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, G. Zacos, Byzantine Lead Seals (Compiled and Edited by J. W. Nesbitt), [ 3], . 2, Berne 1984, . 890.
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SUMMARY
Introduction. Problems concerning the mystikos and modern

research.
The office of mystikos was one of the most confidential positions
in the Byzantine state. It was staffed by important personalities, such
as Nicholas Mystikos, who owes his name to his service in that capacity. The dignity was created in the 9th century and lasted until almost
the end of the Byzantine Empire, but despite its long history and the
fairly rich prosopographical material a convincing answer for the institutional duties of the office has yet to be given, due to the sporadic and
indirect references in the sources.
To date two special studies on the mystikos have been published,
one by R. Guilland (1968) and the other by P. Magdalino (1982), who
examines the not so secret functions of the office during the Komnenian age. Of course, there are also many references to the mystikos in
books and articles relating to the imperial secretariat, the institutions
and administration of the state, the history of the middle and late Byzantine period, and the publication of documents, letters and seals. The
prevailing view of modern research, founded by F. Dlger and J. Karagiannopoulos, is that the mystikos was responsible for drafting the private correspondence of the emperor. However, objections were raised
by N. Oikonomides, who believes that the mystikos was rather a confidential adviser to the emperor, an opinion shared by other researchers
(e.g. P. Gautier, J. Darrouzs). The mystikos, who was at the head of a
sekreton staffed by notarii, also developed a judicial activity.
Taking into account the views and theories expressed by modern
scholars, there arise numerous problems regarding the origins, the nature and the evolution of the institution. For example, one question that
needs further investigation is whether the mystikos was an independent
office from the beginning or was held by other dignitaries, such as the
protoasekretis. Another fundamental problem that remains unsolved is
that of the real and precise institutional duties of the mystikos. Other
questions that need answering are whether the mystikos was, as some
scholars believe, a judicial officer, and whether the financial activity
carried out by holders of the office during the 12th century formed part
206
of its primary duties or was circumstantial, depending on the will of

the emperor or the influence of the persons holding the position.
The aim of this book, then, is to present a comprehensive study
on the mystikos using the information of the primary sources (historical and chronographical works, documents, seals, letters, lives of saints,
etc.) as well as modern research opinions. The new sigillary material
allows us to complete the prosopographical catalogue of mystikoi compiled by R. Guilland and to enrich the information of the valuable electronic database The Prosopography of the Byzantine World (2011).
In the frame of a monograph concerning the mystikos, two other
offices with similar names, which were probably connected with the
mystikos as his subordinates, are also analysed; these are the mystographos, attested from the early 10th century, and the mystolektes, mentioned on seals (10th-12th c.). These officials are sporadically reported,
but for neither office is there a specific study, nor have their duties
been clearly defined, while they are mistakenly considered by certain
scholars as inferior judges.
Part One. The imperial secretariat and the appearance of the

mystikos.
Chapter 1. The organization of the imperial secretariat up to
the 9th century.
The most prominent member of the imperial secretariat in the
fourth century, after the changes instituted by Constantine the Great,
was the quaestor sacri palatii, known as the the emperors mouthpiece, whose main duties were to dictate laws (leges, edicta, rescripta),
to keep an archive of laws (liber legum), to complete the laterculum minus and to verify imperial documents (recognitio). Essential roles were
also played by the magistri scriniorum (memoriae, epistolarum, libellorum) and the scrinia, under the supervision of the magister officiorum,
the notarii with their primicerius, the referendarii and the a secretis,
who kept the proceedings of the sessions of the imperial consistorium.
During the middle Byzantine period, important changes took place in
the organization and composition of the imperial secretariat. The steps
in the evolution of these changes cannot be traced, and only their results are known. The magistri scriniorum became subordinates in the
207
new service of the quaestor; and only the magister libellorum, called
from the 7th century onwards epi ton deeseon, remained an independent officer, in charge of receiving and examining petitions addressed to
the emperor. In the 8th century there appeared the protoasecretis, who
became the head of the group of a secretis and, according to F. Dlger,
was responsible for drafting the final form of the documents. From the
9th century the protoasecretis headed a service grouping the a secretis
as well imperial notaries and a decanos. During the 10th century he became responsible for drafting imperial documents and especially for
dictating laws, having replaced the quaestor in this task. Another important member of the imperial secretariat known from the 9th century
onward is the epi tou kanikleiou or kanikleios, who was the warden of
the imperial inkstand with its purple ink. He replaced the quaestor in
conducting the recognitio of imperial documents. It was at about the
same time, in the second half of the 9th century, that the office of mystikos appeared.
Chapter 2. The appearance of the mystikos: prosopographical

problems and suggestions.
The office of mystikos appears in the sources for the first time
during the reign of Basil I, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty
(867-886). Leo Choirosphaktes, who is held by the scholars to be the
first attested mystikos, has been identified with another Leo mentioned
on a seal edited by G. Schlumberger and republished by V. Laurent:
() () ()() (
)( ) () () () (second half of the
ninth century). These two persons, however, bore different offices and
honorary titles, since Leo Choirosphaktes was appointed epi tou kanikleiou, anthypatos, patrikios and magistros (896). Besides, it seems that
Choirosphaktes never held the office of protoasekretis, while G.
Schlumbergers reading of the seal is very uncertain. It cannot be excluded that, instead of epi tou mystikou, it should be read as epi ton
oikeiakon or epi tou Lausiakou, as W. Seibt and A.-K. Wassiliou-Seibt
suggested to me, since the title epi tou mystikou is not attested on any
other seal. In addition, the protoasecretis under Basil I was a different
person, one Christophoros, who also became the epi tou kanikleiou in
870. This being the case, the above seal cannot be attributed to Choi-
208
rosphaktes. In our view, the references are to two different persons

