PCC= Power Control Center

MCC= Motor Control Center

ACDB= Alternating Current (A.C.) Distribution Board.
DCDB- Direct Current (DC) Distribution Board.
MLDB=Main Lighting Distribution Board.
ACELDB= A.C. Emergency Lighting Distribution Board.
DCELDB=DC Emergency Lighting Distribution Board.
Types of boiler:1)AFBC- Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion
2)WHRB- Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
3)CFBC- Circulating fluidized bed combustion

What makes a generator increase load

A) Isn't it obvious? It does so because it is commanded to do so, you said so yourself. All good
generators do as commanded, don't they?
Seriously,though,andinasfewwordsaspossible,whenanoperatorclicksonRaiseSpd/Ldor
increasesthePreSelectedLoadControlsetpointwhentheunitisbeingoperatedinPreSelectedLoad
Controlmodethefuelflowrateintotheturbineisincreased,whichincreasesthetorquebeing
producedbytheturbine,whichthegeneratorconvertstoamps,whichresultsinanincreaseinload.
Fortheexactdetailsofwhat'shappening,readon.
Ifonewantstomakesomethingspin,oneneedstosupplysomeforcetoit.Thatforceisusually
referredtoastorque.Themoretorqueappliedtosomething,thefasteritwillusuallyspin.Decrease
thetorqueappliedtosomething,anditwillusuallyslowdown.
Agasturbineisadevicethatproducestorque,andtheamountoftorquebeingproducedcanbevaried,
andisindirectproportion(usually)totheamountoffuelbeingburnedinthecombustor(s)ofthegas
turbine.Increasethefuelflowrate,andtheamountoftorquebeingproducedbytheturbinewill
increase.Decreasethefuelflowrate,andtheamountoftorquebeingproducedbytheturbinewill
decrease.
Thegenerator(morecorrectlycalledanalternator)usedwithGEdesignheavydutygasturbinesisa
synchronousgenerator.Itisthenatureofsynchronousgeneratorsbeingoperatedinparallelwithother
synchronousgeneratorsonanACgridtosupplyaloadwhichismuchgreaterthananysingle
generatorthattheywillallberunningatthesamespeed,andnosinglegeneratoranditsprimemover
(thegasturbineinyourcase)canoperateatspeedshigherorlowerthantheothergeneratorswith
whichisitconnected,becausetheyaresynchronousgenerators(alternators).
ThereisaformulathatdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefrequencyofanACsystemandthe
speedandtypeofsynchronousgeneratorsconnectedtothesystem:F=(P*N)/120,whereFisthe

frequency(inHertz)ofthegrid,Pisthenumberofpolesofthegenerators(anevennumberneverless
thantwo,andthenumberofpolesofanygeneratorisusuallyfixedandcan'tbechangedwhilethe
generatorisrunning),andNisthespeedofthegeneratorrotor,usuallythefield(inRPM).The
(synchronous)generatorsusedwithFrame9EGEdesignheavydutygasturbinesaretwopole
generatorsandaredirectlyconnectedtotheturbines(i.e.,thereisnoreductiongearbetweenthe
turbineandthegenerator,andthegeneratorisnotconnectedtoa"free"turbinewhichspins
independentlyoftheaxialcompressoroftheturbine),sothat'swhythe100%speedratingofthe
turbineis3000RPMbecausethegridthegeneratorisconnectedtoisa50Hzsystem(nominally).
(Notetherearenoapproximationsinthisformula,andnotethatspeedandfrequencyaredirectly
proportional.Increasethespeedofasynchronousgeneratorandit'sfrequencywillincrease;decrease
thefrequencyofagridtowhichageneratorisconnectedandthegeneratorspeedwilldecrease
proportionally;speedandfrequencyaredirectlyrelated.
So,we'veestablishedthatwhenatwopole(synchronous)generatorisconnectedtoa50Hzgridwith
othergeneratorsthatitwillbeoperatingat3000RPM(N=(120*50)/2=3000RPM),andwhenthe
primemover(theturbine)isdirectlycoupledtothegeneratorthatit,too,willspinat3000RPM.
Again,thisisbecausethegeneratorrotorislockedintothesamespeed(insynchronismwith)the
othergeneratorsataspeedthatisdictatedbythefrequencyofthegridandthenumberofpolesofthe
generator(whichneverchanges),andtheturbineshaftisdirectlyconnected/coupledtothegenerator
rotor.
Further,itisthenatureofmostACgridsthattherearesomanygenerators,ofvariousnumberof
poles,somanyallsupplyingsuchalargeloadthatanyonesinglegeneratoranditsprimemovercan't
usuallyhaveanyappreciableeffectonthefrequencyofalltheothergeneratorsandthespeedsoftheir
primemovers(unlesstheprimemoverbeingloadedorunloadedhasaverylargepower
rating/capacityinrelationtoalltheothergeneratorsandtheload).
Whenageneratorisacceleratedtoratedspeedduringstartingpriortosynchronization,theprime
moverisproducingjustenoughtorquetokeepthegenerator(andturbineandcompressor,inthiscase)
speedequaltothefrequencyofthegrid(inthiscase,3000RPM).Whentheunitissynchronized,the
power"output"ofthegeneratorisverylow,usually,becauseduringsynchronizationtheturbinespeed
(andgeneratorfrequency)isadjustedtobejustslightlyhigherthanaspeedwhichwouldbeequalto
gridfrequency.Thismeansthatthereisslightlymoretorquebeingproducedbytheturbinethanis
requiredtokeepthegeneratorrotorspinningatafrequencyequaltogridfrequency.Whenthe
generatorbreakerisclosed,thespeedofthegeneratorrotor,andtheturbineandaxialcompressor,
actuallyslowsdown.Yes,that'sright;thespeeddecreasesbecauseoncethegeneratorbreakercloses
thegeneratoristhenlockedintosynchronousspeedwhichisaspeedthatisproportionaltothegrid
frequencyofalltheothergeneratorsit'snowoperatinginparallelwith.
Duringsynchronization,thefuelflowrate,ontheotherhand,isheldconstantoncethedesiredspeed
isachieved,whichmeansthatthetorqueisbeingheldconstant.Duringsynchronization,whenthe
turbine(andgenerator)speedisincreasedtobejustslightlyabovegridfrequencythereismoretorque
beingproducedthanisrequiredtokeeptherotorspinningataspeedthatisequaltogridfrequency.
Whenthegeneratorbreakerclosesandthegeneratorspeedslowsdown,whichslowsdownthe
turbine,thetorqueremainsthesamebecausethefuelwasnotchanged.Thatextratorqueisconverted
intoampsbythegeneratorandmoreampsequalsmoreload.That'swhatageneratoris:adevicefor
convertingtorqueintoamps.(Amotorisadeviceforconvertingampsintotorque.Actually,theonly
differencebetweenamotorandageneratoristhe"direction"ofcurrentandtorqueflowintooroutof
themachine.)
Thebasicformulaforpower(Watts)is:P=V*I,wherePispower(inWatts),Visgenerator
terminalvoltage(inVolts),andIisarmaturecurrent(thealternatingcurrentflowinginthestatorof

