Structuralism

Structuralists have tried to persuade us that the author is 'dead' and, that literary
discourse has no truth function. Roland Barthes argued that writers only have the power tL
mix already existing writings, to reassemble them; writers cannot use writing to express
themselves, but only to draw upon that immense dictionary of language and culture which is
'always already written'(Barthes). Barthes referred to a universal;gra-mmar'of narrative and
to the identification of the general rules regulating narrative discourse at large.
In Degree Zero (1953), having Sartre as influence, Roland Barthes states that writing
is never innocent: that whether consciously or unconsciously, writing is an ideological actl
Literature is a sign system: language, speech, speaking is similar to language, style, writing.
Language is a 'natural order' of meanings unified by tradition; style is the mark of
individuality and writing is the language endowed with a 'social finaiity', the product of
human intention. According to Barthes it is. part of a writer's moral responsibility to be aware
that even realist writing is far from being neutral and that perfect slylistic innocence a
'degree zero' of writing is an unreachable ideal. In 1957, Barthes wrote Mythologies in which
he presents literature as a highly ideological sign system to include all those bourgeois 'myths
of French daily life': wrestling, soap-powder and detergents, toys, steak and chips, etc.
Structuralism has as background Saussure's linguistic theory according to which there
is a fundamental distinction between langue (the language system) and. paroli (the individual
utterance). Langue is the social aspect of language, it is inherited; parole is the individual
realisation of the system in actual instances of language. For Saussure words are not syrnbols
which correspond to referents, but rather are'signs'which are made up of two parts: a r"nark,
either written or spoken, called a 'signifier' and a concept (what is thought when the mark is
made), called a 'signified'. Sign : signifier/signified. The relation between signifier and
signified is arbitrary. Language is a sign-system. The science of such systems is called
'semiotics' or'semiology'. Structuralism is often concerned with systems which do not involve
'signs' as such but which can be treated in the same way as sign-systems. C.S.peirce made the
distinction between three types of sign. the 'iconic' (the sign resembles its referent); the
'indexical'(the sign is associated with its referent - smoke as a sign of fire), the'symbolic'(the
sign has anarbitrary relation to its referent).
Structuralists also discovered the phoneme, a meaningful sound, one that is recognised
perceived
or
by a language user. The 'essential phoneme' is only a mental abstraction; all
occurring sounds are variants of phonemes. Our use of language is a system, a pattern of
paired opposites, binary oppositions. Structuralists try to uncover the 'grammar, 'syntax', or
'phonemic' pattern of particular human systems of meaning whether they be those oi kinship,
garments, narrative discourse, myths, or totems. The principle is applied by Barthgs io
virtually all social practices; he interprets them as sign-systems which operate on the model of
language.

Structuralists agree that hterature has a special relationship with language: it draws
attention to the very nature and specific properties of language. In this respect structuralist
poetics are closely related to Formalism. Syntax is the basic model of narrative rules. pi-opp
(in Morphologl" of the Folk Tale 1928 presenting the structure of the Russian folk tale) stat;d
that the whole corpus of tales is constructed upon the same set of thirty-one functions. A
function is the basic unit of the narrative 'language' and refers to the significant actions which
form a narrative. [The last group of functiirns is. 25. A diffrcult task is proposed to the hero.
26-The task is resolved. 27 The hero is recognised 28. The false hero oruilluin is exposed.
29. The false hero is given a new appearance. 30. The villain is punished. 31. The hero is
married and ascends the throne.]

Claude Levi-Strauss, the structuralist anthropologist, calls the unit of myth'mythemes'.

They are organised in binary oppositions. He is not interested in the narrative sequence, but in
the structural pattern which gives the myth its meaning.

A.J.Greimas aims to arrive at the universal 'grammar' of narrative by applying to it a

semantic analysis of sentence structure. He proposes three pairs of binary oppositions which
include all six roles (actants) he requires: Subject/Object; Sender/Receiver; Uelper/Opponent.
The pairs describe three basic patterns which perhaps recur in all narrative.
1. Desire, search or aim (subject/object.
2. Communication (sender/receiver).
3. Auxiliary support or hindrance (helper/opponent).
Tzvetan Todorov states that the minimal unit of narrative is the 'proposition', which
can be either an 'agent' (person) or a'predicate' (action). Todorov describes two higher lpvels
of organisation: the sequence and the text. A group of propositions forms a sequence. The
basic sequence is made up of five propositions which describe a certain state which is
disturbed and then re-established in altered form. A succession of sequences forms a text. The
sequences may be organised in a variety of ways, by embedding (story within a story,
digression, etc.), by linking ( a string of sequences), or by alternation (interlacing of
sequences), or by a mixture of these.
Metaphor un metonymy
Roman Jakobson made the distinction between horizontal and vertical dimensions of language
related to the distinction between langue and parole. Thus a given sentence may be viewed
either vertically or horizontally:
1. Each element is selected from a set of possible elements and could be substituted for
another in the set.
2. The element s are combined rn a sequence, which constitutes a parole.
Jacobson points out that the two disorders correspond to two figures of speech - metapho.r and