bearing the name Leo.
The mystikos is not mentioned in the Kletorologion of Philotheos
(899), probably because it did not become part of the official hierarchy
until after Nicholas Mystikos, who was identified with the office, had
served in this position.
Nicholas successor may have been the imperial protospatharios
and mystikos Himerios attested on a seal (late 9th to early 10th century). Another lead seal, which belonged to Stephanos mystikos and epi
tou kanikleiou, is dated by G. Zacos to the second half of the ninth century. However, the letters Y and S bear characteristic globules, which
suggest a dating in the first half or mid-10th century. It is possible that
the owner of that seal was another Stephanos, who held the same offices, according to a letter written to him by Niketas Magistros (946 or
947). In our view, he must be identified with the imperial protospatharios and mystikos Stephanos mentioned on another seal (first half of the
10th century), which has almost the same features as that mentioned
above.
Chapter 3. The writing of the secret and personal correspondence of the emperor.
According to F. Dlger and J. Karagiannopoulos, the fact that the
position of mystikos was often held by the protoasecretis shows that the
mystikos was also an office of the imperial secretariat, involved, as its
name suggests, with the secret and personal correspondence of the emperor. However, the evidence of the primary sources does not support
this view. The mystikos, who was an independent dignitary whose position was not often assumed by the protoasecretis or epi tou kanikleiou,
as the above scholars believed, was not in charge of the secret imperial
correspondence.
Leo Choirosphaktes wrote letters on behalf of the Emperor Leo VI
to Symeon of Bulgaria, without being a mystikos, an office held at that
time by Nicholas Mystikos (from circa 888 to 901). Leo was probably
epi tou kanikleiou. Later, Theodore Daphnopates appeared as letterwriter on behalf of the emperor, probably as a protoasecretis rather
than as a mystikos as R. Browning argued; he wrote ten letters for Romanos I (920-944), between 925 and 933 or a little later, addressed to
209
the Pope, to bishops, to the emir of Egypt, and to Symeon, the ruler of
the Bulgarians.
The protoasecretis Symeon, who became later magister and logothetes tou dromou, wrote letters on behalf of the emperor Nikephoros
Phokas. Specifically, he wrote letters to monks of well known monastic
communities of the era asking for their moral support and prayers in
view of the emperors expeditions against the Arabs, and a letter to the
monk Dermocaites, who was asked to state the synetheiai he had received during his career as strategos. Preserved among Symeons correspondence are some templates of letters addressed on behalf of the emperor to bishops ( ), generals (
), senators ( ) and spiritual fathers, probably
abbots, monks and clergy ( ). Michael Psellos
also served for many years in the imperial secretariat and dictated
documents and letters. Psellos had been appointed asekretis by Michael
IV (1034-1041) and held the same office during the reign of Michael V
(1041-1042). Under Constantine IX Monomachos (1042-1055) he was
probably promoted to protoasecretis, since he had assumed the task of
composing imperial decisions and speeches, giving them an elegant
rhetorical style, as is mentioned in one of his orations titled
. In this capacity, too,
and not as mystikos, Psellos dictated imperial letters, as for example
one to the caliph of Egypt.
Psellos also played an active role in political decisions, as he says,
since the empress Theodora, even during Constantine Monomachos
lifetime, consulted him on her questions and plans every time she
wanted to write a confidential document or do something in secret.
Psellos was not a mystikos and his testimony confirms that the mystikos did not compose secret letters or documents. Psellos activity of
as secretary and letter-writer on behalf of the emperor continued during the reign of Michael VII Doukas (1071-1078), but we do not know
what position he occupied.
According to N. Oikonomides, during the reign of Monomachos
the office of mystikos was held by Constantine Leichoudes, as attested
by an inscription , () ()() [()() ()] on the Malyj Sion, a
silvered model church kept in the sacrarium of Saint Sophia in Novgorod and dated after 1042. The identification of this Constantine with
Leichoudes, who before he was dismissed from the palace in 1050 was
210
proedros, protovestiarios and had the unofficial position of paradynasteyon is, however, uncertain. Besides, the shape of the letters forming the inscription and the existence of punctuation lead to the conclusion, expressed by W. Seibt, that the inscription should be dated to the
last quarter of the 11th century.
This analysis shows that the mystikos was not in charge of dictating the confidential correspondence of the emperor, a task assumed by
other officers, for example the protoasecretis and his subordinates (notarii and a secretis). Besides, it seems that the mystikos did not dictate
documents and, as G. Weiss has noted, there was no formal distinction
between the imperial and the emperors private secretariat nor a special
technical term for designating the emperors private secretary.
Part Two. The duties of the mystikos.

Chapter 1. The sphere and the responsibilities of the mystikos.
It is, of course, difficult to outline the duties of the mystikos,
since the sources take them for granted and give no detailed description. According to the in P. Magdalinos view sybilline testimony of
Pseudo-Kodinos:
. Moreover, Leo Choirosphaktes talks about , and Michael Psellos notes that the was assigned to the magistros and protoasecretis Epiphanios.
It should be noted that the mystikos had nothing to do with the
(secret chamber) or personal service of the
emperor, which was also called secret ( ) and comprised mainly eunuchs.
The term mystikos indicates something secret and confidential,
and corresponds to the Latin term secretum, which is identified with
the imperial consistorium as well as with the place where the sessions
of the imperial council took place. The term sekreton or secretarium
was also applied to the court of justice. Later, the term sekreton designated the groups of officials as well as the state services.
The terms or secreta also described the secret
meetings of the imperial consistorium. These secret sessions between
the emperor and his advisors and senior officials, which continued to
take place even after the decline and disappearance of the consisto-
211
rium, were called ( ). For example, in the

Life of Patriarch Nikephoros, Ignatios the Deacon (843-846) notes that:
" ,
, ". Ignatios uses the same phrase in
the Life of Patriarch Tarasios (843-847), who had previously served as
protoasecretis: , , , while elsewhere he
writes that: .
The nominal connection between the mystikos with the secreta as
well as with the a secretis [a(d) secretis] is also confirmed by the testimony of the Life of George, bishop of Amastris, written circa 842-843
by the same Ignatios, who says of the former protoasecretis and later
patriarch Tarasios:
, .
It cannot be precluded that the mystikos was connected with the
mysteries, that is the secret meetings of the emperor with his advisors
and senior officials. The mystikos belonged to the close circle of the
emperors immediate associates and was probably in charge of organizing these sessions. Such a function of the office is implied by a chrysoboullon written by Psellos on behalf of the emperor Constantine IX
Monomachos in favour of the protoasecretis Epiphanios. This document declares the emperors appreciation of the trustworthiness and
skills of Epiphanios, who had foreseen his accession to the throne, and
appoints him to the closest circle of his associates, giving him the
. Further, in a letter to Epiphanios
Psellos writes that: " ,
,

. In our view, this passage hints at Epiphanios acquisition of the office of mystikos, and the letter should therefore be dated
shortly after the above chrysoboullon. Of course, as G. Weiss remarked,
in Byzantium there was no stable or official imperial council as there
was in the West, but this does not mean that the Emperor had no contacts with officials or members of the Senate, with whom he discussed
certain issues. Michael Psellos, for example, notes in his Enkomion for
Symeon Metaphrastes that: -
212
,
,
.

