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Received 29 March 2011
Received in revised form
25 February 2012
Accepted 29 February 2012
This paper investigates evidence for subsistence and settlement activities in the Levantine Middle Epipalaeolithic through the application of stable isotope analysis to human and non-human remains from
the site of Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan. In general, bone from the site suffers a high degree of
diagenesis and collagen could not be extracted for analysis here. Carbon and oxygen isotopic values from
human tooth enamel samples were variable, but within expected values for the Middle Epipalaeolithic,
whereas animal carbon and oxygen isotopic values varied widely, most likely due to hydrological and
climatological factors. Carbon and isotopic values for the human samples indicated a predominantly C3
plant dietary input, while animal samples appeared to have varying amounts of C4 inputs into their diet.
This is the rst isotopic analysis conducted on material from the Middle Epipalaeolithic of the southern
Levant and, as such, even results constrained by temporal and climatological variants within the region
contribute to the overall knowledge of settlement and subsistence strategies during this cultural period.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Carbon
Oxygen
Isotopes
Middle Epipalaeolithic
Geometric Kebaran
Levant
Jordan
Palaeodiet
1. Introduction
The Epipalaeolithic period (ca. 23,000e11,500 cal BP) of the
southern Levant represents a spatially and temporally variable
array of cultural groups, some of whom are considered to be
precursors to fully agricultural societies in the Neolithic (e.g. BarYosef, 1998; Belfer-Cohen and Bar-Yosef, 2000; Byrd, 2005).
During this period there is evidence for semi-permanent settlement, stone architecture, a ourishing of art and personal ornamentation, storage, intensied plant use, cemeteries, and evidence
for long-distance trade and exchange (e.g. Goring-Morris et al.,
2009). However, in comparison with the subsequent Neolithic
period, generally poor organic preservation at Epipalaeolithic sites
results in a comparatively coarse understanding of on-site activities, diet, mobility, and subsistence behaviours. The 2005 excavations at Uyun al-Hammam revealed several human graves
containing the remains of at least nine individuals (Maher, 2007a),
* Corresponding author. Department of Anthropology, University of British
Columbia, 6303 NW Marine Drive, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada.
Tel.: 1 604 319 7831.
E-mail address: adiaz@interchange.ubc.ca (A.L. Diaz).
0305-4403/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
The site is very rich in faunal remains and so far analysis has only
focused on specic contexts, including middens and graves.
Therefore, the data presented here is based on preliminary reports
(Humphrey, 2003; Maher et al., 2001) and detailed analysis is
currently in progress. Species identication and taphonomic
observations are hindered somewhat by the extremely fragmentary
and carbonate-encrusted nature of the material (see also
Humphrey, 2003). Despite taphonomic and preservation issues, the
proportions and types of identied material are consistent with
Geometric Kebaran assemblages documented elsewhere (Bar-Oz
and Dayan, 2002, 2003; Bar-Oz et al., 1999; Munro and Bar-Oz,
2007; Munro, 2003; Stutz et al., 2009; Tchernov, 1998). A preliminary analysis of identiable species indicates a relatively wide
species breadth, but with some focus on medium and large
mammals (Humphrey, 2003). In particular, Gazella sp., Cervidae sp.,
hartebeest (Alcephalus), and Avies sp. are abundant. This wide
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
Grave
Homo #
Age
Sex
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
I
I
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Adult
Adult
Subadult
Adol. or gracile adult
Adult
Adult
Adol. or gracile adult
Adult
Adult
F
M
Indet.
Indet.
Indet.
M
Indet.
Indet.
F
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
Epipalaeolithic groups to exploit seasonal resources along elevational gradients and within the mosaic of environmental niches in
their landscape, (Bar-Yosef and Meadow, 1995; Bar-Yosef and
Belfer-Cohen, 1992; Bettinger, 1999; Byrd, 2005; Henry, 1989,
2002; Kaufman, 1992).
4.2. Zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for diet in
the Middle Epipalaeolithic
Geometric Kebaran faunal assemblages within the Mediterranean zone represent a broad spectrum of exploited resources, with
medium-sized ungulates, namely, gazelle and fallow deer,
comprising the bulk of the assemblage (Bar-Oz, 2004; Bar-Oz et al.,
1999; Maher et al., 2001; Munro and Bar-Oz, 2007), while smallbodied prey such as tortoises, birds, hare and partridge are also
present (Bar-Oz et al., 1999; Bar-Oz and Dayan, 2003). No less than
13 mammalian species are represented at Uyun al-Hammam and
15 mammalian species are represented at Neve David (Bar-Oz et al.,
1999), demonstrating diversity in faunal resources utilized. In
addition, several genera of gastropods and bivalves from the
Mediterranean Sea have been recovered from Neve David (Bar-Oz
et al., 1999) and from Uyun al-Hammam, but Bar-Oz et al. (1999)
note that, at least for Neve David, the frequent conversion of
shells into ornaments suggest they were not intended for
consumption. The faunal remains recovered from Epipalaeolithic
sites represent fauna that would have been locally available in the
vicinity of the sites and that would have occupied diverse habitats,
ranging from open country (gazelle, wild cattle, hartebeest) to
woodland (red deer, fallow deer, roe deer) (Bar-Oz and Dayan,
2003; Bar-Oz et al., 1999 Maher et al., 2001).