metonymy. 'Contiguity disorder' results in substitution in the vertical dimension as in

metaphor, while 'similarity disorder' results in the production of parts of sequences for the
wholes as in metonymy. Metonymy involves the shift from one element in a sequence to
another, or one element in a context to another: cup of something (meaning its contents); a
fleet of a hundred sails (for ships)
What structurulist critics do
1. They analyse prose narratives relating the text to some larger containing structure,
such as:
a. the conventions of a particular literary genre
b. a network of intertextual connections
c. a projected model of an underlying universal narrative structure
d. a notion of narrative as a complex of recurrent patterns or motifs.
2. They interpret literature in terms of a range of underlying parallels with the
structures of language, as described by modern linguistics. fsee mopheme '-ed' *
verb denoting the past tense; 'mytheme']
3. They apply the concept of systematic patterning and structuring to the whole"field
of western culture and across cultures treatin.g as 'systems of signs' anything from
Ancient Greek myths to brands of soap powder (Barthes).

Vladimir Propp's 31 Functions of

a Fairytale.

1't Sphere: The introductory sequence

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Member of family absents self from home/ hero is introduced

Interdiction announced: (don't do X)
Interdiction violated: (hero does X anyway)

Villain tries to meet hero. (reconnaisance of hero)

Villain receives information about hero
Villain attempts to deceive hero with trickery:
Hero is deceived: (complicity in becoming victim/ helps villain)
2"d Sphere: The Body of the story

*-

Villain

8a

Member of hero's family lacks or desires something (the magical object)

THESE BECOMES O'THE LACK''

Hero discovers the lack

10

Hero decides on counteraction

causes harm, carries away avictim, the hero or the desired magrcal object, which
must be retrieved

- EITHER

OF

11 Hero leaves home

3"d Sphere: The

12

Donor Sequence (magic agent is obtained)

Hero tested and/ or questioned: prepares for magical agent

13 Hero responds to test of donor

14 Hero gets magical agentlobject which will help with quest
15 Location shifts to the place where "the lack" is to be found
16 Hero and villain in direct combat
17 Hero is branded
18 Villain defeated. I
|

Initial lack liquidated. the object of the quest is obtained by the hero (the tale often ends
here, but can continue into the fourth sphere ofaction)
4th Sphere: The

Ilero's return

20 Hero sets out for home

2l Hero is pursuec
22 Rescue of hero from pursuit: (tale sometimes

ends here)

23 Unrecognized, hero arrives home or in other country

24 False hero claims success of true hero
25 Diffrcult task is set
26 Task resolved by true hero
27 True hero recognized
28 False hero exposed
29 Hero given new appearance/ transfiguration
30 Villain is punished
31 Hero marries and ascends throne

In Vladimir Propp's Morphology of the

ChATACTCTS hAVC

Russiun

Folk Tale

NARRATIVE FLINCTIONS

as

weII being REPRESENTATIONS

OF PEOPLE

'

Events in a narrative can be reduced to a TEMPLATE, and all narratives choose from
a repertoire of 31 generalised events and present them in roughly the same order.
(Note: not all of the 31 elements need to appear in any one story) Also, propp,s
theories are very male-oriented. Are all stories about hero/ villain struggles

There are ONLY 8 broad character typei in the thousands of tales he analysed:

1.
2
3.
45.
6.
7

The

villain (struggles against the hero)

The donor (prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object)
The (magical) helper (helps the hero in the quest)
The princess (person the hero marries, often sought for during the narrativd)

Her father
The dispatcher (character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off)
The hero or victim/ seeker hero, reacts to the donor, weds the princess

8. false hero/ anti-hero/ usurper - (takes credit for the hero's actions/ tries to marry the
princess)

fus 5tn'txr:trera$ Stud}' $f Myth

Ftli;ltlupi1aicdrct.:;itlll0]'|ii|sl3.ti]|i].s':i:i-r..gii:it2i]'](,l"i:aIlScm,:stet,2i,i]j:@

Clauc$e L,eor'i*Srx"raffiss;

