OSCILLATORY MOTION

Hookes Law

2. Period

Fs kx
F restoring force (N)
k spring constant (N/m)
x displacement (m)
Simple Harmonic Motion
A. Spring-Mass System
1. Angular Frequency

At 20C, the velocity of sound in air

is 343 m/s

2
I
2

k spring constant (N/m)

m mass (kg)

Temperature Conversion
3. Intensity of a Wave
Celsius to Fahrenheit

P
I av 2
4r

WAVE MOTION

Fahrenheit to Celsius

1. Frequency of a Wave

1
f
T

I
10 log
I0
sound level (dB)

2
k

2
m
2

3. Frequency of oscillation

1 1 k

T 2 m

4. Maximum velocity

v max A
5. Maximum acceleration

amax 2 A
angular freq. (rad/s)
A amplitude (m)
6. Total Mechanical Energy

1 2
kA
2

v f
6. Speed of a Wave on a String

5. General Doppler Shift

Equation

Change in Length Due to

Thermal Expansion

2. Period

2
L
T
2

g
C. Torsional Pendulum
1. Angular frequency

tosional constant
I moment of inertia
of the object

f'
f
v0
vs

Doppler frequency
frequency of the sound
velocity of the object
velocity of the source

Sign conventions for v0 and vs is

positive if towards the other and
negative if away from the other
In digital sound recording, the
sampling rate is 44.1 kHz.

2L
n

v tension (N)
mass per unit length
of the string (kg/m)

L length of the string

n nth normal mode

7. Power of a Wave

Normal Frequency of Normal

Modes

1
2 A2 v
2

fn

Sound Waves

L length (m)

v v0
f '
f
v vs

Wavelength of Normal Modes

T
v

1. Speed of Sound Waves in a

Medium

g
L

5. Speed of a Sinusoidal Wave

B. Simple Pendulum
1. Angular frequency

y A sin kx t

B Bulk modulus
of the medium (Pa)
density of the
medium (kg/m3 )
v velocity (m / s)
2. Speed of Sound in Air with
Temperature

v 331 1

fn

v
v
n
n
2L
n T
2L

For the fundamental frequency

where n = 1

TC
273

5
TF 32
9

Celsius to Kelvin

2f
T
4. Wave Function of a
Sinusoidal Wave

TC

I sound intensity (W/m2 )

I0 threshold of hearing
(10-12 W / m2 )

3. Angular Frequency
2. Period of Oscillation

9
TF TC 32
5

4. Sound Level

Sinusoidal Waves

2. Angular Wave Number

angular frequency (rad/s)

THERMODYNAMICS

fn

1 T
2L

Beat Frequency

fbeat f1 f2

TK TC 273.15

L Li T
coefficient of linear expansion
Li initial length of the object
T change in temperature
Change in Volume Due to
Thermal Expansion

V Vi T
coefficient of volume expansion
Li initial volume of the object
T change in temperature
Relationship between the
number of moles and mass

m
M

n number of moles
m mass of the gass
M molar mass of the gas
Equation of State of an Ideal Gas

PV nRT
R universal gas constant
J
8.314
mol K
L atm
0.0821
mol K

The volume occupied by 1 mole of

any gas at STP is called the molar
volume and is equal to 22.4 L.
Boltzmanns Constant

kB

R
J
1.38 1023
NA
K

Heat is the transfer of energy across

the boundary of a system resulting
from a temperature difference
between the system and its
surroundings.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

RT
v
M

1 cal = 4.186 J

The heat capacity C of any sample is

the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of the sample
by 1C.

W P(V )

where CV is the molar specific heat

at constant volume.

For an isovolumetric process

Specific Heat
The specific heat c of a substance is
the heat capacity per unit mass:

Q
c
mT

Q mcT

For an isothermal process

Q W

W nRT ln

Vi
Vf

The Law of Thermal Conduction

Calorimetry
A calorie is the amount of energy
necessary to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water from 14.5C to
15.5C.
The amount of heat lost is equal to
the heat gained.

Qcold Qhot

dT
P kA
dx
P power (rate of energy
transfer by heat)
k thermal conductivity
dT
temperature gradient
dx

For a rod of length L

When energy leaves a system, the

energy is designated as negative.
When it is entering the system, it is
positive.
Latent Heat
The energy required to change the
phase of a pure substance of mass
m is

Q mL
m mass of the gas
L latent heat

T T
P kA h c
L

Lf = Latent heat of fusion

Lv = Latent heat of vaporization
Work Done on a Gas
Vf

W PdV
Vi

First Law of Thermodynamics

U Q W
The change in the internal energy of
a system is the sum of the energy
transferred into the system by heat
and the work done on the system.
For a cyclic process:

U 0

Q W

For an adiabatic process:

U W

For an adiabatic free expansion

Q W U 0

For a constant pressure process

Q nCPT
W P(V )

U nCPT PV
where CP is the molar specific heat
at constant pressure.
For any ideal gas, CP CV = R.
For all monatomic gases, CP 52 R
Ratio of molar specific heat for a
monatomic ideal gas

CP 5

CV 3

In an adiabatic process, no energy

is transferred by heat between a
system and its surroundings.

Stefans Law

P AeT 4
P power radiated in watts
5.67 10-8 W/m2 K 4
A surface area of the object
in m2
e emissivity
T absolute temperature in K
The temperature is a direct measure
of average molecular kinetic energy.

