Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
B.TECH, EEE
III YEAR I SEMESTER
(JNTUA-R15)
Mrs. A.HARITHA
ASST.PROFESSOR
Course Objectives:
The objectives of the course are to make the student learn about
The basic principles of different types of electrical instruments for the
Measurement of voltage, current, power factor, power and energy.
The measurement of R, L, and C parameters using bridge circuits.
The principles of magnetic measurements.
The principle of working of CRO and its applications.
The use of Current Transformers, Potential Transormers, and Potentiometers.
UNIT- I
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Classification – Ammeters and Voltmeters – PMMC, Dynamometer, Moving Iron Type
Instruments – Expression for the Deflecting Torque and Control Torque – Errors and
Compensations, Range Extension.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope- Cathode Ray tube-Time base generator-Horizontal and Vertical Amplifiers –
Applications of CRO – Measurement of Phase , Frequency, Current & Voltage- Lissajous Patterns
UNIT – II
D.C & A.C BRIDGES
Methods of Measuring Low, Medium and High Resistances – Sensitivity of Wheatstone‟s Bridge –
Kelvin‟s Double Bridge for Measuring Low Resistance, Measurement of High Resistance – Loss
of Charge Method. Measurement of Inductance - Maxwell‟s Bridge, Anderson‟s Bridge. Measurement
of Capacitance and Loss Angle - Desauty Bridge. Wien‟s Bridge – Schering Bridge.
UNIT – III
MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY
Single Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter, LPF and UPF, Double Element and Three Element Dynamometer
Wattmeter, Expression for Deflecting and Control Torques. Types of P.F. Meters – Dynamometer and
Moving Iron Type – 1-ph and 3-ph Meters. Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter – Driving and Braking
Torques – Errors and Compensations. Three Phase Energy Mete
UNIT –IV
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS AND POTENTIOMETERS
Current Transformers and Potential Transformers – Ratio and Phase Angle Errors –
Methods for Reduction of Errors-Design Considerations.
Potentiometers: Principle and Operation of D.C. Crompton‟s Potentiometer –
Standardization – Measurement of unknown Resistance, Current, Voltage.
A.C. Potentiometers: Polar and Coordinate types- Standardization – Applications
UNIT – V
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
Ballistic Galvanometer – Equation of Motion – Flux Meter – Constructional Details, Comparison with
Ballistic Galvanometer. Determination of B-H Loop - Methods of Reversals - Six Point Method – A.C.
Testing – Iron Loss of Bar Samples.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electrical & Electronic Measurement & Instruments, A.K.Sawhney and
DEPT.OF EEE VEMUIT Page 2
Dhanpat Rai & Co. Publications, 2011, Reprint 2014.
2. Electrical Measurements and measuring Instruments 5th Edition, E.W.
Golding and F.C. Widdis, Reem Publications, 5th Edition, 2011.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Electronic Instrumentation, 3rd Edition, H. S. Kalsi, Tata Mcgrawhill, 2011.
2. Electrical Measurements, Buckingham and Price, Prentice Hall, 1970.
3. Electrical Measurements: Fundamentals, Concepts, Applications, Reissland, M.U., New Age
International (P) Limited, 2010.
ClassificationofMeasuringInstruments
TheelectricalmeasuringinstrumentscanbeclassifiedasbelowMeasuringIn
struments
Absolute Secondary
instruments instruments
EeffectsofElectricCurrentUtilizedInMeasuringInstrume
nts
Theprincipleofoperationofmeasuring instrumentsdepend upon the variouse
ffectsofelectriccurrentusedintheiroperation.Theyareclassifiedasinthetablesh
ownbelow.