thegenerator).(ForathreephasegeneratortheentireformulaisP=V*I*(3^(0.5))*PF,where,
3^(0.5)isthesquarerootofthree(afixedvalue,1.732,Ithink),andPFisthepowerfactorofthe
generator(whichisanumbernevergreaterthan1.0,andwhichwewillpresumetobe1.0forthe
purposesofourdiscussion).Coincidentally,theterminalvoltageofmostsynchronousgeneratorsis
almostafixedvalue,aswell,anddoesn'tusuallyvarybymorethanapproximately+/5.0%,whichon
an11,0000Voltgeneratorisonlyabout550Volts(outof11,000).
So,sinceoneofthetermsofthethreephasepowerformula*is*afixedvalue(thesquarerootof
three),andwearepresumingoneoftheterms(PF)tobefixedandequalto1.0,andthegenerator
terminalvoltageis,forallintentsandpurposes,afixedvalue,thewaythatageneratorproducesmore
poweristoincreasethenumberofampsflowinginthestator.Thewaythatampsareincreasedinthe
generatorstatorisbyprovidingmoretorquefromtheturbineintothegenerator;moretorqueequals
moreamps.Lesstorqueequalslessamps.(Wearepresumingthattheprimemoverisalways
producingatleastsufficienttorquetokeepthegeneratorrotorspinningatsynchronousspeed.Whenit
doesn't,thegeneratoractuallybecomesamotorandkeepsspinningatsynchronousspeedanddraws
currentfromothergeneratorsonthegrid.Thisiswhat'sknownas"reversepower"or,"motorizingthe
generator."It's*very*badforsteamturbinesandreciprocatingenginesevenforveryshortperiodsof
time;notsoinjuriousforgasturbinesforshortperiodsoftimes,especiallysingleshaftgasturbines
likeGEdesignheavydutyFrame9Egasturbines.)
NowsomepeoplearegoingtosaythatwhenaunitwithaGESpeedtronicturbinecontrolsystemis
automaticallysynchronizedtothegridthatitloadsupto"SpinningReserve",andtheyarecorrect.
Thereissomelogicthat,oncethegeneratorbreakerisclosedduringautosynch'ing,increasesthe
amountoffuelbeingputintotheturbinewhichincreasesthetorquebeingproducedbytheturbineand
sincetheturbinespeedcan'tincrease(becauseit'sdirectlycoupledtothe(synchronous)generator
whichisnowconnectedtothegridandit'sspeedisbeingcontrolledbythefrequencyofthegridto
whichit'sconnected)theextratorquethat'sbeingproducedbytheadditionofthefuelgetsconverted
intoamps.
So,itshouldbeclearthattorque,amps,andloadareproportionaltoeachother.Anincreaseinfuel
resultsinanincreaseintorquewhichresultsinanincreaseinload;adecreaseintorqueresultsina
decreaseinampswhichresultsinadecreaseinload.
Now.foraGEdesignheavydutygasturbinetobeoperatedinparallelwithothergeneratorsona
grid,itisoperatedinDroopspeedcontrolmode.Thisisoneoftwogoverningmodesformostprime
movers(Isochronousbeingtheotherone)andisthemodethatallowstheturbineandgeneratorto
smoothlyandstablyparticipateinpoweringalargeloadwhileparalleledwithothergenerators.(Some
peoplerefertothisas"sharingload",andwhilethat'stechnicallycorrectthesametermisalsousedin
anotherdescriptionofDroopspeedcontrolandthisdoubleusagecauseslotsofproblemsformost
people.So,we'regoingtoreferDroopspeedcontrolmodeasthegovernor(controlsystem)modethat
allowsthestableandsmoothproductionofpowerbyaprimemoverandgeneratorwhenconnectedto
agridwithothergenerators.)
Wediscussedwhathappensduringsynchronization,whentheturbinespeedisincreasedtomakethe
generatorfrequencyjustslightlyhigherthanthegridfrequency(thisisgenerallyreferredtoasspeed
matching).Andtoincreasethespeedrequiresanincreaseintorque,whichcomesfromincreasingthe
fuelflowratetotheturbine.Whenthegeneratorbreakerisclosed,theturbinespeedcan'tchangeand
anyattempttoincreasetheturbinespeedwilljustcauseadditionaltorquetobeproduced,andthe
generatorconvertsthetorquetoamps,whichbecomesload.
WhenaGEdesignheavydutygasturbinewithaSpeedtronicturbinecontrolpanelisbeingoperated
inDroopspeedcontrolmode,andtheoperatorwantstoraiseorlowertheload,whathappensisthat

