MATERIALS SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERING
Dr. Subrata Bandhu Ghosh

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Department of Mechanical Engg.

Types of Imperfections
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms

Dislocations

Point defects
1-2 atoms

Line defects
1-dimensional

Dislocations
The strength of a material with no
dislocations is 20-100 times greater than
the strength of a material with a high
dislocation density.
So, materials with no dislocations may be
very strong, but they cannot be deformed.
The dislocations weaken a material, but
make plastic deformation possible.

Line Defects
Dislocations:

are line defects,

slip between crystal planes result when dislocations
move,
produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

before deformation

after tensile elongation

slip steps

Line Defects (Dislocations)

Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms
are misaligned

Edge dislocation:
extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal
structure
b (the Bergers vector) is (perpendicular) to
dislocation line

Screw dislocation:
spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
b is || (parallel) to dislocation line
Burgers vector, b: is a measure of lattice distortion
and is measured as a distance along the close
packed directions in the lattice

Imperfections in Solids
Linear defects are associated primarily with mechanical deformation.
Types of dislocations: edge, screw

Edge dislocation:

extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure; the edge
of the plane terminates within the crystal.

Around the dislocation line there is some localized distortion.

b perpendicular () to dislocation line

Motion of Edge Dislocation

Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.
The (plastic) permanent deformation of most
crystalline materials is by dislocation movement.
Most contain some dislocations that were introduced
during solidification, plastic deformations, and rapid
cooling (thermal stresses).
To deform plastically means to slide atomic planes
past each other.

Imperfections in Solids
Screw dislocation:
Named for the spiral stacking of crystal planes around the
dislocation line; results from shear deformation
b parallel (||) to dislocation line

Characteristics of Dislocations
During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations
increase dramatically to densities of 1010 mm-2.
Grain boundaries, internal defects and surface
irregularities serve as formation sites for dislocations
during deformation.
The number of dislocations in a material is expressed
as the dislocation density- the total dislocation
length per unit volume or the number of
dislocations intersecting a unit area. Dislocation
densities can vary from 105 cm-2 in carefully solodified
metal crystals to 1012 cm-2 in heavily deformed metals.

Dislocations During Cold Working

Ti alloy after cold working.
Dislocations entangle with one
another during cold work.
Dislocation movement
becomes more difficult.
Dislocations are visible in
electron micrographs

10

Types of Imperfections
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms

Point defects

Dislocations

Line defects

1-2 atoms

1-dimensional

Grain Boundaries
twins, twists

Area/Planar defects
2-dimensional

The free or external surface of any material is the most

common type of planar defect!

Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries

regions between crystals

transition from lattice of one
region to another
(a) The atoms near the boundaries of
the 3 grains do not have an
equilibrium spacing or
arrangement; slightly disordered.
(b) Grains and grain boundaries in a
stainless steel sample. low density
in grain boundaries

12

Planar Defects in Solids - Twinning

A shear force that causes atomic displacements such that the
atoms on one side of a plane (twin boundary) mirror the
atoms on the other side. A reflection of atom positions across
the twin plane.
Displacement magnitude in the twin region is proportional to
the atoms distance from the twin plane.
Takes place along defined planes and directions depending
upon the system.
Ex: BCC twinning occurs on the (112)[111] system

Slip Systems
Usually there are preferred slip planes and
directions in crystal systems.
The combination of both the slip plane and
direction form the slip system.
Slip plane is generally taken as the closest
packed plane in the system
Slip direction is taken as the direction on the
slip plane with the highest linear density.

Slip Systems

FCC and BCC materials have large numbers of slip systems (at
least 12) and are considered ductile.
HCP systems have few slip systems and are quite brittle.

Slip Systems

Twinning

Applied stress to a perfect crystal (a) may cause a displacement of the atoms,
(b) causing the formation of a twin. Note that the crystal has deformed as a
result of twinning.

Properties of Twinning

Of the three common crystal structures BCC, FCC and
HCP, the HCP structure is the most likely to twin.

FCC structures will not usually twin because slip is
more energetically favorable.

Twinning occurs at low temperatures and high rates of
shear loading (shock loading) conditions where there are
few present slip systems (restricting the possibility of
slip)

Small amount of deformation when compared with slip.