Effects Typeofmeasur Instruments
used ements utilizingtheseeffects
MagneticEffect Current,Voltage,Power Ammeter, Voltmeter,
andEnergyonbothA.C.a Integratingmetersandother
ndD.C.System. electricalinstruments
Thermaleffect Current,Voltageonboth Ammeter,Voltmeter
A.C.andD.C.system
Electromagnetic Voltage,Current,Power Voltmeter,Ammeter,Watt
InductionEffect energyinA.C.system meterenergymeter
ChemicalEffect AmperehoursinD.C.S Voltmeter,Ammeter
ystem
ElectroStatic Voltmeteron bothA.C. Voltmeter
effect andD.C.System
MainpartsofIndicatingInstruments
Indicatinginstrumentsarethosewhichindicatethevalueofthequantityund
ermeasurement.Themainpartsofindicatinginstrumentsare.,
1. Pointer.
2. PreCalibratedScale.
3. Movingsystemwithspindle,pivotedinjewelledbearings.
4. Deflectingoroperatingtorque.
5. Controllingorrestoringtorque.
DEPT.OF EEE VEMUIT Page 7
6. Dampingtorque.
Pointerandscale
Theshapeandsizeofthepointernormallydependsonthetypeandsizeofinstru
ments,usuallyaluminiumtubeorstripisusedasamaterial forpointer.Theendofthe
pointerisflattenedtotheshapeofanarrowheadand
ismadetomoveoveramirrorandgraduatedscale.
Themirrorhelpsinavoidingparallelaxis.Thearmofthe pointerusuallyhasado
ublebendto
adjustthearrowheadinleveltothescale.Asmallcounterweightisattachedattheta
ilendforbalancing.
Fig.2.3Differenttypesofpointers
Aclearlymarkedgraduatedscaleisattachedtothecaseoverthepointer.Thel
engthofthescaledependsuponthelengthofthepointerandtheangletowhichitcanr
otateforfullscaledeflection.
Thescaleisprintedonastiffcordusuallyglazedandwhitebackgroundandbl
ockmaking.
Therearetwotypesofscales usedinindicatinginstruments,namelyuniformsca
leandnonuniformscale.Inuniformscale,eachdivisionisequallydevided.Thistype
ofscaleisusedinmovingcoilinstruments.
Thenon-
uniformscaleiscrampedatendsandbroadlydevidedinmiddlepartofthescale.We
canseethistypeofscaleinmovingironinstrumentsand
a.c.measuringinstruments.
TorquesofIndicatingInstruments
Inmostoftheindicatinginstrumentsthreedistincttorquesarerequiredforoper
ation.Theyare
a) Atorquetomovethepointerfromitszeropositioninsameproportiontothe
magnitudeofthequantitybeingmeasured.Thistorqueiscalleddeflectin
gtorque.
b) Ifthepointerhastostopatavalueindicatingthe magnitudeofthe quantity,the
reshouldbeanequalandoppositetorqueatthatinstanttokeepthepointerin
stableposition.Thistorqueiscalledcontrollingtorque.
c) Whentwotorquesexistsinoppositedirectionoscillationresultsduetowhi
Pointer
TD Pivot
CounterBalance
(DeflectingTorque)
Fig2.4TheActionofDeflectingTorque
2. ControllingTorque(T)orControllingForce
c
Theforceactingonamovingsystem,inoppositedirectiontodeflectingtorqu
eandmakesthepointer stableatitsfinaldeflectedposition
iscalledControllingTorqueorControllingForce.Thepointerwilltrytorotateasmot
orinabsenceofthistorque.Italsobringsthepointerbacktozeroposition,afterdisco
nnectingthemeterfromthecircuit.
Fig2.5TheActionofControllingTorque
Pointer Jewelbearing
Spring
Counterweight
Fig.2.6TheActionofSpringControlTorque
b. GravityControl
Inthismethod,asmallweightisattachedtothemovingsysteminsuchawayth
atitgetsactivatedatthetimeofdeflectionandproducesacontrollingtorquein pro
portiontothedeflection.Themagnitudeofthecontrollingtorquecanbevariedbyad
justingthepositionofthecontrollingweightuponthearm.
Theabovefigureshowsthearrangementsandcorrespondingpositionsofthec
ontrolarmforzerodeflection.Inthezerodeflectedpositionofthepointer,thecontro
lweightstandsverticalduetowhichtheforceduetogravitydirectlyactsonthepointe
randnotorqueexistsonthepointer.Asthedeflectiontakesplacethecontrolarmals
oshiftsfromverticalpositionwithanangletovertical(position)tothatofdeflection.
