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Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Materials Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B3P4, Canada
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B3P4, Canada
c
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B3P4, Canada
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 May 2014
Received in revised form 22 September
2014
Accepted 28 October 2014
Available online 6 November 2014
Keywords:
PIV
Turbulence
Square jet
Reynolds number
Shear stress
Vorticity
a b s t r a c t
High-resolution particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to study the ow characteristics in the neareld of a turbulent square water jet issuing from a smooth contraction nozzle. Mean velocity and turbulence statistics are investigated over a range of jet Reynolds number ReD (based on jet exit velocity and
equivalent nozzle diameter) varying from 10,000 to 41,400. The inuence of ReD on the shear layer
formation in terms of momentum thickness, Taylor length scale and the evolution of the turbulent/
non-turbulent interface are also studied. The velocity measurements reveal that the jet in the near-eld
is dependent on Reynolds number at the lower end of the range (ReD = 10,000) despite the fact that all
exit jet proles closely approximate a top-hat shape. It is shown that the jet shear layer grows faster
at lower Reynolds number which, combined with an increase of the spanwise turbulence component (vrms)
along the jet centerline, suggest rapid axis switching. Much weaker Reynolds number dependence of the
mean velocity, turbulence intensities, momentum thickness and jet centerline anisotropy (urms/vrms) was
found for square jets at ReD > 104. The Taylor length scale calculated along the jet centerline decreases
with increasing Reynolds number and asymptotes to a constant value for X/D > 4. The turbulent/nonturbulent (T/NT) regions of the jet have been identied using the velocity criteria proposed in the
literature. Evolution of the T/NT interface and the effect of ReD on the conditionally averaged streamwise
velocity and vorticity are also investigated in the near-eld of the jet. No jump of the conditionally
averaged streamwise velocity and vorticity proles was noted in the near-eld of the square jet.
2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Turbulent jets are employed in a variety of engineering
processes such as mixing, combustion, ventilation and propulsion.
Jets are an important topic of turbulence research as they represent
a specic class of free shear ows that involve a rich variety of
large and small scale phenomena. It is well known that the initial
condition of the circular jet can substantially inuence the ownstream ow characteristics [1,2]. In particular, shear layer instability and vortex generation occurring in the near-exit region play an
important role in controlling the mixing process of the circular jet
[3]. Due to the potential for enhanced mixing and entrainment, jets
emanating from non-circular nozzles and orices have been studied by many authors. Jets produced from elliptical nozzles as well
as those with sharp corners, such as square, rectangular, triangular
[4,5] and daisy-shaped [6] nozzles, have been shown to yield
enhanced mixing and entrainment [7] due to the occurrence of
axis-switching [8]. While there are an extensive number of studies
that have explored the effect of Reynolds number on the mean ow
Corresponding author.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermusci.2014.10.025
0894-1777/ 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
250
Nomenclature
A
D
k
LCCD
LIA
LPIV
Lv
ReD
Dt
u
u0
urms
U
Uc
proportionality constant ()
equivalent diameter (m)
turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s2)
dimensions of CCD array (pixels)
dimensions of interrogation area (pixels)
smallest scale resolved by PIV (mm)
dimension of viewing area (mm)
Reynolds number ()
temporal interval (s)
instantaneous streamwise velocity (m/s)
uctuating streamwise velocity (m/s)
streamwise turbulence intensity (m/s)
mean streamwise velocity (m/s)
local centerline velocity (m/s)
hUi
Uj
u0 v 0
vrms
X, Y, Z
yi
e
g
h
kT
m
x
hxi
investigated for 10,000 < ReD < 41,400 using a high-resolution PIV.
In particular, effect of the Reynolds number on the mean velocity,
turbulence intensities and Taylor length scale are studied in detail.