For water:
Lf = 80 cal/g
Lv = 540 cal/g

Total Translational Kinetic Energy

of N Molecules of a Gas Sample

3
K tot nRT
2
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Speed
of Gas Molecules

v rms

Most probable speed of the

molecules in a gas

v mp 1.41

For all monatomic gases CV 32 R

U Q

U 0

Energy required to change the

temperature of an object

Q 0

U Q nCv T

For an isobaric process:

3RT
M

where M is the molar mass of the

gas in kg/mol equal to mNA.

For an adiabatic process involving

an ideal gas

PV constant
For diatomic gases
CV 52 R
CP CV R 72 R

CP 7

CV 5

density, 1.29 kg/m3 at STP

molar mass, M 29 g/mol
gas constant, R 287 J/kg K
53.35 ft lbf /lbm R

What is a Heat Engine?

A heat engine is a device that takes
in energy by heat2 and, operating in
a cyclic process, expels a fraction of
that energy by means of work.
The net work Weng done by a heat
engine is equal to the net energy
Qnet transferred to it.
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of a heat
engine is the ratio of the net work
done by the engine during one cycle
to the energy input at the higher
temperature during the cycle

Weng
Qh

Qh Qc
Qh

Qc
Qh

KelvinPlanck form of the second

law of thermodynamics
It is impossible to construct a heat
engine that, operating in a cycle,
produces no effect other than the
input of energy by heat from a
reservoir and the performance of an
equal amount of work.
What is a Heat Pump?

The probability of finding the

molecules in a particular energy
state varies exponentially as the
negative of the energy divided by
kBT.
It describes the distribution of
particles among available energy
states.

nV (E ) n0e E kBT

The internal energy of an ideal gas

depends only on the temperature.
Internal Energy of an Ideal
Monatomic gas

Average speed of the molecules

in a gas

For a constant volume process, the

work done is zero and the change in
the internal energy is equal to the
energy transferred by heat.

Properties of Air

Boltzmann Distribution Law

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
function describes the distribution of
speeds of molecules in a gas.

3
U nRT
2

kBT
m0

v avg 1.60

kBT
m0

A heat pump or refrigerator is a

device that transfers energy from
cold reservoir to hot reservoir.
Clausius Statement of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics
It is impossible to construct a cyclical
machine whose sole effect is to
transfer energy continuously by heat
from one object to another object at
a higher temperature without the
input of energy by work.
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
of a Heat Pump

COP (cooling mode)

COP (cooling mode)

Qc
W

Tc
Th Tc

Carnots Theorem
No real heat engine operating
between two energy reservoirs can
be more efficient than a Carnot

engine operating between the same

two reservoirs.
All real engines are less efficient
than the Carnot engine because they
do not operate through a reversible
cycle.
Efficiency of a Carnot engine

e 1

Tc
Th

COP of a Carnot Engine

Tc
Th Tc

Th
COP (heating mode)
Th Tc
For a Carnot engine

Qc
Qh

Tc
Th

Entropy statement of the second

law of thermodynamics
The entropy of the Universe
increases in all real processes.
If dQr is the amount of energy
transferred by heat when the system
follows a reversible path between
the states, the change in entropy dS
is equal to this amount of energy for
the reversible process divided by the
absolute temperature of the system:

dS

dQr
T

Qr
T

S kB lnW
where W is the number of
microstates of the system
corresponding to the macrostate.

For a Carnot engine operating in a

cycle, the change in entropy is zero.

The laws of mechanics must be the

same in all inertial frames of
reference.
Einsteins Postulates on Relativity
1. The principle of relativity: The
laws of physics must be the same in
all inertial reference frames.
2. The constancy of the speed of
light: The speed of light in vacuum
has the same value, c = 3.00 x 108
m/s, in all inertial frames, regardless
of the velocity of the observer or the
velocity of the source emitting the
light.
Time Dilation

The total entropy of an isolated

system that undergoes a change
cannot decrease.
Furthermore, for an irreversible
process, the total entropy of an
isolated system always increases. In
a reversible process, the total
entropy of an isolated system
remains constant.
Entropy change in a free
expansion

Vf
S nR ln
Vi

Lorentz velocity Transformation

equation

u 'x

The time interval t measured by an

observer moving with respect to a
clock is longer than the time interval
tp measured by an observer at rest
with respect to the clock. This effect
is known as time dilation.

t p

v2
1 2
c
1

t p

v2
c2

where tp is called the proper time.

In general, the proper time interval is
the time interval between two events
measured by an observer who sees
the events occur at the same point in
space.

The proper length Lp of an object is

the length measured by someone at
rest relative to the object. The length
of an object measured by someone
in a reference frame that is moving
with respect to the object is always
less than the proper length. This
effect is known as length contraction.
If an object has a proper length Lp
when it is measured by an observer
at rest with respect to the object, its
length L when it moves with speed v
in a direction parallel to its length is
measured to be shorter.

ux v
uv
1 x2
c

where ux is the x component of the

velocity of an object measured in the
S frame and ux is the velocity of the
object measured in the S frame.
Relativistic Kinetic Energy

mc 2
v2
1 2
c

mc 2

The total energy of a particle

mc 2
1

v
c2

mc 2

The rest energy of a particle

Length Contraction
In terms of entropy, the second law
of thermodynamics can be stated as:

Length contraction takes place only

along the direction of motion.

Relativity
The Principle of Galilean Relativity

All Carnot engines operating

between the same two temperatures
have the same efficiency.

COP (cooling mode)

Microscopic definition of Entropy

Lp

Lp 1

v2
c2

ER mc 2
The relativistic linear momentum

E 2 P2c 2 (mc 2 )2