Butthedisadvantagesofgravitycontrolare
(i) Itgivescrampedscale
(ii) Theinstrumenthastobekeptvertical
Fig.2.7GravityControlTorque
DampingTorque
Intheindicatinginstruments,thepointerwilloscillateaboutitsdeflectedpositi
onbeforecomingtorestduetoinertia.Tobringthemovingparttorestatthequickestp
ossibletimeatthedeflectedposition,aforceisusedwhichiscalleddampingforce.
Itoperateonthemovingsystemtobringitrestatthequickestpossibletime.The instr
umentprovidedwithadampingsystemis knownasdeadbeattypeinstrument.Diff
erentdevicesareusedtoprovidesuitabledamping.
Thevariousmethodsadoptedfordampingare.,
d) Airfriction damping
e) Fluidfrictiondamping
f) Eddycurrentdamping
Thesystem usedvarieswiththetypeofinstrument.Each methodisdiscussedin
thesucceedingparagraphs.
a. Airfrictiondamping
Twomethodsareemployedinairfrictiondamping.Thefirstmethodusesalighta
luminiumpistonattachedtothemovingsystemasshowninfigureThepistonmove
sinsidetheairchamberalongwiththepointer.
Asthepistonslidesinthechamber,theairinsidetheclosedspaceiscompresse
dandthepressuresodevelopedopposesthemotionofthepiston.
Piston
Pointer
Fig.2.8AirFrictionDampingwithPistonairchamber
Thesecondmethodemploysavanemountedonthespindleofthemovingsyste
m.
Itismadeofthinsheetofaluminiumandmovesinaclosedsectorshapedbox.T
hismethodismoreadvantageous.Sincethevanerotatealongwiththespindleinthe
sectorbox.Carehastobetakenatthetimeofmountingtoseethatthevaneisfreeinsi
dethesectorbox.
Fig.2.9AirFrictionDampingwithaluminiumvane
b. Fluidfrictiondamping
Inthismethodofdamping,alightvaneisattachedtothespindlewhichisdipped
inapotofhighviscusdampingoil.Themotionofthemovingsystemisalwaysoppos
edbythefrictionofthedampingoil.Thedampingforcecreatedincreaseswiththein
creaseinvelocityofthevane.Thereexistsnodampingforcewhenthevaneisstatio
nery.
Fig.2.10FluidFrictionDamping
c. EddyCurrentDamping
Inthissystem,acirculardisc(copperoraluminium)discismountedonthespindl
eanditismadetomoveinamagneticfieldalongwiththespindle.Thedisccutsthem
agneticlinesofforceofthemagnetandeddycurrentswillbeinducedinit.Theinduc
ededdycurrentsopposesthemotionandthusadampingforceisdevelopedintheinstr
ument.
Thereisan anothertypeofeddycurrentdampingsystem,whichisusedinperm
anentmagnetmovingcoilinstruments.Thecoiliswoundonthisaluminiumframe,inw
hicheddycurrentsareproducedwhenthecoilmovesinthefieldofthepermanentma
gnet.
Fig2.11EddyCurrentDampingByThinAluminiumFrame
AmmeterandVoltmeter
Ammeterisaninstrumentinwhichtorqueisproducedby thecurrenttobemeas
ured.Ithaslowresistancecoil,sothatitcanbeconnectedinseriestothecircuitwitho
utanyappreciablevoltagedropinit.Whereasavoltmeterhasahigh resistancecoila
nditcarriesa currentwhich isproportionaltovoltageacrossthecircuittobemeasure
dandthetorqueisproducedduetothiscurrent.
Theonlydifferencebetweenthetwo(Ammeterandvoltmeter)isinthemagn
itudeofthecurrentandmethod ofconnectingin
circuit.AmmeterisconnectedinserieswithcircuitandVoltmeterisconnectedinp
arallelwiththecircuit.
Ammeterandvoltmeteraregroupedtogetherbecausethereisnoessentialdiffe
renceintheprinciplebetweenthem.
