Structural Competency for Architects Hollee Hitchcock BeckerStructural Competency for Architects Structural Competency for Architects is @ comprehensive volume covering topics from structural systems and typologies to statics, strength of materials, and component design. The book includes everything you need to know about structures for the design of components, as well as the logic for design of structural patterns, and selection of structural typologies. Organized ito six key modules, each chapter includes examples, problems, and labs, so that you learn the fundamentals ‘Structural Competency for Architects will also help you pass your registration examinations. Hollee Hitchcock Becker is an Assistant Professor at the Catholic University of America in Washington, DC where she teaches Structures and Environmental Design. With a BSCE in engineering and a Masters of Architecture, as well as @ 90-year career in ‘engineering, business and education, she understands the differences in learning styles between architects and engineers. Hollee’s research includes the structural possibilities of laminated veneer bamboo and replacement structures for atisk or destroyed housing. She is also developing a Pattern Typology forthe integration of structural systems with design intent.‘Architects learn structural calculations in school, but have little opportunity to practice those skill in daily work, Becker's book isthe clearest text | have seen to helo practicing architects remember “How do I do that?” Structural Competency for Architects offers step-by-step instructions to address al the common structural design tasks involved in typical buildings’ Jeremy Fretts, Senior Project Architect, Niles Bolton Associates ‘This is a comprehensive text that addresses every aspect of structural design in one volume [Its @ welcome addition to the literature of structure in architecture,” Deboreh Oakley, Associate Professor, Schoo! of Architecture, University of NevadaStructural Competency for Architects Hollee Hitchcock Becker R fouledgeFirst published 2015 by Routlagge 71 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Squaro, Miton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 ARN Foutledge isan imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group an informa business (© 2015 Taylor & Francis ‘The right of Hollee Hitchcock Becker tobe identified as author of hs work has been ‘asserted by herin eccordance with sections 77 and 7@ ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Ac 1988. ‘Allright reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or tlised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retiova systam, without permission in writing from the aubishers Trademark notice: Product ar corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for ientiicaton and explanation without intent infinge Library of Congress Cataloging in Pubestion Data Becker, Holee Hitchcock. ‘Structural competency for architects / Holle Hitchcock Becker pages em Includes index 1 Structural engineering Tie “Tag33.644 2014 720-23 2019040177 ISBN: 978-0416-81787-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0.415-81788-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-68315-9 [ebk} ‘Acauisitin Etr: Wendy Fuller Esitorial Assistant: Grace Herison Production Edtor: Siobhan Greaney “Typeset in Univers by GreenGate Publishing Services, Tonbridge, Kent sol 1000768842 TA 632 e345For Lydia ~ my sunshine on a rainy day.Contents Introduction Part | Statics and Strength of Materials Chapter 1. Finding Reactions 1.1 Vectors 1.2 Supports 1.3 Moments 1.4 Reactions Chapter 2. Bar Forces in Trusses 241 Method of Joints 2.2 Method of Sections 2.3 Diagonal Tension Bracing Chapter 3. Statics in Simple Systems 34 Cables: 3.2 Arches and Pinned Frames Chapter 4. Shear and Moment in Beams 4.1 Shear and Moment Diagrams 4.2 Writing Moment Equations Chapter 5 Load Tracing 6.1 Finding Floor Loads on Columns 5.2 Accumulation of Column Loads Chapter 6, Simple Stress and Strain 6.1 Force Induced Stress and Strain 6.2 Temperature Induced Stress and Strain ail 13 13 16 18 a a a a 37 a“ 4a 44 46 48vr contents Chapter. Shear and Flexure in Beams 50 1 Neutral Axis and Moment of Inertia 50 7.2 Bending Stress 54 78 Shear Suess 56 Chapter 8. Deflection in Beams 60 81 Deflection Charts 60 8.2 Double Integration Method 6 83 Moment Area Method 6 8.4 Method of Virtual Work 64 Chapter 9. Design of Beams 6 9.1 Overview of Design Limitations 86 9.2 Design of Beams for Fue, Sheor and Detection 68 ‘Chapter 10. Design of Columns rT 10:1 Axial Loads on Columns 7 10.2 Column Design n Part ‘Structural Design Principles n Chapter 11. Structural Patterns ry 114 Defining the Structural Grid a 11.2 Natural Design and Structural Form ea Chapter 12. Design Loads a 121 Live and Dead Loods 88 12.2 Snow Loads 89 1233 Lateral Loads 90 12.4 Factored Loads 37 Chapter 13. Horizontal Framing Systems 99 181 Typical Ste! Framing Systems 99 182 Concrete Framing Systems 101 18.3 Wood Framing Systems 102 184 Bay Framing 105 108, 13.5 Framing Processcontents % Chapter 14. Lateral Bracing Systems 14. Braved Fremes, 14.2 Moment Frames 14.3 Shear Walls Chapter 15. Structural Typology 16.1 Beam and Column Systems 18.2 Form-Active Systems 18.3 Thin Shells, 154 Folding Plates 15.5 Trusses and Space Frames 15.6 Moment Frames 157 High-rse Typology 15.8 Exoskeletons 16.9 Hybrid Structures: Part ‘Wood Design Chapter 16. Dimensional Lumber Design 16.1 Adjustment Factors for Dimensional Lumber 16.2 Design of Dimensional Lumber Components 16.3 Wester Framing Considerations Chapter 17. Timber Design 71 Adjustment Factors for Timber 17.2 Design of Timber Components Chapter 18. Glue-Laminated Lumber Design 181 Adjustment Factors for Glu-Lams 18.2 Design of Glu-Lam Components Chapter 19. Wood connections 19.1 Mechanical Connections 19.2 Wood Joinery 109) 109 me 116 19 ne va 127 128 128 130 131 196 136 137 139 139 142 153 187 187 187 164 164 166 ™ 174 17contents Partiv Steel Design Chapter 20. Steel Beam Design 20.1 Designing Beams for Flexure Using LAFD Method Chapter 21. Design of Steel Compression Members 21.1 Asal Loads on Stee! Columns 21.2 Combined Axial Compression and Flexure 21.8 Bui-up Columns 21.4 Column Spices Chapter 22, Steel Tension Design 22.1 Gross Yielding in Tension 22.2 Tensile Rupture Strength 22.8 Block Shear 22.4 Design of Tension Members Chapter 23. Steel Baseplates Chapter 24. Steel Connections 24.1 Botted Connections 24.2 Eocentve Botted Connections 24.3 Welded Connections 24.4 Standard Bolted Connections PartV Concrete Design Chapter 25. Concrete Beam Design 25.1 The Internal Couple 25.2 Reinforced Concrete Beams Chapter 26. Concrete Stab Design 26.1 One-way Slabs 26.2 Continuous Slabs Chapter 27. Doubly Reinforced Beams and T-beams 271 Doubly Reinforced Beams 27.2 Teeams. 179 181 181 187 187 169 180 193 195, 197 197 199 200 206 206 210 an 213 27 219 219 zat 26 206 208 232 232 235contents ‘Chapter 28. Shear and Deflection in Concrete Beams 2H 28.1 Shear in Conerete Beams 2a 28.2 Deflection in Concrete Seams 243 Chapter 29. Concrete Columns 248 29.1 Design of Short Axially Loaded Columns 249 28.2 Columns with Large Eccentric Loads 251 Chapter 30. Development Length 258 30.1 Development Length in Tension Bars 259 30.2 Development Length in Tension Bars with Hooks 259 30.3 Tension Splices 260 30.4 Development Length in Compression Bars 261 30.5 Ber Cutofts 261 30.6 Development Length for Positive Moment at Simple Supports 262 Chapter 31. Concrete Walls 263 31.1 Bearing Wells 263 31.2 Shear Walls 264 31.3 Retaining Walls 206 Chapter 32. Footings 2m 32.1 Wall Footings 278 32.2 Individual Footings 276 323 Combined Footings 279 Chapter 33, Precast and Prestressed Concrete 283 33.1 Precast Conerete 283 33.2 Prestressed Concrete 286 Part Vi Masonry and Alternate Materials Chapter 34, Masonry Design 934.1 Masonry Load Bearing Walls 291xn contents Chapter 35. Alternate Structural Materials 298 35.1 Concrete, Steel and Wood 294 95.2 Alternate Metals 294 35.3 Plant-based Materials 296 35.4 Plastics 297 35.5 Carbon Fiber 297 35.6 Glass 297 Conclusions 298 ‘Appendices 299 References 316 Figures and Tables, 37 Index 322Introduction ‘A structure is an assembly of interrelated components that serve a common purpose. Structure ray present itself with 2 birarchy of components as inthe structure ofa corporation ‘or rely on the patterns and relationships between similar components as in the structure of molacties. In Architecture, structure isa system of interrelated components