The present study also investigates the evolution of the turbulent/
non-turbulent (T/NT) interface in the near-eld of the square jet,
where the ow is subjected to complex three-dimensional vortex
dynamics as a result of axis-switching. No prior knowledge exists
to predict the effect of the Reynolds number on the conditional
averaged velocity and vorticity proles at the T/NT interface in
the near-eld of square jet.
2. Experimental setup
Measurements were carried out in a water jet facility similar to
that used in earlier studies [11,21], consisting of a rectangular tank
2 m long, 1 m wide, and 0.7 m deep. The ow passes through a
nozzle with a smooth contraction, which terminates in a square
opening with 0.01 m sides as shown in Fig. 1. The center of the
jet nozzle was located 0.3 m above the bottom of the jet facility,
and 0.5 m away from both side walls of the tank. This facility has
been successfully used in other jet studies [11,21], demonstrating
that the ow development in the near eld of the jet is not affected
by the tank walls. For the coordinate system, X, Y and Z are taken as
the distance along the jet axis, along the spanwise direction and
along the vertical direction, respectively, with the origin located
on the jet axis at the nozzle exit.
The nozzle was mounted ush with the wall of the tank. The jet
discharge was provided by an overhead reservoir with a constant
head supply of 2.0 m. The ow from the overhead reservoir was
controlled by a valve to deliver a constant velocity at the nozzle
exit. The jet exit Reynolds number ReD = UjD/m based on the equivalent diameter D (= 4 area/wetted perimeter) and the jet exit
velocity Uj was varied in the range of 10,00041,400.
Particle image velocimetry measurements were acquired in the
horizontal (X, Y) plane through the jet centerline covering a length
up to ve jet diameters from the nozzle exit. A 1.0 mm thick laser
sheet, issuing from a 50 mJ/pulse Nd:YAG laser, was introduced
through the transparent side wall of the jet facility to illuminate
the silver coated hollow glass spheres (diameter = 12 lm; specic
gravity = 1.13) utilized as tracer particles. Care was taken to ensure
that the position of the laser sheet was oriented in the horizontal
plane through the jet axis. The TSI Powerview Plus 4MP CCD
camera with a resolution of 2048 2048 pixels was synchronized
with the laser pulse to capture the scattered light from the tracer
particles.
The size of the eld of view (FOV) used for all PIV measurement
was 56 mm 56 mm. Over 2000 pairs of sequential images were
captured with a frequency of 1.04 Hz. The temporal interval (Dt)
LPIV
LIA
Lv :
LCCD
Here LPIV is the smallest scale that can be resolved with the PIV, Lv is
the dimension of the viewing area in the ow, and LIA and LCCD are
the dimensions of the interrogation area (IA) and CCD array in pixels, respectively. Using Eq. (1), the spatial resolution for the present
PIV experiments is LPIV = 0.44 mm, which corresponds to 37 pixel/
mm. The ratio of LPIV to the equivalent jet diameter of the present
PIV measurements yields an estimated value of 0.044, which is
comparable to that of Khashehchi et al. [24], providing high spatial
resolution PIV. After processing all images, the velocity vectors were
validated using statistical tools and less than 1% of the vectors were
found to be erroneous and needed to be replaced by the
Gaussian-weighted mean of the neighboring vectors. Measurement
uncertainty in the data acquired was determined using the
methodologies outlined by Coleman and Steele [25] and Forliti
et al. [26]. At 95% condence level, the uncertainties in the mean
velocity, turbulence intensities, Reynolds shear stresses and
vorticity were estimated to be 2%, 3%, 5% and 8%, respectively.
3. Results and discussion
In the following section, mean ow parameters and turbulence
quantities are discussed. Unless otherwise noted, all distances are
normalized by the equivalent diameter of the nozzle (D = 0.01 m).