theturbinespeedreferenceisincreasedordecreased,whichcausesthefuelflowratetobeincreased
ordecreased,inanattempttomaketheactualturbinespeedincreaseordecreasebyincreasingor
decreasingtheamountoftorquebeingproducedbytheturbine.But,sincetheactualturbinespeed
can'tincreaseordecrease,anytorqueincreaseresultsinanincreaseinampswhichresultsinan
increaseinload,andanytorquedecreaseresultsinadecreaseinampswhichresultsinadecreasein
load.
So,whenanoperatorclicksonRaiseSpd/LdorincreasesthePreSelectedLoadSetpointwhenthe
unitisbeingoperatedinPreSelectedLoadControl,what'sreallyhappeningisthattheturbinespeed
referenceisincreasing,whichresultsinmorefuelbeingadmittedtotheturbine,whichresultsinextra
torquewhichcan'tresultinincreasedspeedsothegeneratorconvertsthetorquetoamps,whichresults
inanincreaseinload.
B) I'dliketoextendthisstoryonsteamturbines.Ibelievethatbasiclogicisthesame:whatisfuelwith
gasturbines,thatissteamwithsteamturbines.Ifgenerator'scircuitbreakerisopen,thenmoresteam
suppliedtotheturbinewillcauseturbinetorotatefaster,butafterimmediatelyaftersynchronization,
moresteamwillproducemoretorqueandbecause,speedisconstant,therewillbemoreampsand
hence,morepoweroutputtothegrid.
However,therearesomethingsthatarenotcleartome.Generator'soutputpowercanbeincreasedby
addingmoresteamtotheturbine,say,byopeningturbine'scontrolvalves(Iassumeturbinehasonly
highpressureandlowpressurestage).Ithinkthatturbinecanincreaseitstorquealsobynotopening
controlvalves,butincreasingsteampressurewhichisequivalent.
Iwonderwhatapproachisusedmorefrequently.
Ialsobelieveithasalotofincommonwithsocalled"exploatationconcept"(turbineorboiler
leading).
Inturbineleadingmode,turbine'scontrolleriscontrollingpoweroutputbyadjustingcontrolvalves.
That,inevitably,leadstosteam'spressurechanging.Insuchcase,boilercontrollerisincreasingor
decreasingcoalfeedersspeed.Morespeedmeansmorecoalintheboiler.Morecoalintheboiler
meansmoreheat,moreheatmeanshigherpressure(ormoresteam!?!).

HowweareincreasingtheTorquebyincreasingfuel?
Whenageneratorisbeingsynchronizedwithagrid,itisusuallydonesowiththegeneratorrotorspinning
slightlyfasterthansynchronousspeed(thesynchscopeisrotatingclockwiseintheFastdirection).Whenthe
generatorbreakerisclosedthespeedofthegeneratorrotor(andtheturbine)slowdowntosynchronousspeed,
eventhoughthefuelisheldconstant.Thisresultsina"positive"poweroutputofthegenerator.The"extra"
speed(torque)thatwascausingthegeneratorrotortospinfasterthansynchronousspeedbeforethegenerator
breakerwasclosedisconvertedtoamperesinthegeneratorwhentherotorspeedisreducedtosynchronous
speed.
(Ifthesynchroscopewereheldstationaryatthe12o'clockpositionandthegeneratorbreakerwereclosed,
therewouldbezeropoweroutputfromthegenerator,becausetheturbineisspinningthegeneratorrotorat
synchronousspeed.)
Anotherwaytothinkofitisthattheturbinebucketsareatafixeddistancefromtheturbineshaft.Hotgases
impingingontheturbinebucketsdeveloptorque(forcexdistance,right?).Increasingthetemperatureofthe
hotgasesincreasestheforceandthereforethe(forcexdistance)andthereforethetorque.

But,thegeneratorrotor,becauseit'slockedintosynchronousspeedwiththegrid,can'tbespunanyfastereven
thoughtheturbinerotoris"twisting"theloadcouplingshaftharderbecauseoftheincreasedtorque.That'sthe
torqueangle,theincreasedtwistbeingappliedtotrytospinthegeneratorrotorfasterthansynchronousspeed.
Again,torqueisforcexdistance.Ifthedistanceisfixed,thenincreasingtheforce(byincreasingthefuel)will
increasethetorque.
Ifaturbinegeneratorisproducingpoweratsay,25%ofratedoutput,andsuddenlythegeneratorbreakerwere
openedbutthefuelwasn'treduced,thentheturbineshaftandgeneratorrotorspeedwouldincreaseveryfast,
andtheunitwouldprobablyoverspeed.That'sbecausetheamountoffuelbeingburnedtoproducetheforce
ontheturbinebucketsismuchmorethanisrequiredtokeepthegeneratorrotorspinningatsynchronous
speed.
Pleasehavealookatthewww.wikipedia.orgdefinitionofTorque,specificallythesectiontitled'Relationship
betweentorque,powerandenergy'.Note,thatthephysicalandmechanicalengineeringdefinitionsoftorque
canbedifferent.
Whenadditionaltorqueisappliedthroughtheloadcouplingbetweenaturbineandagenerator,thecouplingis
"twisted"andthechangeinangulardisplacementcanactuallybemeasured.Also,thereisachangeinthe
relationshipsofthemagneticfieldsinthegenerator(therotorfieldandthestatorfield(s)),anangular
displacement.
So,thereisangulardisplacement.