Fig2.13Ammeter Voltmeter
Ammeterandvoltmetersareclassifiedasfollows.
a) Movingcoilinstrument
(i) Permanentmagnetictype (ii)Electrodynamicordynamictype
b) Movingironinstrument
(i) Attractiontype (ii)Repulsiontype
c) Hotwiretype
d) Inductiontype
(i) Splitphasewinding (ii)Shadedpoletype
e) Electrostatictype
PermanentMagnetTypeMovingCoilInstrument
Thisinstrumentisalsocalledmovingcoilinstrument.Itismoreaccurate,sensiti
veandhasuniformscale.Itismostcommonlyused forDCmeasurements.
Principle
Itworkson theprincipleofelectrodynamiceffectorprincipleofDCmotor.Itstat
esthat,wheneveracurrentcarryingconductorisplacedinamagneticfield,itexper
iencessomemechanical forceandmovesinaparticulardirection.
Construction
ItconsistsofaU-
shapedpermanentmagnet.Thispowerfulmagnetismadeofalnico.Arectanglecoil
ofmanyturnswoundonlightaluminiumframeiskeptinsidethepolepiecesasshown
inthefigure.Thisframeissupportedbydelicatebearingandtowhichalightpointeris
attached.Thealuminiumframeprovidessupportforthecoilandalsoactsasdampin
gdevicebyeddycurrent.
Working
Fig ConstructionofPermanentMagnetMovingCoilinstrument
Fig.2.15AttractiontypeMovingIronInstrument
SectionalView PlanView
Fig.2.16RepulsiontypeMovingIronInstrument
Whentheinstrumentisconnectedinacircuitthecurrentpassedthroughthefix
edcoilandsetsupamagneticfieldwhichmagnetisesthetworodsofsimilarpolarit
y.Thenarepulsiveforcewilldevelopbetweenthemandspindlemoved.
Thenthepointerattachedtothespindlemovesonthescaleshowingthevalue
ofelectrical quantity.Theforceofrepulsionisapproximatelyproportionaltothe squ
areofthecurrentpassingthrough thecoilandhencethescaleiscrowdedatends.
Whateverthedirectionofcurrentinthecoil,thepolarityinducedontheironst
ripsissame.Hencealwaystherewillbearepulsiveforce.Thereforeitcanbeusedf
orACandDCmeasurements.
Applications
TheMovingIronrepulsiontypeinstrumentcanbeusedforACandDCmeas
urements(VoltmeterandAmmeter)
AdvantageandDisadvantagesofMovingIronInstruments
1. TheseinstrumentscanbeusedbothonA.CandD.Csystem.
2. Theseinstrumentsarerobustandfreefrommaintenance
3. Itpossesseshighstartingtorque.
4. Itcanwithstandmomentaryoverloads.
5. Itcangivereasonableaccuracyinthereading.
6. Inthisinstrumentthescaleisnonuniform.
7. Powerconsumptionishighatlowvoltage
8. Thestiffnessofthespringdecreaseswithincreaseintemperature.
9. Hysteresisandstraymagneticfieldcauseserrorsinthereading.
10. Changeinfrequencyofoperationcausesseriouserror.
DifferencesbetweentheMovingCoilandMovingIronInstrum
ents
Movingcoilinstruments MovingIroninstruments
1. ItworksontheprincipleofD 1.Itworksontheprinciplesofma
Cmotor gnetism.
2. Deflectiontorqueisproportionalt 2. Deflectiontorqueisproportional
ocurrent tosquareofcurrentDampin
3. Dampingisprovidedbyeddy.cu 3. gisprovidedbyairdamping
rrent Gravitycontrolledinstruments.Co
4. Springcontrolledinstruments 4. ntrollingtorqueisproportionaltoSi
5. Controllingtorqueisproportional5. n
toangleofdefection 6. Nonuniformscale.
6. Scaleisuniform 7. Robust,reliableaccurate.
7. Delicate,sensitiveanda
ccurate.
8. Costly. 8. Cheap.
9. Lowpowerconsumption 9. highpowerconsumptionthan
movingcoil.
10. ItisusedonlyinD.C. 10.ItisusedbothinA.C.andD.C.
Circuits. Circuits.
11. Canbeusedasvoltmeter,Am-
11.CanbeusedasAmmeter,meter, Galvanometer,ohmmeter
Ish
V Rsh Load
2.17Shunt-extensionofammeter
Letthecurrentforfullscaledeflection(FSD)of Ammeteris=
Im,Amps.
