remains fairly
constant.
Latitudinal circulation occurs because incident solar radiation per unit area is highest at the heat equator, and
decreases as the latitude increases, reaching minima at
the poles. It consists of two primary convection cells, the
Hadley cell and the polar vortex, with the Hadley cell experiencing stronger convection due to the release of latent
heat energy by condensation of water vapor at higher altitudes during cloud formation.

Convection cells in a gravity eld

Main article: Convection cell

Longitudinal circulation, on the other hand, comes about

because the ocean has a higher specic heat capacity than
land (and also thermal conductivity, allowing the heat to
penetrate further beneath the surface) and thereby absorbs and releases more heat, but the temperature changes

2.5

Oceanic circulation

less than land. This brings the sea breeze, air cooled by
the water, ashore in the day, and carries the land breeze,
air cooled by contact with the ground, out to sea during
the night. Longitudinal circulation consists of two cells,
the Walker circulation and El Nio / Southern Oscillation.

2.4

Weather
Stages of a thunderstorms life.

energy known as latent heat of fusion which allows the

rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air,[14]
continuing the clouds ascension. If enough instability is
present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long
enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support
lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require
three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable airmass,
and a lifting force (heat).

How Foehn is produced

See also: Cloud, Thunderstorm and Wind

All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three

stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the
dissipation stage.[15] The average thunderstorm has a
24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions
present in the atmosphere, these three stages take an average of 30 minutes to go through.[16]

Some more localized phenomena than global atmospheric

movement are also due to convection, including wind and 2.5
some of the hydrologic cycle. For example, a foehn wind
is a down-slope wind which occurs on the downwind side
of a mountain range. It results from the adiabatic warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on
windward slopes.[6] Because of the dierent adiabatic
lapse rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward
slopes becomes warmer than at the same height on the
windward slopes.

Oceanic circulation

Deep Water Formation

A thermal column (or thermal) is a vertical section of rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earths atmosphere.
Thermals are created by the uneven heating of the Earths
surface from solar radiation. The Sun warms the ground,
which in turn warms the air directly above it. The warmer
air expands, becoming less dense than the surrounding air
mass, and creating a thermal low.[7][8] The mass of lighter
air rises, and as it does, it cools by expansion at lower air
pressures. It stops rising when it has cooled to the same
temperature as the surrounding air. Associated with a
thermal is a downward ow surrounding the thermal column. The downward moving exterior is caused by colder
air being displaced at the top of the thermal. Another
convection-driven weather eect is the sea breeze.[9][10] Ocean currents
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air
rises within cooler air,[11] similar to hot air balloons.[12]
Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture
rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools,
causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air
to condense.[13] When the moisture condenses, it releases

Surface Current

Deep Water Formation

Deep Current

Main articles: Gulf Stream and Thermohaline circulation

Solar radiation aects the oceans: warm water from the
Equator tends to circulate toward the poles, while cold
polar water heads towards the Equator. The surface cur-

2 EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION

rents are initially dictated by surface wind conditions.

The trade winds blow westward in the tropics,[17] and the
westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes.[18] This wind
pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface
with negative curl across the Northern Hemisphere,[19]
and the reverse across the Southern Hemisphere. The
resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward.[20] Because
of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the
poleward-moving winds on the subtropical ridge's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of poleward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which ows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the cold western boundary current
which originates from high latitudes.[21] The overall process, known as western intensication, causes currents on
the western boundary of an ocean basin to be stronger
than those on the eastern boundary.[22]
As it travels poleward, warm water transported by the
strong warm water current undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind driven: wind moving over the
water cools it and also causes evaporation, leaving a saltier
brine. In this process, the water increases in salinity
and density, and decreases in temperature. Once sea ice
forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as
brine exclusion.[23] These two processes produce water
that is denser and colder (or, more precisely, water that
is still liquid at a lower temperature). The water across
the northern Atlantic ocean becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water.
(The convective action is not unlike that of a lava lamp.)
This downdraft of heavy, cold and dense water becomes
a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water, a southgoing
stream.[24]

2.6

the Earths surface.[26]

The Earths surface is divided into a number of tectonic
plates that are continuously being created and consumed
at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation (accretion)
occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate.
This hot added material cools down by conduction and
convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the
plate, the material has thermally contracted to become
dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process
of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earths interior where it is
prohibited from sinking further. The subducted oceanic
crust triggers volcanism.

