GRID INTERCONNECTION OF RENEWABLE

ENERGY SOURCES AT THE DISTRIBUTION LEVEL

WITH POWER-QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FEATURES
ABSTRACT
Renewable energy resources (RES) are being increasingly connected in distribution systems
utilizing power electronic converters. This paper presents a novel control strategy for achieving
maximum benefits from these grid-interfacing inverters when installed in 3-phase 4-wire
distribution systems. The inverter is controlled to perform as a multi-function device by
incorporating active power filter functionality. The inverter can thus be utilized as: 1) power
converter to inject power generated from RES to the grid, and 2) shunt APF to compensate
current unbalance, load current harmonics, load reactive power demand and load neutral current.
All of these functions may be accomplished either individually or simultaneously. With such a
control, the combination of grid-interfacing inverter and the 3-phase 4-wire linear/non-linear
unbalanced load at point of common coupling appears as balanced linear load to the grid. This
new control concept is demonstrated with extensive MATLAB/Simulink simulation studies and
validated through digital signal processor-based laboratory experimental results.

INTRODUCTION
ELECTRIC utilities and end users of electric power are becoming increasingly concerned about
meeting the growing energy demand. Seventy five percent of total global energy demand is
supplied by the burning of fossil fuels. But increasing air pollution, global warming concerns,
diminishing fossil fuels and their increasing cost have made it necessary to look towards
renewable sources as a future energy solution. Since the past decade, there has been an enormous
interest in many countries on renewable energy for power generation. The market liberalization
and governments incentives have further accelerated the renewable energy sector growth.
Renewable energy source (RES) integrated at distribution level is termed as distributed
generation (DG). The utility is concerned due to the high penetration level of intermittent RES in
distribution systems as it may pose a threat to network in terms of stability, voltage regulation
and power-quality (PQ) issues. Therefore, the DG systems are required to comply with strict
technical and regulatory frameworks to ensure safe, reliable and efficient operation of overall
network.
With the advancement in power electronics and digital control technology, the DG
systems can now be actively controlled to enhance the system operation with improved PQ at
PCC. However, the extensive use of power electronics based equipment and non-linear loads at
PCC generate harmonic currents, which may deteriorate the quality of power.
Generally, current controlled voltage source inverters are used to interface the
intermittent RES in distributed system. Recently, a few control strategies for grid connected
inverters incorporating PQ solution have been proposed. In an inverter operates as active
inductor at a certain frequency to absorb the harmonic current. But the exact calculation of
network inductance in real-time is difficult and may deteriorate the control performance. A
similar approach in which a shunt active filter acts as active conductance to damp out the
harmonics in distribution network is proposed. A control strategy for renewable interfacing
inverter based on theory is proposed. In this strategy both load and inverter current sensing is
required to compensate the load current harmonics.
The non-linear load current harmonics may result in voltage harmonics and can create a
serious PQ problem in the power system network. Active power filters (APF) are extensively
used to compensate the load current harmonics and load unbalance at distribution level. This
results in an additional hardware cost. However, in this paper authors have incorporated the

features of APF in the, conventional inverter interfacing renewable with the grid, without any
additional hardware cost. Here, the main idea is the maximum utilization of inverter rating which
is most of the time underutilized due to intermittent nature of RES. It is shown in this paper that
the grid-interfacing inverter can effectively be utilized to perform following important functions:
1) transfer of active power harvested from the renewable resources (wind, solar, etc.); 2) load
reactive power demand support; 3) current harmonics compensation at PCC; and 4) current
unbalance and neutral current compensation in case of 3-phase 4-wire system. Moreover, with
adequate control of grid-interfacing inverter, all the four objectives can be accomplished either
individually or simultaneously. The PQ constraints at the PCC can therefore be strictly
maintained within the utility standards without additional hardware cost.

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded
generation,

decentralized

generation,

decentralized

energy

or

distributed

energy

enerates electricity from many small energy sources. Currently, industrial countries generate
most of their electricity in large centralized facilities, such as fossil fuel (coal, gas
powered) nuclear or hydropower plants. These plants have excellent economies of scale, but
usually transmit electricity long distances and negatively affect the environment.
Most plants are built this way due to a number of economic, health & safety, logistical,
environmental, geographical and geological factors. For example, coal power plants are built
away from cities to prevent their heavy air pollution from affecting the populace. In addition,
such

plants

are

often

built

near collieries to

minimize

the

cost

of

transporting

coal. Hydroelectric plants are by their nature limited to operating at sites with sufficient water
flow. Most power plants are often considered to be too far away for their waste heat to be used
for heating buildings.
Low pollution is a crucial advantage of combined cycle plants that burn natural gas. The
low pollution permits the plants to be near enough to a city to be used for district heating and
cooling. Distributed generation is another approach. It reduces the amount of energy lost in
transmitting electricity because the electricity is generated very near where it is used, perhaps
even in the same building. This also reduces the size and number of power lines that must be
constructed. Typical distributed power sources in a Feed-in Tariff (FIT) scheme have low
maintenance, low pollution and high efficiencies. In the past, these traits required dedicated
operating engineers and large complex plants to reduce pollution. However, modern embedded
systems can provide these traits with automated operation and renewable, such as sunlight, wind
and geothermal. This reduces the size of power plant that can show a profit.
Distributed energy resource
Distributed energy resource (DER) systems are small-scale power generation
technologies (typically in the range of 3 kW to 10,000 kW) used to provide an alternative to or

an enhancement of the traditional electric power system. The usual problems with distributed
generators are their high costs.
One popular source is solar panels on the roofs of buildings. The production cost is $0.99
to 2.00/W (2007) plus installation and supporting equipment unless the installation is Do it
yourself (DIY) bringing the cost to $6.50 to 7.50 (2007).
This is comparable to coal power plant costs of $0.582 to 0.906/W (1979), adjusting for
inflation. Nuclear power is higher at $2.2 to $6.00/W (2007). [4] Some solar cells ("thin-film"
type) also have waste disposal issues; since "thin-film" type solar cells often contain heavy-metal
electronic wastes, such as Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Copper indium gallium
selenide (CuInGaSe), and need to be recycled. As opposed to silicon semi-conductor type solar
cells which is made from quartz. The plus side is that unlike coal and nuclear, there are no fuel
costs, pollution, mining safety or operating safety issues. Solar also has a low duty cycle,
producing peak power at local noon each day. Average duty cycle is typically 20%.
Another source is small wind turbines. These have low maintenance, and low pollution.
Construction costs are higher ($0.80/W, 2007) per watt than large power plants, except in very
windy areas. Wind towers and generators have substantial insurable liabilities caused by high
winds, but good operating safety. In some areas of the US there may also be Property Tax costs
involved with wind turbines that are not offset by incentives or accelerated depreciation. Wind
also tends to be complementary to solar; on days there is no sun there tends to be wind and vice
versa. Many distributed generation sites combine wind power and solar power such as Slippery
Rock University, which can be monitored online.
Distributed cogeneration sources use natural gas-fired micro turbines or reciprocating
engines to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or water heating, or to drive
an absorptive
chiller [6] for air-conditioning.
The
clean
fuel
has
only
low
pollution. Designs currently have uneven reliability, with some makes having excellent
maintenance costs, and others being unacceptable. Co generators are also more expensive per
watt than central generators. They find favor because most buildings already burn fuels, and the
cogeneration can extract more value from the fuel.
Some larger installations utilize combined cycle generation. Usually this consists of a gas
turbine whose exhaust boils water for a steam turbine in a Rankine cycle. The condenser of the
steam cycle provides the heat for space heating or an absorptive chiller. Combined cycle plants
with cogeneration have the highest known thermal efficiencies, often exceeding 85%.

In countries with high pressure gas distribution, small turbines can be used to bring the gas
pressure to domestic levels whilst extracting useful energy. If the UK were to implement this
countrywide an additional 2-4 GWe would become available.
(Note that the energy is already being generated elsewhere to provide the high initial gas
pressure - this method simply distributes the energy via a different route.) Future generations of
electric vehicles will have the ability to deliver power from the battery into the grid when
needed. This could also be an important distributed generation resource.

Recently interest in Distributed Energy Systems (DES) is increasing, particularly onsite

generation. This interest is because larger power plants are economically unfeasible in many
regions due to increasing system and fuel costs, and more strict environmental regulations. In
addition, recent technological advances in small generators, Power Electronics, and energy
storage devices have provided a new opportunity for distributed energy resources at the
distribution level, and especially, the incentive laws to utilize renewable energies has also
encouraged a more decentralized approach to power delivery.
There are many generation sources for DES: conventional technologies (diesel or natural
gas engines), emerging technologies (micro turbines or fuel cells or energy storage devices), and
renewable technologies (small wind turbines or solar/photovoltaics or small hydro turbines).
These DES are used for applications to a standalone, a standby, a grid-interconnected, a
cogeneration, peak shavings, etc. and have many advantages such as environmental-friendly and
modular electric generation, increased reliability, high power quality, uninterruptible service, cost
savings, on-site generation, expandability, etc.
So many utility companies are trying to construct small distribution stations combined
with several DES available at the regions, instead of large power plants. Basically, these
technologies are based on notably advanced Power Electronics because all DES require Power
Converters, interconnection techniques, and electronic control units. That is, all power genera ed
by DES is generated as DC Power, and then all the power fed to the DC distribution bus is again
converted into an AC power with fixed magnitude and frequency by control units using Digital
Signal Processor (DSP). So improved power electronic technologies that permit grid
interconnection of asynchronous generation sources are definitely required to support distributed
generation resources

The research works in the recent papers about DES focus on being utilized directly to a
standalone AC system or fed back to the utility mains. That is, when in normal operation or main
failures, DES directly supply loads with power (standalone mode or standby mode), while, when
DES have surplus power or need more power, this system operates in parallel mode to the mains.
Therefore, in order to permit to connect more generators on the network in good conditions, a
good technique about interconnection with the grid and voltage regulations should overcome the
problems due to parallel operation of Power Converter for applications to DES.

DISTRIBUTED ENERGY SYSTEMS

Today, new advances in technology and new directions in electricity regulation encourage
a significant increase of distributed generation resources around the world. As shown in Fig. the
currently competitive small generation units and the incentive laws to use renewable energies
force electric utility companies to construct an increasing number of distributed generation units
on its distribution network, instead of large central power plants. Moreover, DES can offer
improved service reliability, better economics and a reduced dependence on the local utility.
Distributed Generation Systems have mainly been used as a standby power source for critical
businesses. For example, most hospitals and office buildings had stand-by diesel generation as an
emergency power source for use only during outages. However, the diesel generators were not
inherently cost-effective, and produce noise and exhaust that would be objectionable on anything
except for an emergency basis.

Fig. A large central power plant and distributed energy systems

Meanwhile, recently, the use of Distributed Energy Systems under the 500 kW level is rapidly
increasing due to recent technology improvements in small generators, power electronics, and

energy storage devices. Efficient clean fossil fuels technologies such as micro-turbines and fuel
cells, and environmentally friendly renewable energy technologies such as solar/photovoltaics,
small wind and hydro are increasingly used for new distributed generation systems.
These DES are applied to a standalone, a standby, a grid-interconnected, a cogeneration,
peak shavings, etc. and have a lot of benefits such as environmental-friendly and modular
electric generation, increased reliability, high power quality, uninterruptible service, cost savings,
on-site generation, expandability, etc.
The major Distributed Generation technologies that will be discussed in this section are
as follows: micro-turbines, fuel cells, solar/photovoltaic systems, and energy storage devices.
Micro-turbines, especially the small gas fired micro turbines in the 25-100 kW that can be massproduced at low cost have been more attractive due to the competitive price of natural gas, low
installation and maintenance costs. It takes very clever engineering and use of innovative design
(e.g. air bearing, recuperation) to achieve reasonable efficiency and costs in machines of lower
output, and a big advantage of these systems is small because these mainly use high-speed
turbines (50,000-90,000 RPM) with air foil bearings. Therefore, micro turbines hold the most
promise of any of the DES technologies today.
Fuel cells are also well used for distributed generation applications, and can essentially be
described as batteries which never become discharged as long as hydrogen and oxygen are
continuously provided. The hydrogen can be supplied directly, or produced from natural gas, or
liquid fuels such as alcohols, or gasoline. Each unit ranges in size from 3 250 kW or larger
MW size. Even if they offer high efficiency and low emissions, todays costs are high.
Phosphoric acid cell are commercially available in the range of the 200 kW, while solid oxide
and molten carbonate cell are in a pre-commercial stage of development.
The possibility of using gasoline as a fuel for cells has resulted in a major development
effort by the automotive companies. The recent research work about fuel cells is focused towards
the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Fuel cells in sizes greater than 200 kW, hold
promise beyond 2005, but residential size fuel cells are unlikely to have any significant market
impact any time soon. Mixed micro-turbine and fuel cell systems will also be available as a
distributed generation source. Recently, a solid oxide fuel cell has been combined with a gas
micro-turbine creating a combined cycle power plant. It has expected electrical efficiency of
greater than 70 %, and the expected power levels range from 250 kW to 2.5 MW.