Difference Between RCCB AND ELCB?

ELCB is a voltage operated device.RCCB is a current operated device.IN ELCB, Trip

coil is connected between system ground and non current carrying part of
the machines.RCCB having CBCT(Core Balanced Current Transformer).CBCT consists
of 2nos of primary winding(P1,P2) and one secondary winding(S1).Primary windings
are in series with the load and secondary winding connected to Trip coil.In case of
healty time, voltage in both the primary windings will be cancelled and hence no
voltage on secondary winding.During the leakge or If any body touch the live wires
of the machines, current will passing through the body and connected to ground.It
will cause the voltage difference in primary windings and induced voltage in
secondary operates the trip coil(operating time 50ms).

What is the d/f b/w iverter & converter?

In initial stages of Power elex only AC-DC converters i.e.rectifiers were invented and in loose talks
rectifiers werecalled as converters and from here they got the nameconverter. And this is why
inverter(antonym of converter)are called so, as they do the the inverse job of aconverter(rectifier).
So
converter:
AC-DC
inverter : DC-AC

What is the difference b/w earthing & grounding?

No difference

How we can calculate which capacity capacitor bank we

have to add for improve pf?

Let total power is 1500kw

Let total power is 1500kw
assume
cos Q1 =power factor before improvement =0.75
cos Q2= poer factor after improvement =0.98
tan1=0.88{cos Q1=0.75,Cos-0.75=46.01degree,Now angle is
46.01,so tan(46.01)=0.88}
tan2=0.2
and
kvar 1= power*tan1=1500*0.88=1320kvar
kvar 2=power*tan2=1500*0.2=300kvar
now, required rating of capacitor bank =kvar1-kvar2
=1320-300
=1020kvar
Capacitor Bank should connect parallel with the load.

Why electricity is generated and transmitted at the values

of multiples of 11?
The electricity is generated and transmitted at the values of multiples of 11 because the
value of form factor is 1.1 for sinusoidal waves, we generally incoorporate sine wave, cose
wave for electrical signals and at this value of form factor, the efficiency of any electrical
equipment is maximum. More precisely we would say these are the multiples of 1.1 like 6.6

What is difference between PVC

cable & XLPE cable?
PVC-Poly Vinyl Chloride & XLPE-Cross Link Poly Ethylene are the insulations used on the cablesPVC is
thin insulation mainly used in LT side cablesXLPE is thick insulation used in HT cables(OperatingTemp)
(SC Temp)(MoistureRes)(Fire Res)PVC 70 130 V.Good ExcellentXLPE 90 250 V.Good Fair.

Why the Potential transformer Primary in connected

to Earth?
To protect the primary winding of the potential transformer. If you not earthed the system,the
unbalance voltage will appear between neutral and earth. This voltage can damage
winding.

What is potential free contact? What is the significance and application of this contact?
Contacts having not potential. E.g. Relay contacts/ field switches contacts. They are used in logic
circuits. A potential free contact is usually wired into an electrical circuit. However it must be
ensured that the contact ratings are suitable for the service in which it is used.

In split range control, whether the signal is splitted through I/P convertor or the convertor
itself?
This can be typically achieved by two ways:By connecting o/p of one I/P converter to two
positioners adjusted suitably for split range operation of control valves. Taking two AO from DCS.
Split range to be defined in DCS. Both I/P converters and positioners to be calibrated with input as
4to20 ma dc and 3to15 psi respectively.
When do we use SOV of rating 110vac and 110vdc?
Primarily depends upon the availability of reliable power supply source.
How is cold junction compensation in thermocouple carried?
This is typically performed in modern programmable instruments by means of measuring actual
reference junction temperature using a temperature sensor mounted close to the ref. junction and
compensating for the same using appropriate look-up table stored within the instruments memory.
In which applications do we use 4 wire RTD?
Three wire is a better alternative. Primary objective of 3-wire and 4-wire arrangements is to
eliminate effects of lead resistance on temp. measurement.
What is the sensor used in coriollis mass flow meter to measure density?
Density is measured here by measuring the resonant frequency of a vibrating U-tube.
What if thermocouple wire is opened in the field? What signal goes to DCS?
In most modern instruments the signal may be programmed to go to either maximum or minimum
depending upon end users requirement.
What if the power supply connections to a two-wire transmitter get interchanged? What signal
will go to DCS?
Usually there is a blocking diode to protect the transmitter against supply reversal and almost zero
current signal should be transmitted.
What are the possible reasons for the failure of barrier? !?!
Fuse blowing sometimes. Power circuits are most likely to fail.
How can we say that the given RTD or Thermocouple is correct?
We can only measure sensor output (resistance / maillots ) accurately and look-up corresponding
temperature in reference tables. The accuracy depends upon quality / condition of the sensor.
Degraded sensors may not give accurate readings and must be replaced. To test a sensor, the sensor
response may be tested using a high quality temperature calibrator and compared with reference
tables.
In some cases we have to select the cam position in a control valve for different application?
How do we select that?

Refer to instruction manual for the positioner / control valve. The cams are often marked with
limited amount of information, which may help an experienced person.
What is the difference between a protocol and a field bus?
A protocol defines a standard method for communications. A fieldbus is a multidropping
arrangement where multiple instruments communicate with special interface hardware using the
same pair of wires and in most of the cases draw power from the same pair of wires.
What happens if transmitter wires get shorted?
The barrier if installed limits electrical energy flowing into hazardous area. If there is no barrier,
typically a fuse in the power distribution system will blow.
What will happen if thermocouple wires get shorted?
A cold junction compensated instrument will typically indicate temperature of the location where the
T/C wires are shorted.