3.1. Inlet jet conditions
The near-exit conditions of the jet at different Reynolds numbers are assessed at X/D = 0.5. As shown in Fig. 2a, the mean velocity distributions have a top-hat shape and do not depend on the
Reynolds number. Proles of streamwise turbulence intensity urms/
Uj are presented in Fig. 2b. There is clearly a Reynolds number
dependence for the peak value of the turbulence intensity, which
decreases with increasing ReD, from 0.26 at ReD = 10,000 to 0.17
at ReD = 41,400. This trend coincides with the ndings of Deo
et al. [27] for a plane jet and those of Xu et al. [23] for a square pipe
jet. The urms/Uj proles in the central portion of the jet, where
urms/Uj is less than 2%, are not affected by the Reynolds number.
Shear layer development in the near-eld of the jet affects mean
ow parameters and turbulent structures downstream. Therefore,
it is worthwhile to investigate the Reynolds number effect on the
shear layer momentum thickness. The momentum thickness (h)
is calculated at different axial locations from
Z
0
251
1:8D
U
U
dY;
1
Uc
Uc
252
(a)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.30
0.25
0.20
urms/Uj
U/Uj
(b)
ReD=10,000
ReD=17,000
ReD=25,000
ReD=32,400
ReD=41,400
0.4
0.15
0.10
0.2
0.05
0.0
0.00
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Y/D
Y/D
Fig. 2. Jet near-exit conditions at X/D = 0.5 (a) mean velocity distributions and (b) turbulence intensity distributions.
different from that reported by Deo et al. [27] for a plane jet, where
it was reported that hX=0.5h decreases with increasing Reynolds
number. At X/D > 2, the momentum thickness for the lower
Reynolds number jet (ReD = 104) is consistently larger than for the
higher Reynolds number jets. This suggests a more rapid growth
of the turbulent boundary layer at lower ReD, and growth which is
independent of Reynolds number for ReD P 1.0 104.
ReD=10,000
ReD=17,000
ReD=25,000
ReD=32,400
ReD=41,400
ReD=55,000 Round jet
0.25
0.20
/D
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
1
X/D
Fig. 3. Shear layer momentum thickness vs. axial distance.
As shown in Fig. 3, the present results at the axial location X/D = 0.5
rule out the dependence on the initial jet conditions and Reynolds
number with average value hX=0.5D = 0.025D. This trend is somewhat
X/D=1
1.0
(b)
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
X/D=2
1.0
0.8
U/Uj
U/Uj
(a)
0.8
Gaussian
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.5
1.5
(e)
0.8
U/Uj
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
Y/D
1.5
1.0
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.6
0.2
0.5
X/D=5
1.0
0.8
Gaussian
0.0
Y/D
Y/D
X/D=4
1.0
1.0
Gaussian
0.4
0.2
Y/D
U/Uj
0.6
0.0
0.5
X/D=3
1.0
0.2
0.0
(d)
(c)
U/Uj
Gaussian
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Y/D
Fig. 4. Spanwise distributions of the U/Uj at (a) X/D = 1; (b) X/D = 2; (c) X/D = 3; (d) X/D = 4; and (e) X/D = 5.
1.5
253
0.2
X/D=1
0.1
(b)
0.2
0.1
0.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0.0
-1.5
1.5
X/D=2
-1.0
-0.5
X/D=4
(e)
urms/Uj
urms/Uj
0.2
0.1
0.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
(c)
0.2
0.1
0.0
-1.5
1.5
X/D=3
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.5
X/D=5
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.1
0.0
1.5
0.0
Y/D
Y/D
Y/D
(d)
urms/Uj
urms/Uj
(a)
urms/Uj
Y/D
Y/D
Fig. 5. Spanwise distributions of urms/Uj for (a) X/D = 1; (b) X/D = 2; (c) X/D = 3; (d) X/D = 4 and (e) X/D = 5.
