Turning Effect of Forces

If a body under the action of a net external force is allowed to rotate about a

pivot, the body will tend to turn in the direction of the applied force.

Examples of turning effect of force:

 A person pushing a swing will make the swing rotate about its pivot.
 A worker applies a force to a spanner to rotate a nut.
 A person removes a bottle’s cork by pushing down the bottle opener’s
lever.
 A force is applied to a door knob and the door swings open about its hinge.
 A driver can turn a steering wheel by applying a force on its rim.

Moment Of A Force
The moment of a force or torque, r is defined as the turning effect of the force
about a pivot and is the product of the force (F) and the perpendicular distance
(d) from the line of action of the force to the pivot.
 SI unit of moment of a force is Newton-metre (Nm). It is a vector quantity.
 Its direction is given by the right-hand grip rule perpendicular to the plane
of the force and pivot point which is parallel to the axis of rotation.

r= F x d
,where
r is the moment of force/torque
F is the force
d is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot

Couple

A couple is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, whose

lines of motion do not coincide.

 Will still rotate as there is a net moment

 As forces are equal and opposite, resultant force is zero and so there is no
linear acceleration
  r= F×d
Torque (Moment of a couple) is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between their lines of action of the forces.

 Can take moment from any point

Rotational Equilibrium
Equilibrium
A rigid body is considered to be in equilibrium, if there is:
 Translational equilibrium; AND
 Rotational Equilibrium.
A body in equilibrium experiences NO acceleration and will remain in equilibrium
indefinitely, UNLESS it is disturbed by an external force. (Newton’s First Law)
Translational Equilibrium

Translational equilibrium is obtained when the resultant force or vector sum

of all forces acting upon the rigid body is zero. In simpler terms, this means that:
 forces pointing to left = forces pointing to right; AND
 forces pointing up = forces pointing down
Rotational Equilibrium (Principle Of Moments)

Rotational equilibrium is obtained when the algebraic sum of the torques

is zero.
However, it can also be interpreted as:

The principle of moments states that for a body to be in rotational equilibrium, the
sum of clockwise torques about any point (which acts as a pivot) must equal to
the sum of anti-clockwise torques about the same point.

Sum of clockwise torques = sum of anti-clockwise torques

Recap: Torque = moment of force

Summary
In summary, the conditions for object to be in equilibrium:

1. The sum of moments about any point is zero. (Rotational equilibrium –

Principle of moments)
2. The vector sum of forces on object is zero. (Translational equilibrium)

Centre Of Gravity 
It is useful in certain calculations to consider an imaginary point in a body of
matter where, the total mass or weight of the body seems to concentrate at. The
imaginary point is termed as the centre of mass.
Definition: The centre of mass of a body of matter is an imaginary point at
which the entire mass of the body seems to act.
The centre of gravity of a body of matter is an imaginary point at which the
entire weight of the body seems to act.

 When a body is in an uniform gravitational field, its centre of gravity is also

its centre of mass.
  The location of a body’s centre of gravity may coincide with the
geometrical centre of the body, especially in a symmetrically shaped body
composed of homogenous material.
 For hollow bodies or irregularly shaped objects, the centre of gravity (or
centre of mass) may occur in space at a point external to the physical
material (the centre of gravity can lie OUTSIDE the object!) – for example,
in the centre of a tennis ball or between the legs of a chair.

Note: Although the term centre of gravity is widely used, the same imaginary
point in a body may also be called the centre of mass, since weight and mass are
proportional in an uniform gravitational field. Because the centre of mass does
not require a gravitational field, many physicists prefer the term centre of mass to
centre of gravity.

Example: The centre of mass of an uniform rod is the centre of the rod.

Centre of gravity of common shapes:

Stability and States of Equilibrium
Stability refers to the ability of a body to restore to its original static equilibrium,
after it has been slightly displaced.

 A body in equilibrium experiences neither linear acceleration nor turning

effect and, unless disturbed by an outside force, will continue in that
condition indefinitely. (Newton’s First Law)

States of Equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium

A equilibrium is said to be stable if small, externally induced displacements from

that state produce forces or torques that tend to oppose the displacement and
return the body to its original equilibrium.
Example: A hanging pendulum or a brick lying on a level plane.
Unstable Equilibrium

An equilibrium is said to be unstable if the least departures produce forces or

torques that tend to increase the displacement.
Example: A rule standing on its end or a ball standing on top of an inverted bowl.
 Neutral Equilibrium

An equilibrium is said to be neutral if small, externally induced displacements

from that state does not produce any unbalanced forces or torques that tend to
oppose or aggravate the displacement and the body remains in its new
equilibrium.
Example: A ball or a pencil lying on a level surface.
Summary of Different States of Equilibrium
  Stable Unstable Neutral

1 line of contact or point(s) of

Base Area Large Small
contact with surface

Height of C.G. Low High –

Slight displacement from Return to original Topple

Stay in new position
equilibrium position position over

Criteria of Stable Bodies

Stable bodies tend to have:
 Low centre of gravity
 Wide base area

Hence, the stablity of an object can be improved by:

 Lowering its centre of gravity

 Increasing the base area