'"'nx

and Othci Silqc14ljrL illcas

To start lvith--r:,.r. tiii'; g,,.rr has notl-iii:g tc do v*ith rhe inaiiers oi3'our lavorite jeans.
Ciau,ie l-el;-Strauss ir a Fre"rr:h aniirrlpoloi:ist. '1i6'3t urei.-knou,n lor nis development of
structrtrai anthropoloel'. in his i'lo+k firir illenict'i:'*rz,' 5ri,ticty,"e.; ofKinrhi;:. Levi-Strauss argued
that kinshin l'elatioirs--nhich ,:-r'e l'ur:da.,rientei asieci5 i,t tir.i,r' clrltuie's rtrganization--represent a
specifii: kinci c: stiucliiri: )irri :night r.hlr:1,- oi lteneaiogical char.:s, vuitil their symbols for father
and niothels. :listi'rs anr-i Lrroiirer3" JS ar1 rirr;rirp!c c'' kinship slr'sti)t.rlS rerrresented as structures.
Levi-Str":r,uss i.c alsl ,ti"icl'"rr fur lii.r siiucllr:^e1 ana.lvscs of m;,1irol:g1. in books like The Raw and
the {.-ot;ktti ,r'1:i:"r lre e,rpiaiils !-iiir,1: t.i.qrl st."Lrr.:iut"::s r-.'f rlltirs provide basic structures of
undefsla'i,rili3 "riliii"lj-Lii ftlairt,i,r. ', i-ii:!:e i"f :ni:{,rlS -.l,,lrilr ,:1S .rii:,it)' ie,ii-i Of i;ppOSiteS, aS the title Of
his booit irnplies. lriiai. is ''fr,li" i,.; aippc:-ie,i..ii ,r,,i.ti.ir i: '';ook-e;." a::d lhe "i:arr,," is associated with
nature n'hile in,: "cuoked' js irssr-)ij:riei u'itr"r i,-,hriit. iirese opc,tsitions fbrm the basic structure
for all ideas arri.l conc-pts ,ii il criil.i-rrr:.
In "'trlte SirLtcj.ur"ai Stud', cl l'l'rih." I e',,r-:!,iraiisi; ir lnieresred in explaining lvhy myths from
differerrt cilltu;'es lir:n all r.;vrf rhi v,,rild ser;nr sr,- srn.lla"'. (iiver:hai rnl4hs couid contain
anything--thilt, :t'uti',. fr<rlirrci i:;'y ir.ri*s of acc:,:racr," rt[' lioi:abiJitv--'t',tr)' is there an astounding

lnall\

sitrrilarilr,'Sinoti:r.,\,4
-f{e

rt:r'1hg li'on'i sit iilat.i\'u'iLi?!";':,i.-pi:r,ft.itLi cultures?