2.7 Stack eect

Main article: Stack eect
The Stack eect or chimney eect is the movement of
air into and out of buildings, chimneys, ue gas stacks, or
other containers due to buoyancy. Buoyancy occurs due
to a dierence in indoor-to-outdoor air density resulting
from temperature and moisture dierences. The greater
the thermal dierence and the height of the structure, the
greater the buoyancy force, and thus the stack eect. The
stack eect helps drive natural ventilation and inltration.
Some cooling towers operate on this principle; similarly
the solar updraft tower is a proposed device to generate
electricity based on the stack eect.

2.8 Stellar physics

Mantle convection

An oceanic plate is added to by upwelling (left) and consumed at

a subduction zone (right).

An illustration of the structure of the Sun and a red giant star,

showing their convective zones. These are the granular zones in
the outer layers of these stars.

Main article: Mantle convection

Main articles: Convection zone and granule (solar
Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earths physics)
rocky mantle caused by convection currents carrying heat
from the interior of the earth to the surface.[25] It is the The convection zone of a star is the range of radii in which
driving force that causes tectonic plates to move around energy is transported primarily by convection.

3.2

Forced convection

Granulesthe tops or upper visible sizes of convection cells, seen

on the photosphere of the Sun. These are caused by the convection in the upper photosphere of the Sun. North America is superimposed on the same scale, to indicate scale.

Granules on the photosphere of the Sun are the visible

tops of convection cells in the photosphere, caused by
convection of plasma in the photosphere. The rising part
of the granules is located in the center where the plasma
is hotter. The outer edge of the granules is darker due to
the cooler descending plasma. A typical granule has a diameter on the order of 1,000 kilometers and each lasts 8
to 20 minutes before dissipating. Below the photosphere
is a layer of much larger supergranules up to 30,000
kilometers in diameter, with lifespans of up to 24 hours.

Convection mechanisms

This color schlieren image reveals thermal convection from a

human hand (in silhouette) to the surrounding still atmosphere.
Photographed using schlieren equipment.

nents rise, leading to bulk uid movement. Natural convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational eld.
A common example of natural convection is the rise of
smoke from a re. It can be seen in a pot of boiling water
in which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer
moves upwards in plumes, and the cool and more dense
water near the top of the pot likewise sinks.
Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid
with a greater variation in density between the two uids,
a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting
medium. Natural convection will be less likely and/or
less rapid with more rapid diusion (thereby diusing
away the thermal gradient that is causing the convection)
and/or a more viscous (sticky) uid.

Convection may happen in uids at all scales larger than

a few atoms. There are a variety of circumstances in
which the forces required for natural and forced convection arise, leading to dierent types of convection, described below. In broad terms, convection arises because
of body forces acting within the uid, such as gravity The onset of natural convection can be determined by the
(buoyancy), or surface forces acting at a boundary of the Rayleigh number (Ra).
uid.
Note that dierences in buoyancy within a uid can arise
The causes of convection are generally described as one for reasons other than temperature variations, in which
of either natural (free) or forced, although other case the uid motion is called gravitational convecmechanisms also exist (discussed below). However the tion (see below). However, all types of buoyant condistinction between natural and forced convection is par- vection, including natural convection, do not occur in
ticularly important for convective heat transfer.
microgravity environments. All require the presence of
an environment which experiences g-force (proper acceleration).

3.1

Natural convection

Main article: Natural convection

Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due 3.2 Forced convection
to temperature dierences which aect the density, and
thus relative buoyancy, of the uid. Heavier (more dense) Main article: Forced convection
components will fall, while lighter (less dense) compo-

6
In forced convection, also called heat advection, uid
movement results from external surface forces such as a
fan or pump. Forced convection is typically used to increase the rate of heat exchange. Many types of mixing
also utilize forced convection to distribute one substance
within another. Forced convection also occurs as a byproduct to other processes, such as the action of a propeller in a uid or aerodynamic heating. Fluid radiator systems, and also heating and cooling of parts of the
body by blood circulation, are other familiar examples of
forced convection.