ThemeterresistanceofcoilresistanceRm,
Loadcurrentornewrange-I,Amps
Currentisshuntresistance,IshAmpsShuntre
sistance=Rsh,ohms.
ImRm
Shuntresistance Rsh .ohms
I I m
b. Multiplier(R)
se
AMultiplier isalargeamount ofresistence connectedinserieswith voltmeter.
Itisusedtoextendtherange(measuringcapacityofvoltmeter.
I=I+I
m L IL
Voltmeter
Rm
Load
V
Rse
Fig.2.18Multiplier-
extensionofVoltmeterLetthefullscaledeflection(FSD)voltag
e=V,VoltsThemeterresistence =Rm,ohms,
Loadvoltageornewrange =V,Volts
VV
ThemultiplierresistanceRse .Rm.ohms
V
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting system and the fluorescent
screen are the three major components of a general purpose CRT
Electron Gun
In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a sharp beam
and focused upon the fluorescent screen. The electron beam consists of an indirectly
heated cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode. The
electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded
through the fine hole. The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of electrons in
the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is
controlled.
Deflection Systems:
Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose oscilloscope. The
deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. Let us consider
two parallel vertical deflecting plates P1 and P2. The beam is focused at point O on the screen in
the absence of a deflecting plate voltage. If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with respect
to plate P2, the negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive plate P1, and
these electrons will come to focus at point Y1 on the fluorescent screen.
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the plates. If the polarity of
the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot appears at the point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).
To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting
plates and the spot on the screen horizontally, as shown in Fig. 14-3(b). The electrons will
focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the beam will focus at point X1. Thus, the
horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2 line.
Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner surface of a CRT. Phosphor absorbs
the energy of the incident electrons. The spot of light is produced on the screen where the
electron beam hits. The bombarding electrons striking the screen, release secondary emission
electrons. These electrons are collected or trapped by an aqueous solution of graphite called
“Aquadag” which is connected to the second anode. Collection of the secondary electrons is
necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical equilibrium. The type of phosphor used,
determines the color of the light spot. The brightest available phosphor isotope, P31, produces
yellow–green light with relative luminance of 99.99%.
Figure 14-5(a) shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a
repetitive ramp or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates. The ramp waveform at
the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be deflected horizontally across the
screen. If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave applied
to the vertical display appears on the CRO display screen
TRIANGULAR WAVEFORM:
Similarly the display of the triangular waveform is as shown in Fig
TIME-BASE GENERATORS:
The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the wave form is to
be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity. As the beam
velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage must increase linearly with
time. A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage decreases rapidly
to zero—with the waveform repeatedly produced, as shown in Fig. 14-6—we observe a pattern
which is generally called a saw-tooth waveform. The time taken to return to its initial value is
known as flyback or return time.
1) Measurement of Frequency:
2) Measurement of Phase:
UNIT II
CLASSIFICATION OFRESISTANCES
Forthepurposesofmeasurements,theresistancesareclassifiedintothreemajorgroupsbased
on their numericalrange of values as under:
• Lowresistance (0 to 1 ohm)
• Medium resistance (1 to100 kilo-ohm) and
• Highresistance(>100 kilo-ohm)
1. Lowresistance(0to1ohm):AVMethod,KelvinDoubleBridge,potentiometer,doctoroh
mmeter, etc.
2. Medium resistance(1 to 100 kilo-ohm): AV method, wheatstone’s bridge,
substitution method, etc.
3. Highresistance(>100kilo-ohm):AVmethod,Fallofpotentialmethod,Megger,loss of
charge method, substitution method, bridge method, etc.
heaverage value of all the trails will give the measured valueofresistance.
ThismethodisalsoreefedasthepotentialdropmethodorVAmethod.Here,themeterrangesar
e tobe chosencarefullybasedonthecircuitconditionsandtheresistancevaluetobe obtained. This
methodsuffers from the connectionerrors.
Wheatstone bridge
Thebridgeissaidtobebalancedwhenthegalvanometercurrentiszero.Thisiscalledasthe
position of null readingin thegalvanometer,which is used here as anull detector ofthebridge
under thebalanced conditions.