Solar/photovoltaic systems may be used in a variety of sizes, but the installation of large
numbers of photovoltaic systems is undesirable due to high land costs and in many geographic
areas with poor intensity and reliability of sunlight.
In general, almost one acre of land would be needed to provide 150 kW of electricity, so
solar/photovoltaic systems will continue to have limited applications in the future.
Energy storage devices such as ultra capacitors, batteries, and flywheels are one of the
most critical technologies for DES. In general, the electrochemical capacitor has high power
density as well as good energy density.
In particular, ultra capacitors have several benefits such as high pulse power capacity,
long lifetime, high power density, low ESR, and very thin and tight. In contrast, batteries have
higher energy density, but lower power density and short lifetime relative to ultra-capacitor. So
hybrid Power System, a combination of ultra-capacitor and battery, is strongly recommended to
satisfy several requirements and to optimize system performance. Recently storage systems are
much more efficient, cheaper, and longer than five years ago. In particular, flywheel systems can
generate 700 kW for 5 seconds, while 28-cell ultra capacitors can provide up to 12.5 kW for a
few seconds.
In the past, the electric utility industry did not offer various options that were suited for a
wide range of consumer needs, and most utilities offered at best two or three combinations of
reliability-price. However, the types of modern DES give commercial electric consumers various
options in a wider range of reliability-price combinations. For these reasons, DES will be very
likely to thrive in the next 20 years, and especially, distributed generation technologies will have
a much greater market potential in areas with high electricity costs and low reliability such as in
developing countries.

PROBLEM STATEMENTS
DES technologies have very different issues compared with traditional centralized power
sources. For example, they are applied to the mains or the loads with voltage of 480 volts or less;
and require power converters and different strategies of control and dispatch. All of these energy
technologies provide a DC output which requires power electronic interfaces with the
distribution power networks and its loads. In most cases the conversion is performed by using a
voltage source inverter (VSI) with a possibility of pulse width modulation (PWM) that provides

fast regulation for voltage magnitude. Power electronic interfaces introduce new control issues,
but at the same time, new possibilities.
For example, a system which consists of micro-generators and storage devices could be
designed to operate in both an autonomous mode and connected to the power grid. One large
class of problems is related to the fact that the power sources such as micro turbines and fuel cell
have slow response and their inertia is much less.
It must be remembered that the current power systems have storage in generators inertia,
and this may result in a slight reduction in system frequency. As these generators become more
compact, the need to link them to lower network voltage is significantly increasing.
However, without any medium voltage networks adaptation, this fast expansion can
affect the quality of supply as well as the public and equipment safety because distribution
networks have not been designed to connect a significant amount of generation. Therefore, a new
voltage control system to facilitate the connection of distributed generation resources to
distribution networks should be developed. In many cases there are also major technical barriers
to operating independently in a standalone AC system, or to connecting small generation systems
to the electrical distribution network with lower voltage and the recent research issues includes:
1. Control strategy to facilitate the connection of distributed generation resources to distribution
networks.
2. Efficient battery control.
3. Inverter control based on only local information.
4. Synchronization with the utility mains.
5. Compensation of the reactive power and higher harmonic components.
6. Power Factor Correction.
7. System protection.
8. Load sharing.
9. Reliability of communication.
10. Requirements of the customer.
DES offers significant research and engineering challenges in solving these problems.
Moreover, the electrical and economic relationships between customers and the distribution
utility and among customers may take forms quite distinct from those we know today.

For example, rather than devices being individually interconnected in parallel with the
grid, they may be grouped with loads in a semi-autonomous neighborhood that could be termed a
micro grid is a cluster of small sources, storage systems, and loads which presents itself to the
grid as a legitimate single entity. Hence, future research work will focus on solving the above
issues so that DES with more advantages compared with tradition large power plants can thrive
in electric power industry.

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
These new distributed generations interconnected to the low grid voltage or low load
voltage cause new problems which require innovative approaches to managing and operating the
distributed resources. In the fields of Power Electronics, the recent papers have focused on
applications of a standby generation, a standalone AC system, a combined heat and power
(cogeneration) system, and interconnection with the grid of distribution generations on the
distribution network, and have suggested technical solutions which would permit to connect
more generators on the network in good conditions and to perform a good voltage regulation.
Depending on the load, generation level, and local connection conditions, each generator can
cause the problems described in the previous chapter. The main goals which should be achieved
will thus be: to increase the network connection capacity by allowing more consumers and
producer customers connection without creating new reinforcement costs, to enhance the
reliability of the systems by the protections, to improve the overall quality of supply with a best
voltage control.
A. Configurations for DES
1) Case I: A Power Converter connected in a Standalone AC System or in Parallel with the
Utility Mains
Fig. show a distributed power system which is connected to directly load or in parallel with
utility mains, according to its mode. This system consists of a generator, an input filter, an
AC/AC power converter, an output filter, an isolation transformer, output sensor (V, I, P), and a
DSP controller. In the Figures, a distributed generator may operate as one of three modes: a
standby, a peak shaving, and a standalone power source. In a standby mode shown in Fig. a
generator set serves as a UPS system operating during mains failures. It is used to increase the
reliability of the energy supply and to enhance the overall performance of the system.

The static switch SW 1 is closed in normal operation and SW 2 is open, while in case of
mains failures or excessive voltage drop detection SW 1 is open and SW 2 is simultaneously
closed. In this case, control techniques of DES are very similar to those of UPS. If a transient
load increases, the output voltage has relatively large drops due to the internal impedance of the
inverter and filter stage, which frequently result in malfunction of sensitive load. Fig. can serves
as a peak shaving or interconnection with the grid to feed power back to mains.
In both modes, the generator is connected in parallel with the main grids. In a peak
shaving mode, this generator is running as few as several hundred hours annually because the
SW 1 is only closed during the limited periods. Meanwhile, in an interconnection with the grid,
SW 1 is always closed and this system provides the grid with continuous electric power. In
addition, the converter connected in parallel to the mains can serve also as a source of reactive
power and higher harmonic current components.
In a standalone AC system shown in Fig. the generator is directly connected to the load
lines without being connected to the mains and it will operate independently. In this case, the
operations of this system are similar to a standby mode, and it serves continuously unlike a
standby mode and a peak shaving mode.

Fig. Block diagram of a standby mode

Fig. Block diagram of a peak shaving mode

Fig. Block diagram of a standalone mode

As shown in Fig. the output voltage of the generator is fed to a DC/AC converter that converts a
DC output of the generator to be fixed voltage and frequency for utility mains or loads. The DSP
controller monitors multiple system variables on a real time basis and executes control routines
to optimize the operation of the individual subsystems in response to measured variables. It also
provides all necessary functions to sense output voltages, current, and power, to operate
protections, and to give reference signals to regulators. The output power of the converter is
controlled according to the reference signal of the control unit. As described above, in order to
compensate for reactive power and higher harmonic components or to improve power factor, the
active power (P) and reactive power (Q) should be controlled independently. Moreover, the
above system needs over-dimensioning some parts of the power converter in order to produce
reactive power by the converter at rated active power.

Because a power converter dimensioned for rated current can supply reactive power only
if the active component is less than rated. Therefore, a control strategy easy to implement is
required to ensure closed loop control of the power factor and to provide a good power quality.
In case that a generator is used for distributed generation systems, the recent research focuses are
summarized as follows:
1. Control strategy which permits to connect more generators on the network
2. Compensation of the reactive power and higher harmonic components
3. An active power (P) and a reactive power control (Q) independently
4. Power factor correction
5. Synchronization with the utility mains
6. System protections
2) Case II: Power Converters supplying power in a standalone mode or feeding it back to the
utility mains Fig. shows a block diagram of multiple power converters for a standalone AC
system or feeding generated powers back to the utility mains. If all generators are directly
connected to the loads, the systems operate as a standalone AC system. Meanwhile, if these are
connected in parallel to the mains, these provide the utility grids with an electric power. Each
system consists of a generator, an input filter, an AC/AC power converter, an output filter, an
isolation transformer, a control unit (DSP), a static switch (SW 1) and output sensors (V, I, P).
The function of the static switch (SW 1) is to disrupt the energy flow between the generator and
mains or loads in the case of disturbances in the mains voltage. As shown in Fig., this
configuration is very similar to parallel operation of multiple UPS systems except that the input
sources of inverters are independent generation systems such as micro turbines, fuel cells, and
photovoltaic, etc. instead of utility mains.
In case of parallel operation of UPS systems, a recent critical research issue is to share
linear and nonlinear load properly by each unit. In general, the load sharing is mainly influenced
by non uniformity of the units, component tolerance, and line impedance mismatches. Another
issue is a proper control scheme without any control interconnection wires among inverters
because these wires restrict the location of the inverter units as well as these can act as a source
of the noise and failure. Moreover, in three-phase systems they could also cause unbalance and
draw excessive neutral currents.

Even if conventionally passive L-C filters were used to reduce harmonics and capacitors
were employed to improve the power factor of the ac loads, passive filters have the demerits of
fixed compensation, large size, and resonance. Therefore, the injected harmonic, reactive power
burden, unbalance, and excessive neutral currents definitely cause low system efficiency and
poor power factor. In particular, a power factor can be improved as AC/AC power converters
function a complete active filter for better power quality and the above problems should be
overcome by a good control technique to assure the DES to expand increasingly around the
world.

Fig. Block diagram of power converters connected in parallel

So the above issues can be applied to distributed power systems similarly, and the recent research
focuses are summarized as follows:
1. Standardized DES modeling using the software tools
2. Equal load sharing such as the real and reactive power, the load harmonic current among the
parallel connected inverters.
3. Connection capability of more DES to the utility mains in best conditions
4. Independent P, Q control of the inverters
5. Power factor correction
6. Reduction of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
Distributed Generation (DG) is commonly defined as electric power generation facilities
that are not directly connected to a bulk power transmission system. They cover a multitude of

energy sources, fuels, and conversion methods to produce electricity through photovoltaic (PV)
arrays, wind turbines, fuel cells, micro turbines, liquid and gas-fueled reciprocating engines, etc.
Given the wide variety of sources, it is natural that specific impacts associated with DG would
vary with type and application. However, there are many common threads on how DG benefits
the customers they serve and society at large. This is demonstrated in this paper through several
examples, giving testimonials of the positive impact these installations have.

EXAMPLES
Case 1 Emergency/Temporary Power Application
In mid-November 2007, the town of Chester, California, was preparing to undergo a 72hour power shutdown. This was required to improve the service reliability in Chester after past
sustained outages due to circuit configuration, condition and exposure. For that reason, Pacific
Gas and Electric (PG&E) would replace 41 power poles and their cross-arms on its Hamilton
Branch transmission line. This line serves the Chester community with 1,652 electric meters
within, and accounting for a combined electrical demand in the range of 1.9 MW to 2.4 MW.
Given PG&Es commitment to customer satisfaction, and to maintaining their service uptime
percentage as high as possible, a prolonged outage was really not a viable option. The solution
was a temporary DG installation consisting of two 2 MW diesel generator sets operated through
a parallel configuration with the PG&E power supply (see Fig. 1). With this configuration, only
two brief electrical clearances, totaling less than 30 seconds, were necessary. Over 2,378,880
outage minutes were avoided for PG&E customers. Chesters lights remained on and the aging
poles were replaced. PG&E avoided the combination of lost power sales during any outage, and
the added expense and safety concerns of having to work crews around the clock for 72 hours to
replace all the poles.

Fig. - Cat XQ2000 Power Modules in Chester

Case 2 Open-Market Price Hedging

The volatility in the energy market was greatly affecting the power department budget in
the city of Hurricane, Utah. Its population surged from 8,250 in 2000 to 12,084 in 2006 an
increase of 46.5 percent. That growth put stress on the municipal power system, operated by
Hurricane City Power, especially in the summer when temperatures can exceed 110F. This
demand, coupled with high prices on the energy market, forced the city to dip into budgetary
reserves to pay for power a few years in a row .In order to diversify its electric supply options,
Hurricane turned to natural gas generator sets. The citys new generator sets would have to meet
Hurricanes needs load following, summer peaking and open market price-hedging strategies.
Hurricane also needed to boost end-of-line voltage and frequency for distribution system
enhancement over a period of three years, six Cat G3520C natural gas generator sets with Cat
Oxidation Catalysts were installed (see Fig. 2).
The catalysts lower emissions of carbon monoxide by 93% and decrease hydrocarbons by
more than 40%, greatly reducing the generator sets environmental impact. One of these units
serves the nearby city of Washington and is used when supplemental power is needed there. The
generator sets are rated at 1,940 ekW at 1800 rpm, in 115F temperature and at an elevation of
3,000 feet. They operate together with paralleling switchgear at 12,470 V. This power is
connected directly to the adjacent substations distribution buss.

The reliability and cost-effectiveness of this power solution earned Hurricane City Power
and Washington City Power a joint award in 2007 for the Most Improved System of the Year
from the Utah Associated Municipal Power Systems (UAMPS). The city has been able to save as
much as $10,000 to $12,000 a day because of their ability to react to market prices quickly, and
run their generators instead of buying power on the market when the cost is high. In addition to
cost savings for the city, the gensets provide peak power production support and backup power in
case of a citywide blackout. Three area blackouts have occurred in the three years since this
system has been in place, and the gensets have provided the power needed to get the city up and
running with no outside power available.