Why do we require loop-terminating resistor in any digital communication loop?

A minimum loop resistance is required so that modulated current signal produces a modulated
voltage signal, which may be detected by the receiving equipment.
What is adapter flange?
It is a transmitter part for allowing process connection to pipe/tube.
How to calculate the safe distance between cables to avoid electro magnetic interference of each
other ?
The design engineers / equipment manufacturers follow/publish certain guidelines w.r.t. different types
of cables and the voltages/currents and types of signals carried by them.
How Control loop should be tuned in process loop?
You may use Ziegler-Nichols method ( open loop / closed loop ) or special tuning software tools.
What is the significance of single ended & differential ended input for PLC? Application wise
comparison of these two types of inputs?
Differential inputs provide better common mode rejection and signal-to-noise ratio.
What is Ground Loop? Preventive steps to avoid ground loop?
When ground wiring is not done properly, grounding of various points is not effective and potential
differences exist between them resulting in currents flowing between them. This leads to measurement
errors and is not desirable. It can be eliminated by proper ground wiring.

In a globe type control valve, what is the importance of flow direction (top to bottom or bottom
to top)?
Control valves must be installed as per direction marking provided by the manufacturers or instruction
manuals. Though people tend to generalize, this is often misleading.
What is ATEX directives / FM Approval / CSA approved / CE certified ? What is the importance
of individual certification? Are all these certification required for each instruments? Which
certification do we prefer?
ATEX/FM/CSA certifications generally refer to certification for suitability of instruments for use in
hazardous area when installed in accordance with recommended guidelines. Any certification, which is
locally acceptable as per statutory requirements, may be used. We typically accept
American/European/Indian certifications/approvals in India.
Advantages of tachometer as speed measuring device compared to inductive type proximity
switches?
Some tachometers provide analog output with almost instantaneous response time. They are highly
suitable for speed control in some applications.
Application wise advantages of Inductive type proximity switches over capacitive type switches?
Inductive proximity switches are better suited for detection of conducting metal objects and are easily
tested for proper operation. Capacitive switches are typically used for detecting non-conductive
materials.
What are Analog Input/output & Digital Input/output?
4-20 mA signals from instrument (transmitters) are analog input to control system.
4-20 mA signals to instrument (I/p & electro pneumatic positioner) are analog output from control
system.
Volt free (24V) contact (NO/NC) by instruments (all type of switches, ex. Limit switch,
press,temp,flow,level switch) are digital input to control system.
All powered signals (24V,48V,110V.) from system to instruments (SOV) are Digital outputs.

Types of instrument cables?

IS cables & NIS cables
IS Intrinsic safety & NIS Non Intrinsic safety
Which cable to use, depends upon hazards condition.
Instrument JBs?
Instrument JBs depend upon hazards area classification.
JBs also can be IS or NIS
For IS signal IS JBs used for NIS signal NIS JBs used
For analog I/p & o/p signal we can use same JB.
But for Digital I/p & o/p we have to use separate JBs. Because digital outputs are powered signal,

by wrong connection there may be chances to damage the card.

For DCS I/p & o/p and PLC I/p & o/p we used separate JBs.
What is open loop & close loop?
OPEN LOOP : This is nothing but to sense the process signals from the field and to send it to the
control room for operator observation.
CLOSE LOOP : This is measuring the process signals for operators action. Means Tx sense the
process and send it to the control room. Where the operators takes action i.e. control action and that
given to the final control element as per the process requirement.
What is DCS & PLC?
Distributed control system(DCS) and Programmable logic controller. These are the control systems
which handles fields I/Os. Basic difference between DCS & PLC is 1) DCS handles more nos of
I/Os rather than PLC. 2) PLC is faster system than DCS. 3) DCS can handles handsome quantity of
I/Os so that can be used for total plant automation. Where as PLC has own limitations so it generally
used for small but for important(Safety point of view) units, like boiler automations, Make-up
compressor automations Etc. 4) In the above mentioned case the these PLCs can be get connected
with the DCS with the help of soft link. Generally this is used to make alert to both the operator. 5)
As I heard the PLC used to handle the DI/DO signals so it can take fast actions. Some of the time it
is used to handle few nos of AI/AO. 6) DCS & PLCs speed depends on the scan rate of I/Os. 6) For
both the system Marshalling panels, Consoles and other faculties of Ethernet Etc can be used
according to the need. 7) According to the Cause and effects diagrams the System programmer
assigns the control action block into the system, we can call them as memory assigning.
While making Datasheets which things are to be considered?
Basically it depends on the instrument item for which you are preparing the datasheet. As an Example.
Temperature Element. We have collect following information to prepare D/s.
1) Type of Temperature Sensor(T/C or RTD, in case of T/c which type J,K,R,S etc.)
2) Head details a: Screw-cap and chain, b: material, c: conduit connections, d: terminal block>
single or duplex. 3) Thermowell Details a: material, b: Construction, c: dimension, e: connection.
Etc.

In case of valve 1) Process Details 2)Material of construction(Valve body, Trim),

3) Operating action,
4) Type of operating characteristics
5) Stroke time 6) Accessories attached Etc.
What are temperature elements?
Thermocouples & RTDs.
What are thermocouple & RTDs principles & types?
For more than 400 or 450 degree Centigrade thermocouple is used, below this temperature RTD is
used?

What is cable tray? Its type? Its size? Its support?