(iii) Errorsduetotheeffectoftheconnectingwiresandleadresistors:theconnectingleadwireresi
stance will affect the value of theunknown resistance, especiallywhen it is a
lowresistancevalue.Thus,theconnectingleadwireresistanceshavetobeaccountedforwhile
measuringalow resistance.
(iv) Contactresistanceerrors:Thecontactresistanceoftheleadsalsoaffectsthevalueofthemeasu
randresistance,justasinpoint(iii)above.Thisresistancevaluedependsonthecleanliness of
thecontactsurfaces andthe pressure applied to the circuit.
Limitations of WS bridge
TheWSbridgemethodisusedformeasurementofresistancesthatarenumericallyintherange
ofafewohmstoseveralkilo-ohms.Theupperlimitissetbythereductioninsensitivityto
unbalancecausedbythe highresistances, as per theequation (7).
Thus,theWSbridgesensitivityishighwhen(R/S)=1.Itdecreasesastheratio(R/S)becomeseit
herlargerorsmallerthanunityvalue.Thisalsocausesareductioninaccuracywith which
thebridgeisbalanced.
theKelvin’sDoubleBridge
Ofthevariousmethodsusedformeasurementoflowresistances,theKelvin’sDoubleBridge(
KDB)isthemostwidelyusedmethod.Here,thebridgeisdesignedasanimprovedormodifiedWSB
ridgewiththeeffectofcontactandconnectingleadwireresistancesconsidered.Thecircuitarrange
mentforKDBisasshowninfigure3below.Risthelowresistancetobemeasured,Sisthestandardlo
wresistance,ristheverysmalllinkresistancebetweenRandS,calledtheyokeresistance,P,Q,p,qare
thenoninductiveresistances,onesetofwhich,PporQqisvariable.Thebridgeissuppliedwithabatte
ryEandaregulatingresistanceRC.AgalvanometerofinternalresistanceRg,connectedasshown, is
usedas a nulldetector.
Fig.3Kelvin’sDouble Bridge
Balance EquationofKDB
ThebalanceequationofKDBcanbederivedasunder.Usingstar-deltaconversionprinciple,
theKDBcircuit of figure 3 can be simplifiedas shown in figure-4 below.
It is thus observed that the KDB has now become a simplified WS bridge-
ABCD as showninfigure4(c). Itistobe noted that they oke resistancer1 is
ineffective now, since itisinth ezero current branch, in series withth
egalvanometer. Thus, under balance conditions ,wehave,
P (S+r3) =Q (R+r2) (13)
CBridges
Maxwell Bridge
capacitance.
Themaxwellbridge is limited to the measurement of medium-Qcoils(1<Q<10).
Hay Bridge
ScheringBridge:
TheScheringbridge, oneof themost importantbridges, is usedextensivelyfor
themeasurement ofcapacitors.
Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance
Applications :
– Frequencymeasureent
– Notchfilter
– Frequency-determiningelement
AndersonBridge:
In theAndersonBridge the unknown inductanceismeasured in terms
ofaknowncapacitanceandresistance.
this method is capable of precisemeasurements ofinductance over
awiderangeofvaluesfrom a fewmicro-henrys to severalhenrysand is the best
bridge method
SinglePhase(1- )InductionTypeEnergyMeter
Principle
Thesinglephaseinductiontypeenergymeterworksontheprincipleofelectr
omagneticinduction.Arotatingmagneticfieldisdevelopeddue
tointeractionof currentin pressurecoilandcurrentcoilwith
aluminiumdiscplacednearcoils.
ConstructionandWorking
Thefigureshowsessential partsofsinglephaseinductionmeter.Itconsistsofap
ressurecoilmadeofthincopperwireofmanyturns(alsocalledshuntmagnet);acu
rrentcoilmadeofthickcopperwireofoneortwoturns(alsocalledseriesmagnet),a
naluminium discmountedonspindleandplacedbetweentwojeweledbearingsanda
recordingmechanismconsistsofwormandwheelthroughwhichtherotationofspi
ndleisrecordedoncyclometer.