thats. capable of supporting itself and transferring all loads safely to the ground. ‘Architects and indeed all designers should understand structures in order to communicate effectively with ‘contractors and consultants or to design component sizes, But the most important reason to understand structures is to ‘express the design intent or concept through the structure, Only by understanding how different structural types and ‘materials behave will the structural system become fully integrated with the design intent. In this book, the basic concepts of statics and strength ‘of materials are presented fist, followed by discussion of structural systems. This order allows the reader to Understand how components of various systems behave in terms of the stresses they receive, After discussion of structural types, design methods for components for specific materials of wood, stel and conorete are presented. If chemical and heat reactions are ignored, there ae five basic ways to physically beak an object Tension—pulling Compression—pushing, crushing, squeezing Flexure—bending ‘Shear—chopping, cutting, slicing, punching through Torsion—twisting, Other types of failure are a refined definition based on these basic five types. Metal fatigue, for example, is caused by the repeated bending in alternating opposite directions, Ty this experiment: Collect five identical pioces of chalk, five identical rubber bands and five identical paper clips. Test each of the three objects for tension, compression, flexure, shear and torsion by trying to break one of the identical ‘objects by pulling, another by crushing, ete. What is noticed ‘bout the behavior of chalk compared to rubber? ‘The forces and reactions in tension, compression, flexure, shear and torsion are determined by statics. Statics isthe Physical state in which all components are at ret and in equilibrium, How oF when or if @ component wil fail under ‘a particular force or stress depends on the properties of the ‘material from which itis made; the strength of the material This book is intended to be @ simple explanation of the structural problems architecture students, designers and architects may encounter whether designing in steel, wood, concrete or an alternate material,2 annealPart | Statics and Strength of Materialsone Finding Reactions Nowton's Three Laws of Motion: 1. Abody at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will Continue uniformly in a straight line unless acted upon by a force 2, F = ma: thats, the rete of change of momentum (mv) is ‘equal tothe force producing it and in the direction ofthat force 3. Every force acting upon a body at rest has an equal and ‘opposite reaction Newton's third law of motion isthe basis for static structural analysis. For a structure to remain static that is, at rest {and not in motion, the sum of all forces must equal zero, ‘This means that any force applied to a component must be ‘resisted by that component with an equal and opposite force, In order todo that, the structural component will internalize the force and transfer it toa support or another component ofthe structural system. The force willbe transferred from ‘component to component until it reaches the ground, 1.1 Vectors {tis important to understand basic trigonometric functions in ‘order to work with vectors. Bolow is a quick review. a ‘trigonometric functions Basic trigonometric functions: sin@ = O/H , cos® = A/H and tand = O/A (0 = Hsin@ and A = Hoos@ 1.1.1 Vectors Loads or forces in architecture are described in terms of vectors. There are three necessary components that define @ vector: 1. Origin oF starting point 2, Direction 3. Magnitude, ‘The orgin isthe point of contact. Vector direction is expressed by its x and y relationships. Normal convention for ‘vector direction is that a vector moving to the right is +X, a ‘vector moving to the left is ~X, a vector moving upis +¥ and «vector moving down is -¥.STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS A vector direction can be expressed by its x and y «elationships or by its angle from an axis. When a vector is expressed in terms of rise and run the rato of the X and Y components to the full vector magnitude are equal to the ratio ofthe rise and run ofthe direction to the hypotenuse they create. Ths is important to remember, because it allows the vector components oF magnitude to be found when only partial information is available. txample 14: Find the X and V components of the free vector Ax 10k with aisorun of ly Y s y y lay SY Vector componente defined by rise and un RAL <(B)are0 ond a, (io Sore 5 ee Notice that vector components are tip to tail directed so that ‘they form an alternate route from the origin to the endpoint, indicating component directions. Example 12: id magnitude of vector E if E, = 240. ‘Vector magotade defined by ie/ron 1. Determine the hypotenuse of the triangle: Ha (B12) =13 2. Use ratios to determine the vector component E: E208 -£, 32 6 2108 208) a2 Get) trample 1: When veces xpresed ints of te ane renve tana ue tigonomete nto t Sevrnine te components ‘The 16K force is in a rection 30° above the positive . Because ‘sn30° and c0s30* are known, the ratio of sine or cosine tothe ‘whole is equal tothe rato of F, oF, to the vector force F = 16k. F, = 16k(sin90) = 16k(0.5)= Bk 3.86k \6k(cos30) = 16K(0.866) ithe vector crectinsexressd in terms of the angl tom the Y-x5, th ests willbe th same, R_ e we80" snd cosine can be used Example 1-4: to find a vector force magnitude when only the angle from an axis and one of the components are known. Vector magaitude defined by angleFind magnitude of force G and the horizontal component G, if the vector G is directed 60° left ofthe positive Y-axis and the vertical component G, = 254. a ERDUSTAKAn duct sue § JAN es SIMTVERSTY PUT MALAYSIA 3. Find magnitude of resultant vector by using Pythagorean theorem £= (FF 4, Find direction of the resultant vector lative tothe Xals by using tan 4) i Example 15: Adding vectors 1.1.2 Adding Vectors Te sum of vectors passing through 8 common point is called «resultant vector. Vectors traveling through common point may be added graphically by connecting vectors tp to tal, in any order, starting atthe origin, then finding the resultant vector by drawing a line from the origin to the endpoint. ‘The independence of order is demonstrated in Figure 1.8 by adding three vectors in different orders. The resultant, vector is always the same. Although an easy way to check an answer, itis only as accurate asthe scale of drawing, reese lescsr as Graphically added vectors To add vectors mathematical 1. Break each vector into X and Y components. 2. Sum X direction components; sum ¥ direction components. ‘Add the three vectors in Figure 1.6: 1. Find vector components: (2)-0--2008 c,-(BiJeae-ioen «, =1( 2) c, 7.69k 2 B= cn 72) | =~18.46k F, = 1600880 = 13.86k F, = 16sing0 = 8.00k 2. Sum the Xcomponents and sum the Y components. Bf, = -208 - 7.69 + 19.86 = ~14.63k Bf, = 1878 + 18.46 + 8.00 = 12.69k 3, Resultant magnitude: R= fines" +1259" 4. Resultant direction: 19.30 sbove the negative X-axis. 1.2 Supports ‘There are three basic types of supports to consider: rollers, pins and fixed connections. Rollers: The eaction is a force through the roller center perpendicular tothe surface on which the roller sits, whether horizontal (a) orat an angle (b).STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. seen (a) (b) o Roller support If the slope of the reaction surface is in terms of a rise (Y) over run 0, then te slope of the reaction vector, which is perpendiuar tothe suece hase ris Ol oer aun (Knowing thi, the reecton vector components cn be called I the ror supportrestson a surface wit sain of 3, the slope ofthe vector Ris 1. Detemine the hypotenise ofthe tangle Vr os 2. Use ratios to determine the vector components A, and A, 8-48.n (Peron ont (%)e =0.88 Pinned support: The reaction is @ force through the pin ina direction opposite to the resultant of forces applied tothe pin Itis important to remember that both pins and rollers are free to,otate. Because ofthis they do not transfer any rotational force called a moment through the support. Re Px Jy Ry @ © Pinned support) and fixed suppor (. Fixed support: A fixed support has a reaction in a direction ‘opposite to the resultant of forces applied. Unlike @ pinned ‘support, a fixed support resists rotation and has a moment reaction equel to the moment applied to the support, but in ‘an opposite direction. 