Bureaucracy

A bureaucracy(/bjukrsi/) is "a body of non-elective government officials" and/or "an

administrative policy-making group".[1]Historically, bureaucracy was government
administration managed by departments staffed with nonelected officials. [2] Today,bureaucracy is the
administrative system governing any large institution.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Since being coined, the word "bureaucracy" has developed negative connotations for some.
[9]

Bureaucracies are criticized when they become too complex, inefficient, or too inflexible. [10] The

dehumanizing effects of excessive bureaucracy were a major theme in the work of Franz Kafka, and
were central to his most well known work, The Trial.[11] The elimination of unnecessary bureaucracy is
a key concept in modern managerial theory[12] and has been a central issue in numerous political
campaigns.[13]
Others have defended the necessity of bureaucracies. The German sociologist Max Weber argued
that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be
organized, and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies were necessary to maintain
order, maximize efficiency and eliminate favoritism. But even Weber saw unfettered bureaucracy as
a threat to individual freedom, in which an increase in the bureaucratization of human life can trap
individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control.[14][15]

Etymology and usage[edit]

The term "bureaucracy" is French in origin, and combines the French word bureau desk or office
with the Greek word kratos rule or political power.[16] It was coined sometime in the mid-18th
century by the French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay,[17] and was a satirical
pejorative from the outset.[18] Gournay never wrote the term down, but was later quoted at length in a
letter from a contemporary:

History[edit]

Ancient bureaucracy[edit]

Students competed in imperial examinations to receive a position in the bureaucracy of ancient China.

Although the term "bureaucracy" was not coined until the mid 18th century, the idea of organized and
consistent administrative systems is much older. The development of writing (ca. 3500 BCE) and the
use of documents was critical to the administration of this system, and the first definitive emergence
of bureaucracy is in ancient Sumer, where an emergent class of scribes used clay tablets to
administer the harvest and allocate its spoils.[23] Ancient Egypt also had a hereditary class of scribes
that administered the civil service bureaucracy.[24]Much of what is known today of these cultures
comes from the writing of the scribes.
Ancient Rome was administered by a hierarchy of regional proconsuls and their deputies. The
reforms of Diocletian doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale
expansion in Roman bureaucracy.[25] The early Christian author Lactantius claimed that Diocletian's
reforms led to widespread economic stagnation, since "the provinces were divided into minute
portions, and many presidents and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each territory." [26] After
the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a notoriouslycomplicated administrative hierarchy,
and in time the term "byzantine" came to refer to any complex bureaucratic structure. [27]
In Ancient China, the scholar Confucius established a complex system of rigorous procedures
governing relationships in family, religion and politics. Confucius sought to construct an organized
state free from corruption.[28] In Imperial China, the bureaucracy was headed by a Chief Counselor.
[29]

Within the bureaucracy, the positions were of a "graded civil service" and competitive exams were

held to determine who held positions.[30] The upper levels of the system held nine grades, and the
officials wore distinctive clothing.[30] The Confucian Classics codified a set of values held by the
officials.[30]

Modern bureaucracy[edit]

The 18th century Department of Excise developed a sophisticated bureaucracy. Pictured, the Custom House,
London.

A modern form of bureaucracy evolved in the expanding Department of Excise in the United
Kingdom, during the 18th century.[citation needed]The relative efficiency and professionalism in this state-run
authority allowed the government to impose a very large tax burden on the population and raise
great sums of money for war expenditure. According to Niall Ferguson, the bureaucracy was based
on "recruitment by examination, training, promotion on merit, regular salaries and pensions, and
standardized procedures".[31] The system was subject to a strict hierarchy and emphasis was placed
on technical and efficient methods for tax collection.
Instead of the inefficient and often corrupt system of tax farming that prevailed in absolutist states
such as France, the Exchequer was able to exert control over the entire system of tax revenue and
government expenditure.[32] By the late 18th century, the ratio of fiscal bureaucracy to population in
Britain was approximately 1 in 1300, almost four times larger than the second most heavily
bureaucratized nation, France.[33] The implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic,
meritocratic civil service bureaucracy, followed theNorthcote-Trevelyan Report of 1854.[34] Influenced
by of the ancient Chinese Imperial Examination, Northcote-Trevelyan Reportrecommended that
recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates
should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers and promotion should
be through achievement, rather than 'preferment, patronage or purchase'. [35] This system was
modeled on the imperial examinations system and bureaucracy of China based on the suggestion of
Northcote-Trevelyan Report.[36] Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul
in Guangzhou, China argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China,
published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the
good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the
British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.[37]
Under Louis XIV of France, the old nobility had neither power nor political influence, the sum of their
privileges being confined to their exemption from taxes. Their spokesmen complained about this
"unnatural" state of affairs, but as they were forbidden to express their criticism in France, their