Abrakingmagnetisarrangedonadisctocontrolitsmovementandtostopthemo
vementundernoload.Itproducesadampingtorque/force.Hereeddycurrentsyste
mofdampingisused.Aphasedifferenceof900issetbetweencurrentcoilandpress
urecoilwiththehelpofcoppershadedrings.
Thetwofieldfluxesproducedby the twocoilsacton aluminiumdiscinduceeddy
currentsandhencethediscrotatesduetotheinteractionofthetwofluxesdeveloped.
Thespeedofdiscisproportionaltotheenergyconsumed/powerconsumedby thel
oad.
Thenumberofrevolutionscompletedbythediscforone‘Kwh’iscalledmeter
constant.Usuallyitisprintedonnameplateofmeter.
(4) CreepingError
Sometimesenergymeterrunsslowly,evenat no
loadcondition.Thisphenomenonissaidtobecreeping.Thismayoccurduetoove
rfrictioncompensation,straymagneticfieldormechanicalvibrations.Thiscanbe
preventedbyproperadjustmentoffrictioncompensation.Usuallytwosmallhole
sarecutnearthecircumferenceofthealuminiumdisc.Sometimesasmallpieceofiro
nwireisattachedtotheedgeofthediscwhichwhenattractedbybrakingmagnet.
(5) Temperatureerror
Theerrorduetotemperatureinmeterreadingisveryless.Anincreaseintempe
ratureresultsinincreasedresistancetotheeddy currentpath reducingthedrivingtor
queandbrakingtorque.Italsoincreasetheresistanceoftheshuntcoilcausingsmall
ercurrenttoflow,duetowhichthedrivingtorqueisreduced.Athighertemperaturesth
efluxfrombrakingmagnetisalsoless.The netresultisto
neutralizeeachotherseffectand error causeddueto
temperatureisnotappreciable.
(6) Frequencyeffect
Increaseinfrequencyrisestheimpedanceofthecoilswiththeresultlesscurrent
flowsthroughthem.Thetorqueproducedisalsoproportionatelyreduced.
Hencethemeterhastobeadjustedatfixedfrequencytoobtainminimumerror.
PolyphaseInductionTypeEnergyMeter
Polyphaseenergymetersareobtainedbycombiningtwoormoresinglephase
(1) 3-Phase,3-wireACEnergymeter.
Thethreephasethree
wireenergymeterworksontheprincipleofmeasurementofpowerbytwowattme
termethod.Itconsistsoftwoseparatepressurecoilsandtwocurrentcoils.They prod
uceadrivingforceonacommondisc.Butinsomemodels,theremay betwodiscsattac
hedtoacommonspindlewithoneelementattopandtheotheratbottom.
Threephase,Threewireenergymeter
(2) 3-Phase,4-wireACEnergymeter.
Thismeterhasthree1-
Phaseelementsworkingonthreediscsfixedtothesamespindlepivotedonajewelle
dbottombearingandapintypetopbearing.
Thediscsarearrangedtorevolveintheairgapofthetwoelectromagnetsonesup
pliedwithcurrentcoilsandothertothevoltage(potentialcoil)Thefluxduetothetwoe
lectromagnetsproducesarotatingfield.
DEPT.OF EEE VEMUIT Page 57
Thetorqueandsothespeedofdiscisproportionaltothepower.Ifweconsider
thetimethenthenumberof revelutionsofthediscisproportionaltotheenergy.Foradj
ustmentofpowerfactorandfriction,shadingringsareprovided.Thedampingisprovi
Theprincipleofthismeterissameasofthree wattmetermethodmeasuringpow
er,asshowninthefigure,thepowerisW+W+W
1 2 3
ThreePhase,FourwireEnergymeter.
\
SinglePhaseDynamometerType P.F.meter
Principle
PowerfactormeterisusedtomeasurethePowerFactorofacircuit/load.Dyna
mometertypePowerFactormeterworksontheprincipleofdynamometer.Itstatestha
t,wheneveracurrentcarryingconductorisplacedinamagneticfield,itexperiences
aforceandmovesawayfromthemagneticfield.
Construction
TheconstructionaldetailsofPowerfactormeterisasshown inthefigure.Thisi
nstrumenthasastationarycoilwhichisdividedintotwosectionsFandF 1 2
andtwomovingcoils1 a whicharerigidlyattachedtoeachotherand
C ndC 2
mountedonthesamespindle.Thefixedcoilsarecalledcurrentcoilsandthemoving
coilsarepressurecoilsorvoltagecoils.