Fig. - DG in Hurricane City Power Plant

Case 3 Combined CHP and Standby Power for Hospital
A cost effective combined heat and power (CHP) and standby power generation package
was required for the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital being built by Octagon Healthcare in the
United Kingdom. In addition, tariff quality metering was necessary to qualify the CHP as eligible
for payment under the Climate Change Levy Good Quality CHP scheme. Rather than the usual
basement plant room, a stand-alone energy center was built to give better access for servicing
and supplies. The CHP system prime mover is a Cat G3516 lean burn gas engine. Heat is
recovered from the engine exhaust, jacket water and oil cooler circuits, to provide 1314 kW.

It is used heat the returning medium-pressure hot water before it re-enters the boiler, so
the CHP acts as lead boiler. When thermal demand is low excess heat is dumped to a remote
radiator. A Cat SR4 generator directly linked to the engine provides 400 volts at 50 Hz. This
feeds a synchronizing circuit breaker inside a control panel, in turn connected to the hospitals
HV line via a step-up transformer. The complete system is displayed on a graphical overview; a
simple touch of the screen is all that is required for an operator to interact with the system.
The standby generation system comprises four 2250 kVA (1800 kW) Caterpillar 3616B
diesel generator sets guarding against utility failures. Generators work in an n+1 configuration
so that full coverage of the hospital power requirements continues if one set is unavailable; say
due to servicing at the time of power failure.
The generators are connected to the hospital heating and ventilation power feed via a HV
switchboard. Like the CHP system, the master control panel provides a graphical overview of the
system. Restoration to utility power, once service has been deemed to be back to normal, is fully
automatic. The system is tested monthly with a real disconnection from the utility supply.
Case 4 Landfill Applications
Landfill-gas-to-energy embodies the ideal solution to an environmental problem: it turns
nuisance waste into a product with a practical use and economic value. It is an important and
growing component of North Americas power generation mix. Generation from municipal solid
waste and landfill gas is projected to increase to about 31 billion kilowatt-hours by 2025.
Although the U.S. leads in this category, landfill gas is globally available as the chart below
illustrates.

Fig. - Estimated Global Landfill Methane Emissions

Landfill gas (LFG) is produced naturally as organic waste decomposes in landfills. LFG
is composed of about 50 percent methane, about 50 percent carbon dioxide and small amounts of
non-methane organic compounds. At most municipal solid-waste landfills, the methane and
carbon dioxide are destroyed in a gas collection and control system or utility flare. However, to
use LFG as an alternative fuel, the gas is extracted from landfills using a series of wells and a
vacuum system. Pipes are inserted deep into the landfill to provide a point of release for the
landfill gases. A slight vacuum is then applied in the pipe to draw the gases into and through it to
a central point, where it can be processed and treated for use in generating electricity, replacing
the need for conventional fossil fuels. Here are a few examples from around the world of how
LFG is used to produce electric power through engine generator sets in landfill configurations.

Fig. Landfill Gas Engine Generator Set

Seneca Meadows Landfill, Seneca Falls, New York This energy system, owned by Innovative
Energy Systems of Oakfield, NY, began operation in 1996 and has been expanded three times to
its current 11.2 MW capacity. The system (see Fig.) uses fourteen Cat G3516 generator sets
that have been modified for landfill use. Overall energy plant NOx emissions are compliant with
local air-quality standards.

Fig. - Seneca Meadows Landfill, Seneca Falls, NY

Hartland Landfill in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada The landfill receives municipal solid
waste from a population of roughly 400,000. Until the power generating system went online, the
landfill gas had been flared. Independent power producer Maxim Power Corporation of Calgary,
Alberta, installed the land-fill-gas-to-energy system (see Fig. 6). The electric energy output
(continuous duty at 1.6 MW) is being sold to BC Hydro for that companys Green Power
program.

Fig. Harland Landfill, Victoria, BC, Canada

South East New Territories Landfill, Hong Kong This site operated by Green Valley Landfill
Ltd., installed two Cat G3516 landfill generator sets in 1997.
Each unit is rated at 970 kW, providing 1.9 MW of continuous power for the landfill
infrastructure and an on-site wastewater treatment plant (see Fig. 7). The units operate in parallel
with the local utility, exporting excess power to the grid. The generator sets have oversized
radiators to compensate for tropical heat and humidity.

Fig. - South East New Territories Landfill, Hong Kong

Case 5 Biogas Applications
Biogas is produced through the natural anaerobic decomposition or fermentation of
organic waste, such as manure, municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste or any other
biodegradable feedstock within an anaerobic environment. Biogas consists primarily of methane
(50-80 percent) and carbon dioxide (20-50 percent). Biogas can be extracted for commercial use
from almost any of its sources. For example, some livestock farms or large feeder operations use
a lagoon to store the manure generated by their livestock.
Instead of releasing the methane and carbon dioxide generated by the decomposition of
this manure into the atmosphere, the methane can be extracted and burned at the farm in biogasfueled boilers, heaters or other gas consuming devices, including gas engines. In addition to
livestock farms, other agricultural operations afford opportunities for biogas productions. For

example, cassava-processing plants, which produce starch, are common in China, India and
Indonesia and may utilize biogas for electric power.
By tapping their biogas resources, these plants not only avoid the cost of purchasing
heavy fuel oil and electricity but also reclaim valuable land that would otherwise have to be used
to purify the factorys wastewater, and virtually eliminating odor and pest issues caused by largescale decomposition of organic material.
As an example of this type of DG application, let us consider the Nong Rai Farm, in
Rayong, Thailand. The farm partners with the CP Group, one of the largest food suppliers in
Thailand, and runs a feeder operation for more than 30,000 hogs.
Nong Rai Farms consumes approximately 200 kW of power for blowers, drying systems
and other auxiliary needs associated with its operations. The manure produced by its hogs is
piped into a digester pond (see Fig. 8), where it generates biogas that is used to fuel the generator
sets, which produce sufficient power for all of Nong Rai Farms electric power requirements.

Fig. - Buffer Tank and Digestion Process in Thailand

Case 6 Coal Mine Methane (CMM) Gas Applications
The anthropogenic release of methane (CH4) into the environment and its global
warming potential continues to draw attention globally. Methane can be released into the
atmosphere through sources where it naturally occurs: landfill decomposition, agriculture, gas
and oil extraction systems, and coal mining activities. About 8% of total anthropogenic methane
emissions come from coal mines. Globally, coal mines emit approximately 400 million metric
tons or 28 billion cubic meters of carbon dioxide equivalent annually. This amount is equivalent

to consumption of 818 million barrels of oil or the carbon dioxide emissions of 64 million
passenger cars. Between 1994 and 2005, a U.S.
Emission decreased by over 20%, in large part due to the coal mining industrys increased
recovery and utilization of drained gas. China leads the world in coal mine methane with about
14 billion cubic meters of CO2 emitted annually a 2004 measurement estimated nearly 200
million metric tons were emitted that year. Aside from the U.S. and China, other leading emitters
include Ukraine, Australia, Russia and India. Once methane is released into the atmosphere it
remains in it for approximately 15 years. It is a greenhouse gas with an estimated global
warming potential of 21.
This means that emissions of methane have an estimated effect on global warming equal
to 21 times the effect of carbon dioxide. Implementing methods to use CMM instead of emitting
it to the atmosphere will help mitigate global warming, improve mine safety, and productivity
and generate revenues and cost savings.
There are several options currently available for CMM mitigation, including
reciprocating gas engines, gas turbines, industrial boilers and furnaces, and chemical processing.
Other technologies like catalytic systems and fuel cells are also being developed. Two examples
of this type of DG application are described next, where CMM is sequestered and used as an
alternative fuel for reciprocating gas engine generator sets. This is a mature and proven
technology highly effective for greenhouse gas.

MODELING AND CONTROL OF INVERTER INTERFACED DG UNITS

Basically each DG unit may have DC type or rectified generation unit (Fuel cell, solar
cell, wind turbine, micro turbine), storage devices, DC-DC converter, DC-AC inverter, filter,
and transformer for connecting to loads or utility in order to exchange power. Model and
dynamic of each of this part may have influence in system operation. But here for simplification
it is considered that DC side of the units has sufficient storage and considered as a constant DC
source. Hence only DC-AC inverter modeling and control investigated in this paper.
A circuit model of a three-phase DC to AC inverter with LC output filter is further
described in Figure As shown in the figure, the system consists of a DC voltage source (Vdc), a
three- phase PWM inverter, an output filter (Lf and C with considering parasitic resistance of
filter- Rf). Sometimes a transformer may be used for stepping up the output voltage and hence Lf
can be transformer inductance.

Figure PWM inverter diagram

There are two ways for controlling an inverter in a distributed generation system

A. PQ Inverter Control
This type of control is adopted when the DG unit system is connected to an external grid
or to an island of loads and more generators. In this situation, the variables controlled by the
inverter are the active and reactive power injected into the grid, which have to follow the set
points Pref and Qref, respectively. These set points can be chosen by the customer or by a central
controller. The PQ control of an inverter can be performed using a current control technique in
qd reference frame which the inverter current is controlled in amplitude and phase to meet the
desired set-points of active and reactive power.

With the aim of Park transform and equations between inverter input and output, the
inverter controller block diagram for supplying reference value of Pref and Qref is as figures. For
the current controller, two Proportional-Integral (PI) regulators have been chosen in order to
meet the requirements of stability of the system and to make the steady state error be zero. With
this control scheme, it is possible to control the inverter in such way that injects reference value
of Pref, Qref into other part of stand-alone network. When the output voltage is needed to be
regulated, the PV control scheme that is similar to PQ mode with feedback of voltage used to
adjust Qref.

Figure : PQ control scheme of inverter

B. Vf Inverter Control
This controller has to act on the inverter whenever the system is in stand-alone mode of
operation. In fact in this case it must regulate the voltage value at a reference bus bar and the
frequency of the whole grid. A regulators work in order to keep the measured voltages upon the
set points. Moreover the frequency is imposed through the modulating signals of the inverter
PWM control by mean of an oscillator. A simple PI controller can regulate bus voltage in
reference value with getting feedback of real bus voltage. Figure outlines this control strategy. In
this case it is obvious that the DG unit should have storage device in order to regulate the power
and voltage.

Figure: Vf control scheme of inverter

POWER QUALITY
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often
enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and
levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related
computer based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not
forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the
foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our
environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane
installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue
of my home utility billing: Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and business
practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our
natural resources. As we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to
increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process,
will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double the total average
demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container
crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to
power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very
near future.
POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as:
Any power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment manifests
itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the environment.
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality
include:
Power Factor
Harmonic Distortion
Voltage Transients
Voltage Sags or Dips
Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant
contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion.

Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate
at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate, creating transient
peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending upon the
system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system
disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives
will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when
DC drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods,
increasing to its maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to produce rated or base speed.
Above base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes
can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers.
Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility or engine-alternator power
source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in
detrimental effects on the life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction.
Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high
frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to
sensitive electronic equipment
It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems
with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no
economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state
power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not
until the crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power
conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic
distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really prepared.
Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue during
competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and understanding of the
potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or unintentionally ignored. Power quality
problem solutions are available. Although the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do
represent a good return on investment. However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely
will not be delivered.

Power quality can be improved through:

Power factor correction,
Harmonic filtering,
Special line notch filtering,
Transient voltage surge suppression,
Proper earthing systems.
In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be fully aware of
the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to
provide that awareness.
In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes
may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone elses
concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality
criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of those
specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria.
Early in the process of preparing the crane specification:
Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be
satisfied, if any.
Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles that can be
expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific project.
Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation, but
consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for the
terminal
THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY
Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the terminal
operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers served by the
same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs.
1. Economic Impact
The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal operators.
Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways:

a. Power Factor Penalties

Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly billings. There
is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of metering and calculating
power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the next. Some utility companies
actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-hours
consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the
power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form
of an adjustment to the peak demand charges.
A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke
power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may still require that a
minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility company may not
continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and reflect them in the monthly utility
billings; however, they do reserve the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If the power
factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penalized, or required
to take corrective actions at the users expense. One utility company, which supplies power
service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does not reflect power factor
penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service contract with the terminal reads as
follows:
The average power factor under operating conditions of customers load at the point where
service is metered shall be not less than 85%. If below 85%, the customer may be required to
furnish, install and maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the
Power factor of the entire installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no
excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may require
special power conditioning equipment or filters.
The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining container
cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware of these requirements.
Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce requirements such as the example
above.
Terminal operators who do not deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some
rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal growth plan should include
contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of utility deregulation.

b. System Losses
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only result in
possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the distribution system.
These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for
them each month. Container cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low
power factor. Based on the typical demands of todays high speed container cranes, correction of
power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system
losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most of the larger
terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation.
C. Power Service Initial Capital Investments
The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as
modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high and
medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables,
collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is
directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is
inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA
for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the
terminal. Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power
factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor
correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location in the
terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger,
switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system
and cable reel cables must be larger, etc.
Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system
which does not address power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which
includes power quality equipment.
2. Equipment Reliability
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of
components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power
quality problems and are all interdependent.

Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients

can induce harmonics, the same

phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR variable speed drives are
responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of the same drives can
create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line
notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters.
3. Power System Adequacy
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power distribution
system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the adequacy of the system to
support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective actions may be dictated due to
inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be
connected. In other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a workable scenario
on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support
additional cranes without high risk of problems.
4. Environment
No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our environment.
Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the consumption of our
natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants
of this planet to encourage conservation of our natural resources and support measures which
improve our air quality.

ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

Active Filters are commonly used for providing harmonic compensation to a system by
controlling current harmonics in supply networks at the low to medium voltage distribution level
or for reactive power or voltage control at high voltage distribution level. These functions may
be combined in a single circuit to achieve the various functions mentioned above or in separate
active filters which can attack each aspect individually. The block diagram presented in section
shows the basic sequence of operation for the active filter. This diagram shows various sections
of the filter each responding to its own classification.
Classification of active filters
The block diagram shown in figure represents the key components of a typical active
power filter along with their interconnections. The reference signal estimator monitors the
harmonic current from the nonlinear load along with information about other system variables.
The reference signal from the current estimator, as well as other signals, drives the overall
system controller. This in turn provides the control for the PWM switching pattern generator. The
output of the PWM pattern generator controls the power circuit through a suitable interface. The
power circuit in the generalized block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or
parallel/series configurations, depending on the transformer used.

Active power filters according to can be classified based on the following criteria:
1. Power rating and speed of response required in compensated systems;
2. Power-circuit configuration and connections;
3. System parameters to be compensated;
4. Control techniques employed; and

5. Technique used for estimating the reference current/voltage.

Classification according to power rating and speed of response in compensated system
The block diagram shown in figure shows the classification based on this criterion. The size of
nonlinear loads play a major role in deciding the way different control methods are implemented.
The filter required for compensation must be practical for the load and this decision affects the
speed of response. In general a reciprocal relationship exists between the cost of a particular
system to the required speed of response.

Low power applications

Low power applications govern applications with a power rating below 100kVA.
Applications of these sizes are generally associated with residential areas, commercial buildings,
hospitals and for a wide range of medium sized factory loads and motor drive systems. Active
filters chosen for this power range employ sophisticated techniques catering with high pulse
number PWM voltage or current source inverters. The response time for smaller applications is
relatively much faster than other sizes ranging from ten microseconds to ten milliseconds. This
type comprises the following two categories.
Single-phase systems
Low power rating loads generally require single phase active filters. They are generally
most employed in commercial buildings with a large number of computers. This application
means that current harmonics can be treated at the point of common coupling (PCC).

It is often economical and practical to install single phase active filters on distribution
based sites of reduced size capacity than a larger rated filter installed upstream. This is due to the
large number of the single-phase loads within one building and the harmful consequences
associated with the presence of large amounts of harmonic in the neutral line. This allows for
more selective compensation as the operating conditions vary. Due to the load capacity drawn
from residential loads, it is rare for a high concentration of harmonics, and thus the impacts on
the neutral lines are not significant.
Residential customers tend not invest in purchasing active filters because there are no
compulsory harmonic regulations however, the main advantage of such an installation are that
operating frequencies can be increased moving to improved performance since only low ratings
are employed.
Three-phase systems
The installation of three-phase filters is used for three-phase applications. Different filter
configurations can be tested and installed based upon whether the loads are balanced or
unbalanced. At levels below 100kVA, a three phase filter can be reconfigured to compensate for
three individual single phases in one unit or for a single three-phase supply. When nonlinear
loads are balanced, meaning all three phased impedances are equal, a single three-phase-inverter
configuration is employed. This choice of inverter is used when the objective is to eliminate as
many current harmonics as possible, assuming that the magnitudes and respective phase angles
in each phase are the same. In the situation when nonlinear loads are unbalanced, or supply
voltages are unsymmetrical, three single phase inverter circuits are used.
Medium power applications
Power systems ranging between 100kVA to 10MVA fit the class of a medium power
application. Due to the fact that phase unbalances are reduced on this sized system, the major
objective is to eliminate current harmonics.
In general, capacitive and Inductive static compensators, line-commutated thyristor
converters, synchronous condensers and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators, are
often more economic as reactive power compensation using active filters often is not viable. This
is due to the high voltage as well as problems with isolation and series/parallel connection of
switches. The speed of response expected in this range is of the order of tens of milliseconds.

High power applications

At high power ratings, the use of active filters becomes very uneconomical. This is
because of the lack of high switching frequency power devices that can control the current flow.
Thus, this is a major disadvantage for such systems. In addition, even the latest advances in
semiconductor technology still fall short as extra high voltages of a few hundred kilovolts cannot
be tolerated. The series-parallel combination is possible however; implementation is difficult and
also cost-ineffective. Harmonic pollution upstream affecting high power ranges above 10MVA is
not such a problem compared against low power systems.
The implementation of single and three phase filters downstream at the low voltage
system provides suitable compensation such that significant harmonic pollution upstream is
minimal. The static-VAR compensation is then the major concern and is usually compensated for
by using traditional static power conditioners/filters as well as several sets of synchronous
condensers connected in parallel and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators. The
required response time for such cases is in the range of tens of seconds, which is sufficient for
contactors and circuit breakers to operate after taking the optimal-switching decision. Power
fluctuations in the range of a few seconds are, on the other hand, treated by the generating
stations' ancillary devices.
Classification according to power circuit, configurations and connections
The choice of power circuit chosen for the active filter greatly influences its efficiency
and accuracy in providing true compensation. It is therefore important that the correct circuit
configuration is chosen. Figure 3.3 classes three major types of filter structures along with the
relevant power circuit.

Shunt active filters

Shunt active filters are by far the most widely accept and dominant filter of choice in
most industrial processes. Figures show the system configuration of the shunt design. The active
filter is connected in parallel at the PCC and is fed from the main power circuit. The objective of
the shunt active filter is to supply opposing harmonic current to the nonlinear load effectively
resulting in a net harmonic current.
This means that the supply signals remain purely fundamental. Shunt filters also have the
additional benefit of contributing to reactive power compensation and balancing of three-phase
currents. Since the active filter is connected in parallel to the PCC, only the compensation
current plus a small amount of active fundamental current is carried in the unit. For an increased
range of power ratings, several shunt active filters can be combined together to withstand higher
currents. This configuration consists of four distinct categories of circuit, namely inverter
configurations, switched-capacitor circuits, lattice-structured filters and voltage-regulator-type

Series active filters

The objective of the series active filter is to maintain a pure sinusoidal voltage waveform
across the load. This is achieved by producing a PWM voltage waveform which is added or
subtracted against the supply voltage waveform. The choice of power circuit used in most cases
is the voltage-fed PWM inverter without a current minor loop.

The active filter acts as a voltage source and thus it is often a preferred solution of
harmonic producing loads such as large capacity diode rectifiers with capacitive loads. In
general, series active filters are less commonly used against the shunt design. Unlike the shunt
filter which carries mainly compensation current, the series circuit has to handle high load
currents. This causes an increased rating of the filter suitable to carry the increased current.
Series filters offer the main advantage over the shunt configuration of achieving ac voltage
regulation by eliminating voltage-waveform harmonics. This means the load contains a pure
sinusoidal waveform.

Other combinations
In some cases, the combinations of shunt and series active filters provide a greater
effectiveness in eliminating harmonic pollution from the system.
Combination of both shunt and series active filters
The diagram shown in figure shows the combination of both parallel and series active
filters. This system combines both the benefits of the shunt and series and is often used to
achieve the demanding power system requirements. The control of active filters can be complex.
A combination of the two provides an even greater complexity. The higher cost involved in a
more complex design has shown a reduced demand for the combined structure.

As a result of the increased cost and complexity, this combination has received less
attention than other configurations. Flexible AC transmission systems, commonly abbreviated as
FACTS regularly make use of the arrangement.

Combination of series active and shunt passive filters

The combination of the active parallel and active series filters in 3.4.3.1 was seen to be
very complex in control yielding a high cost. One method of reducing these problems was to
replace the parallel active filter with a passive structure. The series active filter, which constitutes
high impedance for high-frequency harmonics, is accompanied by a parallel passive filter to
provide a path for the harmonic currents of the load. This combination, represented by figure,
permits an improvement over the characteristics of plain series active filters and the extension of
their capabilities to include current- harmonic reduction and voltage- harmonic elimination.
Passive filters are often easier and simple to implement and do not require any control circuit.
This, this deserves to be most beneficial.

Combination of shunt active and passive filters

Shunt active filters are best suitable to compensate for lower order harmonics thus only
requiring low power rating which serves most economical. This configuration makes use of a
passive filter which serves to compensate for the high order load current harmonics.

This combination, represented by figure presents this important configuration.

Combinations such as this can be designed to compensate for higher powers without excessive
costs for high-power switching.
The major disadvantage of this configuration is the fact that passive filters can only be
tuned for a specific predefined harmonic and thus cannot be easily changed for loads which have
varying harmonics.

Active filter in series with shunt passive filters

The combination of an active filter in series with a shunt passive filter is considered a
significant design configuration for medium and high voltage applications. The passive filter is
designed to reduce the voltage stress applied to the switches in the active filter. This design is in
its infancy of development however, further research is still needed to assess the effectiveness of
the configuration.

Classification according to compensated variable

Active filters are designed to provide suitable compensation for a particular variable or a
multiple of sorts in cases of combination structures. Figure shows the variety of compensated
variable that active filters can provide for.

Reactive power compensation

The shunt active filter does provide reactive power compensation however; they rarely
treat the problem of power-factor correction on its own owing to the fact that other
quasidynamic, cheaper and slower-in-response reactive-power compensators are available in the
market. When this technique is applied, lower power applications are more suited since the
currents needed for reactive-power compensation are of the same order of magnitude as the rated
current of the load. It would be a waste of sophisticated equipment to tackle them without the use
of other power factor-correction devices, such as thyristor-controlled reactors and capacitors;
especially in single-phase systems, where in certain specific applications the requirement is for
accurate compensation without harmonics generation.
Harmonic compensation
Within the system, active filters can be used to provide suitable harmonic compensation
for voltage harmonics and current harmonics. These harmonic are the most important variable
requiring compensation.
Compensation of voltage harmonics
In general, the concern for compensating voltage harmonics is not high due to the fact
that power supplies usually have low impedance. Generally, at the point of common coupling,
ridged standards are implemented to ensure a correct level of total harmonic distortion (THD)
and voltage regulation is maintained. The problem of compensating for voltage harmonics is to
ensure the supply to be purely sinusoidal.

This is important for harmonic voltage sensitive devices such as power system protection
devices and superconducting magnetic energy storage. Voltage harmonics are related to current
harmonics by the impedance of the line. Although compensation of voltage harmonics helps to
provide a reduction in current harmonics, this however, does not negate the necessity to current
harmonic compensation.
Compensation of current harmonics
Current harmonic compensation strategies are exceptionally important. Current
harmonics are greatly reduced by the compensation of voltage harmonics at the consumers point
of common coupling. The reduction in current harmonics is not only important for reasons such
as device heating and reduction in life of devices but also in design of power system equipment.
One of the major design criteria covers the magnitude of the current and its waveform. This is to
reduce cable and feeder losses. Since the root mean square (RMS) of the load current
incorporates the sum of squares of individual harmonics, true current harmonic compensation
will aid system designers for better approached power rating equipment.
Balancing of three phase systems
In most low and medium voltage distribution systems, it is frequent to find situations
where the currents and voltages in the three phases are not balanced and are not evenly
distributed by 120 degrees.
Balancing of mains voltage in three phase systems
Voltage imbalance is a situation where each phase voltage is unequal in magnitude and is
not displaced by 120 degrees. This is a direct result of current imbalances and the severity of the
system imbalances is governed by the magnitude of the supply impedance. The solution to this
problem is to add or subtract the corresponding amount of instantaneous voltage to force it to
follow the reference sinusoidal waveform. On high voltage systems, the supply impedance does
not impact severely on system performance and thus the problem of mains voltage unbalances
are primarily related to low rating systems.
Balancing of mains current in three phase systems
In low power applications such as compensating for residential loads, the magnitude of
currents supplied to the grid depends entirely upon the level of imbalance in the system. In most
cases, the compensator would be forced to supply rated current. This places a limitation on the
power handling capability.