ansi,ners ih:s ci"les;tirtt b,,, l,l,oiii;",iJ:ri lire s{q-rct1.rie or m'!.i-hs. ra{he!'than at their content.
While the conti::rit. lire specillc rilaraciers anci ei'rnis of in.,'1iis ray diiTer n'idely, Levi-Strauss
argues il-ai lr; ':j r'ilrri .,il':i;,''; lr:,t,i;:"cl oi-r .it.:'il ';;i'lrc itiii: sainr:nr:s:t.
'i'o ::rai;e ll:is rrrgnner':t rb,:L,t the l;:rii:tille i:,f'rrivih. l,evl-Slrauss insists that myth is
languuge. iret:,r:,r: :'v',ri{f r13c to be tolcl iii orrlcr tl *xrst. lt is alsl a lai:rguage, with the same
structil;'es iiriil jaiisriiil'e rie";i:,"ii,cj l;eli.'nginr i(iar!v i;ing;age.
Mi'i,t gs l;;11gli',j,gr--. r:or',si:ils l1'ho'.-'r "larrriire" and "plroi:." boih the s;vncfrronic, ahistorical
structu:'e alc{ tit:r -..!:,:, ific tiil-il. lriit;-.;r.. cll::,t1,: .,1 i;iril rh,,; !r-"r-:,,:-: :r':'-.'i-,--vi".Silailss adCs a new element
to Saj-usLir':'s lir,.t..ai.!(: ppij 1,r;i1"1:1:ir. ,-,,:.iiltljlr:: -rlli it'ti-: iitn!..Ltr: l:lolry.s to i,virat l-re Calls "reVerSible
tilne." elril i-':.i li'; iir ";'ian-;\-,i.:t :,,b1;: ;ii'i;;t.'' iic 'r;::il:i-l:t i_;;4.:_ "fit..-olli. ;lS * Speoific instance or
examfriii ,.]!' r:'\'iri i, {::3il (.;llr. irl.r:]- i;1 iil::ii;'iii;'ri :,', ftil:li iS llnir.iiieCirr.li-itl--'rr3l.! Can't tUfn the CIOCk
bacli: itr-rgit;..ll-i rt;tri:,:lrtl"ilittt'., s,itf:i . ls:ril-iiplr'ii':i sll;rcrrt:'c iiseii. can exist in the past,
present" li i'itt.rt;.':'llnli ",r :j ,i'r s,l;:tr.:ii,l,'r.ii:aili: '-!'tr- ad.ir:l:fi'lii1.; ii,ftit'l ',,'gt"be,i tne direct obiect
adf,ei:lrrailr.' :! ,,1::ir,-.rui i.-.i.-r,,r: ii....,11.!;*al,i il'rrri-l ,t:ttl,:rgi ,i.,C,'r:f:,'iridltatime.andittakgs
time 1.rt l"c,ti-i 1.,i \\i1.r'i.lirt si'n1.tt:i:r"r--ii:11'! i,i')ir-ri:l'ei';ti':e tinlc, ir 1''-i; <-1on'i' reaql ihe sentence, but
rathet'1l'ri:li rl i.:r:; i:cir, l x,i.' '.1'r , ,r: ,! lrrf; tl . rf '::; i:ts i;r ir singie rnoment, every rnoment-yesierdti';1.:i i,t'1t1]l iir.il;ii :;-.1 r.i'!l i! ioilrJ!'i'{)!,'.'- i-hiti': i'1";;'5].''lc ti;rte.
A rniih ii,t,l{,i'ar1r:it ,.i, f t', I-,:i.:au:,s. ii b;,iir i'i:;iiti'icliir.' sri,.ecitli:--:t's almost always set in
SOlTif l-,;lii itlllt:r ,lt11 ,'-:.::-. 1.j ;r-,,t.ii.'i;,:;'tl ri-ii-.:lili.-i-' ,l{rrl r;:, ,.ra,,'j' i:; Iili:elct,:,. As histc)fy, myth is
parole ; ::i ' ;i',tJi;.r',:,, 'i"i ii,r:. 1,i'
-:;', J-, ,ll'-,.'-, ,l\l,,'-. Cril :r
i-.i;1./i ':'.r1':ili"ij- 'li;t,:r. ,:,.:ii
i,.l ii'r';-i. ;li i:.!iiitiol'.: to langue and parole,
WhiCl"r :lS,i i::l',.'l't:a :.',::L:'i ""it ',; I i:'lili.iitr:,: .' i'i 3\.','il i,r-r --i :.-r- jritil. i:t Si-lbSL-l f litngUage {like Othef
litera;"1,pil'r.'i..:ii.,'l:,''.,,i.liiii,'.]:if:i'l-]i]i.,i.-.;11-,.:i5i'-'':|']d:1'i-i].:.
peter Ba.l , .:.1 ,.;1. _i1 ,1 ,:.ii. ,::. .1..r,; lit i, ll i- t ; ) i r j:],.r,tjit.::,i:i .-t13isi.y:). Iie exll:fins tlfat leVel in
ternts itf ij:;: i,i-i:'i :l'i;; ;",,ii'l ';,::;r" lh:.1,r- :1.;ir. r :t,:,;:t iii" .j:;,::at.iie it :,t_ir-,.rives any and ail
translaiiit:i't i,il.' ,):l!"/ i, ji;:r1'','-l',,ci: ;';,r'l :.',.: t"::prl.:,i*;i. i--;1ai'apirt'alsed. l.evi-strauss says that
myth ;:-;n i;6;"iil;1;i1l;:1;ii. ;.a,',';.,: ,i,r 1,. ,ll
ir..:rjr:i['d. :r.r'j i]tit,J:]i'is* inanipulated--without
losing ii:; l;,i:-.,: :rr':, '..:.i\r' r'.: !l:;.;ii.. :1r: ali,,j:,il
srr: rir,:; ir-i:t'i" Juil r,r'r, ;lighi c:rll that third aspect
1.i

"maiii:i.r;rii:

-.'

l i:,: it.r:.-

i::i:..

'..,1,),

i):';i.:r

'..

r,-

Ji1!.:

r".

,r

1,

somi'th.:t;.: rl';

Nivth

qr:a:'t:'.,

::.,

'tr''i..-

: ,i',
lit; r,':iii:,.1e ?a Stlilcture, it'S aCtually
rj ll':j..-!, .:;': ,t h:uhei. or ntore COmpiex leVel.

i.