1.3 Moments Moment: M, = Fig) ‘A moment about some point A is caused by a force, F, acting at a perpendicular distance, d, to the point. The units for ‘moment ae: kip-feet (kf) kp-inches (inl, pound-feet (lb-ft) or pound:in (b-n}. Convention for the direction of moment is positive fora clockwise rotation and negative for a counter- clockwise rotation. Direction affect momentFINDING REACTIONS 7 ‘The rigid frame in Figure 1.9 has @ horizontal 7k force appied| _at point C. The perpendicular distance between the line of that force and point Ais 6 M, l= fld) = 7H") = 4k ‘The rotation is clockwise, which is considered positive, therefore M, = 42k. ‘The moment about point B (Mis also 42k- because the perpendicular distance between the line of force and Point B remains 6. The directions stil cockwise. By rotating the 7k (b} applied at point C, the moment about point (M,) changes because the perpendicular distance ‘between the fine of the force and point A changes. M, 86kf KIB") = BB clockwis M, = 7K(81 = 56% counterclockwise = ~B6kf ‘The direction of a moment can be easily shown by holding 2 pencil loosely atthe point of rotation andi pushing inthe direction of the applied force. The pencil will rotate inthe direction of the moment, Example 1-6: Summing moments. “The 15k force is applied perpendicular to and at the center of ‘the AC lag. Find the moment about point A and B. 'M, can be solved easily because the force is perpendicular to the leg AC. 2M, |, = 0= 15KIS') = 75k The 15k mustbe broken into components to solve for My 4 ee 1ex() 1d and 154()-% Aft 22M, =0=—12K(12')+ 9419" ‘counterclockwise 1.4 Reactions Structure transmits loads to the ground through a series of reactions to applied forces, Before any component can be designed to handle the transfer of anpied loads, the reactions atthe supportis] must be found. To solve for reactions: 1. Identity the unknowns 2, Break ll forces into X and Y components 3, Sum the forces and moments atthe supports: ™M Bi = 0, Ef 1.4.1 Concentrated Loads ‘A concentrated load is'a load that is applied at a single point Its handled asa vector with magnitude Yforee in Ib oF K), direction and origin (the point at which itis applied). Example 17 Fi ing reactions. 1. Identity the unknowns: The support et point Ais pin and therefore may have @ reaction in the X and Y directions (A and A) Ain cannot resist rotation and therefore has 1 moment wanser. The support at pint Bis @oler and therefore the only reaction sa free perpendicular othe support surface (8). The fee body diagram (a) shows applied forces and unknown reactions 2. Breakal fares into X and ¥ components: The aplied force isa hrzontal force; it does not have e Y component, 3. Sum te forces and moments atthe supports: Start by summing the moments about apn.STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Example1-7 EM =0=A,(01 + A014 7461 - 8,167 0 = a2eF -8,0167 8, = 2k4/6" = 2.63k B,=0=A,+8,=A,+260k A,=~263k. Because the answer is negative and A, was essumed tobe postive the answer is A, = 2.634 B,=0=7k+A, |A,=~Tk. Because the answer is negative and A, was ‘assumed to be tothe right, the answer is A, = 7k Example 1-8: Find reactions in a 12’ beam with ag overhang. 12. a @ Free body dagram + 8K Cy Example 18 Tho unknowns ain Aare A, and A, The unknown atthe cle BiB, ‘Seo the nly api forces are voral foes, thre is 10 need to break tem nto X and components ‘Sum moments about the pin EM. = 24k B12 + 96kf ALO) + A(0") + 3k18") ~ 8,112 + 6X16") 1204/12’ = 10k = 10KT =A\+B,—3k-8k=A, + 10k - 9k 1k}, Because the answer is negative and A, was assumed tobe up, the answer is A, = kL H=02A,..A=0 prcomnjFINDING REACTIONS Example 1 Find reactions for a 16’ beam with a roller on an angle at B. 1 ‘ i Ps (a) e * ee 3 ke 08 al a ‘w [ © 8 “s “3 7 4 « @ The unknowns at pn Aare A,and A, The unknown at the role Bisa vector Bin drecton perpondiula to the surface on whic the ors. Surface siope = $ vector slope = 4. Because we know the direction ofthe vector in terms of the rise and run, we can break it into its ‘components Fra 25 & B 088 ls 0.68 iss No forces need breaking into X and Y components, ‘Sum the forces and moments atthe supports, EM, =0= AO) + A(0") + 3k(8" + 6k(12") ~ 8 (16°) 24k + Tak ~ 8,116") B, = 96k-1/16"= 6x = 6k Using the ratios ofthe vector B: 68 = 0.6(75) = 4.5k Bi =0=A,+B,~3k~6k=A, + 6k ~9k Ae B,=0=A,-B,=A,-4.5k 3kt A k= 45k 1.4.2 Distributed Loads ‘A cistrited load is exactly whet it sounds lik, Its a load istributed over a length and it s expressed in terms of the force per unit of length. Distributed loads may be uniform or ‘non-uniform. Uniform loads are distributed evenly across a portion of a member. As such there are two parameters that define the load condition: the length over which itis distributed and w, the force por unit of length, usually in units of kt or To find the moment about a point caused by a uniform load: 1. Calculate the total load: multiply w by the longth of load epplication 2, Find the center of gravity forthe load. This occurs at the Center of the length of load application, 3. Calculate the moment caused by the uniform load by "multiplying the total load from step one by the distance1000768842 STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. ‘rom the point of interest to the center of gravity located in step two. Example 1-10: Finding reactions with a uniform load. kit Reactions for wiformload ‘The uniform load, w = Skit, the applied length is 10° The total load, W = 3ki/f{10") 10k The distance from the center of gravity o point Ais 5° Cr half ofthe applied length, =M, Bk (0= 30K") ~ B,(10%...8, A= 15k =A,~ 30k + 18k Reactions fora pertalunifrm load The uniform load is w = Skit, The applied iength is 3" The total oad, W = [3k/1)(97 = 9k. The distance from the center ‘of gravity to point Ais the applied load plus half of the applied length = 6 + 312 = 6.6" from point A, 2M,= 9K(6.5) - 8,187... B, = 231k EF, =0=A,~9k+ 731k... A= 1.69k overhang. esctions fora partial uniform lsd with an overhang weakit We 3k/(6") = 15K ‘The distance from the center of gravity to point As the applied load plus half ofthe applied length = 5+ 672 = 7.5 from point A. EM, = 0 = 15K(75) ~ B,(@')... B, = 14.06 oak BF, =0=A, ~ 15k + 14.08 O=A, Not all distributed loads are uniform loads. To find the total ‘oad and the center of gravity when the distributed load is ‘non-uniform, the geometry ofthe shape of the load must be considered. iangular load. (One example of a non-uniform distributed toad is 3 triangular load, named for its geometric shape. The erea of a aFINOING REACTIONS 11 ‘riangle is equal to half the base times the height. Tho center ‘of gravity ofa triangle is located one third of the base length {rom the heaviest ond, kt Ax e s 4 7 By a ‘vianglarood wo KL81 2 ‘The contr of gravity is} ofthe appa lngth fom the heavy end or tom port 8. Therefore, the dtance from the center of gravity to point A is 9 - 3° = 2M, 9k = 19.5K16") - B97. a, A,~18.6k + 9k... A= 48k aA, ar, Example 1-14: Finding reactions with multiple distributed loads. ‘Another example of a non-uniform distributed load is a load that varies linearly from one amount at one end to another ‘amount at the other end as shown in Figure 1.18. Break the load into one uniform load and one triangular load: ‘The uniform load is 3k/. The applied length is 6” W, = (WING = 18K. ‘The center of gravity is 3 from point A. ‘The triangular load tapers from 3kff to 0 The applied length is 6. W, = ((3"k/F"16%N/2 = 9k The center of gravity 2 from point A, mM, 8 j, =O 18K(3") + 9k(2") ~ 8 (9") BF/=0 =A, 18k-9k+ 8k... A, = 19k EF,=0=A, Practice Exercises: 111 through 1-3: Find the resultant vector magnitude and rection forthe forces shown in the diagrams in Figure 1.19. 114; Find the moment about point A. 1-5: Find the moment about support A. 1-6: Find the moment caused by the force: 4} about point A about point B. 117 through 1-14: Find the reactions forthe forces applied. oa} |||] kit e By o t+ Conbineddistributedonde12 STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. a . Sak 12 13 14 208 12k ~~ a e 16. e | 10 16 17 18 (Chapter Practice exercises.two Bar Forces in Trusses ‘Atrue truss stable configuration of bars connected by Example 24. pinned joints. Because te joints are pinned, no momentis transferred along aba. Therefor, the direction of any bar force is along its axis. Each bar transfers an axial force in either compression or tension. Bar forces in compression have arrows pointing avay from each other +> and ber forces in tension are inccated by arrows pointing toward each other >. uss analysis assumes fou things 8 1. Almembers er nea. 2. Members are pinned connected atthe ends 2. The weight of the members is nglectod : . 