3 CONVECTION MECHANISMS

3.4 Granular convection

Main article: Granular convection
Vibration-induced convection occurs in powders and
granulated materials in containers subject to vibration
where an axis of vibration is parallel to the force of gravity. When the container accelerates upward, the bottom
of the container pushes the entire contents upward. In
contrast, when the container accelerates downward, the
sides of the container push the adjacent material downward by friction, but the material more remote from the
sides is less aected. The net result is a slow circulation of
particles downward at the sides, and upward in the middle.

Forced convection may happen by natural means, such as

when the heat of a re causes expansion of air and bulk
air ow by this means. In microgravity, such ow (which
happens in all directions) along with diusion is the only
means by which res are able to draw in fresh oxygen
to maintain themselves. The shock wave that transfers If the container contains particles of dierent sizes, the
heat and mass out of explosions is also a type of forced downward-moving region at the sides is often narrower
than the largest particles. Thus, larger particles tend to
convection.
become sorted to the top of such a mixture. This is one
Although forced convection from thermal gas expansion possible explanation of the Brazil nut eect.
in zero-g does not fuel a re as well as natural convection
in a gravity eld, some types of articial forced convection are far more ecient than free convection, as they
are not limited by natural mechanisms. For instance, a
convection oven works by forced convection, as a fan 3.5 Thermomagnetic convection
which rapidly circulates hot air forces heat into food faster
than would naturally happen due to simple heating with- Main article: Thermomagnetic convection
out the fan.
Thermomagnetic convection can occur when an external magnetic eld is imposed on a ferrouid with varying
magnetic susceptibility. In the presence of a temperature
gradient this results in a nonuniform magnetic body force,
3.3 Gravitational or buoyant convection
which leads to uid movement. A ferrouid is a liquid
which becomes strongly magnetized in the presence of a
Gravitational convection is a type of natural convec- magnetic eld.
tion induced by buoyancy variations resulting from ma- This form of heat transfer can be useful for cases where
terial properties other than temperature. Typically this conventional convection fails to provide adequate heat
is caused by a variable composition of the uid. If the transfer, e.g., in miniature microscale devices or under
varying property is a concentration gradient, it is known reduced gravity conditions.
as solutal convection.[27] For example, gravitational convection can be seen in the diusion of a source of dry salt
downward into wet soil due to the buoyancy of fresh water
in saline.[28]
Variable salinity in water and variable water content
in air masses are frequent causes of convection in the
oceans and atmosphere which do not involve heat, or else
involve additional compositional density factors other
than the density changes from thermal expansion (see
thermohaline circulation). Similarly, variable composition within the Earths interior which has not yet achieved
maximal stability and minimal energy (in other words,
with densest parts deepest) continues to cause a fraction
of the convection of uid rock and molten metal within
the Earths interior (see below).

3.6 Capillary action

Main article: Capillary action

Capillary action is a phenomenon where liquid spontaneously rises in a narrow space such as a thin tube, or in
porous materials. This eect can cause liquids to ow
against the force of gravity. It occurs because of intermolecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid
surrounding surfaces; If the diameter of the tube is suciently small, then the combination of surface tension and
Gravitational convection, like natural thermal convection, forces of adhesion between the liquid and container act to
also requires a g-force environment in order to occur.
lift the liquid.

3.7

Marangoni eect

Main article: Marangoni eect

The Marangoni eect is the convection of uid along an
interface between dissimilar substances because of variations in surface tension. Surface tension can vary because
of inhomogeneous composition of the substances, and/or
the temperature-dependence of surface tension forces. In
the latter case the eect is known as thermo-capillary
convection.
A well-known phenomenon exhibiting this type of convection is the "tears of wine".