1i'.;

r-r

,adr; aii i.,:iits i,iar- at"i; ::r;.ti i.c,y.eii:er iL{:oicri:.ig

,1. i'j:lc:l;

ri!iii' ,-r'i'- i-:iailt;i::.',.,,il1: llici, i,ihir,:.

tl';erterir: ruies.
'ias*:d c,r trinarl,pairs or opposites,

i,r'll;1: i,.'r;1,, -il-: ti ,: lri: is ),'iii{: 31.: i,t,-jti-, j'i.

fvt-14.f1 itiil .'i":i ilonr l::,'t1:i ig,, las:-iailrr:,irre: de:ccllidj ir'i bec;iLrser lhe basic units of myth are
not phonerr:i'-c iii.l';. :;rrt;ilk:,.r :"ii ,:f tpt,:.-i: t.::.r di, tillli;isl-.':s o,,:e Litteranre from another, like a
letter). troti.'|3;';-;il5 (tlie :;n-i,ii.:iit r:trit of r-n:!alivelt'stztbie n:eai,.ing tl:at can't be sLrbdivided, like a
non-cornpniin'-l ',i riC). li ri,i:i.t'trr1 n{ic i.tlte ,r',:a;ring ;xplessed irrr a mor}rirerne), or even signifiers
and signi{iciis. i' :.i itll"rt:r 1,.,.,:: t'i::i i.evi-Silau::, r:a.ils ''lttr'lhenteS," Iiis process of analysis differs
frotn Sau..:,;;-t',1'li lrr:cartr: lrrr-r:r:'ii|ii \\'as'n'e|esla.i in sturiying the relations between signs (or
SignifielS) ': ijle 3:.':.;e l,-irc ui'ij:i;:gi.l2gcl. '0"il0iiraS 1.*.,,i-S:rar;S:i COil{-JetliraiCS On SetS Of felatiOnS,
ratheriilat ilr-l;, ,,it,;,1 rti:ri j:irlr".*{lr i.l,ir,rt hE',:::l;r.; "ir;.lr."dies rtf ':lations."
I"i;s e.:ii,i:i;. iiri'fi', is i:,, ,l lit;g,{:al s;c.:re. i:on!ilting,:f'llotii treble and bass clefs. You can
read tirr:'i:r.tcif, :li:,:l:ii'l',,r:e1l'. :ji ti-,ri1;"i;1 p;,;1; i:,'' p.ig*. anrj ",;fit; can read it synchronically,
lookirrg ai ii-rc fi'rlic::; in ii.r* tri::,ri;: clcl ai'i1 iilrjil''relatir:n to jhi;- basa cisf. J-ile ccnnection between
the trebie ai-,{i ir.s:r clei':tr.lr,:,,--lire ";iali.r-rr..nj'' i}i'{,\aii.i(ieii--i:: -rx.,hal L.er'i-St;:auss calls a "bundle of
relaiion--

Basiralli'. r.evi-str.,'aL;s, ;ire"rir'rl is lnls l'ai.,*:i r-*vth. i;ledr;ce it tc its smallest component
pafis--its ";:'t.n,,it'lnre-q." ti,a.':,.t itivtll'-'ine is Lisi,a;i'o'ilire eveilt a:t irc,sition !n the story, the narrative,
of the nivlir!. 'i iirtr: lar,' iir:rqe *i:,rtliernes Di.l'r, so tlll ii-,e-.' ctrii Lre read boih diachronically and
synchronici,,i:.. ijti, sl.{-;r'r,. {.rf llai'ia:!v';. cf {re i:it,ri exi:;1s on rl.ie diachronic (1eit-to-right) axis, in
non-te""'ei':lii;li: :t:1q:: the i,in,i.ii:l'-*;f- Lile fi.ili1: itl:ttr' ,-]i!'il,J:r)/nci^rroiliC {up-and-dovln) axis, in
reversir:,1e tir''-ri,.
trn

bundles

the

hii c:.i.,i'r;:,lt oi i:r,-. 1:r, .:,,.:i li-1,": {-.i-,,,rlrr:t,,; t:trah --i.:, \1ra:," h; beStnS ac see, in the synchronic
oi .i ji.,!:rg,...tei.,:ii,: ;:ti.a:"1:; .ig ,.ir:,;]1q,r.1..u,hicj-; r.vr: tr-righi call "themeS." One Such theme