4. Loads ere only apd a the joints f > + 1 Bs 2.1 Method of Joints Sa ee The Method of Joins uses the logic that fa joints iscleted 1, Soe foreacton by cutting trough the bas th jon remains in enlum 0 to the bar ores, Tose the Metrodo Joints: 2K06"1- D129. 1. Solve for reactions at the supports. Byr0e 2s honky Break the truss in individual ints. B,-0-A, Sum the oe inthe xandycections for echt. >a ys no india ons: Bf, = 0, Bf, = 0. Note the ber forces on the other side of the break as equal in force and opposite in direction, 4, Find resultant bar forces: ey)“ Suma forces teach joint 3. Sum the forces in the x and y directions foreach joint. BI, = 0, B, Joint A: eine B,=0=-2k + BG, .. BC, = 247 Hf, =0= -2k+CD,... CD, = 2k» Joint: Bf,=0=1~BD,... 8D,= 1 Bf,=0=-24BD,... BD,=2> Joint B: Once all of the bar forces are found, the last joint can bbe checked to ensure equilibrium. Hf, =O= Ik -2k4 tk... kay x, + 2k ay 4 desire foes (ere) ABeBD= (OTB =22% Compression <-> AG=CD 280 «2 Tension Tay, ery Find total bar forces ‘Some trusses have diagonals set at an angle @ from the horizontal For any bar for ratio: Find _ 1 Feoso~ 4 f={1an@ and f= ‘russ defined by anglesBAR FORCES IN TRUSSES 16 1. SoWve for reactions: Unknowns are A,, A, and G, EM, = 0= 215°) + SKI15' + 528) ~ G, (90 k = Ok ~ 8k 3k- 248)... = 4k =0=A, 2k 3 = B F 4.042 3.464 4 1.185 2 1 Smt 6 . 1.155 377 1 S464 2308 4.155 S77 3.484 4 1155; : 6 2 . 2.909 4618 3.464 oe ax . oie Sum forces a ach it 2. Break nto individual joints: Joint D: 21, = 0 = 2k ~3~ DE, .. DE, = tkT 3, Sum the forees in the x and y directions for each joint 06, = ag ign OTH 2, =0,2f,=0, ‘an80 Joint 31, = 0 = 4k — AB, ... AB, = Akl 3h, = 0= 9.4644 1165 ~ 0577 ~ DF... DF = 4.082ke- i Joint €: Bf, =0 = ke EF, .. EF, = 1k * "ened ~ 1732 Eee B,=0=-2.909 + AC... =2.309k-> =f STI . Be ‘tan60 1.732 24k =2~ AC, AG, = kb 21, =0= ~A618 +0577 + 0577466... EG=246sk-» AC, 2 = -tk-5+FG, ... FG, = 6xt oe 8 at te AC = = ggg 18k 6, 2,209 + 1.155 + BD... BD = 3.464 0, = 2k = 3.464k ~ 3.464K... okay 44. Find resultant bar forces: 2.309 ~ 1.165 ~ 1185 + CE... CE = 4618»STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Ron foe Vented, C= compression, T= tonsion B= (20a BC AC =231kT [52 8D =3.46C [riere (oar) oak ¢ EF (OSTIE GF) =1.18K0 487 8 3KT BkC 18k C FG= (346 +6) =69%C 2.2 Method of Sections Just as any joint can be isolated and examined to be found in ‘equilibrium, any section ofa truss thet is isolated will also be in equilbrium, meaning that the sum of forces and moments vl equal zero. Isolating @ section of a truss is very useful when only a few bar forees need to be found, ‘To use the Method of Sections: Find total bar forces 1. Drawa section line through one or more bars of interest. ‘The section line must cut through the entre truss. 2. Consider only one side of the section tne a. fall supports are located on one side of the ‘soction cut, then use the other side, This wil liminate the need to solve for reactions frst b. fall supports are not located on one side of the section line, then solve for reactions before isolating the section. 3. Teach severad bar, assign a bar force variable with ‘components, assuming a direction (AB, AB,, etc.) 4, Solve for the bar forces using EM = 0, Bf, = 0 and Bf, = 0. In order to decide which equation, to use, ‘observe the isolated section. Count the number of Unknown variables in the x direction. I only one unknown ‘exists, it may be found by using Bf, = 0. The same is rue of they direction. if there is more than one unknown in both dictions, use M = 0, taking the moment about the intersection of two severed bars to find the forces in ‘the third. [tis also useful to remember that bar forces aro axial and therefore the ratio of f/f, = rise/tun 5, Find resultant bar forces: +) Example 2-3: Find the bar forces in members CB and CE Using Method of Sections.@AR FORCES IN TRUSSES 17 ore roe ae 8k Nu ~L. 12k + @ c 16. i} 8k Cex © cB cty DE ‘Above section line ethod of Sections 1. Draw section line through CB and CE 2._ Consider only one sie ofthe section line, Since al of te supports are located on the bottom, isolate the top ection. This will eliminate the need to solve for reactions first. 3. The variables are CBL, CE, CE, and DEL. Allere assumed tobe in tension Ifthe answer is negative, ‘the diction wil change and the bar force wil be in compression 4, There only one X direction variable, CE, therefore use B20 x, CE, = 12'(8KY/16 = 6 8k + CE, .. CE, = Bk» ‘There are stil two variables in they direction: CB and DE. ‘Therefore, f, = 0 cannot be used yet, Use instead, EM = 0, ‘Since CB isthe variable to be found, take a moment about the point where CE and DE intersect at point Et does not matter that point Eis not part of the section. IM, = 0= -8K(12) ~ CBI16" compression CB = -8k or 6k in If envisioning a point not inthe isolated section is dificult, sum the moments about point C, then sum vertical forces. 2M, = 0=DE(I6’)... DE=0 Bi, =0=-6k+0~CB... CB =-6or8kin ‘compression. 5. Fd esultan bar forces fre) co =aKe DE=0 ce= (G6) =1007 Example 2-4: Find the bar forces in AC using Method of Sections.MW STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 1. Drawa section line through AC. Note that wherever the section line is drawn, an isolated side will contain a support, Therefore itis necessary to solve for reactions. 2M, = 0= 10K4) +687 (-40/3 = ~13.33 13.33k- 933K + A, A, = -19.33k = 13.33k— AOK+ Ay Ay = 10K 2. Consider onty one side ofthe section line. ‘The variables are AB, AB, AC, and AC,, Since there ‘ate four variables and only three available equations, the relationships between the variables must be defined. Se 18, 4 AG, 3 Sk. an AC, 6' el 4. There are two variables in each of the x and y directions, therefore use EM =. Since AC is the bar of interest, ‘sum the moments about the only point not connected to AC, point 8 EM, = 0 = ~13.33K(5) + SAC) ~ 2'(AC,) and since 5: Find resultant bar forces: Fe (FHF) AC (16657485) 2.3 Diagonal Tension Bracing Diagonal Tension Counters are sets of cables or slender components that stabz a frame by ating in tension ol though the tension counter are placed insets, only one is active given any particular oad scenario. For example, ifthe box s subjected to force F irom the lft, the frame wants to lean towards the right. The cable AC is in tension and counteracts the force F. Cable BD cannot resist in compression and becomes inactive. If the box is subjected toa force from ‘the right, Cable BD is active and cable AC is inactive. KAN ‘Only one tension brace is activ at tine To analyze diagonal tension counters: 1. Solve for reactions, 2. Cuta section through both tension counters and assume boar fragments are in tension. Isolate one side, 3. Sum forces inthe direction parallel to the section line ‘adding only some value T, ifthe lina is vertical, and T, if the tne is horizontal, for the tension counter variable, Solve for T, oT, A positive answer indicates T, is up. A negative answer indicates T, is down. 4. Choose the active tension counter by noting the direction Of T, Solve for T, using the ratios T/T, = rse/run, ‘5. Find the Tension inthe active tension counter using T=) Example 2-5: Find the tension in the active tension counters. 1. Solve for reactions, 4K) + 6K18") + 8K112") ~ H,(16") A-4-8-8+10...4, = 8k 20-4, 2. Cuta section through both tension counters and assume bar fragments are in tension. Isolate one side, Section 1 loft side: 3. x, 4k or ak 8k 4K + T, .T, 4. BEis the active tonsion counter because the T, is downward. 4k 8) akla') 1.BAR FORCES IN TRUSSES Diagonal tension bracing 8. Te (Pet) - GFF) -51% ‘Section 2, right side: a. Hf 10k - 8 +7, 4 EF isthe aetve tenon counter cause th i downward % we 8. Tee RPTF 256 Example 2-6. 2K 6k e 1. Inthis example, there is no need to solve for reactions if the area above each saction line is isolated. 2. Cute section through both tension counters and assume bar fragments are in tension. Isolate one side. 6: 8ke Horizontal ection cuts Section 1, top: 3. Bf, =0=64T, 4, DBis the active tension counter because the T, is toward the left.STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 5. Tet) = (OF) -0.7% Section 2, tp 3. H,=0=6k+ 847,07, 1k oF 1 = 4, EA\is the active tension counter because the is toward the eft. Mk 8 1 _ 14K) 105 Practice Exercises: 2-1 through 2-3: Solve forthe bar forces using Method of Joints. 