Comparison
Slip

Twinning

orientation of atoms
remains the same

reorientation of atomic
direction across twin plane

displacements take place atomic displacement is less

in exact atomic spacings than interatomic spacing

Microscopic Examination
Applications
To Examine the structural elements and defects that
influence the properties of materials.
Ensure that the associations between the properties and
structure (and defects) are properly understood.
Predict the properties of materials once these
relationships have been
established.
Structural elements exist in macroscopic and
microscopic dimensions

Microscopic Examination
Metallography sample preparation is necessary
to examine the surface of materials (metals,
ceramics, polymers).
A smooth mirror-like finish is obtained by
grinding and polishing using successively finer
abrasive papers and powder mixed with water.
The microstructure (grain size, shape,
orientation) is revealed using a chemical reagent
(etching solution) on a polycrystalline sample.
Etching characteristics vary from grain to grain.

Microscopy
Optical (light) resolution (0.1 m = 100 nm = 10-7 m)
For higher resolution need higher frequency
X-Rays are difficult to focus.
Electrons
wavelengths are roughly 3 pm (0.003 nm)
(Magnification - 1,000,000X)
Atomic resolution possible
Electron beam focused by magnetic lenses.

Optical Microscopy
Useful up to 2000X magnification.
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

crystallographic planes

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

0.75mm

Optical Microscopy
Grain boundaries...
are imperfections,
are more susceptible
to etching
may be revealed as
dark lines
change in crystal
orientation across
boundary.

polished surface
surface groove
grain boundary
(a)

Polycrystalline Deformation

Grain Size Determination

The grain size is often determined when the properties of
a polycrystalline material are under consideration. The
grain size has a significant impact of strength and
response to further processing

Linear Intercept method

Straight lines are drawn through several
photomicrographs that show the grain
structure.
The grains intersected by each line segment are
counted
The line length is then divided by an average
number of grains intersected.
The average grain diameter is found by dividing this
result by the linear magnification of the
photomicrographs.

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)

ASTM has prepared several standard comparison charts, all having different
average grain sizes. To each is assigned a number from 1 to 10, which is
termed the grain size number; the larger this number, the smaller the grains.

VISUAL CHARTS (@100x) each with a number

Quick and easy used for steel
Grain size no.

No. of grains/square inch

N = 2 n-1

NOTE: The ASTM grain size is related a grain area

AT 100x MAGNIFICATION

Determining Grain Size, using a Micrograph

taken at 300x
We count 14 grains
in a 1 in2 area on the
image
To report ASTM
grain size we need N
at 100x not 300x
We need a
conversion method!

M
n 1
NM
=2
100
M is mag. of image
N M is measured grain count at M
now solve for n:
log( N M ) + 2 ( log ( M ) log (100 ) ) = ( n 1) log ( 2 )

n=
n=

log ( N m ) + 2 log ( M ) 4
log ( 2 )
log (14 ) + 2 log ( 300 ) 4
0.301

+1
+ 1 = 7.98 8

For this same material, how many Grains

would I expect /in2 at 100x?

N =2

n 1

81

=2

128 grains/in

Now, how many grain would I expect at 50x?

2

100
100
NM = 2
= 128*

M
50
2
2
N M = 128* 2 = 512 grains/in
8 1

At 100x
Number of Grains/in2

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

6
Grain Size number (n)

10

12

Electron Microscopes
 beam of electrons of
shorter wave-length
(0.003nm) (when
accelerated across large
voltage drop)
Image formed with
Magnetic lenses
High resolutions and
magnification (up to
50,000x SEM); (TEM up
to 1,000,000x)

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)

Uses a moveable Probe of very small diameter
to move over a surface
Atoms can be arranged and imaged!
Photos produced from
the work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M.
Eigler.

Carbon monoxide
molecules arranged on
a platinum (111)
surface.

Iron atoms arranged

on a copper (111)
surface. These Kanji
characters represent
the word atom.

Summary
Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.
The number and type of defects can be varied and
controlled
T controls vacancy conc.
amount of plastic deformation controls # of dislocations
Weight of charge materials determine concentration of
substitutional or interstitial point defects

Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending on
whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.
Inclusions can be intention for alloy development