iij:l

[r:-;i,,,,;]i-: f.i{!.tit .l

.-,,tle ;i'} i'r'tl,ij;}i,l-.:u,'i,:lr^t;lS-c ti.ei1 tal<eS that theme and fUnS

'.tI)1"iii-it..
.-li';i te,l,,;,:r.r
r-)..rti.:isioi,
ri's ;.i'i
t;1-r',,-i,,'.r lfi;: idei oi'ci;irhonic {iiterally. from the
tlndergrr,-,i:r:., :'.;i1:.. i;ui i;r,::' ,rt(-';)i iii:! 'ti; r.r;:,,;i ilr.rli-; slrne';h ni: r:!:;e,i ancl autocltthonic (meaning

iS

with ii. s*;rirr ,i

indigen*r;: iii :iirriv.i' I:iri.. rrrri. i',',1:' i6ii-r1;.;:t.tedi ll'ezrfit)n. I-li: lireli sei:s that tension--or
structtrriii i i;li;-l'. ,.ini,ri;:,i[;t,ir'.-;:ir.i lic;.itlnl iil ;t.i,..iitri froni *i-hc;'i:uiiLtres.'fhis. to i-evi-Strauss, is the
signiiic:irre:t ii,'.!;,'r tit'.'1il ii ]'':ts,,:tii,!r ce;i:il, :;iliiciLlral reli.iiolr:;" iii tl.ie -f-orri-l of binary oppositions.
that are i"rtii'r',I :,.i i.;,.,i;cifir'; it' nl, c:-l;i ; ir':s
T'itis .,i ,,,.: ,t.l'iii:r'1 ir; g-,;,,1 ll'ii:'r,.fii"..i.s:,' ::.i::l'r'::;t:j. 'i,'e nrighr: c()me up w,ith different
interplc|:,l1'i.';..,.:'l..,..,,j.i]--1,til';'.::;ni];l:|ltl;}i-1].jlii:|l,:la1it,l.is'
onecCr].il..l-'..i.''.,:l!.,:..:l:li'.";-.l'.i'.;'t1i.l;]:j:|
ph;rsic;! it; :.1' :r,iil :ijsl,tjij; .'.'"'i,uj:,, :r'', i:'iiir'il.i:;i,:)rj ;tb,,,r.., {jil:ess fbr.;urviv;el versus needing
charitr iiF,ri i;i':l.j,15;i;ti. ::,itai i,j:t i":i,.ij tjiri r.*,1:r,i,;: 11r,:lv.';ct: s:lll.rh,iess and altruism) as the
funda l ir.;:rte l't'ltl. i--1 [ |t i:iie \' :' ti s nic ii li,i ii..
A:.tti i"',,':',:'il ',,, l:,il:'{; \'ar: t .il'l -{iirii"r 'itl !:'...' i'i.rii' li.i:: :lt't-:r:t;:i':..riti ffa.(i;t}g f,f igift aCtUaily apply tO
literal'r, ii"ri;:11'rii' ii.;rlr ar; t r' :i,-,:''"i" ii.,)lr;i: i''i::'i,e ril;tC t.:c ti.t',illlettte:,. 1he constituent unils, of a
myih Lii'(1 ,,i'1.' ',fl'r |::irJ i1.l;';-: ,.i,.1',.;; i--\,i ,,r.''1,.i: ,:lillr't,, r.i.t, aeti in:-efl",t'et tlfem in an almOSt
i

r !.1

:,,

irifnite'lii;-'.l.'..,;i.l';1:'1'i.;l.'{..,l1i...li'i;l;t-l;.:.'::"',I!;}::.ijl9lt,eaili;..-'h:]|,!l[;l]
or u;riis. iilti ;r ," ',.',i- lt': il.j,: r-,;-r.i t',il;ti-,r ri,r,i' i';l;i ii:rt :)f:son icr pei:son. riepending on how
'..
lOU fe;r"i :r : ii: " ' ' ;:ii 1 1i,i;.,,r ,i;:: ii!t,'t.1 , t l,i riii'l.iiji.iit'i:li-",if tiia),ilC iS,t'i SO "Objee tiVe" and
''Scientj.1-i'l.':.1l.',i'.l,,.:]!-'..,|.1-.;]i1i.]'l',.:1il:]i]i.11is,ji:'':'j':l]ji:,f'.,j.ie;-t'

Salis:ir'

.. . I .,

A.'te;',t"t,'r:tiriralii:; .,.-.,.,.;riir,l.,i t.ii-, j ,:r:-.:.r',i r,.i:L,';i:<.lbc.i:tpertbctinghissystem

tO nfiike ii 1,,:ir,',.i , ii:) irii ",i.;.'.,..r,.ti ..-q,- i,,i.:r..:l:'l il,?r',:. tll ti,',.,,.ri'11 iO0 iniiCh abOUt this SeCtiOn