Multiple compensation
To target a variety of variables requiring compensation, often it is usual to combine
different combinations to improve the effectiveness of the filter. The following are the most
frequently used combinations.
Harmonic current with reactive power compensation
One very common filter design makes use of combining aspects of reactive power
compensation together with harmonic current elimination. This ensures the supply current
remains purely fundamental free from distributing harmonics whilst making certain the current is
in phase with the supply voltage. This approach is very cost effective because only one device is
used for all aspects rather than including multiple circuits for each individual objective. The
active filter used here however, suffers from poor power switching limits and thus can only serve
as a compensator for low powered applications.
Harmonic voltages with reactive power compensation
This combination, however rare, takes place in certain configurations for controlling the
voltage harmonics, which would normally affect indirectly (using suitable feedback) the
reactive-power compensation. This compensation system is only suitable for low-power
applications.
Harmonic current and voltages
To compensate for both current and voltage system harmonics, a shunt and series active
filter configuration must be used respectively. Integrating this filter serves to eliminate load
harmonics whilst ensuring the supply remains fundamental. This type of design contains very
complex control algorithms and is normally used only for very sensitive devices such as powersystem-protection equipment and superconducting magnetic-energy storage systems.
Harmonic current and voltages with reactive power compensation
This filter design incorporates all three compensating variables into one unit. It controls
all harmonics and reactive power within the system. This is achieved by implementing of a
parallel/series active filter combination. The control for this design is very complex and difficult
to maintain and thus is not often employed.

Classification based upon control technique

Figure presents the basic control structure for active power system filters. The two main
techniques are open look control and closed loop control.

Open loop systems

Open-loop systems sense the load current and the harmonics it contains. They inject a
fixed amount of power in the form of current (mainly reactive) into the system, which may
compensate for most of the harmonics and/or reactive power available. Since there is no
feedback loop on this system, there is no reference to check the performance and accuracy of the
filter. This is a traditional technique and in present day is not often used.
Closed loop systems
Closed loop control systems incorporate a feedback loop providing greater accuracy of
current injection for harmonic compensation as well as reactive power reduction well over the
open loop design. This feature enables true sensing of the required variables under consideration.
Almost all new techniques in use are of this type.
Constant capacitor voltage technique
In this technique, the DC link contains a capacitor and once charged, this capacitor
voltage is the voltage source which controls the current waveform by PWM techniques. The
voltage across the terminals of the capacitor often fluctuates due to the fact that energy is either
supplied or expelled. To regulate and maintain terminal voltage levels, a reference voltage is
chosen.

The difference between the actual capacitor voltage and the predefined reference voltage
determines the active component of power required to compensate for losses in the filter. This
error difference is added to the current-controller error signal to determine the overall system
error to be processed by the current controller. This technique is widely accepted and is very
popular.
Constant inductor current technique
The control replaces the use of the capacitor in the DC link with an inductor. The system
operates much the same as mentioned in 3.6.2.1 however; the capacitor voltage is replaced with
the inductor current. This is achieved in two ways: (i) current pulse-width modulation where like
in the PWM provides the required pulses to represent the average current signal and (ii) current
pulse amplitude modulation which is a new control method provides the active filter with a basis
for amplitude modulation rather than solely the width.
Optimization technique
The optimization procedure for switched-capacitor and lattice-filter circuits is the same.
The rate of rise of the current and the amplitude depend mainly on the size of the capacitors and
the initial voltages on them. These factors are functions of the switching patterns, and they
provide considerable flexibility in shaping the waveform of the current drawn by the filter. The
key to controlling these filter configurations is to determine the appropriate switching function
for the switches.
The main task of the system controller is to minimize a predetermined number of
individual load-current harmonics, in addition minimizing either the THD or the fundamental
component of the filter current. However, this is not performed instantaneously. A time delay
exists between the detection of a change in the harmonic current and the application of the new
set of switching angles obtained from the optimization procedure. This system is mainly suitable
for constant or slowly varying loads.
Linear voltage control technique
Series active filters incorporating the additional benefit of voltage regulation can be
controlled using the linear voltage control technique. Through regularly charging and discharging
the capacitor through linear control, the capacitor voltage can be regulated. The reference
capacitor voltage can be determined based upon the harmonic reference.

The charge in the supply loop of the circuit and thus switching frequency can be
controlled by the regular variations of the capacitor voltage in contrast to the abrupt changes in
inverter voltage waveforms. This technique ensures that the supply side receives no abrupt
variation of voltage and this reduces the amount of high-frequency harmonics injected into the
supply due to the presence of the PWM inverter.
Other techniques
Other control techniques exist that simply provide small changes to the aforementioned
techniques, providing simply newer or better performance over their predecessors. These
techniques may include the use of state of the art adaptive, predictive and sliding-mode
controllers, which are normally difficult to implement without the use of Digital Signal
Processing (DSP). These techniques can be implemented in either the time domain or the
frequency domain.
Active filters harmonic detection and extraction
A shunt active filter acts as a controllable harmonic current source. In principle, harmonic
compensation is achieved when the current source is commanded to inject harmonic currents of
the same magnitude but opposite phase to the load harmonic currents. Before the inverter can
subtly inject opposing harmonic currents into the power system, appropriate harmonic detection
strategies must be implemented to efficiently sense and determine the harmonic current from the
nonlinear load.
Types of harmonic detection strategies
There are 3 different types of harmonic detection strategies used to determine the current
reference for the active filter. These are
1. Measuring the load harmonic current to be compensated and using this as a reference
command;
2. Measuring source harmonic current and controlling the filter to minimize it; and
3. Measuring harmonic voltage at the active filter point of common coupling (PCC) and
controlling the filter to minimize the voltage distortion.

Load current sensing

This method involves measurement of the load current and subsequent extraction of its
harmonic content using a high pass filter scheme. The harmonic components, so extracted, are
adjusted for polarity and used as reference commands for the current controller. This is explained
with the help of equation 3.1 and figure 3.14. Denoting the harmonic components of the load
current by, the describing equation for this strategy is lhi

Source current sensing

In this strategy, the source current is measured and its harmonic component extracted.
This is scaled by a suitable controller, generally of the proportional type. The output of the
proportional controller is provided as a reference to the current controller. This is schematically
represented in figure and analytically expressed by equation. Denoting the harmonic components
of the source current by shi, the describing equation for this strategy is

Point of Common Coupling (PCC) voltage sensing

This method requires measurement of the harmonic component of the Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) voltage, e(t). The harmonic component is then used to generate the current
reference, after passing it through a proportional controller. Schematically, it is represented in
figure and analytically expressed by equation
Denoting the harmonic components of the PCC voltage by, the describing equation for this
strategy is

Load current sensing and supply current sensing are suitable for shunt active filters
installed in the vicinity of one or more harmonic producing loads by individual high-powered
consumers. PCC voltage sensing is suitable for shunt active filters, which will be installed on
distribution systems by utilities. Supply current detection is the most basic harmonic detection
method for series active filters acting as a voltage source.
Classification based upon current/voltage reference estimation technique
There are numerous techniques each sub classified in figure which propose methods to
calculate and determine the appropriate compensating reference current used for the active filter
to pass to the PWM inverter.

Current/voltage reference synthesis (continuous time-domain)

In this method, an analogue signal filter is applied at the supply side to determine the
current harmonics from the supply. This technique is very simple and easy to implement however
introduces major amounts of magnitude and phase errors.
High pass filter method
This method uses a high pass filter to pass high ordered frequencies effectively removing
low order components in the load current signal. The filtered frequencies constitute the reference
portion. This technique however, is susceptible to noise as this is undesired.
Low pass filter method
This method is favored in terms of reference synthesis because unlike the high pass filter
method, the effects of noise in the filtered portion are suppressed. The desired reference value is
the harmonic component found in the load current. This is determined by subtracting the low
order frequency component found from implementing a low pass filter from the total load
current. This presents the harmonic portion from the load current waveform. This technique
however, introduces large magnitude and phase errors.
Current/voltage reference calculation (discrete time or frequency domain)
The techniques mentioned have many disadvantages to their use namely, phase and
magnitude errors as well as the effects of noise. The calculation of harmonics therefore provides
the most appropriate alternative. Two major techniques are classified in either time domain or
frequency domain.

Time domain approaches

The following seven subdivisions of time-domain approaches are mainly used for threephase systems except for the fictitious-power-compensation technique which can be adopted for
single- or three-phase systems. The time-domain methods are mainly used to gain more speed or
fewer calculations compared to the frequency-domain methods.
Instantaneous reactive power algorithm
Instantaneous power theory determines the harmonic distortion from the instantaneous
power calculation in a three-phase system, which is the multiplication of the instantaneous values
of the currents and voltages .

The values of the instantaneous power p and q, which are the real and respective
imaginary powers, contain dc and ac components depending on the existing active, reactive and
distorted powers in the system. The dc components of p and q represent the active and reactive
powers and must be removed with high-pass filters to retain only the ac signals. The ac
components converted by an inverse transformation matrix to the abc-frame represent the
harmonic distortion, which is given as the reference for the current controller. These processes
are depicted in figure.

This operation takes place only under the assumption that the three-phase system is
balanced and that the voltage waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If, on the other hand, this
technique is applied to contaminated supplies, the resulting performance is proven to be poor.
Synchronous detection algorithm
This technique relies in the fact that the three phase currents are balanced. The average
power is calculated and divided equally between the three phases. The signal is then
synchronized relative to the mains voltage for each phase. This technique, however easy to
implement, suffers from the fact that it depends to a great extent on the harmonics in the voltage
signal.
Constant active power algorithm

The instantaneous and average powers of the load are calculated. The active power
component of the system is controlled to keep the instantaneous real power constant, while
maintaining the imaginary power to zero. This technique performs fairly well under ordinary
conditions. However, the performance deteriorates when the supply is contaminated.
Constant power factor algorithm
This technique forces the instantaneous current signal to track the voltage-reference
waveform. This implies that the power factor is fixed to unity and the system would only be
suitable for the combined system of VAR and current-harmonic compensation.
Fictitious power compensation algorithm
The system controller is designed to minimize the undesired component of power. In this
aspect, it is similar to the instantaneous-reactive-power algorithm but with a different definition
of power. This approach is suitable for both single and three phase systems. However it involves
a large amount of computation.
Synchronous frame based algorithm
This algorithm relies on Park transformations to transform the three phase system from a
stationary reference frame into synchronously rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence
components. These can easily be analyzed since the fundamental- frequency component is
transformed into DC quantities. The active and reactive components of the system are
represented by the direct and quadrature components, respectively. The high-order harmonics
still remain in the signal; however they are modulated at different frequencies.
These are the undesired components to be eliminated from the system and they represent
the reference harmonic current. The system is very stable since the controller deals mainly with
DC quantities. The computation is instantaneous but incurs time delays in filtering the DC
quantities. This method is applicable only to three-phase systems.
Synchronous flux detection algorithm
This technique applies Park transformations to transfer the system into synchronously
rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence frames of reference. However, it applies the
transformation on the flux linkage of the filter inductance, which is then controlled using the
output voltages and currents in separate integral loops. The presence of these integral loops
incorporates time delays, which depend on the frequency response of the special feed forward
and feedback integrators.

Frequency domain approaches

The frequency-domain methods are mainly identified with Fourier analysis, rearranged in
such a manner that this provides the result as fast as possible with a reduced number of
calculations, to allow a real-time implementation in DSPs. Once the Fourier transform is taken,
the APF converter-switching function is computed to produce the distortion canceling output.
With this strategy the inverter switching frequency must be more than twice the highest
compensating harmonic frequency. This strategy has a poorer dynamic response and it not as
widely used.
Conventional Fourier and FFT algorithms
Using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), the harmonic current can be reconstructed by
eliminating the fundamental component from the transformed current signal and then the inverse
transform is applied to obtain a time-domain signal. The main disadvantage of this system is the
accompanying time delay. This technique needs to take samples of one complete cycle (or an
integral number of cycles) to generate the Fourier coefficients and it is therefore suitable for
slowly varying load conditions.
Sine multiplication technique
This method relies on the process of multiplying the current signal by a sine wave of the
fundamental frequency and integrating the result. This results in a loss of all the high-order
harmonics using a simple low-pass filter.
The performance is still slow (more than one complete mains cycle). This technique is
similar to the Fourier techniques presented above; it is, however, differently implemented.
Modified Fourier series techniques
The principle behind this technique is that only the fundamental component of current is
calculated and this is used to separate the total harmonic signal from the sampled load-current
waveform. The practical implementation of this technique relies on modifying the main Fourier
series equations to generate a recursive formula with a sliding window. This technique is adapted
to use two different circular arrays to store the components of the sine and cosine coefficients
computed every sampling sub cycle. The newly computed values of the desired coefficient are
stored in place of the old ones and the overall sums of the sine and cosine coefficients are
updated continuously. The computation time is much less than that of other techniques used for
single-phase applications. This technique is equally suitable for single- or three-phase systems.

