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Abstract: Proof of Riemann’s, hypothesis , that the real part of the solution of ξ
function is ½ is proved. Secondly all the roots of the Riemann ξ function lie own the ½
plane is also proved. Historical development of this area of Mathematics from Gauss,
Legrange, Euler, Riemann to Hilbert is discussed. Initially. a surrogate differential
equation for ξ function is derived and taking the roots of the differential equation, it is
proved that the real trivial part of Riemann ξ function is ½. Also Riemann’s ξ =∫
1/Ln(x) between limits 2 and ‘n’, gives the number of Prime numbers between 0 and
that number x. So I choose the original ξ function of Riemann to prove it. This is given
in the book “God created Integers” by Prof. Stephen Hawkings published by Penguin
which is a good reference for this. A second part of the proof requires that the non-
trivial complex part of the root must lie on the ½ plane which is also proved by proving
the Elliptical nature of the ξ function. Please refer any books on basic building blocks
of, conic sections and their relationships and roots for Parabolic, Hyperbolic and
Elliptical functions. There is a good book by Prof. Hardy on, this, on’ Complex
Numbers’.
Two differential equations are derived which are similar to each other with different
constant terms ‘c’. One is used to calculate the constant term of the other. This method
is employed to elicit the elliptical nature of Riemann ξ function which is widely used in
Engineering. The application of which is given in two different papers of mine
separately.
Subscription: Legrange and Gauss conjured that п(x) the function counting all the
primes less than x asymptotically approaches Li(x) meaning п(x)/Li(x) tend to 1,
where,
n
Li(x) = ∫ dx/ln(x)
2
Euler created a time series solution to the function Li(x) and Riemann named it the
ξ function adding his own solution to Euler’s work.
In Riemann’s words “a value x is the root of a function f(x) if f(x)=0. A root of the
function ξ(x) is real if and only if the root of the zeta function is complex number
with real part equal to ½”.
Proving the real part to be ½ was left undone by Riemann. Hilbert later on added,
finding the proof for Riemann hypothesis as one of the problem that remain un
resolved in Mathematics.
(Stephen Hawkings(Ref.))
Also Riemann’s Hypothesis conjures that all the non-trivial roots of Riemann’s ξ
function lie on the ½ plane, which also need be proved according to Prof. Calvin
Clawson(Ref).
So the conjunctures proved are 1)the trivial root of Riemann ξ function is at ½ and
2) the non-trivial roots are all on the ½ plane.
Proof
n
As said earlier Li(x) = ∫ dx/Ln(x)
2
Riemann conjured that the function ξ = ∫ 1/ln(x) has the real part of the root at ½
when s=2
We start with the time series expansion of Log function which is,
((x-1)/(x-2))+1/3((x-3)/(x-4))+1/5((x-5)/(x-6))+……..= Ln(x)
Now let this be reduced to the differential equation,
f”(x)+f’(x)+c= Ln(x)
Note:
Applying Taylor series, to the time series whose 3rd and 2nd term forms the first two
terms of the differential equation and the rest of the terms forming c, we have,
2. f “(x)/2!+ 1. f’(x)+c.
Here we see a = 1 and b =1 making the log function an Elliptical function, so the roots
must be Imaginary or Complex roots, which means the Integral of it’s reciprocal, also
must be Elliptical and so with complex roots
Note: It is interesting to note that we get the value of the area directly without using the
Cauchy-Riemann Integration.
Also, Equation(3)=Equation(4)
Ie; -x3/3+x2/2+x/c= (x/ln(x))√φ =∫ 1/ln(x)------------------(5)
Simplifying the above equation we get
(-2x3c+3x2c+6x) / 6c = (x/ln(x))√φ
And, x/c= ((x√φ / ln(x)) / lna(x)) + ((2x3 – 3x2)/6)
= (6x√φ + (2x3- 3x2)ln(x)) / 6ln(x)
There for,
c= (6x.ln(x)) / (6x.√φ + (2x3 – 3x2)ln(x))
If we use this c in Equation (3) we see that the, results in the Table follows beyond 2.
The Table is the values of Riemann Li(x) calculated from above, Equation(4) along
with actual values of ξ function found from inspection from numbers selected
randomly
between, 0.5 and 90.
The numbers come very close. To actual numbers 1 is added to include 1 as a Prime
which some may not agree. If that is subtracted too the numbers remain close. The
numbers between .5 and 2 is used to calculate the area between them
Riemann Li(x) for 0.5, 1 and 2 is calculated using, Equation(3) and for others
Equation(4) for easier proof though even if we use, Equation(4) for the above too we
will get closer results.