(pp.8i5i.-i].j:i.:!i-;,-..i1;..;.1;iil:..:i:.lit]l:,,tcr.ji..:.,l]:.i.::.l::..]illillli..r::j.i'.r:jj,l.,iit
theyarcii}']!,].r.i]i]ij:i;g1^:;:i1.l;l;.-..-'llljs,i-ii:,i:l|;:.l.,ll''t:;l.ll,l::l'.,-.i,t;
'i
variatjclls ,tr lr ,=-'' rjr. lrj'r i';. ,1:j.'. i',; 1131i'';;r 1: l:el.:r;i9. ;: ",i'cr"i ir-i rjr"f)\'il tir,it all variants really do
have'rlfc' :'.ri:lJ:l i !r'tr'i,"'.',;'.':i ". i. 'r:,,:1.. 1,.t: t.'i'r 1'"ir,rir,iS'tnt,,i-:.'L i:oiift iiiilt:fl-vth iS a language,'

',rti-i::

i{'r";i:l.i','i',tit) Oit (,rf A [;ifticliiAf rfr),'th. To prOve hiS pOint,

;";;,; i:,'.,,i1: tili'q :i:,;S tj:e Sal::e illethgds aS hiS analySiS
lr
{,l,e,iiu:;,t
t1l:"r: itl h \i :-:::i!'rtt:r:q:i l-',-;.:i,j,-. l.n- ih \},'lli't:r :,,:lilar s'Lruci.rtre.
of the
I-iC Cill:i:li,,i:li rr'3+,l-;i.' .,r,.'rli.i;l,il il';::":t',:j,) 1r'r1:1 ail,:,',':li:j bfingS Ofdef OUt Of ChaOS, aS it
prclvitJe:. i] :t,rj!;r i t{.r .a{;{--[i tl rr-'; ,., i1],'it,tr'::r:i r,'at'iati{ttts lln 't. basi,: i:r.v1.h stiuct}-lre" and it "enables
he gOe,. ifir-tl

.r

'',.r-ir

l,r:;':-i1jr',

;,11:r1, 1,;;'1

1i: ;,

uStoi1r..:rcti.,,;,,41",...'i''ir;i'.ir..]i.ii',ll,:..,1ilg.1,11'9.':i,i'.r..ilil.'i:a:rai.-ll.....l'--.trf
importani t.) i.i:f i-qti3!";r,:; l.ri:i.::t .riir 1ti '.-;, 1;:1: 11. r-it]. -a l.jtr' sl.tia:.,,' cl'triirlh iogical and "scientific" in
all itS aSpef t!. afr. 1-',-,. r-'-; i:11-; f.i, 1',31r i,!l: lfi,'.,;:,!1,!,;";1i,r15;1ili-,-ti!-;.:fti,vr: l'hC1Of-i.
On i,rrrt:es. tii!'-i.rl0 i.:.',;-j,ii,'ii.lili i,iiic; :l ,iiil,:..tr-ifai r;;Lri!t' u r:f'el \la,tive American myth and
COmpareS l! io rili: :i1"..,ri'i).''i.:;,'-i*icl1,:. 1'rll; ir'i ,,:ili *atri io ,hit-;,.- OlOther rlythS" Cr StOrieS, WhiCh

would

1,.rtrci

l_31,

iiri:i-r,i:lr'.'S

.ri

' i

l-dir.;';1.j, j',;.i! ;1,!,,-r

:,r.'i.it-lr,it

:,11r.-,i; f.rlC

lj

i)it

,rti'tLri!:ii:3..,

..:j:.i

,iii , lr'rl-:.