2-4: Find the axial forces in bars BE and BC using Method of Sections, 2-8: Find the axial forces in bars DE and DF using Method of Sections. 2-6: Find the axial forces in bars CE, CD and CB using Method of Sections. 2-7 through 2-8: Find the tonsion inthe active diagonal tension counters. a) 7 my 2k AS Exercise 27 Chapter? Practice exercisesthree Statics in Simple Systems 3.1 Cables Cables can only transfer load through tension. All cables must have some sag in order to support a load. This s because the resultant force through a cable is in the direction ofits axis and because a cable, in theory, cannot transfer loads through sheer. Imagine a cable with no sag, ‘The reactions atthe cable supports must be in the same rection as the axis ofthe cable. Ifa cable has no sag, the rection and therefore the reactions are only inthe horizontal Cr x direction. When forces are summed in the y direction: ZI, =0=W, therefore the load W must be 0. Se a 10k ‘Acable must have somes, ‘This is because the ratio of the reactions AYA, = ha. I then Ay = 0 and therefore, W = 0 ‘To solve for the tension in @ cable when the sag is known: Example 3-1: Find the tension in cable segments AC and CB. 10k Finding tenon in cable eget 1. Find roactions. 2M,=0= 108 ~ 8/124... 8, =3.394h BF =0=A,~10k+3.93k... A, = 6.67KT 3 PS a.naan(8)-200-> é PP 3 4 Sake 60n(§)~90%- 2. Sum forces at each point of load. AC, = A, = 8.89k AC, = A, = 6.67 BC, = B, = 8.89 BC, = B, = 3.33 Note thatthe force nthe X-drection remains constant throughout the cable.2 STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 3. Find tension in cable logs. AC (Bas 6a7) =11.12% Bc: faa 233%) 9.504 Note that the tension is greater in the segment with the steepest slope. Example 3-2: Find the sag at points B and D and find, tension in all segments of cable. ‘Any portion ofthe cable may be isolated and resultant forces found. Finding sagin cables 2M, =0=3(2) +7182) + 242) ~ E (60). €,=8:79Kt B= 0% A,+573-12...A,=6.27Kh ‘and E, cannot be sohed without taking @ section cut. Cut cable at point Cand isolate ight side: EM, =0= 210) 6.73128) + E,(12).. 7k E873 _ hy £82. =88" Ernie" Consider entire cable: STA A= TIO AL 827 teh ae.42! Seeligieie aes A= (6271178) =193.20% Cy hed BC, =6.27k~Sk...BC, #327. ac= ea ei7F ] oo ae cde IF FTF) = 12.20% OE he Tai 12" b= 7511.77) =13.0H Example 3-3: Find the sag, h, in the cable given the ‘maximum cable tension, T= 18k. hy=12 DE, =8.73, Findingsag for maximum tension ™, = 28(10) ~ 406, ..C, = 7k By=0=A- 1047... A=3k ‘The steepest slope wil have the greatest tension, Slope of AB = h/28 and Slope of BC = h/12. Therefore, BC has the greatest tension and BC = 18k, Comparing the ratios of force to length in the triangle on the right side yields: 18K hy! = My + 168h, +1008...STATICS IN SIMPLE SYSTEMS a ‘Alternatively, BC, can be found frst and then the used in the equation: 802+ 72 18? .. BC, = 16.68k 7216.58 = 5.07" 3.2 Arches and Pinned Frames 3.2.1 Hinged Arches ‘Three hinge arches consist of two arched segments ‘connected by @ pin and supported by @ pinned connection at each end, Because there are 4 unknowns and only 3 ‘equations, the arch must be separated into segments to solve. Note that th pin forces on the right side are equal and ‘opposite to the pin forces on the left side, The assignment of the direction of pin forces is arbitrary Hf the wrong direction is chosen, the answer will appear to be negative, meaning that the direction is opposite ofthat assumed, To analyze three-hinge arches: 1. Break into left and right segment. Assign P, and P, variables to either side ofthe pin in opposite directions. 2, Using only the left side, sum the moments about the left ‘support. Find the P, in terms of the P, 3. Using only the right side, sum the moments about the Tight support. Find the P, in terms of P, 4. Set the P, in terms of P, equations from steps 2 and 3 ‘equal to each other. Solve for P, Using P,, solve for P, 6. Using only the left side, sum y-direction fores, then direction forces to find reactions atthe left Support. 7. Using only the right side, sum y-direction forces, then »cdiection forces to find reactions atthe right support tions and the Example 3-4: Solve for the support sultant force in the pin. - ‘Three bioged ach Left side: 2, = 20kt10" = ¢,61 + ¢,189 6, = 166, - 200/15 = 046, - 19.33 Fight sig eo (181 + 6,161 ~ 18K15") c, 0.4C, = 13.93 = 6 ~ 1.070x... C, = 13.18K 0 - 16C,)5 = 6 - 1.070, 19.39/1.47 G,=6 ~ 1.07113.16) = ~8.07k Loft side: = A,~20k-+ 807k... A= 11.93k Om A, ~ 18.15k... A, = 19.18k Right side =B, ~ 18k ~8.07k... B, = 26.07k 5B, + 13.18k ..B, = 13.18k Resutont in force = F287) ~15 43™ STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 3.2.2 Pinned Frames Unlike trusses, where bar forces are directed along the bar axis, pinned frames have bar forces that carry shear and therefore the bar force direction is unknown until analyzed. ‘To analyze pinned frames: 1. Find reactions at supports for entire pinned frame system, i possible. Separate the frame at pins into individual members. Solve for forces in each member remembering thatthe force at the pin in one member will be equal and opposite to the force atthe same pin in the connected member. Example 3-5: Find the support reactions and the resultant pin force. (b) Pinned frame 2 pinned supports = 4 unknowns. Therefore, itis impossible to solve for reactions by looking atthe whole system, Lott side: = BK2)~ 6,89. C= ak = A,~ Be ak A, = ak AG AC, Right side 1267k = 12.87k-> EM, = 10K" + 6,6". a, = ak Bf, =0=-dk +B, Bf, = 0=B, + 1267k - 10k... B= -267k = 2.67ke Resultant pin force: c= fina) ANSWER: A,=2671, A, =A, B= 2.67, B= A, C= 13.29k Example 3-6: Find the forces in the pinned A-Frame shown in Figure 37. __ 108 6 108, x ly oy Pinned AfaneSTATICS IN SIMPLE SYSTEMS * = 60407 + 0H) - E87 A= 808+ 97.58... A = 22.547 Bi, = 0= 108-4, A, = 108 3, Isolate bars. Bar BD: 2M, =0 = 60412) - 0,7 and on ber COE 8, =30#L 3f,=0=B,- 608+ 308... 8, = 300 and bor ABCB, = 0K. Bar ABC: EM, = 0= 10816" + 22.5414") ~ 30812") + 8, (3°) 304 = 308» and on bar BD, 8, = 30% rat 22.54 308+, ..G, and on bar CDEC, = 258 Bf, =0= 108 - 108+ 908-C, ... C= 308 ‘and on bar CDE C, = 30#-» Bar CDE Bf, =0=30#- 0, ..D, = 308 Find pin forces: [a0 +205) = 42.43% co see) =30.90% ANSWER: Be A= 108 &, A= 225H1, E, =97581, B=D = 42.494, c=30.228 Practice Exercises: 341: For the diagram 1-1 in Figure 3.8: 18) Find the sag (hl and the reactions atthe support i hy = 3 b)_ Find the sag (h) and the reactions atthe supports if the ‘maximum tension in log CD is 8. 3-2: Find the tension in each log of the cable. 3-9 through 3-7: Find the reactions atthe supports and the resultant pin forces,four Shear and Moment in Beams ‘There is 8 mathematical relationship betwoen the.ioad on ‘a beam and the shear and moment forces incurred by that load. This means that given a particular load, the shear and ‘moment can be caleulated at any point along the beam. V = shear force kor Ib) ‘Shear is @ chopping action; a force inside the beam that ‘vansfors.2 load, occurring perpendicular to the axis of the beam, to the supports. The shear force, V, at any point along ‘ horizontal beam can be found by summing the forces in the Y direction on either side ofthat point. (M = moment fc, ein b-F, or lb-in) Moment is @ bending action caused by the shear. The ‘accumulation of shear across @ beam determines the amount ‘of moment created in the beam, The moment at any point ‘can be found by summing moments on ether side of that point. ‘The free-body diagram of a simply supported, 12ft beam in Figure 4.1 with a concentrated load of 6k located at a clstance of 8ft from support A, shows reactions of 2k and 4k ‘at supports A and B, respectively. rz-x 4k Shea and momenta any pointinabeam ‘The Free Body Diagram isthe starting point for finding the shear and moment at any given point along the beam. To determine the shear and moment, take a section atthe point ‘of interest. The internal shear (V) and moment (M) may then be calculated by summing forces and moments about any pointSHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS a | In Figure (6) the beam is cut at section D-D and the ‘two halves separated, the internal shear force (V) and the intemal moment (M) can be calculated forthe section of the beam to th lft of the point load. Because a vertical load will chango the shear, and asa result change the moment in the ‘beam, a different section line, section E~E, must be evaluated {or points tothe right ofthe load, ‘To determine the shear and moment