Other algorithms
There are numerous optimization and estimation techniques, and all the utilities and
libraries for estimation can be used to perform this task. However some new methods arise, such
as the neural network and adaptive-estimation techniques which are fairly accurate and have, of
course, much better response. Unfortunately, presently available control hardware is not suitable
for implementation of these techniques.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Electrical power is transmitted by high voltage transmission lines from sending end
substation to receiving end substation. At the receiving end substation, the voltage is stepped
down to a lower value (say 66kV or 33kV or 11kV). The secondary transmission system
transfers power from this receiving end substation to secondary sub-station. A secondary
substation consists of two or more power transformers together with voltage regulating
equipments, buses and switchgear. At the secondary substation voltage is stepped down to 11kV.
The portion of the power network between a secondary substation and consumers is known as
distribution system. The distribution system can be classified into primary and secondary system.
Some large consumers are given high voltage supply from the receiving end substations or
secondary substation.
The area served by a secondary substation can be subdivided into a number of sub- areas.
Each sub area has its primary and secondary distribution system. The primary distribution system
consists of main feeders and laterals. The main feeder runs from the low voltage bus of the
secondary substation and acts as the main source of supply to sub- feeders, laterals or direct
connected distribution transformers. The lateral is supplied by the main feeder and extends
through the load area with connection to distribution transformers. The distribution transformers
are located at convenient places in the load area. They may be located in specially constructed
enclosures or may be pole mounted.
The distribution transformers for a large multi storied building may be located within the
building itself. At the distribution transformer, the voltage is stepped down to 400V and power is
fed into the secondary distribution systems. The secondary 14 distribution system consists of
distributors which are laid along the road sides. The service connections to consumers are tapped
off from the distributors. The main feeders, laterals and distributors may consist of overhead
lines or cables or both. The distributors are 3- phase, 4 wire circuits, the neutral wire being
necessary to supply the single phase loads. Most of the residential and commercial consumers
are given single phase supply. Some large residential and commercial consumer uses 3-phase
power supply. The service connections of consumer are known as service mains.
The consumer receives power from the distribution system. The main part of distribution system
includes:-

1. Receiving substation.
2. Sub- transmission lines.
3. Distribution substation located nearer to the load centre.
4. Secondary circuits on the LV side of the distribution transformer.
5. Service mains.
Power Flow:
For distribution system the power flow analysis is a very important and fundamental tool.
Its results play the major role during the operational stages of any system for its control and
economic schedule, as well as during expansion and design stages.
The purpose of any load flow analysis is to compute precise steady-state voltages and
voltage angles of all buses in the network, the real and reactive power flows into every line and
transformer, under the assumption of known generation and load.
During the second half of the twentieth century, and after the large technological
developments in the fields of digital computers and high-level programming languages, many
methods for solving the load flow problem have been developed, such as Gauss-Siedel (bus
impedance matrix), Newton-Raphsons (NR) and its decoupled versions. Nowadays, many
improvements have been added to all these methods involving assumptions and approximations
of the transmission lines and bus data, based on real systems conditions.
The Fast Decoupled Power Flow Method (FDPFM) is one of these improved methods,
which was based on a simplification of the Newton-Raphsons method and reported by Stott and
Alsac in 1974. This method due to its calculations simplifications, fast convergence and reliable
results became the most widely used method in load flow analysis. However, FDPFM for some
cases, where high R/X ratios or heavy loading (Low Voltage) at some buses are present, does not
converge well. For these cases, many efforts and developments have been made to overcome
these convergence obstacles. Some of them targeted the convergence of systems with high R/X
ratios, others those with low voltage buses. Though many efforts and elaborations have been
achieved in order to improve the FDPFM, this method can still attract many researchers,
especially when computers and simulations are becoming more developed and are now able to
handle and analyze large size system.
Objectives of Radial Distribution System:1. Planning, modernization and automation.

2. To provide service connection to various urban, rural and industrial consumer in the allocated
area.
3. Maximum security of supply and minimum duration of interruption.
4. Safety of consumers, utility personnel.
5. To provide electricity of accepted quality in terms of :(a) Balanced three phase supply.
(b) Good power factor.
(c) Voltage flicker within permissible limits.
(d) Less voltage dips.
(e) Minimum interruption in power supply.

Advantages of Radial Distribution System:(a) Radial distribution system is easiest and cheapest to build.
(b) The maintenance is easy.
(c) It is widely used in sparsely populated areas.
Drawback of Radial Distribution System:(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
(b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any fault
on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away
from the sub-station.
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage
fluctuations when the load on the distributor

The single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution system.

History of Distribution System
In the early days of electricity distribution, direct current DC generators were connected
to loads at the same voltage. The generation, transmission and loads had to be of the same
voltage because there was no way of changing DC voltage levels, other than inefficient motorgenerator sets.
Low DC voltages were used (on the order of 100 volts) since that was a practical voltage
for incandescent lamps, which were then the primary electrical load. The low voltage also
required less insulation to be safely distributed within buildings.
The losses in a cable are proportional to the square of the current, the length of the cable,
and the resistivity of the material, and are inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. Early
transmission networks were already using copper, which is one of the best economically feasible
conductors for this application. To reduce the current and copper required for a given quantity of
power transmitted would require a higher transmission voltage, but no convenient efficient
method existed to change the voltage level of DC power circuits. To keep losses to an
economically practical level the Edison DC system needed thick cables and local generators.
Modern Distribution System
The modern distribution system begins as the primary circuit leaves the sub-station and
ends as the secondary service enters the customer's meter socket. A variety of methods, materials,

and equipment are used among the various utility companies, but the end result is similar. First,
the energy leaves the sub-station in a primary circuit, usually with all three phases. The most
common type of primary is known as a Wye configuration (so named because of the shape of a
"Y".) The Wye configuration includes 3 phases (represented by the three outer parts of the "Y")
and a neutral (represented by the centre of the "Y".) The neutral is grounded both at the
substation and at every power pole. The other type of primary configuration is known as delta.
This method is older and less common.
Delta is so named because of the shape of the Greek letter delta, a triangle. Delta has only
3 phases and no neutral. In delta there is only a single voltage, between two phases (phase to
phase), while in Wye there are two voltages, between two phases and between a phase and 27
neutral (phase to neutral). Wye primary is safer because if one phase becomes grounded, that is,
makes connection to the ground through a person, tree, or other object, it should trip out the
circuit breaker tripping similar to a household fused cut-out system. In delta, if a phase makes
connection to ground it will continue to function normally. It takes two or three phases to make
connection to ground before the fused cut-outs will open the circuit. The voltage for this
configuration is usually 4800 volts.

Requirement of Distribution system

A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power supply within
the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a good distribution
system are: proper voltage, availability of power on demand, and reliability.
Proper Voltage:
One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage variations at
consumers terminals should be as low as possible. The changes in voltage are generally caused
due to the variation of load on the system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient
lighting and possible burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently
and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system should ensure
that the voltage variations at consumers terminals are within permissible limits. The statutory
limit of voltage variations is +10% of the rated value at the consumers terminals. Thus, if the

declared voltage is 230 V, then the highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V
while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less than 216 V.
Availability of Power Demand:
Power must be available to the consumers in any amount that they may require from time
to time. For example, motors may be started or shut down, lights may be turned on or off,
without advance warning to the electric supply company.
As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution system must be capable
of supplying load demands of the consumers. This necessitates that operating staff must
continuously study load patterns to predict in advance those major load changes that follow the
known schedules.
Reliability:
Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation. Homes and
office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by electric power. This calls for
reliable service. Unfortunately electric power, like everything else that is man-made, can never
be absolutely reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a considerable extent by (a)
inter-connected system, (b) reliable automatic control system and (c) providing additional
reserve facilities.
Classification of Distribution System
A distribution system may be classified according to:
(i) Nature of current:
According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as (a) d.c.
distribution system and (b) a.c. distribution system. Now-a-days a.c. system is universally
adopted for distribution of electric power as it is simpler and more economical than direct current
method.
(ii) Type of construction:
According to type of construction, distribution system may be classified as (a) overhead
system and (b) underground system. The overhead system is generally employed for distribution
as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper than the equivalent underground system. In general, the
underground system is used at places where overhead construction is impracticable or prohibited
by the local laws.
(iii) Scheme of connection:

According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as (a) radial
system, (b) ring main system and (c) inter-connected system. Each scheme has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Radial Distribution System
A radial system has only one power source for a group of customers. A power failure,
short-circuit, or a downed power line would interrupt power in the entire line which must be
fixed before power can be restored. The figure of Radial Distribution System is shown as :-

Radial Distribution System

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single sub-station and feed the distributors
at one end only. Figure (a) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for d.c. Distribution
where a feeder OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. Obviously, the distributors are fed at one
point only i.e. point A in this case. Figure (b) shows a single line diagram of radial system for a.c.
distribution.
The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the centre of load. This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest
initial cost.

Single Line Diagram of Radial Distribution System

Node Radial Distribution Network:-

Objectives of Radial Distribution System:1. Planning, modernization and automation.

2. To provide service connection to various urban, rural and industrial consumer in the
allocated area.
3. Maximum security of supply and minimum duration of interruption.
4. Safety of consumers, utility personnel.
5. To provide electricity of accepted quality in terms of :

Balanced three phase supply.

Good power factor.

Voltage flicker within permissible limits.

Less voltage dips.

Minimum interruption in power supply.

Advantages of Radial Distribution System:(a) Radial distribution system is easiest and cheapest to build.
(b) The maintenance is easy.
(c) It is widely used in sparsely populated areas.
Drawback of Radial Distribution System:(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
(b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any
fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault
away from the sub-station.
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

India has done a significant progress in the power generation in the country. The installed
generation capacity was 1300 megawatt (MW) at the time of Independence i.e. about 60 years
back. The total generating capacity anticipated at the end of the Tenth Plan on

31-03-2007, is

1, 44,520 MW which includes the generation through various sectors like Hydro, Thermal and
Nuclear. Emphasis is given to the renewable energy programme towards gradual
commercialization. This programme is looked after by the Ministry of Non-Conventional
Sources of energy. Since the availability of fossil fuel is on the decline therefore, in this backdrop
the norms for conventional or renewable sources of energy (RSE) is given importance not only in
India but has attracted the global attention.
The main items under RSE are as follows:
i)

Hydro Power

ii)

Solar Power

iii)

Wind Power

iv)

Bio-mass Power

v)

Energy from waste

vi)

Ocean energy

vii)

Alternative fuel for surface transportation

Evolution of power transformer technology in the country during the past five decades is

quite impressive. There are manufacturers in the country with full access to the latest technology
at the global level. Some of the manufacturers have impressive R&D set up to support the
technology.
Renewable energy is very much promoted by the Chinese Government. At the same time
as the law was passed, the Chinese Government set a target for renewable energy to contribute
10% of the countrys gross energy consumption by 2020, a huge increase from the current 1%.

It has been felt that there is rising demand for energy, food and raw materials by a
population of 2.5 billion Chinese and Indians. Both these countries have large coal dominated
energy systems in the world and the use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil releases carbon
dioxide (Co2) into the air which adds to the greenhouse gases which lead to global warming.

Renewable Energy Development in India

India has done a significant progress in the power generation in the country. The installed
generation capacity was 1300 megawatt (MW) at the time of Independence i.e. about 60 years
back. The total generating capacity anticipated at the end of the Tenth Plan on

31-03-2007, is

1, 44,520 MW which includes the generation through various sectors like Hydro, Thermal and
Nuclear. The power generation in the country is planned through funds provided by the Central
Sector, State Sector and Private Sector. The power shortages noticed is of the order of 11%. In
the opinion of the experts such short fall can be reduced through proper management and thus
almost 40% energy can be saved. It has been noticed that one watt saved at the point of
consumption is more than 1.5 watts generated. In terms of Investment it costs around Rs.40
million to generate one MW of new generation plant, but if the same Rs.40 million is spent on
conservation of energy methods, it can provide up to 3 MW of avoidable generation capacity.
There are about 80,000 villages yet to be electrified for which provision has been made to
electrify 62,000 villages from grid supply in the Tenth Plan. It is planned that participation of
decentralized power producers shall be ensured, particularly for electrification of remote villages
in which village level organizations shall play a crucial role for the rural electrification
programme.
Emphasis

is

given

to

the

renewable

energy

programme

towards

gradual

commercialization. This programme is looked after by the Ministry of Non-Conventional

Sources of energy. Simultaneously private sector investments in renewable energy sources are
also increased to promote power generation. So far an excessive reliance was preferred on the
use of fossil fuel resources like coal, oil and natural gas to meet the power requirement of the
country which was not suitable in the long run due to limited availability of the fossil fuel as well
as the adverse impact on the environment and ecology.

Since the availability of fossil fuel is on the decline therefore, in this backdrop the norms
for conventional or renewable sources of energy (RSE) is given importance not only in India but
has attracted the global attention.
The main items under RSE are as follows:
viii)

Hydro Power

ix)

Solar Power

x)

Wind Power

xi)

Bio-mass Power

xii)

Energy from waste

xiii)

Ocean energy

xiv)

Alternative fuel for surface transportation

Hydro Power:India is endowed with a large potential of hydro power, of which only 17% has been
harnessed so far. The hydro electricity is a clean and renewable source of energy. It has been felt
that there is a long gestation period in hydro projects due to delays in forest and environment
clearance, rehabilitation of the project effected people besides inter-state disputes and
construction holdups due to several reasons. Under RSE only small hydro projects are considered
since they do not require large pondage and have the capacity to provide power to remote and
hilly terrain where extension of the grid system is either

un-economic or not possible. It has

been estimated that the potential available in the country under small hydropower schemes is of
the order of 15000 MW in which the plans that are considered are up to 25 MW capacity
individually which are classified as small hydro projects under the Ministry of Non-Conventional
Sources of energy. The small hydro power stations are mostly located in hilly areas and are given
priority for local benefits to the residents which provide them gainful employment through the
energy potential.