Cable tray is nothing but the way or media through which we lay the field cables in plant. There are
two basic types 1) Ladder type(made in Rungs type construction) 2) Perforated Type(Solid sheath
consist of Holes for ventilation). Basically discussing about tray support than we could say it
depends on the site conditions. Only care has to be taken considering adequate space for laying
cable, considering their bends.Etc.
How to decide cable tray size?
According to the no. of cable occupancy in the cable tray and available tray size we have to choose
it. they are available in foll. types 80,150,300,450,600 & 900.
What is meant by instrument location & JB location?
This consist of Instrument location considering the piping drawing given from Piping dept. We
identifies the locations of the instrument in the equipment layouts and put the bubbles and elevation
and JB nos for the location. Same way depending upon the accessibility we decide the location of JB
and marking of it into the instrument location plan is JB location. There is no need to make
a different drawing for this.
While locating Instrument & JB which things we have to consider?
Transmitter : Tube routing, maintenance area, man approach, Valve : Hand wheel operations,
Maintenance area, Etc. Loop power indicators: Man approach Illumination from Electrical if
instrument is not going to provide.
What is the use for cable entry in control room? (sleeves & MCT)
In the process plant Control room built considering the non-hazardous area. So in case if
fire/Explosion takes place in the plant than that has to be restricted from entering into the control
room. So MCT(Multiple cable transient) blocks are used. They are designed to sustain the fire for a
fixed time duration. That block hold the cables which are entering into the CCR.

Why do we use pipelines for transmitters in steam service and tubes in any other service?
A) Pipe as well as tubes can be used for steam line transmitters. However pipe walls being thicker
provide more corrosion allowance. B) For steam services, with high temp and pressure needs IBR
standard. Max. Working pressure is 153 kg/cm2 at 38 degC for 1/2 O.D tube as per design standard.
So tube is not suitable.
What is auto cut in of the pump?

Auto cut in of pump refers to automatic startup of a standby pump when a running pump stops or when
level in a vessel being emptied becomes high.
What is Zero speed?
In some equipments a speed below a threshold value but close to zero is referred to as zero speed.

What is the purpose of measuring dissolved oxygen?

Dissolved oxygen is measured in boiler feed water for addition of dosing compounds to remove
oxygen to avoid corrosion in steam boilers. In wastewater plants it is measured to estimate quality of
effluent. (oxygen demand)
What is SPDT relay?
The term SPDT refers to single-pole-double-throw relay contact.
How Cold Junction Compensation is done for thermocouples?
Cold junction compensation is done for temperature measurement using thermocouples. The t/c output
is a function of temp. at hot junction as well as temp. at ref. junction. In order to measure hot junction
temp. accurately, it is necessary to measure ref. junction temperature and compensate for its variation.
This is done by modern digital instruments, by using a ref. junction temp. sensor to measure cold
junction temp., and compensating for it using a look-up table corresponding to the t/c.
What is differential tracking system?
In differential tracking system set point changes with change in process value in one direction. E.g.
there is trip of OMS in MEG plant on high oxygen flow (with diff tracker). Trip value is say 10% more
than normal process value. Now suppose process value is reducing than trip set value will also reduce
keeping 10% difference. If process value increased than trip set value will not increase and system will
trip when trip set value is reached by process value.
How spectacle blind occurs?
A spectacle blind is a blind plate and a plate with line size bore connected together and installed
between pipe flanges. This blind may be reversed to blind/deblind a line. It also provides a visual clue
as to whether a line is blinded at that location or not.
How pressure limit switch occurs?

A pressure switch typically consists of a spring-loaded plunger actuated by process pressure to operate
a microswitch. The pressure at which the microswitch operates is dependent upon spring force, which
may be varied by an adjusting nut.
Where should we use Open to alarm and Close to alarm ?
A) Where probability of an open circuit fault is higher we use open to alarm and where probability of
a closed circuit fault is higher we use close to alarm strategy. Open to alarm strategy is usually
preferred. B) Selection should be such that whenever component/ instrument/ system fault occurs,
system should give alarm.
What is the difference between offset and hysteresis?
A) An offset is difference between a desired value and an actual value. The phenomenon of a
dependent variable assuming a different set of values when the corresponding independent variable is
increasing than when it is decreasing is known as hysteresis. B) Offset is fixed bias from desired value.
Hysterisis is difference between set and reset.
Pressure switch with setting of 0.5 kg/cm2 (head pressure included) was found in calibration report .
What is the significance of head pressure?
Head pressure refers to the pressure exerted by fluid inside the impulse pipe connecting the pressure
switch to the vessel. This pressure acts in addition to the actual process pressure in the vessel. Pressure
acting on switch = process pressure + head pressure.
Why and where do we use seal pots and condensate pots in level transmitters?
Seal pots or condensate pots are used to provide buffer volume of liquid for impulse lines where wet
leg measurement is used. Small quantities of draining from these lines produces very small changes in
head pressure and therefore reduces errors compared to the case when no seal pots are used. Also in
many seal pots it is possible to fill liquid into the impulse line when the line is completely drained.
How the sizes of proximity switches are selected?
The sizes of proximity switches are selected based on sensing distance and mounting requirements.
What is orifice sizing and how it is done?
Orifice sizing is done using following information: 1) flow measurement range 2) corresponding diff.
Pressure 3) piping dimensions 4) tap locations 5) fluid properties at operating conditions (like
density/temp/pressure etc.) Standard formulas are used.
What is control valve sizing?