;trL,th 5irrratufes he'S jUSt affalyZed

aS

algebfa,f .i.,':,-,ii;e,: i':irt;'i ,', r:-r:, i{'",iitii, 'l:l:,,. i:,:i r.hi,, nair'--:1'::, fOi iixpofiant tO the nfain idea.
Levi-Sil';,,.Llrri )r- i'1 :i'i.t ,t', ,,t it:,::,; irrr:11- :i,:,:;tii,.,rr'li1iil.t t:ti;-:re c,f his i:retliod: if you can express
it in p,lrei. t:tt'll.lilt;r.1 ici;l ti'if:,," ii il,-tsi rrli: t;r..i-t:1.:ir:;l ;.ii;ivtrs:,i. anii obiective,
ilO prrl ,,1','i'-!li:{ill- ,i:;'.r'i.'.:'i'" :r; hi:' t:r';tr flir:ll il{)11'lrlleiir.q t-r:.l 9. 82 lb. i{e SayS that fepetitiOn"
in mliLh aS :l: '-ri'ai iitr-'r':rti.;". :: :-J:..,.:,,-[:''. ;,-. t;i r:,:tl ;.itf. s-:r'ti::ii. i{] ,.f ii',e m}til. Because of this need
for repetititj-i t,te ilt.1h i: "i!::ir:l ' :ir.:a::rrr:: ri icli-c ;is ,rlillr' i:i lavel ailer'laver (see the diagram
!ct.i. (:\'i:ii l-rt16;gii tire1.' repeat key elements in
rrrilv,i isc." n"leanin{ thr-- stoi',v it tells unfolds as
a:, ;i. :r io.d' Le ';l-Stiauss points out that this
i.i',, ,..,'iril.i: f :)e!n'i :.'.t'{iv/, is Ciscontinuous. This
,ir)ij'i iJi'i.--i. ;hri!e:'. aitci of the langue-parole
trr,fi,- ti:iri ,, h,xh g:'(.).',!'s and remains Static, to
i'i, ir rn,. t r rCl
',i,
i -l; i.i.,i. ',,,', ', i
e i, 1.,.i ' ...i:,j,1... i_.,- jtrgi;al ntodel capable of
,.;
OVCftlii,rtir', ri.'
rl::.thi l.-r1i:;;,t: r',i' ;tiilr*if ing in two precisely
,,
jri.i:i ,-r;;ilr:ii" r-;i :iii;i:i!irneSS and altfUiSm. The
OppOS,t: iil i': .r:, .:,,:;1 ""'. impOft;rnl. .i: ii-,:', tl, l-ei,'i.lrli',1 !,r:l:, ;i:t 1ji:Li t-'i,,i;i, i.i .iri-i iriii ll:irS:j,;:it:'ff:]'-ii;tiOnS. beCa.USe eVefy,
cultur* oi;liiizlr i;,-i;..,t,,'1,:.ijr,:; .,-l;r, il;itr:t:, .'li -;( ;.1'Lc -1.'li! {r' {i:ifitti, 1.1r'ic thi:i tliese corrtradictions
haVe lt lli 1,.r, t,i:.1i..-, l.-,rr,1;r , tt,i.l ::::;,, 1ri: ,1"r;, s i.\rrrr !l.ritii, 10 le exnlairrable through logic
:,';

anc! "sCtttlj::r:

'iiii, lt.',..r',. ',1 :' ,..i1' i.-:'qj,r-ii-rt. q,1 :'j i;i.1. ,:ii Ii ';: ''i ,itiC' ri,:lrtn ,S.iirSt as rigrrrOus and
"logic:ti' i..: t-',.. .,""',,.:''':,''iiji!t.'.:. .i':, r'..-,t .,,.:- t:..'.::: ri :i i '.' .l'.t"t', ri'Jiitiief Or more evolved tl'ian
mlth. i.;; 1^11i!;'" iir; i tii: i. r: .ri:J-5 ;;r':., 1',,1r'.i::ii-,r, r-,i, ;,.ir,:i ir,-.:;;,iiliili!i ih; ir/orld shafe the Same
basic',:.t;lt;r.r ii'ii:.;tf i i'^;r:it i , ';'ti.itt ,r-r ijt ,,. .. ..
,4tI{l ,'i:i. .-ri.,l r1li1,i:. i',1;i;i,. : l,i"r '. tr; ,' ,;1'
i.i.i:,,,rr,"r,'i,', 'ri.i.(iing oui that his own
''. .,ii,
explait.li,;i:'l- fi' :',1. ",- :,
:, ,',:i
r:; lili; il I 'it,::rrr.,;i of myth analysiS is
;tl:-'ri,
,-t,i.ir:ri i-,,'ti',,.r,i:.
r ri;. : :i t i:,;r.rii!i iti{ll,ive: r'e ading, and we'll
scientritc .t:::; ii-::'r' ii r{-; itt-l-i. "
get to tllf".i , ,r,, i i ir-fi,.l l.
i:,1

.'\'
Irnglisi.

'il

r.r

'r"r0ir i: r;r'. \'i.,l, r

i,

i''.1.r

r. ':

on'n sii.:.
20 lU

iir''ri.'

i,r'i ii', ,'

FoI cor: ] l.it:,;: -, .,
Retu|n t,, i-r.i,:,;r

.1

i-,

iir,,r

..,:.,t,i:- .l
-l

ll

1:,

I'

i,i

r.1

j,

r..

l..l:trt';s" A.ssociate Pl'ofessor of

1r. .r..t,,lint< this nagc

t() )our
,;;i1r,r,.'ortc ,oirrces. see The E,nglish