. The final phrase of the above passage, which states that Symeon
supervised the most secret affairs and participated together with other
counsellors in secret councils, indicates the office of mystikos, as N.
Oikonomides suggested, and not, as other scholars believe, that of protoasecretis.
Furthermore, if Psellos, an experienced bureaucrat and member
of the imperial secretariat, had wanted to describe the office of protoasecretis held by Symeon, then there would be at least a hint of his secretarial activity, since apart from documents and confidential letters
Symeon also dictated laws. In language very similar to that used by
Psellos (and probably derived from the same source, as Chr. Hgel observed), Markos Eugenikos (1394?-1445) says of Symeon:
, , , , , .
It must be mentioned, however, that no other source attributes
the office of mystikos to Symeon Metaphrastes, who had been protoasecretis and then logothetes tou dromou. One may, therefore, surmise that
both Psellos and Markos Eugenikos used a source that incorrectly designated Symeon as mystikos instead of protoasecretis, perhaps because
of the nominal similarity between the two offices, as in the case of the
Life of George of Amastris mentioned above. Otherwise, it must be assumed either that Symeon was not appointed protoasecretis, which
runs counter both to the information of the primary sources and to
what scholars believe about Symeon, or that Psellos made a mistake in
the description and performance of the duties of the protoasecretis,
which is also extremely unlikely.
Chapter 2. The protomystikos.

The term protomystikos is mentioned in a document from the
archive of the Athonite monastery of Saint Panteleemon (1057): according to the Hypomnema of Hilarion, the proedros and protomysti-
213
kos John Xeros tried a case in his sekreton by order of the emperor.
The term caused much discussion among scholars. F. Dlger suggested
that the text should be read as protoproedros and mystikos, since the
curious term protomystikos was not attested elsewhere. Taking an opposite view, V. Laurent initially considered it as a term equivalent to
that of protoasekretis, but later recognised two different offices, as is
also accepted by other scholars (W. Seibt, J.-Cl. Cheynet). The new edition of the documents of Monastery of Panteleemon and a seal of Constantine magistros and protomystikos, published some years ago by Ioanna Koltsida-Makre (third quarter of the 11th century, according to
A.-K. Wassiliou), confirm the correct reading of the act and the existence of the term protomystikos.
This term denotes a person who was at the head of a group with
similar duties, as in the case of protoasekretis and protonotarios. Since,
however, we know that the duties of mystikos were performed by a single person, we must therefore search for a group of dignitaries that
could be described as mystikoi as their name implies. I suggest that
these mystikoi were probably the mystographoi and perhaps also the
mystolektes, who in our opinion were probably connected with the secret councils of the emperor and his advisors. Besides, as N. Oikonomides has correctly pointed out, the evidence of the primary sources
is that among the subordinates of the mystikos were notarii; it cannot
be excluded that these were the mystographoi.
Chapter 3. The mystographos.

The office of the mystographos, mentioned for the first time in a
10th century (911/912) inscription from Asia Minor (
), does not coincide with that of the mystikos, as F. Dlger and J. Karagiannopoulos believed, since the mystographos is mentioned separately, and in some places beneath the mystikos, in the Taktikon Escurial (971-973) and in a synodal document of 1030, as V.
Laurent correctly pointed out. N. Oikonomides and P. Magdalino considered mystographos to be a judicial officer, who may have had some
connection with the mystikos. It is true that on most of the seals the
dignity of mystographos is attached to judicial offices, such as the
judge of the hippodrome, the judge of velum and the judge of the
themes. This does not, however, prove that the mystographos was also a
214
judicial officer, since the title is also accompanied by other secretarial

offices, such as those of libellisios, basilikos notarios, protonotarios,
protonotarios ton agelon, megas chartoularios, megas chartoularios tou
genikou, chartoularios tou stratiotikou, basilikos notarios tou eidikou
and basilikos notarios ton euagon oikon. Nor does the fact that mystographoi participated in trying certain cases, according to the Peira of
Eustathios Romaios, indicate that they were judicial officers.
The office of mystographos was of a different nature and superior
to that of the judges of the velum, as may be concluded from the testimony of Psellos concerning the career of his son-in-law Elpidios Kechres. In addition, the mystographos was associated with secretarial
duties, as indeed his name denotes. The term was also used as synonymous to the a secretis. The mystographoi were probably in charge of
writing down the proceedings of the emperors secret sessions with
his officials, the senate and his advisors, which had previously been the
duty of the a secretis. Consequently the connection between the mystographos ( ) and the mystikos who was in
charge of the is very probable, and
the mystographos would have been a subordinate of the mystikos.
Chapter 4. The mystolektes.

Regarding the office of mystolektes, V. Laurent and other scholars think that these officers belonged to the imperial chancery, and
probably made reports and transmitted messages to the heads of that
service or to the emperor. It is true that the term mystolektes appears
in primary sources and denotes, according to the evidence of the hagiological texts, a man who knows and reveals the divine secrets, like the
Evangelists. In our opinion, it cannot be excluded that the office of
mystolektes, mentioned only on seals (10th-12th c.), was also connected
with secret imperial meetings ( ). We
should also point out that the History of Joseph Genesios (10th c.) contains the verb ( ), which has the meaning of revealing a secret
to the members of the senate and other participants in the procedures
for the acclamation of Michael II. Of course, one cannot draw firm
conclusions just from the etymology of the word mystolektes, but we
have no other mentions in primary sources, except from the seals.
215
It is true that on most seals the dignity of mystolektes is attached

to a judicial office, such as judge of the province (Hellas, Cyclades),
judge of the velum or judge of the hippodrome. But on other seals the
mystolektes is connected with dignities that had primarily secretarial
rather than judicial duties, such as the a secretis, the basilikos notarios,
the protonotarios, the notarios of ephoros and the basilikos notarios of
the sakelle, while in other cases they bear only honorific titles, such as
those of protospatharios and protospatharios epi tou Chrysotriklinou.
Consequently, the sigillary evidence does not prove that the mystolektes was a judicial officer. The mystolektes could try cases because
of his knowledge and experience, not because of his office. In our view,
the mystolektes performed his duties as messenger, announcing the secret decisions or orders of the emperor or of the mystikos and calling
the advisors of the emperor to participate in the secret sessions. The
evidence of new seals will perhaps lead us to more solid conclusions.
Chapter 5. The judicial activity of the mystikos.