While there is relative paucity of archaeobotanical evidence in
the southern Levantine archaeological record, models of Middle
Epipalaeolithic subsistence strategies involve assessments of
overall reliance on and utilization of vegetal resources (with plant
use intensication being a feature of Late Epipalaeolithic groups).
The largest plant assemblage attributed to the Early Epipalaeolithic
is from Ohalo II and contains over 90,000 remains derived from 142
taxa (Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991; Weiss et al., 2004). Dated to
23,000 cal BP, Ohalo II provides evidence of both a broad spectrum
strategy in plant collection and signicant plant use more than
10,000 years earlier than the origins of agriculture (Kislev et al.,
1992; Weiss et al., 2004). Primary plant foods include C3 wild
emmer wheat and barley, and an extremely large quantity of smallgrained grasses, such as brome (Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991;
Weiss et al., 2004). These grasses appear alongside smaller quantities of oak acorns, almonds, pistachios, wild olives, mustard and
fruits and berries, including raspberry, wild g, and wild grape
(Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991; Weiss et al., 2004).
Though Ohalo II precedes Uyun al-Hammam, it demonstrates
a substantial knowledge of the locally-derived vegetal resources
and the incorporation of a broad spectrum of plant foods into these
early subsistence strategies. Without sites such as Ohalo II, Middle
Epipalaeolithic evidence of plant exploitation is generally inferred
from the presence of groundstone tools (Ronen et al., 1975;
Kaufman, 1986). At most sites, groundstone implements consist of
primarily of deep mortars, bowl and pestles, and occur infrequently within the lithic assemblages. The context of groundstone
burial is notable, however, as they have been recovered in direct
association with human burials at Neve David, Uyun al-Hammam
and Wadi Mataha (Kaufman, 1986; Maher, 2007a; Stock et al.,
2005). Previous archaeological evidence suggest the incorporation and importance of vegetal and locally-derived food resources
in the Epipalaeolithic, despite the fact that people were living as
hunter-gatherers throughout this time period. Thus, the diet of
Geometric Kebaran people is of central importance in
Table 2
Human specimens sampled for isotopic analysis.
Site
Sample
Sampled for
Burial
(GraveHomo #)
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
apatite
Tooth
d13CC(PDB) d18OC(SMOW)
and C1
11.35
26.59
and P3
11.25
27.11
and Lower
12.2
molar
and Right M2 11.57
28.98
and Left P4
10.95
25.86
e
e
and P3
e
e
11.69
e
e
28.1
27.7
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
Table 3
Faunal specimens sampled for isotopic analysis.
Site
Sample
Species
Element
Sampled for
d13CC(PDB)
d18OC(SMOW)
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ15_1C
WZ47_2C
WZ91_1C
WZ91_6C
WZ94_1C
WZ94_5C
WZ94_7A
WZ94_8C
WZ95_1A
WZ95_3C
WZ85_1T
WZ85_3T
WZ88_2T
WZ89_1T
WZ89_5T
Dama sp.
Med. ungulate
Equid sp.
Cervidae
Med. ungulate
Med. ungulate
Caprid/Cervid/Canid
Med. ungulate
Dama
Med. ungulate
Dama
Bos
Bos
Ovicaprid
Ovicaprid
Femur
Scapula
Patella
Phalanx
Thoracic vertebra
Rib portion
Long bone fragment
Shaft fragment
Ilium
Humerus
M2/M3
Molar
Molar
Lower incisor
Lower incisor
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
8.75
9.73
8.98
10.01
11.55
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
37.81
34.06
32.73
33.22
31.82
6. Results
6.1. Collagen results
None of the bones sampled for collagen yielded enough testable material for isotopic analysis. As such, they will not be discussed in following sections.
6.2. Human enamel results
Tables 2and 4 summarize the d18O and d13C values for human
samples discussed in this paper. Six human enamel samples yielded
a mean d18OSMOW value of 27.39& with a standard deviation of 1.1
and a d18OSMOW range from 25.86 to 28.98&. Prowse et al. (2007)
determined the intra-population variation in d18O values to be
1& from the mean of a given expected local d18O signature
indicating that the studys values, while variable, are likely drawn
from the same population. d13CPDB values range from 10.95
to 12.2& with a mean value of 11.5& and a standard deviation
of 0.4. These values are likely drawn from the same population,
paralleling the d18O values.