Solar Power:The climatic condition in India provides abundant potential of solar power due to large
scale radiation available during a wider part of the year due to tropical condition in the country.
The solar power can be developed for long term use through the application of solar photovoltaic (SPV) Technology which provides a potential of 20MW per sq. Km. The other method
for Utilization of solar energy is through the adoption of solar thermal Technology. The
programmes are under way to utilize SPV by connecting to grid power systems.
It has come to notice from a report of Xinhva news agency that Shanghai, the business
capital of China, is launching a 100000 rooftop solar photo voltaic (SPV) system which would
generate 430 million KWH of electricity which would be enough to supply power to the entire
city for two days.
The other popular use is by stand- alone applications which include solar powered street
lights, domestic lights, water pumps etc. The cost of the photo SPV modules is quite expensive
which is in the range of $ 3-4 per watt, in spite of best efforts, the price could not come down in
India, China and other countries. The effort is to bring the price down to $ 1 per watt when it
may be more popular for use. The efforts to use amorphous silicon technology were cheaper but
its long terms use is not practicable. The SPV technology if cheep, would be useful for people
living in far - flung areas as extending grid would involve high cost.
The solar thermal devices are widely used in the country for various purposes such as
solar water heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers etc. There is wide scope for development of solar
thermal application for which the research is in progress. The energy obtained through Solar
Thermal route is 35 MW per sq. km.
Wind Power
The wind power development in the country is largely of recent period which has been
found to be quite impressive. As per available data, it is 5340 MW by March 31, 2006, through
wind power. Earlier it was estimated that the potential for wind power in the country was 20,000
MW which has been revised to 45000MW after collecting the data on the potential available in
the coastal and other areas of the country.
At present India is fifth in the world after Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain in terms of
wind power. It has been observed that the private sector is showing interest in setting of wind
power projects.

The unit size of wind turbine generators which were earlier in the range of 55-100 kw
are now preferred in the range of 750-1000 kw. It has been observed that the productivity of the
larger machine is higher as compared to the smaller machine. In respect of cost consideration, it
has been noticed that the cost of such a project is about Rs.40 million to Rs.50 million per MW
which includes all local civil, electrical works and erection also. The life of a wind power project
is estimated to be about 20 years.
China has guaranteed all certified renewable energy producers in its service area that the
grid will purchase their power and the price will be spread out to all the users across the grid.
According to sources, such commitments can only spur further development in the renewable
energy sector.
Bio-mass Power
There is quite a high energy potential available in the country in resources such as
firewood, agroresidues and animal wastes. These resources are mainly utilized by the rural
population of the country. It has been estimated that there is a potential to install 19500 MW
capacity through biomass conservation technologies like combustion, gasification, incineration
and also bagasse based co- generation in sugar mills. So far only around 380 MW of this
potential has been tapped and there is wide scope for expanding the size of their use for the
benefit of the majority of the rural population to meet their energy needs.
Energy from Waste
It has been estimated that there is about 30 million tones by solid waste and 4400 million
cubic meters of liquid waste generated every year in urban areas through domestic as well as
commercial establishment. The manufacturing sector also contributes high quantity of waste. It
has been estimated that through garbage there is a potential to generate 1700 MW of electricity.
However all these activities are still to be given a practical shape.
Ocean Energy
The Ocean on the earth covers about 71% of the total surface which collects and store
solar energy. If this energy is quantified in terms of Oil, it can be said that an amount of solar
radiation equivalent in heat content to about 245 billion barrels of oil is absorbed by the sea. The
energy available in the Ocean is clean, continuous and renewable. In future it would be possible
to tap energy from the sea.

Alternative fuel for surface transportation:

Hydrocarbons used as fuels for transportation are to be replaced by other eco-friendly
fuels for surface transport vehicles. Many options such as compressed natural gas (CNG), battery
powered vehicles and fuel cells are currently available.
The use of diesel in transportation in Delhi was causing pollution in the air. The
Government has adopted CNG use for all vehicles using diesel fuel, which has improved the
environment significantly
Policy followed in China.
Renewable energy is very much promoted by the Chinese Government. Earlier the
emphasis was quite low but of late it has been observed that a high priority is given to renewable
sources of energy. The new law stipulates the responsibilities of government and society in
developing and applying renewable energy. At the same time as the law was passed, the Chinese
Government set a target for renewable energy to contribute 10% of the countrys gross energy
consumption by 2020, a huge increase from the current 1% Seeing this as a future stimulus of
renewable energy development, many Chinese and international observers are very excited,
expecting a tremendous growth in the renewable energy market in the next 15 years as the result
of the implementation of this law.
The policy adopted also provides subsidies and tax credits. However, wind power
development in China has lagged far behind the world leaders in the past 10 years The total
installed capacity only hit 769 MW recently, whereas, in India, the second largest developing
country, the total capacity is 5340 MW. Between 1999 and 2002, only 211 MW was installed in
China, while globally, 18,000 MW was added during the same period.
Transformer Technology
Transformers were first used in India in 1897 to light Darjeeling Municipal area. The
commercial production of transformers commenced. in 1936 at Government Electrical factory,
Bangalore. Later on new companies have started production and improvement in the
Transformer Technology. When transformer factories were set up in 1960s there were no vendors
in the country to supply processed raw materials and accessories.
Evolution of power transformer technology in the country during the past five decades is
quite impressive.

There are manufacturers in the country with full access to the latest technology at the
global level. Some of the manufacturers have impressive R&D set up to support the technology.
Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformer
Huge amount of energy has been lost due to no-load loss of transformer core. Energy
efficient transformer such as AMDT can effectively lower such energy wastage and at the same
time reduce green house gases emission.
Reliability in distribution system can be brought about by incorporating following steps.
Use transformers, which have minimum maintenance problems.
Improve power factor of the system.
Ensure proper protection to the system.
Neutral grounding system should be effective.
Introduce maintenance free equipment like Vacuum Circuit Breakers for all 11 KV
feeders with auto re-closers.
Undertake preventive maintenance and avoid emergencies.
Global warming and climate change
It has been felt that there is raising demand for energy, food and raw materials by a
population of 2.5 billion Chinese and Indians. Both these countries have large coal dominated
energy systems in the world and the use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil releases carbon
dioxide (Co2) into the air which adds to the greenhouse gases which lead to global warming. At
present US is the largest contributor of Co 2 emissions but the development in India and China is
going to increase their share in emission of such a gas. According to Kyoto Protocol this has to
be controlled. Climate change shall be a cause of extinction of many bird varieties and other
animals on the earth.
Renewable source of energy is the best solution for such a problem in the world. Both
India and China are trying to develop their technology in this regard.

India has the worlds fourth largest wind power industry, while China is the global leader
in harnessing solar energy for hot water.
Wind Power could generate almost 29 percent of the worlds electricity by 2030 and was
growing faster than any other clean energy source, a wind business group and environmental
lobby Greenpeace said. At good locations wind can compete with the cost of both coal and gasfired Power the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) and Greenpeace said in a study, Global
Wind Energy Outlook 2006.The two said that wind, which now accounts for 0.8 percent of the
worlds electricity supply, was expanding faster than other renewable energies such as solar,
geothermal or tidal power in a shift from fossil fuels.
There have been cases of farmers committing suicides due to poverty and failure of crop
in some parts of India. A World Bank study released has found a correlation between climate
change and farmer suicides. It says poor farmers who are unable to adapt to changing climates
fall into debt and later, death traps. It can be surmised that energy development should be
preferable by adopting measures which does not give rise to greenhouse gasses as it would effect
change in climate leading to overall difficulties to the people who are accustomed to the climate
as prevailing on the earth.

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS
Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge
topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in power
supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static power topologies,
such as for instance, the multi cell configurations that are reviewed in Section 14.7. The main
features of both approaches are reviewed and presented in the following.
HALF-BRIDGE VSI
Figure 14.2 shows the power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors
are required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage
vi=2. Because the current harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order
harmonics, a set of large capacitors (C. and C) is required. It is clear that both switches S.
And S cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage
source vi would be produced. There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3)
switch state as shown in Table 14.1. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the
undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at
any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.

FIGURE 14.2 Single-phase half-bridge VSI.

TABLE 14.1 Switch states for a half-bridge single-phase VSI

Figure shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 14.2.
The states for the switches S. and S are defined by the modulating technique, which in this case
is a carrier-based PWM.
The Carrier-Based Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Technique:
As mentioned earlier, it is desired that the ac output voltage. Va N follow a given
waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a continuous basis by properly switching the power valves. The
carrier-based PWM technique fulfils such a requirement as it defines the on and off states of the
switches of one leg of a VSI by comparing a modulating signal Vc (desired ac output voltage)
and a triangular waveform VD (carrier signal). In practice, when Vc > VD the switch S. is on and
the switch is off; similarly, when Vc < VD the switch S. is off and the switch S is on.
A special case is when the modulating signal Vc is a sinusoidal at frequency fc and
amplitude ^vc , and the triangular signal vD is at frequency f D and amplitude ^vD. This is the
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) scheme. In this case, the modulation index ma (also known as the
amplitude-modulation ratio) is defined as

. (14.1)
And the normalized carrier frequency mf (also known as the frequency-modulation ratio) is
.. (14.2)
Figure 14.3(e) clearly shows that the ac output voltage

is basically a sinusoidal

waveform plus harmonics, which features: (a) the amplitude of the fundamental component of
the ac output voltage

satisfying the following expression

.. (14.3)

FIGURE 14.3 The half-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the SPWM: (a) carrier and modulating
signals; (b) switch S. state; (c) Switch S state; (d) ac output voltage; (e) ac output voltage
spectrum; (f) ac output current; (g) dc current; (h) dc current spectrum; (i) switch S+ current; (j)
diode + current.
will be discussed later); (b) for odd values of the normalized carrier frequency mf the harmonics
in the ac output voltage appear at normalized frequencies fh centered around mf and its
multiples, specifically,
(14.4)
Where k = 2; 4; 6; . . . for l = 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k = 1; 3; 5; . . . for l = 2; 4; 6; . . . ; (c) the
amplitude of the ac output voltage harmonics is a function of the modulation index ma and is
independent of the normalized carrier frequency mf form f > 9; (d) the harmonics in the dc link
current (due to the modulation) appear at normalized frequencies fp centered around the
normalized carrier frequency mf and its multiples, specifically,
. (14.5)
where k = 2; 4; 6; . . . for l = 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k = 1; 3; 5; . .for l= 2; 4; 6; . . . . Additional
important issues are: (a) for small values of mf (mf < 21), the carrier signal vD and the

modulating signal vc should be synchronized to each other(mf integer), which is required to hold
the previous features; if this is not the case, sub harmonics will be present in the ac output
voltage; (b) for large values of mf (mf > 21), the sub harmonics are negligible if an asynchronous
PWM

FIGURE 14.4 Fundamental ac component of the output voltage in a half-bridge VSI SPWM
modulated.
Technique is used, however, due to potential very low-order sub harmonics, its use should be
avoided; finally (c) in the Over modulation region (ma > 1) some intersections between the
carrier and the modulating signal are missed, which leads to the generation of low-order
harmonics but a higher fundamental ac output voltage is obtained; unfortunately, the linearity
between ma and

achieved in the linear region Eq. (14.3) does not hold in the over modulation

region, moreover, a saturation effect can be observed (Fig. 14.4).

The PWM technique allows an ac output voltage to be generated that tracks a given
modulating signal. A special case is the SPWM technique (the modulating signal is a sinusoidal)
that provides in the linear region an ac output voltage that varies linearly as a function of the
modulation index and the harmonics are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes. These
features simplify the design of filtering components. Unfortunately, the maximum amplitude of
the fundamental ac voltage is vi=2 in this operating mode. Higher voltages are obtained by using

the over modulation region (ma > 1); however, low-order harmonics appear in the ac output
voltage. Very large values of the modulation index (ma > 3:24) lead to a totally square ac output
voltage that is considered as the square-wave modulating technique that is discussed in the next
section.

FIGURE 14.5 The half-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the square-wave modulating technique:
(a) ac output voltage; (b) ac output voltage spectrum.
Square-Wave Modulating Technique
Both switches S. and S are on for one-half cycle of the ac output period. This is
equivalent to the SPWM technique with an infinite modulation index ma. Figure 14.5 shows the
following: (a) the normalized ac output voltage harmonics are at frequencies h = 3; 5; 7; 9; . . . ,
and for a given dc link voltage; (b) the fundamental ac output voltage features amplitude given
by

(14.6)
And the harmonics feature an amplitude given by
.. (14.7)
It can be seen that the ac output voltage cannot be changed by the inverter. However, it
could be changed by controlling the dc link voltage vi . Other modulating techniques that are
applicable to half-bridge configurations (e.g., selective harmonic elimination) are reviewed here
as they can easily be extended to modulate other topologies.