writings being published in the Dutch Republic. These aristocrats discovered similarities
between absolute monarchy and the bureaucratic despotism of despotic monarchies.[38] France also
saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government in the 18th-century, accompanied by the rise of
the French civil service; a phenomenon that became known as "bureaumania," in which complex
systems of bureaucracy emerged. With the translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment,
the concept of a meritocracy reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the
traditional ancient regime of Europe.[39] Voltaire and Franois Quesnay wrote favourably of the idea,
with Voltaire claiming that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and Quesnay advocating an
economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. Napoleonic France adopted this
mmeritocracy system.[39] In the early 19th century,Napoleon attempted to reform the bureaucracies of
France and other territories under his control by the imposition of the standardized Napoleonic Code.
But paradoxically, this led to even further growth of the bureaucracy.[40]
By the mid-19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the
industrialized world. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the
economic functions and power-structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life. Max Weber was the
first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of modernity, and by the late 19th century
bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from government to other large-scale institutions. [20]
The trend toward increased bureaucratization continued in the 20th century, with the public sector
employing over 5% of the workforce in many Western countries.[citation needed]Within capitalist systems,
informal bureaucratic structures began to appear in the form of corporate power hierarchies, as
detailed in mid-century works like The Organization Manand The Man in the Grey Flannel Suit.
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, a powerful class of bureaucratic administrators
termed nomenklatura governed nearly all aspects of public life.[41]
The 1980s brought a backlash against perceptions of "big government" and the associated
bureaucracy.[citation needed][clarification needed] Politicians like Margaret Thatcher andRonald Reagan gained power
by promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies, which they saw as overbearing, and
return economic production to a more purely capitalistic mode, which they saw as more efficient. [42]
[43]

In the business world, managers like Jack Welch gained fortune and renown by eliminating

bureaucratic structures inside the corporations themselves.[44]

Still, in the modern world practically all organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to
manage information, process and manage records, and administer complex systems and
interrelationships in an increasingly globalized world, although the decline of paperwork and the
widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function. [45]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy

 1. NATURE OF PHILIPPINES BUREAUCRACY

2. A POLITICAL SYSTEM DEFINES ITS BUREAUCRACY: a system
of administration based upon organization into bureaus, division of
labor, hierarchy of authority; designed to dispose of a large body of work
in a routine manner.
3. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILIPPINES
BUREAUCRACY 1. Vulnerability to nepotism. Under Philippine
bureaucracy substructure of small kinship groups, members of the
family groups by consanguinity, by affinity, and by ritual kinship (or
compadre) give top priority to family loyalty. Within such groupings, all
of them feel that they are under obligation to help each other in a variety
of ways.
4. Perpetuation of the spoils system Classify service, unclassified
and temporary positions which have become convenient instruments for
the practice of nepotism, of patronage, and of influence peddling.
5. Apathetic public reaction of bureaucratic misconduct The people
looked upon the phenomenon as a concomitant result of the increasing
complexity of the government, a method of political promises to the
unemployed and underemployed segments of the population
6. Availability of external peaceful means of correcting bureaucratic
weakness Devices, such as constitutional right and privileges-freedom
of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, civic action-have
been used for rectifying the defects and misdeeds of bureaucracy.
7. Survival of historical experience The Philippine political
bureaucracy was administered according to a civil law system which the
Spanish bureaucracy as the scapegoat for all the weaknesses of the
Philippines political bureaucracy. There are indications, however that the
weaknesses are not to be totally and directly attributed to the Spanish
government bureaucracy.

 8. Lack of independence from politics Because of the absences of

class consciousness and of a feeling of unity on the part of the Filipino
bureaucrats and the stigma of post-World War II ill-repute, the Philippine
bureaucracys merit system was easily subject to attack and tampering
by politicians. They worked through the legislative and executive
branches of the national government.
9. Essential instrument of social change In spite of its weaknesses,
the Philippine bureaucracys function in nation-building will be as big, as
complicated, and as demanding as the function of the whole society
itself. Primarily, it will have to be a tool for innovations.
10. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE PHILIPPINE BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucratic resistance to change Socio-economic, political, cultural
and ecological constraints to administrative change Problems in the
transfer of technology and adaptation
11. TYPES OF BEHAVIOR OF THE PHILIPPINE BUREAUCRACY
Conformity to policies Preference toward continuity Loss of selfassertion Politically supportive
12. THANK YOU! Facilitator: Ms. Ethel-Veda S. Gadiano

How to Slow Down Your Metabolism and Gain Weight

Last Updated: Aug 16, 2013 | By Sarah Davis

How to Slow Down Your Metabolism

and Gain Weight Photo CreditJupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images

If you have a fast metabolism or are underweight, you may need to work on gaining weight. Your
metabolism is mostly affected by your body size and composition, your sex and your age. Though you
can change your body composition by gaining muscle or fat and losing muscle or fat, you cannot affect
the other determinants of your metabolism. It is, however, possible to slow down your metabolism and
gain weight without taking any drugs. You simply need to change your eating and exercise patterns.

Step 1
Start eating more calories than what you are used to eating. UCLA's Student Nutrition Awareness Campaign says it
takes an extra 3,500 calories to gain a pound. So if you eat 500 extra calories every day, you will gain one pound per
week. To do this, you need to eat larger portions at all of your meals and more calorie-dense foods, which include
dried fruit, nuts, meats, full-fat dairy products, granola and trail mix.

Step 2
Start adding extras to your meals. For instance, drizzle 2 tbsp. of olive oil onto your spaghetti, then add the sauce,
instead of only adding the sauce. You can add mayonnaise to sandwiches, peanut butter to crackers, honey to your
tea and butter to your toast. These extras will help you gain weight.

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Step 3
Space your meals out more to slow down your metabolism. According to Cooking Light magazine, the more
frequently you eat, the faster your metabolism runs and the more calories your body burns. Therefore, if you eat
only three times per day instead of snacking often and having five or six meals per day, you will slow down your
metabolism and gain weight.

Step 4
Exercise at lower intensities and for shorter periods of time. Vigorous exercise such as running will make you lose
weight, so instead, stick to moderate walking for your cardiovascular exercise. Add resistance weight training to
your exercise routine so that you can gain some muscle instead of losing weight. You can replace your typical 30
minutes of running three times a week with 30 minutes of strength training three times a week and 30 minutes of
walking twice a week. This will help slow your metabolism so you gain weight.