6.3. Faunal enamel results
Tables 3and 4 summarize the d18O and d13C values for faunal
samples discussed in this paper.
Five faunal tooth enamel samples were analyzed for the study
(Table 4). The mean d18OSMOW values obtained for Dama, Bos, and
ovi-caprid specimens are 37.81&, 33.40& 0.93, and
32.52& 0.99, respectively. Bos specimens range from 32.73 to
34.06& and ovi-caprids range from 31.82 to 33.22&. The mean for
all species represented in analyzed Uyun al-Hammam assemblage
is 33.92 2.3. The large deviation is an obvious result of the
elevated value of the mean d13CPDB values for Dama, Bos, and ovicaprid specimens are 8.75&, 9.36& 0.5, and 10.8& 1.1,
respectively. Bos specimens range from 8.98 to 9.73& and ovicaprid specimens range from 10.04 to 11.55& (Table 4).
Table 4
Summary table of Uyun al-Hammam human and faunal tooth enamel isotopic
values (d13CPDB, d18OSMOW); all values are reported in parts per mil (&).
Species
d13CPDB
S.D.
d18OSMOW
S.D.
Homo
Dama
Bos
Ovicaprid
All fauna
6
1
2
2
5
11.5
8.75
9.36
10.8
9.81
0.43
e
0.53
1.07
1.11
27.39
37.81
33.4
32.5
33.92
1.11
e
0.94
0.99
2.32
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
7. Discussion
40.00
38.00
-2.00
Modern Values - Irbid, Jordan
-3.00
18ODW()
34.00
32.00
30.00
28.00
26.00
HOMO
OVICAPRID
BOS
DAMA
Species
18
Fig. 3. Isotopic results for d OSMOW values of human and faunal specimens organized
by species.
d18O rain water. d18ODW variability could also result from the relative contribution of ingested water from the prolic artesian
aquifers throughout northwest Jordan.
When compared against the human samples, there appear to be
three distinct clusters of d18OC values; the human specimens, the
Bos and ovi-caprid specimens, and the single Dama specimen
(Fig. 3). The extremely enriched isotopic signal from the Dama
sample is notable, considering the relatively constrained variation
of the Bos and ovi-caprid specimens. Rather than the Dama sample
indicating an animal ingesting water from an incredibly hot and/or
arid locality, we argue it more likely demonstrates the evapotranspirative effects of leaf consumption, as deer receive most of
their water from leaves (Levin et al., 2006; Luz et al., 1990; Rowland,
2006). Leaf water can become isotopically-enriched as a result of
evaporation in arid conditions, resulting in d18O enrichment by
10e25& in comparison with stem and local meteoric water
(Cormie et al., 1994; Dongmann et al., 1974).
The hypotheses that can be tested from such a small sample set
are limited, and the hydrological and climatological variants discussed complicate interpretations further. However, the human
distribution appears to correlate generally with the expected
isotopic values estimated for the Middle Epipalaeolithic from speleothem values (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 2011; Bar-Matthews
et al., 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000), and the variability within them
correlates with the well-supported notion that Geometric Kebaran
groups were at least seasonally mobile; occupying and exploiting
territories with plausibly different isotopic signatures. With
mineralization ages of the sample teeth range between three to
eight years the isotopic variability demonstrates that as children,
these individuals ingested water with varying isotopic signatures,
possibly indicating movement across variable environs or indicating isotopic variability between water sources occurring within
a relatively conned area in the southern Levant.
7.2. d13C values
-4.00
-5.00
-6.00
-7.00
18OSMOW()
36.00
-8.00
-9.00
WZ2_4T WZ7_9T WZ3_5T WZ1_AT WZ1_BT WZ4_6T
Sample
Fig. 2. Isotopic results for human d18ODW values organized by sample. d18OWATER values
estimated from speleothems indicated by dotted lines (data from Bar-Matthews et al.,
1997, 1999) and modern d18OWATER values indicated by dashed lines (IAEA/WMO,
2004).
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
-7.00
40.00
Increasing C4 diet
-8.00
38.00
18OSMOW()
13CPBP()
-9.00
-10.00
-11.00
-12.00
-13.00
-14.00
36.00
34.00
Homo
Ovicaprid
32.00
Bos
30.00
OVICAPRID
BOS
Dama
DAMA
Species
Fig. 4. d13CPDB values of humans and faunal samples by species. C3 input range after
Lee-Thorp et al. (2003).
28.00
26.00
-13.00 -12.00 -11.00 -10.00
13C
-9.00
-8.00
PDB()
Fig. 5. Isotopic results for human and faunal samples comparing d18Osmow and d13Cpdb
values.
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
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Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034
Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034