The mystikos also exercised some judicial activity, and for this
reason certain scholars have considered him to be a judicial officer.
The first specific reference to the judicial activity of the mystikos concerns the protomystikos John Xeros (1057), who judged a land dispute
in his sekreton that had been referred to him by the emperor. Based on
this testimony, N. Oikonomides notes that the mystikos was at the
head of a sekreton which heard court cases, an opinion adopted by
other researchers as well. Indeed the mystikos was involved in the examination of cases, as can be concluded from the evidence of other
sources. According to the Peira (38.5 and 65.1), the mystikos participated in the judgement of two cases, in one of them acting, again, as a
judge delegated by the emperor. In addition a monk named Bardas
(910-920) addressed a letter to the mystikos John Marmaras, asking
him to be fair in his judgments and help a widow and her orphans.
The above evidence does not, however, prove that the mystikos
was a judicial officer. We know that the administration of justice in
Byzantium was very flexible, and a person who had served as krites or
had legal knowledge could participate in trying cases as a judge commissioned by the emperor, whether or not he was a mystikos. Nor is
this the only example of a non-judicial officer hearing a case, since ac-
216
cording to the Peira various high and not purely judicial officers, such
as the logothetes tou dromou and the epi tou kanikleiou, who belonged
to the central administration, took part in the judgement of some
cases. This is also confirmed by the letters of the monk Bardas to the
magistros and epi tou kanikleiou Basil, asking him to try two cases and
to help certain of his friends, for although the epi tou kanikleiou was an
important member of the imperial secretariat he was not a judicial officer.
Of the almost 52 persons who held the office of mystikos, a judicial career can be documented for just three (Michael Philokales,
Eustathios Romaius and an anonymous koiaistor and mystikos).
Consequently the mystikos, although he had some judicial activity, was not a judicial officer or the head of a court of justice.
Part Three. The mystikos during the Komnenian and

Palaiologan eras.
Chapter 1. The not so secret functions of the mystikos during the Komnenian age.
According to P. Magdalino, during the Komnenian era the mystikos undertook certain responsibilities for the palace and the public
treasury and controlled the ordinary and extraordinary payments to
clergy and government officials. Moreover, this new position made him
an important ecclesiastical "patron", charged with overseeing certain
monasteries and with the appointment of lesser ecclesiastical officials.
P. Magdalino also notes that these functions had perhaps always pertained to the office, and that this position was often held by eunuchs,
which suggests a natural relationship with the imperial chamber. The
acquisition of duties regarding the imperial treasury and the imperial
palace is due, in Magdalinos view, to changes in economic management and in particular to the decline of the eidikon, which was responsible for the distribution of the senatorial roga, as well as to the fact
that the protovestiarios ceased to deal with the imperial household,
since the post was assigned to military commanders and relatives of
the emperor who were unlikely to have been closely involved in the imperial residences.
217
This is, of course, an interesting theory. But it should be noted

that, according to the information of the sources, the mystikos does not
seem to have had a financial function from the beginning. It is true
that some of the mystikoi were eunuchs, and some of them were appointed epi tou koitonos, but this was not a norm and does not, in our
view, reveal the institutional duties of the office but rather the fact that
the emperor chose for the dignity of mystikos trustworthy persons
whom he knew from previous personal contact, such as those who had
served as epi tou koitonos.
The information that in P. Magdalinos view testifies to the new
role of the mystikos in relation to the palace and public treasury is that
provided by the Typikon of St. Mamas Monastery (1158) and by the
historian William of Tyre (1130-1185). In the preface of the Typikon
there is a reference to George Kappadokes, who is called megalepiphanestatos mystikos and who served close to Manuel Komnenos before
and after his accession to the throne:

. P. Magdalino translates this phrase as follows: George had supervision of the imperial
residences, becoming at the same time custodian as well as manager of
the public treasures, but in our view A. Bandys translation is more
accurate: [the mystikos George] received as a pledge of [imperial] munificence a commanding position in the palace, he became, that is, the
guardian and the steward of the imperial treasury. This means that
George Kappadokes was not put in charge of the imperial residences as
mystikos. Besides, we do not know whether he was appointed mystikos
from the time of Manuels accession to the throne (1143) or later.
Moreover, the officer responsible for the public treasury of the empire
was the epi tou vestiariou, who is also attested at the time of Manuel I
Komnenos. If we adopt P. Magdalinos view, however, we would have
to assume either that the vestiarion, which was at that time the central
treasury of the empire, had been abolished or that the mystikos became
the head of that treasury.
The second piece of evidence cited by P. Magdalino is the testimony of William, bishop of Tyre, who records that after the death of
John II Komnenos in Cilicia his elder son Isaac seized the palace; but
Manuel, who had been proclaimed emperor, managed through his loyal
mystikos, who was responsible for the palace and the treasury (per
Misticonem suum qui palatio et thesauris praeerat universes), to sur-
218
prise and capture his elder brother Isaac and put him in prison. The
testimony is, according to P. Magdalino, reliable, since William of Tyre
had visited Constantinople and had considerable experience of the
Byzantine court. The Byzantine sources, however, give a different account of the events. According to Niketas Choniates, who provides the
most detailed description, the megas domestikos John Axouch was the
person who played the crucial role in Manuels accession to the throne.
The other Byzantine historian, John Kinnamos, who was also an experienced bureaucrat, does not refer to any specific person or office in
connection with Manuels rise to the throne. Moreover, the term Misticonem used by William is not necessarily a technical term that corresponds to the office of mystikos. Nikephoros Serblias was probably
mystikos when John Komnenos handed over the power to his son
Manuel. If he had indeed helped the latter to ascend the throne, as William of Tyre says, Manuel would, as P. Magdalino argues, have had no
reason to replace the loyal mystikos with George Kappadokes. It is also
strange that there is no mention of Serblias during Manuels reign. If he
had been the crucial figure in Manuels accession to the throne, then
surely he would have retained his office or been promoted to a higher
position.
P. Magdalino also considered that the mystikos had ex officio authority over payments from the public treasury, as may be concluded
from two letters of the protoasecretis Christophoros Zonaras (middle
late 12th c.) addressed to an anonymous mystikos, in which he complained of the delay in the full payment of his salary. Although the intervention of the mystikos could have been the catalyst in the arrangement of Zonaras affair, it seems that the mystikos was not in charge of
salary payments. Besides, the phrase
regarding the disbursement of Zonaras salary perhaps
alludes to those who were responsible for paying his salary but saw no
need to comply with his request. Zonaras addressed not the competent
administrative authority but a person who could help him; that person
had the office of mystikos. This is not the only example of mediating
activity on the part of a mystikos, who could be involved in various
matters, if we take into consideration a letter from John Tzetzes (1140)
to the mystikos Nikephoros Serblias and another of Eustathios of Thessalonike to an anonymous mystikos.
The financial duties of the mystikos are revealed, according to P.
Magdalino, by some imperial documents of Manuel I Komnenos
219
(1150), Alexios III (1181) and Isaac II Angelos (early reign and 1192)
protecting ecclesiastical property from the agents of the fisc when a
bishop died or the bishopric remained vacant. The mystikos was responsible for enforcing the imperial acts, punishing the lawbreakers
and compensating the bishoprics, but this is not evidence that the mystikos had an institutional responsibility for ecclesiastical or monastic
property. The mystikos seems to have undertaken such duties occasionally as one of emperors most trusty officials, not because he was
an officer who held an important position within the financial and
economic mechanism of the Byzantine state. Besides, J. Darrouzs recognises no such statutory duties as pertaining to the office of mystikos,
and he makes a clear distinction between the mystikos and the imperial
chamber () and the demosiaka sekreta. Aikaterini Christophilopoulou also notes that the increased influence of the mystikos in
the second half of the 12th century, particularly in the regulation of
government financial patronage, was due to the political power of the
mystikos who was a confidant of the emperor.
Consequently, while the financial activity of the mystikos cannot
be denied, it seems to have derived from his proximity to the emperor
and not from the duties of his office. Besides, when the office was revived after 1204 in Nicaea, the dignitary did not develop such an activity.
According to P. Magdalino, the mystikos was also an important
ecclesiastical patron, with control over certain monasteries and minor
clerical appointments. The activity of the mystikos as a charistikarios
is confirmed by the Typika of the Mamas and Heliou Bomon monasteries. However, as P. Magdalino acknowledges, the patron of a monastery
could be any relative of the emperor or an imperial official. Moreover,
the mystikos had no authority over ecclesiastical officials, as may be
concluded from the letter of John Tzetzes (1155) to Thessalos, on which
that scholar mainly based his view. According to the letter, a deacon
from the monastery of Papiou scattered libellous pamphlets in the
church of Holy Apostles and, together with certain members of the
staff of the church, pronounced barbaric curses against a number of
people. The mystikos punished the deacon, but restrained himself from
dismissing his accomplices from their officia. The mystikos did not ban
the deacon from his monastery, as P. Magdalino believes, but revoked
his privilege of being in the church of Holy Apostles. The
involvement of the mystikos in penalties for priests of the church of
220
Holy Apostles probably derives from the fact that they were members
of the imperial clergy, who belonged to the Patriarchate and were chosen by the emperor to serve in the imperial churches. But since they
seem to have be exempt from the disciplinary authority of the patriarch, it is possible that the mystikos acted as a representative of the
emperor and not because he had any jurisdiction over the clergy.
Chapter 2. The revival of the office of mystikos in the Empire
of Nicaea.
After stabilising his power in Nicaea, Theodore I Laskaris (12041222) tried to rebuild the old imperial administration machine, along
the lines of Constantinopolitan tradition. He therefore created a centralised system and a close circle of officials, including which the epi
tou kanikleiou, the epi ton deeseon, the mesazon and later the logothetes and the mystikos. The office of mystikos is attested in the period 1208-1214 in a letter of Patriarch Michael Autoreianos to Theodore I Laskaris.
Other mystikoi are also mentioned in the sources: the mystikos
John Mouzalon during the reign of John Vatatzes (1222-1254), an
anonymous mystikos of Theodore II Laskaris (1254-1258), and a number of mystikoi named on seals from the middle of the 13th century,
such as John Kaballarios and the sebastos Constantine. Constantine
Droulenos was not mystikos, as V. Laurent considered, since the correct
reading of the seal from the Fogg Museum of Art (Fogg AM 2915) is,
according to A.-K. Wassiliou-Seibt:
).
The testimony of the sources sheds no light on the institutional
function of the officer in the court of Nicaea. It seems that he could
undertake various missions, like the temporary supervision of the castle of Nicaea together with its prokathemenos, while his duties remained the same. In any case, he continued to belong to the close circle
of advisors and associates of the emperor.
Chapter 3. The office of mystikos during the Palaiologan era.