at some point to the left of the point load, break the beam at section lino D-D. Section ine D-D occurs at some distance X from support A, ‘meaning that the values for shear and moment will be found in terms of the variable x ‘Assume a direction for shear (V} and moment (Mi) on one side ofthe break. Since the point is stati, the forces and. ‘moments at the point must be in equilbrium, Therefore, the shear (V) and moment (M) on the other side of the break will be of equal magnitude, but in the opposite direction, Consider only the lft side of section D-D. ZF, 2k =2-V EM, {,=0= VOX) —M = 200) -M... M=2X kf Consider only the right side of section D-D: V~6k 44... V=2k IF, EM, =0=M+6(8 ~ X) ~4(12~X) M=-48 + 6X +48 — 4X = 2X kf If the moment s taken about point B or point , the answer ‘will remain the same, +218-X) - 418) 18 + 2K + 16 = 2K kf EM, = 0=M +6(8-X) ~ 4(12-X) AB + 6X + 48 — AX = 2X KE From point Ato point B, the shear will main at 2k and the ‘moment wil remain at 2X k¢ for any distance X from support ‘A up to the point of load. Point A: X = 0, V= 2k, M Point B:X = 8, V= 2k, M = 218) Past the point of load, section E-E must be considered. Consider only the let side of section E-E as shown in Figure 4.10: BF, =0=2k-6k+V... Va 4k =M, = 6k) ~ 4kDX) - M.. M Consider only the right side of section E-€: BF) =0=-V44k.., V=dk =M, 1B = aX kt M~4li2~X)...M From point B to point C, the shear will remain at 4k andthe moment will emain at 48 ~ 4X kf for any distance X from Point B to point Point B: X VV = tk, M = 48 ~ 4(8} 1k Point C:X = 12%, V= dk, M= 48 ~ 4(12) = Okt 4.1 Shear and Moment Diagrams In Beam design, the maximum shear and moment must be considered in order to find the maximum stresses in shear and flexure. By illustrating the shear or moment at eny point onthe ‘beam in terms ofa diagram, itbecomes easy to assess the ‘teas of maximum and minimum stress in the beam without ‘drawing @ new section at every change in loading, 4.1.1 Diagrams with Concentrated Loads ‘To draw a shear diagram, begin t X = and move vertically only as a vertical force is encountered. Because reactions are considered, the shear willbegin and end at zero. A positive ‘or upward force will cause a positive increase in shear of the ‘same magnitude or amount of force. Likewise, a negative or downward force wil cause a decease in shear ofthe seme ‘amount of force. The change in shear dive to a concentrated cor point load occurs completely at the point of load andis represented by a vertical ne extending from the value of shear ‘on one side tothe value of shear on the other side, This vertical line length equals the amount of force encountered at the point Example 4-1: simply supported beam with @ concentrated load. Consider the simple beam discussed at the beginning of the chapter, shown in Figure 4.2:STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS @ » o (a) 8 6 Ret 5p | ey 2 vy tk Vv | 2 2 v tk an | Ey Es : 7S tk nak (a). Starting at X= 0, which inthis example is point A, the ‘reaction of 12K is immediately encountered. The shear changes from 0 to 2k line from 0 10 2k at X = 0. {) From X = 0 to X = 8, no vertical forces are encountered ‘Therefore the shear does not change. It remains at 2K. (co) AtX = 8%, which is point B at the load, there is a downward force of 6k. Therefore, the shear will change by ~6k. Since the shear is 2k, it must drop to V = 2k ~ 6k =k, {4} From point B at X = 8" to the support point C, at X= 12’, ‘there are no vertical forces encountered. Therefore, the ‘shear remains at ~4k. ‘AtpointC, the support reaction of 4k upward is ‘encountered. The shear increases to V = ~ak + 4k = 0. ‘This is whet is expected atthe end ofthe beam. (e) Just asthe shear diagram is influenced by the lads on the bbeam, the moment diagram is influenced by the shear on. the beam. Thetefore, once the shear diagram is drawn, it can bo used to create the mornent diagram. The mathematical relationship between shear and moment is described as: M= Nex. Bocause the moment is the integral ofthe shear, it is ‘equal to the ares under the shear curve, This means that the ‘moment at any point distance X from the left is equal to the ‘sum of all shear areas, postive or negative up to that distance X. This yields the same result as cuting a section line D-D and finding that M = 2X kt. The area under the shear curve at distence X to section D~D is 2k(X") = M = 2X kt. Plotting the results for M at points X = 0 through X = 8” yiolds Figure 4.3{¢). The slope of the moment line equals the shear. Figure 4.3 illustrates why the total area under the shear ‘curve from X= 0 10 8” equals the moment at X = 8, which is M = 16k Therefore, it drawing the moment diagram, itis not necessary to examine every point along the beam, but to Calculate the areas as they appear in simple geometric forms. ‘To create a moment diagram, first calculate the areas below the shear curve. Remember that areas above the zor0 line will be positive while areas below the zero line will be negative. A= 2K(8) = 16k4 A= ~4kla!) = ~16fSHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS 2 6K By Es TTT aE o Vinee 7 na hit 4k rad ia mister aps ahi! | 16k u : M=16 + A2 = Okt “ ample: Moment diagram ‘To draw the moment diagram, begin at X = 0. The moment ‘wil equal zer0 unless there isa fixed support or an appliod moment at that point (a) The first shear area, A, = 16k, extends from X= 010 X = 8" Therefore, the moment line will extend from M = 0 atX=OtoM =0+A, = 16kf atX=8. (b) The second shear area, A, = ~16k-f, extends from X = 8" t0X-= 12". Therefore, the moment ine will extend from M= 16k atX =8’toM= 16 +A, OatX= 12", ‘The maximum shear inthe beam is 4k, Direction does not ‘matter, simply the magnitude ofthe shear. The maximum ‘moment in the beam is 16k+f and occurs at X = 6”. The ‘moment inthe beam is 0 at X =0, 12 Vega = 4k Mpg, = 18k M=0@X=0, 12" Example 4-2: Concentrated loads on a beam with an overhar © © @ Me lakhs A2= 1 Beample 42: Shear digrama The momént a pinned or roller supports is NOT always zero, Consider the beam in Figure 4.4(a). This beam has a span ‘between supports of 12” and an overhang of 4’. The free body ciagram shown in Figure 4.4(b) is used to find the reactions as follows: EM, = 0= 6K(6") ~ C,(12" + 3k16) = BAe ~ C,(12") G a =A, ~ 6k + 7k 3k... Ay = 2kSTATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ‘The shear diagram in Figure 4.4(c) begins with the reaction at the support at X = 0 oF point A, but does not return to 0 until it reaches the end of the overhang, The shear values can be summarized as follows: ‘Shear diagram: 0 brackets indicate contents tat are only considered if greatr than zero, Ifthe Contents inside the < > brackets are less than 2210, use zero 2 the bracketed amount. When the shears constant, a from point load, the moment, M = V dx = Vx-+ C. When the shear isa uniformly Gistibuted toad, w, the moment, M = JV d+ C, = wx c+ Cx+C,, Example 4-9: Writing moment equations for concentrated load. Consider the beam from Figure 4.4 again Ma 2X -BeX-B> 4 7X12 Lal Fe » [os i | mace (10) +704) = Okt ‘Writing moment equations for concentrate loads M=2X~6. + 7eX~ 12> is the moment equation, X=0°M=0~ 610) + 710) = Okt 12: M = 2112) ~ 6/6) + 710) = ~12k-4 16: M = 2116) - 610) + 714) = 0 To ind where M crosses the zeo line, set the moment equation equal to zero, M0 = 2X ~6eX-6>47eX~ 12> HX212,M= XX ~ 6) + 71K - 12)... lrersxs12, y X~ 8X6) .. HXS6,0=2K..X= To find where M is maximum when @ beam contains only ‘concentrated loads, look atthe points where the shear ‘changes from positive to negative. Fist, set the derivative of the moment, the shear equation, equal to zero. Va 2~#<7HX> 12> Xz 12,0= 6472 Hte'sXs12,0=2-6 IFXs6%,0= (postive)Py STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Therefore, the shear crosses the oro line at X = 12" and X= 6. X=6"M = 2{6) ~6(0}+ 710) = 12k X= 12M = 2112) ~ 616) + 7/0) Akt May, = 12k Example 4-10: Writing moment equations for full uniform loads. Consider the beam from Figure 47 again. This 16ft beam has {2 uniform load of 3k/f over the entire length of the beam. Ma20x-ax s Lake et = 7k ‘ting moment equation forall uniform loads M = 24X ~ 3X2/2 where 24s the reaction of 24k at support A and 3s the uniform load of 3k/t X=0:M -0=0 X=B8"M = 24(8) ~ 3187/2 = 96k X= 16M = 24(16) - 3116772 = 0 To find where M = 0, set the moment equation equal to zero. M-=0 = 28X~ 3X9/2-= 1.5%? + 24K =X(-1.6X + 24) =0 M=0@Xx and @X= 24/15 = 16" To find where M is maximum, set the derivative ofthe ‘moment, the shear