X/D=1
0.12
(b)
X/D=2
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.08
vrms /Uj
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.00
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
X/D=4
0.12
(e)
0.12
0.10
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.02
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
1.0
1.5
0.00
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
Y/D
Fig. 6. Spanwise distributions of
0.0
Y/D
X/D=5
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.06
0.04
0.00
-1.5
0.5
Y/D
vrms /Uj
vrms /Uj
0.06
0.04
-1.5
X/D=3
0.12
0.08
Y/D
(d)
(c)
0.10
vrms /Uj
vrms /Uj
(a)
0.00
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Y/D
vrms/Uj for (a) X/D = 1; (b) X/D = 2; (c) X/D = 3; (d) X/D = 4 and (e) X/D = 5.
0.5
1.0
1.5
254
0.010
(b)
0.005
-0.010
-1.5
0.000
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
-0.010
-1.5
1.5
-1.0
-0.5
Y/D
(e)
0.5
1.0
-0.010
-1.5
1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.010
1.0
1.5
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.000
-0.005
-0.005
-0.010
-1.5
0.5
X/D=5
u'v' /Uj
0.000
0.0
Y/D
0.005
0.005
u'v' /Uj
0.0
Y/D
X/D=4
0.010
0.000
-0.005
-0.005
-1.0
X/D=3
0.010
0.005
u'v' /Uj
0.000
-0.005
(d)
(c)
0.005
u'v' /Uj
X/D=2
0.010
u'v' /Uj
(a)
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
-0.010
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Y/D
Y/D
Fig. 7. Lateral distributions of the u0 v 0 =U 2j for (a) X/D = 1; (b) X/D = 2; (c) X/D = 3; (d) X/D = 4 and (e) X/D = 5.
(a)
0.10
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.08
urms/Uj
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0
X/D
(b) 0.10
ReD= 10,000
ReD= 17,000
ReD= 25,000
ReD= 32,400
ReD= 41,400
0.08
0.06
vrms/Uj
0.04
0.02
0.00
0
X/D
Fig. 8. Axial distributions of (a) urms and (b)
255
v
u 02
u u
kT t :
@u0 2
1.5
1.0
ReD = 10,000
ReD = 17,000
ReD = 25,000
ReD = 32,400
ReD = 41,400
0.5
0.0
0
@x
3 1=4
m
e
X/D
Fig. 9. Axial distributions of urms/vrms along the jet centerline.
eA
u03
;
l
where l is the integral length scale and A is a proportionality constant of approximately 1. Eq. (5) assumes that the turbulence is
homogeneous, isotropic and in local spectral equilibrium, which
might not be the case for the initial region of the square jet, where
the integral length scale is not a single value but rather varies from
region to region. Despite the shortcomings of Eq. (5), an approximate value for the dissipation can be obtained to assess the limitations of the PIV measurements. Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4), and
noting that urms (0.17 0.15)Uj (see Fig. 6) and l is equal to the
half-width of the jet [21], the Kolmogorov length scales are
g = (1232) lm for ReD = 10,00041,400. The spatial resolution of
the present PIV experiments (LPIV = 0.44 mm) is 1436 times larger
than the estimated Kolmogorov length scale and therefore it is more
appropriate to discuss the Taylor macro-scales. The resolved Taylor
length scales are approximately 1.53 times larger than LPIV.
Distributions of the Taylor scale for all square jets along the jet
centerline are shown in Fig. 10. To avoid cluttering in Fig. 10, 5%
error bars were included only for the lower and higher Reynolds
number cases, respectively.
The general trend of the Taylor scale for X/D < 3 shows an
increase downstream from the nozzle. This is not surprising since
in the near-eld of the jet the vortex activity is due to the shear
0.14
0.12
0.10
T /D
urms/vrms
Increasing ReD
0.08
0.06
ReD = 10,000
ReD = 17,000
ReD = 25,000
ReD = 32,400
ReD = 41,400
Increasing ReD
0.04
0.02
0.00
0
X/D
Fig. 10. Distributions of the Taylor length scale along jet centerline.