The office of mystikos survived under the Palaiologan dynasty.
Among the officials appointed by Michael VIII Palaiologos when he
221
ascended the throne was his homonymous cousin, who assumed the position of mystikos. The best-known mystikos of the Palaiologan period
was Nikephoros Choumnos. He was koiaistor under Michael VIII
Palaiologos between 1272-1275, became mystikos in 1293 under Andronikos II (1282-1321) and was appointed to the position of mesazon
together with the epi ton deeseon John Glykes. Choumnos undertook
various missions. For example, he participated in 1293 in settling the
succession of Patriarch Athanasios, carrying out the orders of Andronikos II Palaiologos. In addition, Choumnos was probably the mystikos who took over the management of finances in the European part
of the empire in 1293, while around the same time he was appointed
kephale of Thessalonike for a few months. Apart from Choumnos another mystikos called Monomachos was also sent as governor to the
region of Macedonia (1319/1320). The evidence for Choumnos and
Monomachos gives the impression that the mystikos was not an active
office but an honorary title, as these persons were not in Constantinople to perform their duties. But regarding Monomachos, who is not
known from other sources, it is not certain that he was mystikos at the
same time as he was governor in Macedonia, while Choumnos undertook the above position in Thessalonike as a confidant of the emperor
and a manager of state affairs (mesazon), together with John Glyces.
Besides, according to Pseudo-Kodinos the mystikos was indeed an active office.
J. Verpeaux argued that the mystikos supervised the emperors
personal secretariat, but this view is not based on concrete evidence.
The mystikos Manuel Kinnamos is mentioned in 1342 as one of the
ministers of the Empress Anne of Savoy during the guardianship of
John V Palaiologos, responsible for the imperial finances. However, it
seems that he took the office of mystikos after August 1343, when he
signed a document as megas oikonomiastes, or later, in 1345. He remained in this position until February 1347 and then, after the amnesty granted by John VI Kantakuzenos, he again held this office until
1349, when as mystikos he signed a treaty between Byzantium and
Venice. Consequently, the mystikos belonged to the immediate circle of
associates of the emperor, while incumbency of this office does not presume financial duties.
222
Chapter 4. The theory of the adoption of the office of mystikos

in the second Bulgarian state.
The term taniki mentioned in the Life of Saint Philothea written
by Euthymios, Patriarch of Turnovo (1375-1393), was considered by I.
Biliarsky as an institution of the second Bulgarian state, similar to the
Byzantine office of mystikos, since tanik means secret. Despite the
shared meaning of the terms, however, it seems that the taniki did not
correspond to the Byzantine institution. Apart from the fact that in
the Life of Philothea the taniki are mentioned in the plural, no connection can be traced in the primary sources between mystikos and taniki.
The term taniki means generally the repositories and advisors of the
Bulgarian tsar, as noted in the Bulgarian and other translations of the
above text.
Conclusions
1. The office of mystikos appears for the first time during the
reign of Basil I (867-886), and was part of that emperors administrative reforms. It functioned until almost the end of the Byzantine empire. The first holder of the office of mystikos was Leo Choirosphaktes
who, contrary to what is claimed by V. Laurent and N. Oikonomides,
cannot be identified with Leo protoasecretis and epi tou mystikou, who
is mentioned on a seal published by G. Schlumberger, since the two
persons had different honorary titles and offices and Leo Choirosphaktes never served as protoasecretis. Moreover, the reading of the seal
from the collection of G. Schlumberger, for which we have no photo, is
precarious.
2. According to the prevailing view the mystikos was in charge
of dictating the confidential and private correspondence of the emperor. A close examination of the sources, however, shows that such an
activity cannot be detected. The mystikos did not dictate imperial
documents. The responsibility for the confidential correspondence of
the emperor addressed to foreign sovereigns, state dignitaries, clergy
and monks (10th-11th centuries) resided primarily with the protoasecretis, who in addition to laws and other imperial documents also dictated the confidential letters of the emperor, as may be inferred from
several cases (Theodore Daphnopates, Symeon magister and logothetes,
Michael Psellos).
223
3. The mystikos was not connected with the imperial residence or

the secret chamber and the personal service of the emperor which
was also called secret and consisted mainly of eunuchs.
4. After careful examination of the sources, we conclude that
they show that the mystikos was probably connected with the secret
meetings (, sekreta, ) of the supreme ruler of
the Byzantine Empire with his advisors, which continued to exist, despite the decline and disappearance of the consistorium as the official
organ. The mystikos was involved in the organization and supervision
of the secret sessions (the ) with the
emperor and senior officers and members of the Senate (

).
5. Sources from the 11th century mention the protomystikos as
the head of a sekreton. This does not mean that the office of mystikos
was held by more than one person. The term protomystikos designates
the mystikos who was probably the head of the mystographoi and mystolektes, who could also be described as "mystikoi".
6. Narrative sources and inscriptions reveal that the mystographos, a term testified already in the 6th century, was not a judicial officer, as certain scholars believe, but performed secretarial duties.
Mystographos, which appears as an office for the first time in an inscription of 911/912, was probably a subordinate of the mystikos who
recorded the proceedings of the confidential meetings of the emperor
with his advisors, as had previously been done by the asekretis.
7. The office of mystolektes is attested only on seals dating from
the 10th to the 12th century. Judging from the meaning of the word, as
used mainly in ecclesiastical and religious texts, it is likely that mystolektes acted as an imperial messenger carrying and announcing the
secret decisions and orders of the emperor. He was probably connected
with the "mysteries" of the emperor and the mystikos, but he was not
an inferior judicial officer, as argued by certain scholars.
8. The mystikos had some judicial activity, mainly at the volition
of the emperor, who delegated the examination of certain cases to persons with legal and judicial experience. The judicial function of mystikos does not imply that he was at the head of a court of justice.
9. The mystikos undertook a multifaceted financial role during
the Komnenian era, according to P. Magdalino, who claims that the
mystikos was responsible for the palace and the public treasury and
224
that he controlled the ordinary and extraordinary payments to clergy

and government officials, and whose position made him an important
ecclesiastical "patron" charged with overseeing certain monasteries and
with the appointment of lesser ecclesiastical officials. Further examination of the sources, however, reveals that the mystikos did not acquire
such institutional responsibilities in relation to the imperial residence,
the treasury and the church; his activity derived from the fact that he
was close to the emperor and could be entrusted with various missions
and functions.
10. The office of mystikos was revived after 1204 in Nicaea. The
responsibilities of the office must not have changed in relation to his
activity before 1204, although there are no clear indications of his
function. It seems that the mystikos joined the inner circle of associates
of the emperor.
11. The office of mystikos was also retained under the Palaiologans. Those usually appointed as mystikoi were confidants of the emperor, such as the renowned Nikephoros Choumnos, who undertook
various financial and administrative missions.
12. The taniki (-) attested in the second Bulgarian state, seems not to have been an institution that corresponds to the Byzantine office, despite their nominal association.
adnotationes: 51
a secretis: 66, 67, 81, 98, 102,
122, 179
edicta: 50
knez: 52
laterculum maius: 50
laterculum minus: 50
leges: 50
Legi/Legimus: 55
liber legum: 50
magister epistolarum: 51, 53
magister libellorum: 51, 53, 54
magister memoriae: 51, 53
magister officiorum: 50
magistri scriniorum: 50, 51, 52,
53
Malik-shah (1072-1092): 89
Misticonem: 146
primicerius notariorum: 52
recognitio: 50, 55
rescripta: 50, 51
Saif ad Daula: 79
schola: 52
scrinia: 50, 51, 52
secreta: 63, 97, 98
secretarium: 97
secretarius/i: 129, 179
silentium cum conventu: 104
tanik/i: 43, 179, 180, 181, 186
Yahya-ibn-Said ():
109
Vsevolod, : 88
, :
142, 192
: 179, 180, 181
,
/ (1289-1293
1303-1309): 172
,
: 144
, : 104
,
: 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 188
(10811118): 118, 142
: 176
(1180-1193): 154
(11951203): 156, 159, 199
(12031204): 155
, :
168, 202
, : 199