3.8

Weissenberg eect

Main article: Weissenberg eect

See also: Reptation

of the convection is due to external constraints, such as

the uid velocity in the pump, and how much is due to
natural convection occurring in the system.
The relative magnitudes of the Grashof and Reynolds
number squared determine which form of convection
Gr
dominates. If Re
2 1 forced convection may be neGr
glected, whereas if Re
2 1 natural convection may be
neglected. If the ratio is approximately one, then both
forced and natural convection need to be taken into account.

5 See also
Atmospheric convection
Bnard cells
ChurchillBernstein equation
Combined forced and natural convection

The Weissenberg eect is a phenomenon that occurs

when a spinning rod is placed into a solution of liquid
polymer. Entanglements cause the polymer chains to be
drawn towards the rod instead of being thrown outward
as would happen with an ordinary uid (i.e., water).

Double diusive convection

Fluid dynamics
Heat transfer
Heat conduction

3.9

Combustion

In a zero-gravity environment, there can be no buoyancy

forces, and thus no natural (free) convection possible, so
ames in many circumstances without gravity smother in
their own waste gases. However, ames may be maintained with any type of forced convection (breeze); or
(in high oxygen environments in still gas environments)
entirely from the minimal forced convection that occurs
as heat-induced expansion (not buoyancy) of gases allows
for ventilation of the ame, as waste gases move outward
and cool, and fresh high-oxygen gas moves in to take up
the low pressure zones created when ame-exhaust water
condenses.[29]

Mathematical models of convection

Mathematically, convection can be described by the

convectiondiusion equation, also known as the generic
scalar transport equation.

4.1

Quantifying natural versus forced convection

In cases of mixed convection (natural and forced occurring together) one would often like to know how much

Thermal radiation
Radiation properties
Heat pipe
Laser-heated pedestal growth
Nusselt number
Thermomagnetic convection
Vortex tube

6 References
[1] Incropera, Frank P.; Dewitt, D. P. (1990). Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
p. 28. ISBN 0-471-51729-1. See Table 1.5
[2] Munson, Bruce R. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics.
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-85526-X.
[3] Falkovich, G. (2011). Fluid Mechanics, a short course for
physicists. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-10700575-4.
[4] engel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. Thermodynamics:An Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill Education.
ISBN 0-07-121688-X.
[5] engel, Yunus A. (2003). Heat transfer-A Practical Approach (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill Professional. p. 26. ISBN
978-0-07-245893-0.

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[6] Pidwirny, Michael (2008). CHAPTER 8: Introduction

to the Hydrosphere (e). Cloud Formation Processes.
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[23] Russel, Randy. Thermohaline Ocean Circulation. University Corportation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-01-06.

[7] What is a monsoon?". National Weather Service Western

Region Headquarters. National Weather Service Forecast
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[24] Behl, R. Atlantic Ocean water masses. California State

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[8] Hahn, Douglas G.; Manabe, Syukuro (1975). The

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[25] Kobes; Kunstatter, Gabor (2002-12-16). Mantle Convection. Physics Department, University of Winnipeg.
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[9] University of Wisconsin. Sea and Land Breezes. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.

[27] Pattern Formation in Solutal Convection: Vermiculated

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[10] JetStream: An Online School For Weather (2008). The

Sea Breeze. National Weather Service. Retrieved on
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[28] Raats, P. A. C. (1969). Steady Gravitational Convection Induced by a Line Source of Salt in a Soil. Soil
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[11] Frye, Albert Irvin (1913). Civil engineers pocket book:

a reference-book for engineers, contractors. D. Van Nostrand Company. p. 462. Retrieved 2009-08-31.
[12] Deng, Yikne (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Chinese International Press. pp. 11213. ISBN 978-7-50850837-5. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
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[18] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Westerlies. American
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[19] Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey (2001). Regional
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[20] Earthguide (2007). Lesson 6: Unraveling the Gulf Stream
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[29] Does a candle burn in zero-g?

bob the builder

7 External links
Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for
Everyone

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Convection Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection?oldid=630168883 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Mav, Bryan

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8.2

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Con-struct

10

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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8.3

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