Working
inductanceofthemovingcoils.BecauseofthiscurrentIan1 dI 2 flowinthe
movingcoil.Hencethemovingcoilofthemeterdeflects,dependinguponthepower
factorandshowsthereadingwiththehelpofpointer.
ThreePhase(3- )PowerFactormeter
Theprincipleofoperationof3-phaseDynamometertypep.f.meterissimilarto1-
phaseDynamometertypep.f.meter.
Thethreephasepowerfactormeterconsistsofthreefixedcoils(currentcoils)
,whichareplaced1200apartandconnectedinserieswiththeload.Themovingcoils
arearrangedonthecommonspindle.Apointerisattachedtothespindle.Themovi
ngcoilsarealsocalledpressurecoilsorvoltagecoilsandspaced1200apart.Thethr
eeendsareconnectedatonejunctiontoformstarpointandtheotherendsarejoinedt
othelinethroughfixedresistances.
Thebasicconstructionaldetailsareasshowninfigure.
F1
F2
R1 I1
Sup-
ply
Load
R2
ThreePhaseDynamometerTypeP.F. meter
1.Dynamometertypeormovingcoiltypewattmeter
2.Inductiontypewattmeter.
Fig2.19Wattmeter
a) Sectionalview b)SchematicRepresentation
Dynamometertypeinstrument
Construction
TheinstrumentconsistsoftwofixedcoilsandamovablecoilThefixedcoilsar
emadeofafewturnsofthickcopperwireandcalledcurrentcoil.Themovablecoilof
finecopperwireandmadeonthinaluminiumframeandcalledpressurecoil.Itisplac
edonthespindlewhichwaspivotedontwobearings.Ahairspringisattachedtospin
dletoprovidecontrollingtorque.Dampingisprovidedbyeddy currentsinducedin
aluminiumframe.Theotherarrangementsareasshowninfigure.
Working
Whentheinstrumentisconnectedinacircuit,thecurrentpassesthroughthebo
thcoils.Thefluxproducedby currentcoilisproportionaltoloadcurrentandthecurr
entthroughmovingcoilisproportionaltothevoltageacrosstheload.Becauseoft
hesetwotypes
offluxes,differentmagneticfieldsweredeveloped.Hencethemovingcoilexperie
ncesaforceandmoves(deflects).
InductiontypeInstruments
Theinductiontypeofinstrumentshaswideapplicationsaswattmeterandener
gymeterbutcanalsobeusedasammeterandvoltmeter.Thedeflectingtorqueispr
oducedby theeddycurrents inducedinanlightaluminiumorcopperdiscordrumby
revolvingfluxcreatedbyelectromagnets.Ithasawidescalespreadover3000
InductiontypeinstrumentsareusedonlyforA.C.Measurements.
InductionWattmeterPrinciple
ThePrincipleofinductionwattmetersisthe sameasthat
ofinductionammeter.Theoperationofallinductiontypeinstrumentdependsup
ontheproductionoftorqueduetothereactionbetweentheflux( )andtheeddy
currentin ametaldiscduetootherflux.
Constructionandworking
Thewattmeterhastwolaminatedelectromagnets,oneofwhichisexcitedby th
ecurrentinthemain circuitandcalledaseriesmagnet.Theotherisexcitedbycurrent
whichisproportionaltothevoltageofthecircuitandcalledshuntmagnet.
Fig2.21Inductiontypewatt-meter
Athinaluminumdiscissomountedthatitscutsthefluxofbothmagnets.Hence
twoeddycurrentsareproducedinthedisc,andtorqueisproducedinthedisc.Thed
eflectiontorqueisproducedduetotheinteractionoftheseeddycurrentsandinduci
ngflux.Twoorthreecopperringsarefittedonthecentrallimbof theshuntmagneta
DEPT.OF EEE VEMUIT Page 65
ndcanbealsoadjustedtomaketheresultantfluxintheshuntmagnetlagbehindtheap
pliedvoltageby900.
Inductionwattmetershownaboveisspring-