Selective Harmonic Elimination:

The main objective is to obtain a sinusoidal ac output voltage waveform where the
fundamental component can be adjusted arbitrarily within a range and the intrinsic harmonics

selectively eliminated. This is achieved by mathematically generating the exact instant of the
turn-on and turn-off of the power valves. The ac output voltage features odd half- and quarter
wave symmetry; therefore, even harmonics are not present (voh = 0; h = 2; 4; 6; . . .). Moreover,
the per-phase voltage waveform (vo = vaN in Fig. 14.2), should be chopped N times per halfcycle in order to adjust the fundamental and eliminate N -1 harmonics in the ac output voltage
waveform. For instance, to eliminate the third and fifth harmonics and to perform fundamental
magnitude control (N = 3), the equations to be solved are the following:

(14.8)
Where the angles

, and

are defined as shown in Fig. 14.6a. The angles are found

by means of iterative algorithms as no analytical solutions can be derived. The angles

and

are plotted for different values of

=vi in Fig. 14.7a. The general expressions to

eliminate an even N -1 (N -1 = 2; 4; 6; . . .) numbers of harmonics are

.. (14.9)

FIGURE 14.7 Chopping angles for SHE and fundamental voltage control in half-bridge VSIs: (a)
third and fifth harmonic elimination; (b) third, fifth, and seventh harmonic elimination.

Where

should satisfy

similarly, to eliminate

an odd number of harmonics, for instance, the third, fifth and seventh, and to perform
fundamental magnitude control (N-1 = 3), the equations to be solved are:

(14.10)
Where the angles
and

, and

are defined as shown in Fig. 14.6b. The angles

are plotted for different values of

in Fig. 14.7b. The general expressions to

eliminate an odd N-1 (N-1 = 3; 5; 7; . . .) number of harmonics is given by

. (14.11)
Where

should satisfy

Full-Bridge VSI

FIGURE 14.8 Single-phase full-bridge VSI.

Figure 14.8 shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the
half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As expected,

both switches

and

(or

and

) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit

across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There are four defined (states 1, 2, 3, and
4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states as shown in Table 14.2.
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the ac
output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output
voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that either the top or the bottom
switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take
values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies.
Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-bridge VSIs.
Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.
TABLE 14.2 Switch states for a full-bridge single-phase VSI

Bipolar PWM Technique

States 1 and 2 (Table 14.2) are used to generate the ac output voltage in this approach.
Thus, the ac output voltage waveform features only two values, which are vi and -vi. To generate
the states, a carrier-based technique can be used as in half-bridge configurations (Fig. 14.3),
where only one sinusoidal modulating signal has been used. It should be noted that the on state in
switch

in the half-bridge corresponds to both switches

the full-bridge configuration. Similarly,

switches

and

and

being in the on state in

in the on state in the half-bridge corresponds to both

being in the on state in the full-bridge configuration. This is called bipolar

carrier-based SPWM. The ac output voltage waveform in a full-bridge VSI is basically a

sinusoidal waveform that features a fundamental component of amplitude

that satisfies the

expression
.. (14.15)
In the linear region of the modulating technique (ma

1), which is twice that obtained

in the half-bridge VSI. Identical conclusions can be drawn for the frequencies and amplitudes of
the harmonics in the ac output voltage and dc link current, and for operations at smaller and
larger values of odd mf (including the over modulation region (ma > 1)), than in half bridge
VSIs, but considering that the maximum ac output voltage is the dc link voltage vi . Thus, in the
over modulation region the fundamental component of amplitude

satisfies the expression

. (14.16)
In contrast to the bipolar approach, the unipolar PWM technique uses the states 1, 2, 3,
and to generate the ac output voltage. Thus, the ac output voltage waveform can instantaneously
take one of three values, namely
generate

the signal vc is used to generate van, and

.On

the

other

is used to

hand,

thus

This is called unipolar carrier-based PWM.

Identical conclusions can be drawn for the amplitude of the fundamental component and
harmonics in the ac output voltage and dc link current, and for operations at smaller and larger
values of mf, (including the over modulation region (ma > 1)), than in full-bridge VSIs
modulated by the bipolar SPWM. However, because the phase voltages
identical but 180_ out of phase, the output voltage

are

will not contain even

harmonics. Thus, if mf is taken even, the harmonics in the ac output voltage appear at normalized
odd frequencies fh centered around twice the normalized carrier frequency mf and its multiples.
Specifically
(14.17)
where k =1; 3; 5; . . . and the harmonics in the dc link current appear at normalized frequencies
fp centered around twice the normalized carrier frequency mf and its multiples. Specifically,

 (14.18)
where k = 1; 3; 5; . . .. This feature is considered to be an advantage because it allows the use of
smaller filtering components to obtain high-quality voltage and current waveforms while using
the same switching frequency as in VSIs modulated by the bipolar approach.

Selective Harmonic Elimination:

In contrast to half-bridge VSIs, this approach is applied in a per-line fashion for fullbridge VSIs. The ac output voltage features odd half- and quarter-wave symmetry; therefore,
even harmonics are not present
waveform

Moreover, the ac output voltage

in Fig. 14.8), should feature N pulses per half-cycle in order to adjust the

fundamental component and eliminate N 1 harmonics. For instance, to eliminate the third, fifth
and seventh harmonics and to perform fundamental magnitude control (N . 4), the equations to
be solved are:

. (17.19)
The general expressions to eliminate an arbitrary N

number of harmonics

are given by

. (17.20)
Where

should satisfy

Shows a special case where only the fundamental ac output voltage is controlled. This is known
as output control by voltage cancellation, which derives from the fact that its implementation is
easily attainable by using two phase-shifted square-wave switching signals as shown in

FIGURE 14.9 The full-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the unipolar SPWM :(a) carrier and
modulating signals; (b) switch
state; (c) switch . state; (d) ac output voltage; (e) ac output
voltage spectrum; (f) ac output current; (g) dc current; (h) dc current spectrum; (i) switch
current; (j) diode
current.

FIGURE 14.10 The half-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the SHE technique: (a) ac output
voltage for third, fifth, and seventh harmonic elimination; (b) spectrum of (a); (c) ac output
voltage for fundamental control; (d) spectrum of (c).

FIGURE 14.11 Chopping angles for SHE and fundamental voltage control in half-bridge VSIs:
(a) fundamental control and third, fifth, and seventh harmonic elimination; (b) fundamental
control.
Thus, the amplitude of the fundamental component and harmonics in the ac output voltage are
given by

(14.21)
It can also be observed in Fig. 14.12c that for

square wave operation is achieved. In this

case, the fundamental a output voltage is given by

. (14.22)
Where the fundamental load voltage can be controlled by the manipulation of the dc link voltage.

FIGURE 14.12 The full-bridge VSI. Ideal waveforms for the output control by voltage
cancellation: (a) switch
state; (b) switch state; (c) ac output voltage; (d) ac output voltage
spectrum.

MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:
The proposed system consists of RES connected to the dc-link of a grid-interfacing
inverter as shown in Fig. 1. The voltage source inverter is a key element of a DG system as it
interfaces the renewable energy source to the grid and delivers the generated power. The RES
may be a DC source or an AC source with rectifier coupled to dc-link. Usually, the fuel cell and
photovoltaic energy sources generate power at variable low dc voltage, while the variable speed
wind turbines generate power at variable ac voltage. Thus, the power generated from these
renewable sources needs power conditioning (i.e., dc/dc or ac/dc) before connecting on dc-link.
The dc-capacitor decouples the RES from grid and also allows independent control of converters
on either side of dc-link.

Fig.1. Schematic of proposed renewable based distributed generation system

A. DC-Link Voltage and Power Control Operation:

Due to the intermittent nature of RES, the generated power is of variable nature. The dclink plays an important role in transferring this variable power from renewable energy source to
the grid. RES are represented as current sources connected to the dc-link of a grid-interfacing
inverter.

Fig. 2 shows the systematic representation of power transfer from the renewable energy
resources to the grid via the dc-link. The current injected by renewable into dc-link at voltage
level

can be given as

Fig. 2. DC-Link equivalent diagram.

..................... (1)
Where

is the power generated from RES.

The current flow on the other side of dc-link can be represented as,

. (2)
Where

and

are total power available at grid-interfacing inverter side,

active power supplied to the grid and inverter losses, respectively. If inverter losses are negligible
then

B. Control of Grid Interfacing Inverter:

Fig.3. Block diagram representation of grid-interfacing inverter control.

The control diagram of grid- interfacing inverter for a 3-phase 4-wire system is shown in
Fig. 3. The fourth leg of inverter is used to compensate the neutral current of load. The main aim
of proposed approach is to regulate the power at PCC during: 1)

; 2) PRES< total load

power (PL) ; and 3) PRES > PL. While performing the power management operation, the inverter is
actively controlled in such a way that it always draws/ supplies fundamental active power from/
to the grid. If the load connected to the PCC is non-linear or unbalanced or the combination of
both, the given control approach also compensates the harmonics, unbalance, and neutral current.
The duty ratio of inverter switches are varied in a power cycle such that the combination of load
and inverter injected power appears as balanced resistive load to the grid. The regulation of dclink voltage carries the information regarding the exchange of active power in between
renewable source and grid. Thus the output of dc-link voltage regulator results in an active
current Im. The multiplication of active current component (Im) with unity grid voltage vector
templates (Ua, Ub and Uc) generates the reference grid currents (I a* , Ib* and Ic*). The reference
grid neutral current (In*) is set to zero, being the instantaneous sum of balanced grid currents. The
grid synchronizing angle () obtained from phase locked loop (PLL) is used to generate unity
vector template.
. (3)
. (4)
. (5)
The actual dc-link voltage (Vdc) is sensed and passed through a first-order low pass filter (LPF)
to eliminate the presence of switching ripples on the dc-link voltage and in the generated
reference current signals. The difference of this filtered dc-link voltage and reference dc-link
voltage (Vdc*) is given to a discrete- PI regulator to maintain a constant dc-link voltage under
varying generation and load conditions. The dc-link voltage error (Vdcerr (n)) at nth sampling instant
is given as:
.. (6)
The output of discrete-PI regulator at nth sampling instant is expressed as
(7)

Where

and

are proportional and integral gains of dc-voltage

regulator. The instantaneous values of reference three phase grid currents are computed as
. (8)
.. (9)
. (10)
The neutral current, present if any, due to the loads connected to the neutral conductor should be
compensated by forth leg of grid-interfacing inverter and thus should not be drawn from the grid.
In other words, the reference current for the grid neutral current is considered as zero and can be
expressed as
(11)
The reference grid currents (Ia* , Ib* ,Ic* and In*)are compared with actual grid currents
(Ia* , Ib* ,Ic* and In*) to compute the current errors as
. (12)
(13)
. (14)
. (15)
These current errors are given to hysteresis current controller. The hysteresis controller then
generates the switching pulses (P1 to Pg ) for the gate drives of grid-interfacing inverter. The
average model of 4-leg inverter can be obtained by the following state space equations
.. (16)
.. (17)

(18)
. (19)
. (20)

Where

, and

are the three-phase ac switching voltages generated on the

output terminal of inverter. These inverter output voltages can be modeled in terms of
instantaneous dc bus voltage and switching pulses of the inverter as
. (21)
.. (22)
.. (23)
(24)
Similarly the charging currents

, and

on dc bus due to the

each leg of inverter can be expressed as

.. (25)
.. (26)
. (27)
. (28)
The switching pattern of each IGBT inside inverter can be formulated On the basis of error
between actual and reference current of inverter, which can be explained as:
If
will be ON
will be ON

, then upper switch

will be OFF

in the phase a leg of inverter. If

and lower switch

will be OFF

and lower switch

, then upper switch
in the phase a leg of

inverter.
Where hb is the width of hysteresis band. On the same principle, the switching pulses for
the other remaining three legs can be derived.

MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

Fig. Simulation results: (a) Grid voltages, (b) Grid Currents (c) Unbalanced
load currents, (d) Inverter Currents

Fig. Simulation results: (a) PQ-Grid, (b) PQ-Load, (c) PQ-Inverter,

(d) dc-link voltage.

CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a novel control of an existing grid interfacing inverter to
improve the quality of power at PCC for a 3-phase 4-wireDGsystem. It has been shown that the
grid-interfacing inverter can be effectively utilized for power conditioning without affecting its
normal operation of real power transfer. The grid-interfacing inverter with the proposed approach
can be utilized to:
i) Inject real power generated from RES to the grid, and/or,
ii) Operate as a shunt Active Power Filter (APF). This approach thus eliminates the need for
additional power conditioning equipment to improve the quality of power at PCC. Extensive
MATLAB/Simulink simulation as well as the DSP based experimental results have validated the
proposed approach and have shown that the grid-interfacing inverter can be utilized as a multifunction device.
It is further demonstrated that the PQ enhancement can be achieved under three different
scenarios: 1) PRES=0, 2) PRES < PLoad, and 3) PRES > PLoad. The current unbalance, current harmonics
and load reactive power, due to unbalanced and non-linear load connected to the PCC, are
compensated effectively such that the grid side currents are always maintained as balanced and
sinusoidal at unity power factor. Moreover, the load neutral current is prevented from flowing
into the grid side by compensating it locally from the fourth leg of inverter. When the power
generated from RES is more than the total load power demand, the grid-interfacing inverter with
the proposed control approach not only fulfills the total load active and reactive power demand
(with harmonic compensation) but also delivers the excess generated sinusoidal active power to
the grid at unity power factor.

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