equation, equal to zero. V=0=24~3X.X=24/3 =" X= M = 2418) ~ 3184/2 = 96k Mya: = 98K Example 4-11: Writing moment equations for partial uniform loads. Consider the beam from Figure 4.9 again. This 16” beam has 2 uniform load of 3kif over one half of its span. Because the Uniform load does not continue past X = 8; its effect must be ‘counteracted. This is the equivalent of taking a uniform load ‘over an entre span and adding an equal but opposite load at BX 16. Ma18x-axh2+ 3ex-8F 72 Xa = 6K s1 ses sonst Writing moment equations for partial wniformloads = 18K - 3K4/2 + 3X ~ 8/2 X=0:M=0-310V2 + 310/2=0 X= 6M = 18(6) ~ 3196)/2 + 3(0/2) = Saket VM = 188) ~ 3(64)2 + 3I0V/2 = ake X-= 16% M = 18(16) ~ 3{256V2 + 3164y2 = 0 To find where M crosses the zero line, set the moment ‘equation equal to zero 2 18K 3K%/2 +.9-4/2 1X28, 0 = 18X ~ 32/2 + 31K - BF /2 = 18K — 1.5XE + “UBIX® ~ 16X 4 64) = 18K ~ 1X? + LEX? = 24X 4+ 96 6X +96... X= 16" HX <8", 0 = 18X ~ 3X4/2 = XB 1.5X) .. X= Or 12"SHEAR ANO MOMENT IN BEAMS 20 12’ is NOT $8" therefore X = 0. To find where M is maximum, set the derivative ofthe ‘moment, the sheer equation, equal to ero, Me 18X ~ SX'/2 + 3X ~ 84/2 V=0=18-3X+3eX-8> IFX28:0 = 183K + 3X - 24 = 6 but thisis, impossible since 0# ~6 IFX<820= 18-9K...X=6" Example 4-12: Writing moment equations for triangular loads. Consider the beam in Figure 4.18. It has a triangular load spanning the length ofthe beam. Often with complex loads such as triangular loads itis easier to express the load in terms of X and then take the integral of the load to find the shear and the integral of the shear to find the moment. 6XI5 V=15-% Mz 15X-X/15 ek X= 8S 86.60% 30k ae ‘Writing moment equation fr triangular loads We ~6k/f (CV18" = ~6X/I5KIE V = IW dx = -6X7/115(2)) + C = -X2/5K 4+ C ‘ALX= 0, V= 16k because the reaction at support A, atX=0, 1s 15k, Therefore, C = 15k Va X84 15 = 15 X75 Mel de= 18-0715 +6, AtX = 0,M=0k because there is no applied moment at support and support Ais nota fixed support. Therefore, C, = Ok and M= 18x -¥0718 ‘The moment is zero at M = 0= 15K 8/15 = X(15 X25} .. X= 00" 15" “Te moments maximum where V 5 - X46 X=V75 = 866" M, = 1518.66) ~(8.667/15 = 86.60 kt Example 4-13: Writing moment equations for an applied Consider the beam from Figure 4.14 again, This isthe beam with the 12k moment at X = 6 Ma 4X-4eX-9> 4012 IX > 6>- BeX-B> Nake || ‘Wiring moment equations for an applied moment = AX = 4X = 3> + <12ifX> 6> - BeX-B> To find where M = 0, set the moment equation equal to zero, M=0= 4X ~4eX~3> 4 6>~ 6X 8> HX2B:0= 4X 4X ~ 9) + 12- 6X —8) = 448- 6X... X= 12’STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS WOK <8" O= aX — 4K—3}+ 12= 24 impossible HX < 60 = 4X ~ 4X ~3)...X = 12 impossible WXs30=4X...X=0 0@X=0, 12" To find where Mis maximum, set the derivative ofthe moment, the shear equation, equal to zero, M=4X ~ + <12if X>6> — 6X ~ B> Ve Qed~ B> v=0@9' = 124 <12ifX>6> This means that M = 12k4 @ 3° Uniform Load -» Triangular Load Horizontal Shear Line -» Sloped Shear Line > Patabolic Shear Curve Sloped Moment Line -» Parabolic Moment Curve -> ‘hird-degree Moment Curve V=lWax ‘Shear at any point is equal to the sum of loads on either side ofthat point. M=Wdx Moment at ay point is equal tothe sum of shear areas on either sie of that point. Practice Exercises: 41 through 4-8: Find the reactions, draw and label the shear ‘and moment diagrams for the beams shown in Figure 4.20 ‘and identify Mya Vu, 0 the points where V = O and M = 0 {for the beams. “410 through 4-12: Find the reactions, vite the moment equation and find M,.., Vand the points where V = 0 and 0 for the beams shown in Figure 4.20. ae gs] Problem 47 Problem 48 2k d 3 1240 Problem 49 Problem 4-10 TK i A Problem 4-11 Problem 4-12 (Chapter Practie execfive Load Tracing “The purpose of structure is to safely transfer al loads to the ‘ground. The path that loads take to reach the ground depends (on the structural system design Load tracing follows the path of applied loads through a structural system, from one ‘component tothe next, Most building loads are expressed {88 uniform loads in pounds per square foot Ipsf) applied to floors, roofs or walls. 5.1 Finding Floor Loads on Columns Tibutary aea isthe area of surface with an applied uniform load that is transferred toa building component such as ‘a beam ora column, The load on a beam (win fis the ‘Product of tributary width (bn feet and the uniform load (U) in psf: W = bIU). Tributary width is defined as the sum of haf the distance tothe adjacent bear or wall in each direction. ‘The load on a column (P, when neglecting beam weight, is the tributary area (A) in square fost multiplied by the Uniform load (U) in pst yielding a load in #: P = A(U). The tributary area can be found by maltpying the tributary width between columns in the x and y direction. Example 5.1: Finding column loads. Fora uniform load (U) of 120psf Col. At: A= 247/2(30'/2) = 180F; = 180F°(120pst) = 21,6008 amt 4@ (120psf) = 600%" Bm2: b= 10/2 + 10/2 = 1200" (U)= 1070120psf) ‘The reactions at the ends of beams Bm2 become point loads on beams Bm3. Brot: R= 6002472) = 72008 @ x = 0’ and 30° and bears directly on colurnns [Bm2: A = 1200124172) = 144008 @x = 10’ and 20° and bears on 8m3STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. The reaction at either end of Bm3 = (144008107) + 14400H207N90" = 144008 ‘The total load on each column equals the reaction atthe end ‘of Bm3 plus the reaction atthe end of Bm Pw 144008 + 72008 = 216004 which isthe same value found using the tributary area multiplied by the uniform load. Example 5-2: Simple bay with unevenly spaced beams ‘and no openings. This exercise will show that using tributary area to find the load on the columns is nat dependent on beam spacing. Simple bay with unevenly paced beams and no openings Bri: b = 8/2 = 4; w = 4'(120psf) = 480" A, = 48012072) = 5760# ‘w= 9'(120psf) = 080%" 12,9608 Bm2:b = 10/2 +872 R, = 10802472) Bm3: b = 12/2 + 1072'= 11°; w = 11'120psf) = 1320" R, = 19202472 Bd b= 1272= 6 w = 6'120psf) = 720". Ry = 7202472) = 86408 m6: EM, = 0 = 15,8408(12" + 12, 960822" — AYO... A, = 15.8408 8, ~ 16840 ~ 12,960 + 16,840 2, 8, = 12,960 Colt: The column load equals the sum of the Brn6 reaction at Aplus the reaction fram Bri. P = 15,8408 + 57608 = 21,8008 Col Bt: The column load equals the sum of the Bms reaction 2t B plus the eaction from Bm4, P = 12,9608 + 8640# = 21,8008 Note that this answer is the same as found in Example 5-1, Example ‘A simple bay with an opening. Find the column loads based on 100psf uniform load. Include beam weights: Wg, = 20%: Wy = 32"; Wo Wg = 648; Wg = 60M; Yigg 42M ® 8 wt 18 [1s is is T BS BS. ® % ‘simple bay with an opening Bt: b= 10'; w= 10°(100) +20 = 1020; L = 181; I = 1020818172) = 76508 Load digraa for Beat m2: w = 324"; P= R, = 76508 @ x = 10° and 20° 2M, =0= 7650#(10" + 765081207 + 3241307115) ~ 8,60) ..8, = 81308 x, ~ T6508 - 76508 - 32(30) + 81308Loa Tracing “8 A= 81308 1078508 17850 L=30° 81308 et308 (edd Bra: b = 5% w, = 5'(100pst) = 500": w, = 48; P=R, = 81308 @x = 15° and 30° EM, = 0= 8190415! + 81308180) + 48™457(22.57 + 500""15117.51 + 500%(151197.5) - B46") 8, = 167108 21, = 0 A,-8190# - 8130# - 500307 ~ 48457 4167108. = 167108 18 16 18. faraor ara 187108 Load diagram for Bm 187108 Bm: bt = b= 8; w, = 5/(100ps4) = 500M, W, = 5(100psf) + 64" = 5648; P= R, = 81308 10 00x = 18’and 30° EM, = 0 = 8130815) + 81308130) + 648™146')22.5") + SOOM(IS7.5) + SOO"IIS'NS75' - B46) 8, =27960# ly = 0 = Ay 8130# ~ 8130# - 50030") - 548M(460) + 167108 ... Ay = 279608 oad diagram for Bnd Bms: w = 60M; P, = R, = 27,9608 @x= 10’; R, = 7650# @x = 20 and 30° 2M, am4o'N20") - A401 7, 9608110") + 7650820") + 7650H130") + A= 17,892.58 BH, ~ 27,960 ~ 7650 ~ 7650 ~ 64(40) + 17,882.5 ...B, = 28,02758 w a agar (p10, com t 2a02r st 1733258 Load diagram for Bs Bm6: w = 100psft51 + 60%" = 560" A= B, = 560"U5!/2) = 12,6008 Colt and A2: Col Bt and B2: P= 28,0275 + 12,600 = 40,627.58 Using tributary area: oo, NWW\/LLE A.