(1282-1328): 171, 172, 174, 176
: 58, 59, 60, 189, 190,
226
191, 192, 193

: 176
: 53
: 134
: 159
: 70, 71,
72, 73, 76, 115
: 79, 111
: 59, 60, 65,
66, 67
, : 118
- (713715): 54
: 54
: 54, 66
: 145
, : 135, 136
, : 151
,
: 59, 136
,
,
:
189, 202
(867-886): 61
: 95
(976-1025): 82,
108, 190
, : 191
: 70
: 192
: 162
/ /
: 54, 55
/ /: 52,
120, 130
: 130
: 120
: 120
:
60, 64, 65, 188, 189, 191

: 58,
60, 61, 187
: 84, 85
: 85, 114, 119, 157, 190,
192, 193, 194
: 146
, : 98, 99, 115
: 166,
199
, : 144,
145, 146, 147, 149, 157, 158,
159, 196
: 171, 172,
173, 175, 200
: 144, 146,
147, 148
, : 91
, :
71
: 176, 177
, / (1283-1289):
171, 200
: 105
: 54, 55
, :
: 79
: 91
: 176
, : 190
: 156
: 118
: 137, 203
: 143
/
: 80, 89, 137, 143,
191, 192, 203
: 80
: 173
: 162
: 120, 141
, : 84,
120, 121
: 120, 195
//: 117,
118
: 76, 136, 137,
179, 189, 191, 195, 203
/ : 53,
179
: 122
: 175
: 145, 146
: 42
/:
4, 39, 44, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62,
64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 135,
136, 159, 165, 167, 172, 173,
174, 183, 189, 193, 200
: 62, 119, 130,
141, 142, 143, 144, 192, 193,
194
: 62, 187
: 62, 183, 187
227
: 97
: 53, 54, 62,
100, 144, 159, 165, 172, 191
: 62, 137, 203
: 63, 98, 99,
187
: 62, 119, 187
,
:
89, 100, 192, 193
: 86
, : 73, 75,
188, 189
, (1375-1393): 179
, : 71
/: 65, 88, 95, 96, 141,
142, 143, 144, 183
, : 124
,
/ (1019-1025): 191
: 151
, ,
,
, : 117, 134, 137, 190, 191,
192
, : 198
, / (1081-1084):
191
, : 177
, : 124
, : 123,
124
: 141, 158
:
228
193
: 58
: 58
:
53
, :
78
, /
: 86, 89
,
( ): 120
,
: 73, 76, 77, 115,
188
(12041222): 165, 166, 199
(12541258): 166, 167
, : 70, 71, 72, 73, 76,
77, 183
,
(1215-1230): 166, 168
, : 172
: 111, 112
, :
72
: 91
, : 70
,
: 122
,
/ (933-956): 76
, : 157
: 120
, -

: 161
: 145
,
/ (846-858 867877): 122
: 98, 99, 110
: 169
,
: 113
, , : 64
, : 64, 188
(527-565): 49,
67, 90
(565-578): 62
(10571059): 104, 202
(11851195): 142, 147, 154, 155, 156
,
: 146,
147, 148
, : 176
, : 72
, ,
: 119
, : 166
, : 142, 153,
195, 197
, ,
: 142, 143,
193
, ,
, : 71, 72, 74, 75, 188

, , : 193
,
: 194
, ,
: 193
,

(): 193, 194
,
: 72
, : 72
, , :
171, 200
,
: 136
(969976): 78, 80
, : 147, 148
: 168, 169
(11181142): 91, 146, 147, 148, 150,
153, 154
, :
119
(12221254): 166
, : 172, 175
, : 79
, : 104

229
(1341-1390): 176
: 129

(1347-1354): 176, 177, 201
: 87, 88
, : 167, 200
,
/ (1334-1347): 176

,
: 166, 167
, : 197
: 148
, :
201, 202
, ,
,
: 169
, , , ,
: 193
: 121, 122, 123,
179
: 90
, :
135, 136, 188
: 121
, :
166, 167, 197
, : 113,
114
,
: 113, 114, 133,
230
193
,
/ (1064-1075): 82,
83, 84
, :
72
: 59, 72, 87,
88
: 150, 151, 162,
196
,
: 194
: 129
/
: 137
: 101, 104, 159
, (1197-1207): 179
: 171,
173, 174
( ):
49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 76,
136, 137, 172, 190, 191, 192,
200, 203
: 96, 129, 141, 142, 143,
144, 155, 156, 167
: 142, 143
: 53, 67, 96, 97,
99, 104, 179, 184
(;): 145
()/ (): 95, 96, 183
: 158, 162
/ : 118, 119, 120,
121, 129, 130, 134, 143, 193,
194, 203
: 104
/ :
118, 119, 121, 129, 130, 134,
189, 194, 202, 203

: 121, 130
,
: 114, 193
,
: 87
, , ,
: 72, 73, 75, 76, 189, 199
, ,
( ): 87, 88, 89, 195
, : 66
,
: 167, 199, 200

(324-337): 49-50
(908-920, 945-959): 54,
55, 66, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 96, 96,
112, 124, 143, 189, 199
(1025-1028):
82