Control valve sizing refers to calculation of flow capacity of a valve for a given fluid, operating
conditions and piping arrangement.
What is galvanic isolation?
The term galvanic isolation refers to electric isolation of two circuits using a transformer or an
optoisolator. However a transformer provides a better isolation.
Why is deadband ( Reset and Set ) values kept in proximity switch ?
I think the question is wrong it should read pressure switch and not proximity switch. Set and reset
points are kept different to avoid chattering of switch contact at the set point and provide a stable
switching action.
What does ARRH and # refer to in valve specification?
AARH refers to average roughness height and is a measure of roughness of sealing surface of a flange.
The # refers to ANSI class of flange/valve and is indicative of its pressure rating.
What does DN stand for in valve size?
DN stands for Diameter Nominal. It is a flange size of the valve.
What is the full form of ASTM standard?
ASTM stands for American Society for Testing of Materials.
What does BENCH RANGE refer to in an actuator?
The bench range/set of an actuator/control valve combination refers to the air pressure required to fully
open/close the valve out of line when it is not subjected to process fluid forces.
Why control mode specification is given in the data sheet of the transmitter?
Not mandatory. This is controller specification. Direct OR reverse.
What is the use of the diode in series to the coil in a relay?
A diode is often used in parallel with a relay coil to dissipate energy stored in coil inductance when the
coil is disconnected from the electric circuit. It is also known as freewheeling diode.
Where and Why are O Rings used in DPT?
For providing leak proof seal.
Why is earthing provided in the rack room if the power supplies present are floating

Earthing is provided in rack room for purpose of safety. Even if power supplies are kept floating.

Relationship between AWG & mm2

A) AWG was used prior SI standards to specify the diameter of the core of the electrical wires. B) Both
awg and mm2 are used to specify size of cross section of a wire/conductor. The relatioship is found in a
standard table westermanns tables.
Advantages of Displacer type Level switch to float type switch?
Displacer type switches involve very little movement whereas float type switches involve large
movement of float and hence are more likely to get stuck-up. However float switches can be used over
a much longer range than a displacer switch.
Construction of microswitch
A microswitch is a small switch consisting of a tiny springloaded plunger which operates an electrical
contact when actuated. This arrangement is encaged in a plastic housing. It is very commonly found in
pressure switches.
Where should we use top mounted or side mounted level switch?
The type of switch to use depends on size of the vessel and the location of actuating level. If the vessel
is small or actuating level is near the top, top mounted switch can be used. In a large vessel with
intermediate actuation points, side mounted switch is used. A top mounted switch needs a stilling well.
Application of PCV
A pcv is a self-actuated pressure control valve used to maintain upstream or downstream pressure at a
set pressure using force from the process fluid if necessary.
Difference between PSV & PRV
A pressure safety valve is used to relieve overpressure by releasing relatively small volumes of
material and installed on smaller vessels. A pressure relef valve is used to relieve overpressure by
releasing relatively large volumes of material and installed on large vessels/tanks.
Why PSV in Cooling water line at outlet of a heat exchanger is required?

The PSV in cooling water line at the outlet of a heat exchanger is actually a thermal safety valve and is
used to relieve overpressure due to thermal expansion of water.
Comparison of PD meter, turbine meter & Coriolis meter in Custody transfer applications..(Accuracy
wise)
A PD meter, a turbine meter or a coriolis meter may all be used in custody transfer. A PD meter or a
turbine meter typically deliver accuracy around 0.5% and contain moving parts and require more
maintenance and indicate volumetric flow. A good coriolis meter involves almost no wear and tear,
needs less maintenance effort, delivers accuracy close to 0.1% and directly indicates mass flow. For
custody transfer of gas service ultrasonic multi-path flow meters are also used with accuracy up to
0.35%. They are maintenance free and having very good diagnostic features.
What is a thermal relief valve?
A thermal relief valve is typically used to relieve overpressure due to thermal expansion of liquid in
pipelines.

Boiler:-

Working
The separated steam is drawn out from the top section of the drum and distributed for process.
Further heating of the saturated steam will make superheated steam normally used to drive a
steam turbine. Saturated steam is drawn off the top of the drum and re-enters the furnace in
through a superheater. The steam and water mixture enters the steam drum through riser tubes,
drum internals consisting of demister separate the water droplets from the steam producing dry
steam. The saturated water at the bottom of the steam drum flows down through the downcomer

pipe, normally unheated, to headers and water drum. Its accessories include a safety valve,
water-level indicator and level controller. Feed-water of boiler is also fed to the steam drum
through a feed pipe extending inside the drum, along the length of the steam drum.
A steam drum is used without or in the company of a mud-drum/feed water drum which is
located at a lower level. A boiler with both steam drum and mud/water drum is called a bi-drum
boiler and a boiler with only a steam drum is called a mono-drum boiler. The bi-drum boiler
construction is normally intended for low pressure-rating boiler while the mono-drum is mostly
designed for higher pressure-rating.

Waste heat recovery unit

Heat recovery units

Waste heat found in the exhaust gas of various processes or even from the exhaust stream of a
conditioning unit can be used to preheat the incoming gas. This is one of the basic methods for
recovery of waste heat. Many steel making plants use this process as an economic method to
increase the production of the plant with lower fuel demand.
There are many different commercial recovery units for the transferring of energy from hot
medium space to lower one:[1]
1. Recuperators: This name is given to different types of heat exchanger that
the exhaust gases are passed through, consisting of metal tubes that carry
the inlet gas and thus preheating the gas before entering the process. The
heat wheel is an example which operates on the same principle as a solar air
conditioning unit.
2. Regenerators: This is an industrial unit that reuses the same stream after
processing. In this type of heat recovery, the heat is regenerated and reused
in the process.
3. Heat pipe exchanger: Heat pipes are one of the best thermal conductors.
They have the ability to transfer heat hundred times more than copper. Heat
pipes are mainly known in renewable energy technology as being used in
evacuated tube collectors. The heat pipe is mainly used in space, process or
air heating, in waste heat from a process is being transferred to the
surrounding due to its transfer mechanism.
4. Thermal Wheel or rotary heat exchanger: consists of a circular honeycomb
matrix of heat absorbing material, which is slowly rotated within the supply
and exhaust air streams of an air handling system.
5. Economizer: In case of process boilers, waste heat in the exhaust gas is
passed along a recuperator that carries the inlet fluid for the boiler and thus
decreases thermal energy intake of the inlet fluid.
6. Heat pumps: Using an organic fluid that boils at a low temperature means
that energy could be regenerated from waste fluids.
7. Run around coil: comprises two or more multi-row finned tube coils connected
to each other by a pumped pipework circuit.