256
(a)
2
1.5
1
D/Uj
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Y/D
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
u/Uj > 0.03 is a turbulent region with intense vorticity. The instantaneous location of the T/NT interface encloses the shear layers
formed at the edges of the jet. The interface determined from the
velocity criterion is slowly expanding downstream as the jet
entrains more uid. The contractions and expansions of the interface can be related to the entrainment of the ambient uid behind
a passing vortex ring as discussed by Ghasemi et al. [21]. In the
core of the jet, the vorticity levels again become negligible. The
contours of the instantaneous vorticity also suggest a longer potential core for the case of ReD = 10,000, while at higher ReD = 41,400
the shear layers tend to merge at X/D 4.5 providing for additional
jet entrainment mechanism. The higher level of intermittency
observed at the end of the potential core can degrade the continuity of the jet interface. A recent study of the evolution of the T/NT
interface of a round jet by Khashehchi et al. [24] has shown no
jump in the conditional average velocity and vorticity proles for
X/D < 8. As can be seen beyond the interface, instantaneous
vorticity diminishes due to entering the irrotational ow region.
In Fig. 12, statistical probability density function distributions
of the location of the T/NT interface are shown at different X/D
locations for ReD = 41,400. At X/D = 2, a narrow distribution of yi
is obtained, with ymax
0:88D. With increasing X/D the
i
distributions of yi become spread out implying a high level of intermittency, possible due to increase of the vortex activity due to
breaking of the vortex ring and axis-switching. The ymax
location
i
of the interface progresses further outwards, which is consistent
with expansion of the jet due to the entrainment.
The evolution of the jet characteristics at the T/NT interface are
analyzed for a square jet at two Reynolds numbers. Conditionally
averaged velocity and vorticity proles are determined by averaging the data at xed radial distances relative to the interface location (yi) for the near-eld of the square jet. The mean conditionally
averaged velocity hUi normalized with the centerline velocity Uc is
shown in Fig. 13. All velocity proles are zero at the non-turbulent
side of the jet, while inside of the jet a rapid increase of the velocity
proles are observed. Both Reynolds numbers show similar behavior of the conditionally averaged velocity proles, where no jump
across the interface is noted.
Fig. 14 shows the evolution of the mean conditional averaged
vorticity for several different X/D locations. The conditional
averaged vorticity proles are normalized with Uc/(D/2). Vorticity
proles for X/D < 5 show no peak near the interface, which is
consistent with the observation of Khashehchi et al. [24] for the
case of a round jet. At X/D = 2, the maximum vorticity is observed
inside the jet for both Reynolds numbers. The vorticity gradually
X/D
(b)
X/D = 2
X/D = 3
X/D = 4
X/D = 5
200
1.5
D/Uj
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Y/D
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
150
Counts
100
50
-1.5
-2
X/D
Fig. 11. Instantaneous vorticity contours and envelop of the turbulent/nonturbulent (T/NT) interface for (a) ReD = 10,000 and (b) ReD = 41,400.
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
yi /D
Fig. 12. PDF distributions of the T/NT interface location for ReD = 41,400.
X/D=2
X/D=3
X/D=4
X/D=5
0.8
<U>/Uc
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2(y-yi )/D
Fig. 13. Proles of mean conditional streamwise velocity for several different
distances from the jet exit (solid symbols: ReD = 10,000; open symbols:
ReD = 41,400).
1.0
X/D=2
X/D=3
X/D=4
X/D=5
<>D/(2Uc )
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2(y-yi )/D
Fig. 14. Proles of mean conditional averaged vorticity for several different
distances from the jet exit (solid symbols: ReD = 10,000; open symbols:
ReD = 41,400).
4. Conclusions
Reynolds number (ReD = 10,00041,400) effect on the mean
ow and turbulence parameters, momentum thickness, centerline
jet anisotropy ratio urms/vrms and Taylor length scales in the neareld (X/D < 5) of a square jet is studied using high resolution PIV
experiments. The mean velocity proles become Reynolds number
257
258
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