(1042-1055): 82, 83, 85, 86, 87,
88, 89, 100, 101, 104, 193

(1059-1067): 100, 101, 103, 104
, : 71
, : 87,
88, 195
, : 70
, :
158
, : 115, 198,
199
: 62
, : 60
, : 65
, ,

(;): 58, 60, 62, 63, 183,
187
, :
73
, ,
: 191
, : 60
,
: 62
(813-820): 129
(886-912): 57, 58, 59,
61, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 112, 135,
144
, : 199
: 70
, , , ,
, :
57, 58, 59, 60, 64, 69, 95, 183,
187
: 64, 77,
78, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 129,
134, 143, 144, 192, 198
: 80,
231
191
:
110, 111, 112
: 108,
163
, : 195
: 59, 74, 78, 102, 108,
109, 112, 114, 118, 134, 135,
183, 193
: 145, 146, 154
: 50
, :
203
(11431180): 142, 144, 145, 146, 147,
148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155,
159
,
, : 176,
177, 200
, : 173
, :
177, 201
, : 177, 201
, : 165
, (1549-1602): 124
: 122
: 71
: 108, 109,
110
: 144, 154,
155, 158
: 144, 158,
161
: 156, 158
: 147, 148,
232
201, 202
: 168, 169
: 88, 89
: 105, 108
: 88, 89, 195
: 120, 200
: 120
: 161, 165, 172, 175,
176, 200
: 71, 79, 87, 122,
157, 191
:
160
: 87, 88
: 78
: 73, 76
: 111,
168, 169
: 73
, ,
(;): 189
,
: 89, 120, 142, 193, 194
(820-829): 129
(842-867): 61
(1034-1041): 81, 83,
104
, / (12081214): 165
(1041-1042): 81, 82,
83, 102
(10711078): 89, 90, 101

(1259-1261): 171, 172, 174, 200

,

(1294-1320): 171, 174
: 171
, ,
: 119
,
/ (1143-1146): 150
, : 171, 200
,
: 200
,
: 199
, ,
, , : 136, 195
: 115, 156,
158, 198, 199
: 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 86, 89, 90, 99, 100, 101, 102,
103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
109, 110, 111, 112, 120, 121,
183, 192, 193
: 152
: 144,
145, 147, 157, 158, 159, 162,
196
: 73
: 159
: 133
/:
157, 158, 159, 197
: 189
:
189
: 77, 193
: 166
: 73
: 74, 75
: 113, 114,
133
: 142,
147, 153, 196, 197
: 161
: 146, 159, 166
: 158
: 171
, , : 175, 200
: 124
: 63, 97, 98, 103, 127,
130, 168, 184, 185
: 124
: 57, 95, 112,
187

: 102, 107, 112, 184
: 86
: 96
: 124
: 119
: 45, 115, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123,
124, 125, 130, 131, 143, 184,
195
: 129, 130
: 45, 116, 127, 128,
129, 130, 143, 184, 185
(Malyj Sion): 87, 195
: 174
, ,
: 119
233
:
122, 123, 128
: 65, 71, 72,
74, 75, 112, 188, 189
: 146, 147,
148
, (): 152
, (): 196,
197
,
/ (806-815): 98
/: 197
, : 152, 158, 159, 161, 196,
197
(963969): 55, 78, 80, 111

(1078-1081): 200
: 175, 200
, :
119
: 77, 109
, :
150
, :
148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 162,
196, 197
, ,
: 161, 171, 172, 173, 174,
175, 200
, : 124
, , , : 190
, ,
, -
234
: 119
, : 158
, / (901-907
912-925): 63, 64, 69, 70, 77, 188
, ,
:
119
, : 198
, : 100
s/: 81, 142, 193
/ : 115
: 130
: 88
: 91
: 194
: 74, 75
: 188
: 129, 130
: 72, 74, 88,
90, 188
: 169
: 59, 60, 65, 70, 71,
72, 74, 76, 78, 95, 111, 112, 119,
134, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193
,
: 62
,
: 62
: 162
, : 70
, , , , -
: 191
, , : 122
, :
115
: 55, 70, 189, 202
, : 90
,
(;): 192
: 130
, , : 90
: 87, 88, 113, 114, 136,
193, 194, 195
(= ): 87, 167
: 165, 166, 199
, : 57
: 50, 67,
90
/: 147,
153, 154, 155, 156, 166, 173
: 39, 40, 41, 44,
55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 77, 78, 80,
82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 96,
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
113, 114, 115, 122, 123, 137,
143, 149, 171, 173, 183, 187,
191, 192, 193, 197, 203
: 42, 72, 87,
88, 141, 144, 145, 172
: 113, 114, 115,
116, 133, 184, 193
: 115, 120, 130
:
120
: 157, 162,
195
:
157, 198
: 113, 114, 119,
136, 157, 195
: 179
: 60, 61, 72,
73, 76, 95, 96, 119, 142, 188,
189
: 60, 119, 130, 191
: 52, 156
():
52, 156
: 89
: 141
: 129
(920944): 55, 70, 79, 112
(959-963): 143
(10681071): 89
,
:
111
(10281034): 191, 192
: 127
, : 65
,
: 167
: 157, 159, 167, 168,
173, 199, 200, 202
: 99, 179
/: 96, 97, 105, 184
:
146
: 42, 113,
235
115, 116, 133, 156, 184, 202

: 73, 97,
191

: 87
: 89
,
: 191
: 99, 179
/: 97
: 175
: 57, 62
: 62, 191
, : 70
, : 112
, :
59, 66
,
: 4, 64, 65, 71, 189
, : 100
, : 65, 66,
67
: 174
: 65, 79, 80, 111
: 79, 80, 141, 203
: 60, 76, 83, 104, 105,
106, 107, 129, 151, 184
, : 70
, : 112
,
, : 112
, : 55, 70
, , -
236
/ :
55, 70, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 105,
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
112, 183
, :
59, 69, 71
: 79
: 174, 175
: 96
,
/ (784-806): 54, 98,
110, 115
, :
153, 196
: 90
/ : 83, 84, 85, 101
: 65, 90
: 175
,
/: (858-867 877-
886): 54
/ : 71,
85
: 144, 157, 158,
159
: 157, 159
:
55, 67
: 120
: 160
, : 149, 150, 197
,
, :
61
/
: 55, 89, 91, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103, 104, 152, 154, 172
: 91

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