Particulate Filters (DPF) to capture emission by maintaining higher temperatures adjacent to the
converter and tail pipes to reduce the amount of emissions from the exhaust
Heat to power units

According to a report done by Energetics Incorporated for the DOE in November 2004 titled
Technology Roadmap[2] and several others done by the European commission, the majority of
energy production from conventional and renewable resources are lost to the atmosphere due to
onsite (equipment inefficiency and losses due to waste heat) and offsite (cable and transformers
losses) losses, that sums to be around 66% loss in electricity value.[3] Waste heat of different
degrees could be found in final products of a certain process or as a by-product in industry such
as the slag in steelmaking plants. Units or devices that could recover the waste heat and
transform it into electricity are called WHRUs or heat to power units. For example, an Organic
Rankine cycle unit uses an organic fluid as the working fluid. The fluid has a lower boiling point
than water to allow it to boil at low temperature, to form a superheated gas that could drive the
blade of a turbine and thus a generator. Thermoelectric (Seebeck, Peltier, Thomson effects) units
may also be called WHRU, since they use the heat differential between two plates to produce DC
Power.
A WHRB is different from a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) in the sense that the
heated medium does not change phase.

Deaerator
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other
dissolved gases from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers. In particular,
dissolved oxygen in boiler feedwaters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam
systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and
forming oxides (rust). Dissolved carbon dioxide combines with water to form
carbonic acid that causes further corrosion. Most deaerators are designed to remove
oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L) or less as well as essentially
eliminating carbon dioxide.

Types of deaerators

There are many different horizontal and vertical deaerators available from a number of
manufacturers, and the actual construction details will vary from one manufacturer to another.
Figures 1 and 2 are representative schematic diagrams that depict each of the two major types of
deaerators.

Tray-type deaerator

Figure 1: A schematic diagram of a typical tray-type deaerator.

The typical horizontal tray-type deaerator in Figure 1 has a vertical domed deaeration section
mounted above a horizontal boiler feedwater storage vessel. Boiler feedwater enters the vertical
deaeration section above the perforated trays and flows downward through the perforations.
Low-pressure deaeration steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through the
perforations. Some designs use various types of packed bed, rather than perforated trays, to
provide good contact and mixing between the steam and the boiler feed water.
The steam strips the dissolved gas from the boiler feedwater and exits via the vent valve at the
top of the domed section, should this vent valve not be opened sufficiently the deaerator will not
work properly causing high oxygen content in the feed water going to the boilers, should the
boiler not have an oxygen content analyser a high level in the boiler chlorides may indicate the
vent valve not being far enough open. Some designs may include a vent condenser to trap and
recover any water entrained in the vented gas. The vent line usually includes a valve and just
enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale
plume of steam.
The deaerated water flows down into the horizontal storage vessel from where it is pumped to
the steam generating boiler system. Low-pressure heating steam, which enters the horizontal
vessel through a sparger pipe in the bottom of the vessel, is provided to keep the stored boiler
feedwater warm. External insulation of the vessel is typically provided to minimize heat loss.

Spray-type deaerator

Figure 2: A schematic diagram of a typical spray-type deaerator.

As shown in Figure 2, the typical spray-type deaerator is a horizontal vessel which has a
preheating section (E) and a deaeration section (F). The two sections are separated by a baffle
(C). Low-pressure steam enters the vessel through a sparger in the bottom of the vessel.
The boiler feedwater is sprayed into section (E) where it is preheated by the rising steam from
the sparger. The purpose of the feedwater spray nozzle (A) and the preheat section is to heat the
boiler feedwater to its saturation temperature to facilitate stripping out the dissolved gases in the
following deaeration section.
The preheated feedwater then flows into the deaeration section (F), where it is deaerated by the
steam rising from the sparger system. The gases stripped out of the water exit via the vent at the
top of the vessel. Again, some designs may include a vent condenser to trap and recover any
water entrained in the vented gas. Also again, the vent line usually includes a valve and just
enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale
plume of steam.
The deaerated boiler feedwater is pumped from the bottom of the vessel to the steam generating
boiler system.
Deaeration steam

The deaerators in the steam generating systems of most thermal power plants use low pressure
steam obtained from an extraction point in their steam turbine system. However, the steam
generators in many large industrial facilities such as petroleum refineries may use whatever lowpressure steam is available.

Oxygen scavengers

Oxygen scavenging chemicals are very often added to the deaerated boiler feedwater to remove
any last traces of oxygen that were not removed by the deaerator. The type of chemical added

depends on whether the location uses a volatile or non-volatile water treatment program. Most
lower pressure systems (<650psi) use a non-volatile program. Most higher pressure systems
(>650psi) and all systems where certain highly alloyed materials are present, are now using
volatile programs as the old phosphate-based programs go away. Volatile programs are further
broken down into oxidizing or reducing programs [(AVT(O) or AVT(R)] depending whether the
waterside environment requires an oxidizing or reducing environment to reduce the incidence of
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) which is a highly debated topic within the industry today.
FAC-related failures have caused numerous accidents in which significant loss of property and
life has occurred.