\\F a a? 10. Bay with openingusing rbutary area Col At and A2: P = 100psf(16}120°) + 20%(161) + 10151 + 321207 + 488(22.5) + 60™(207) 3708 Col B1 and 82: P = 100psfi15(20') + 75°10") + TOMS) + 640(22.51 + 424122.51 + 60120) = 41,2368STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ‘The difference between the calculated ioad tracing and using the tibutary area is as folows: On columns At and A2: (99,3708 - 34542.54/94542.58 (On columns B1 and 82: 41,238 ~ 40265.5140,617 Note that while the loads on the columns using the tibutary area are not accurate when there is an opening in the bay, the ‘margin of error is only 3.39%, “Tittary width and area can be used for lateral loads that ‘act horizontally against a facade. The sare methods are ‘applied using the elevation. The oads are transferred to the column lines resisting lateral forces. Lateral loads are usualy limited to wind and seismic forces, but may also include hydrostatic pressure from sail or horizontal components of ‘transfered grevity loads, See Chapter 14: Lateral Bracing ‘Systems for latral design loads and resistance systems. prossure of 20psf. ‘The wind force is resisted by column ines A, B and C. The ‘facade panels transfer loads othe floor plates. Find the wind force applied 10 each colurnn at each level. The solution is shown i the table below. 2 rela: ©6®@ 6 wf ‘Tefbutary ara forwind pressure 5.2 Accumulation of Column Loads ‘The load on any segment of a column is equal tothe sum of all the loads on that column from levels above that segment. ‘This means thet loads accumulate from the top to the bottorn of the column, resulting in the heaviest load at the base of C. a BR ‘Accumulation of column oad Tribuoryheighe Cohn Loads Cohan B Laie (Cola Canis ay 18 z 2 SBNA0pst) = 1560 6220p ~2640# 618)(20p = 10608 12(13) 20930 = 31208 12113) 209 = 31208 1413) (20p20 = 608 222,28 = 52608 12@z AOpe ~52608 Wee aOpe «61608 16(13)(20ps0)= 41608 12(22)00pe9 = 52808 1210)(20p0 = 21608 1219)(a0pe0 = 2160" 141209 «25208 1620p » 28808Lomo TaAciNG s Notice thatthe interior columns carry more load because the trioutary width for interior columns is larger than exterior columns. If there is a discontinuity of a column, as seen on the right, the loads normally carted by that column segment ‘must be transferred by the floor system to neighboring columns. This affects the loads on columns on all levels below the discontinuation, The chart below shows the change in loads when the level 4 to 5 segment of column C is removed, atom A 3 c > ok P 3 wa 45 oP a ed 34 oP Gpsse GPP BPS 2300 aps10e 6P4P APP 12 oP 10-2 10P-6p_SPOATP Practice Exercises: 6:1: Find the loads on the columns given a uniform floor load of 80psf using vibutary area. 5-2: Find the loads on the columns given a uniform floor load of 80pst 2) using tributary area ) by calculating beam reactions. 5-3: A uniform wind load of 30pst is resisted by colurnns A, B and C in 6-2 at each evel. Determine the wind load on each column at each level if levels are 120. sa Chapter Practice exercisessix Simple Stress and Strain Chapter 6 discusses strength of materials andthe relationship between stress and strain, Fofer to Table AI: Materials Properties Table in the ‘Appendic for properties of typical structural materials. 6.1 Force Induced Stress and Strain ‘Stress isthe expression of a force distributed over the area ‘on which it bears, The basic formula for stress (fis: sttess =6 =f = PIA In this text f wil signify actual stress and F wil signify allowable stress. For axial forces of tension and compression, {= PIA. The units for stress are psi (pounds per square inch) or ksi kips per square inch 6.1.1 Tensile and Compressive Stress Axial loads of tension and compression act ona stress area that is perpendicular to the line ofthe force, as seen in Figure 6.1. The stress area is the cross-sectional area for the ‘member under tension or compression, Asialatees Example 6-1: A 3.5°3.5" square wood post has an allowable compressive stress F, of 1000psi. ‘Whatis the maximum axial load the post can safely handle? ‘The allowable compressive stress, F, = 1000psi, must be greater than the actual compressive stress A= 3573.81) = 12.25in¢ f= PIA= P/2.25in? < 1000psi P's 1000psi(12.26in4 = 12,260% ample 6-2: What sie ameter rods quired to support 2200 adit th allowable tonsil srss ‘A= 200N6250= 0:0 «nA = 0.698, roundup to metroSIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 47 6.1.2 Shear Stress ‘Shear stess is caused by a load that is peraliel to the stress area ‘Shear stress = PIA Shear treat Examplo 6-3: Two 1"x4" boards are glued with an overlap of 3'on the wide edge and subjected to an axial tension force of 800%, If the adhesive is rated with an allowable shear stress of F, = 40psi,is the overlap adequate? P= 800# and A= 3°") = 12h? {,=PIA = B00#/12ir? = 66.67psi> F, = 40psi over is not adequate How much oven, his required? F,= 40psi = PIA = BOOH/A = 8004/4n > BoOma"t4opsi) = 5” Example 6-4: Two steel plates are bolted together with four 1/2" diameter bolts having an allowable shear stress of 144ksi. What isthe maximum axial tensile load, P, thatthe bolts can resist? 14.4ksi, A, = (Abolts)n(0.57/4 = 0.785in# F,= M.tksi 2, = PIA = P/0.785in? P's 14 dksi(0.785in‘) = 18.34 ow many 1° moter ots ae equed to rest sheer fre of 256 28, 25k F=14dksi> A> 2K 1,736? pa ldksi> FE. Aas = 1 788i KIA... A> 25K/14. ksi = 1.736in* va dksi2, Lot = the # of bolts required A= 1.736in? s Na(0.57/4 = 0.196N N21.736/0.196 = 8.887 Answer: Round up to N = 9 bolts. 6.1.3 Bearing Stress Bearing stress isthe stess caused by the transfer of load {fom one component to another on which it rests. The stress ‘2108 is perpendicular tothe direction of force. f,, = PIA where Ais the area of bearing, Rags Bearing stress = P/A Bearing etrese Example 6-5: A series of 2x10 joists, spaced at 16'o.c. and 12’ long, with a uniform load of 100psf, bear on aflat 2x6 sill with an allowable bearing stross F,, = 975psi, Is the 2x6 adequate? Actual dimensional lumber sizes: 26: 1STXBSY, 2x 10: 1.5°x9.26",STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Jdstsbearing on header F, 976psizt, P = reaction at end of 2x 10 joist We 1o0psft16"712 = 133.338" P=WL/2 = 133.39112'/2 = 8008 A= (thickness of 2x 1Oliwidth of 26) = 1.5°5.5) Bin? {,,= PIA = 8008/8.25in# = 96.97psi < 9759s 2x6 is adequate for bearing 6.1.4 Strain and Modulus of Elasticity ‘Strains the ratio of change in length to original length, As a ratio (inches per inch or feet per feet, it has no units Strain = = dL/L where L. = original length and dl or 5 = change in tength Modulus of Elasticity i the ratio of stress to strain, The units are the same as those for stress: psi or ksi. Modulus of Elasticity = Using the three equations, f= PIA, e= dL/L and E = fle problems of simple stress and strain can be solved. Example 6-6: What is the change in length of a2" square ‘steel bar, 12" long, subjected to an axial compressive force of 200k if E = 29,000ksi? From the problom, tis known that L= 12", A=2"(") = din, P = 200k and E =29,000kst e=dU..dl =U) B= te.e= HE dL = Le) = LIVE PL 20041129 __gngy Example 67: A 12’ long beam has a uniform load of 2k/ft. Itis supported at one end by a 1” diameter steel od {E, = 29000ksi and et the other end by a 1/2” ciametor {tenia rod (, = 15000ksi. The steel od is 2 long. How Jong must the titanium rod be for the beam to remain level? L=12,.w=5kff A, = RIP = 0.785? E, = 29,000ksiL, = 2’ = 24" P= wL/2 = 2k/(12'V2 = 12k ‘A= n(SPI4 = 0.196in E, = 15,000KsiL, = ? If beam remains level, dl. = dl, and since dl. = PL/EA PLEA, _ 12K(24°115,000ksiN0.196in") PEA, 12K(29,000Ksi"0.785in") Le 3.10" Is this design adequate given an allowable tensile stross for steel of F, = 30ksi and for titanium of F, = 138ksi? The stress n the steel rod =f, = PIA = 12K/0.785in® = 15.29ksi < 30ksi.. okay ‘The stress in the titanium rod = f, = PIA = 12k/0.196in? = 61.20ksi< 138k .. okay 6.2 Temperature Induced Stress and Strain Every material has a coefficient of thermal expansion, c, ‘expressed in terms of strain over change in temperature. Since strain, e= dL/L, the coefficient of thermal expansion ‘can be expressed as: ‘The change in length due to thermal expansion is: dL = alin)SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 49 Bocause E = stress/stiain = fL/AL, the stress from ‘thermal expansion can be defined as: EdL/L = EaL(aty. = EosT Example 6-8: A 1200’ tall high-rise has an exposed steel structure with a coefficient of expansion = 65x 10“in/in/*F. “The temperature ofthe stelis 85°F on the north sie of the structure and 165°F on the south side. What isthe difference Inheight between the north and south sides? dL = aL(AT) = (65x 10-injn/"F)(120071021165 — 85°F} = 7.49" Example 6-9: 8’ wide aluminum panels with a = 12.8%10 are installed on a facade during 50°F weather. ‘The highest design temperature for the aluminum panels is 20°F. What size expansion joint should be used? dl = alan) = 0.184" 12.8% 10-ivin/?F 181124200 - 50°F) round up to 3/16” = 0.1875" Given a value of E = 10,000ksi and F, = 16ksi for aluminum, ‘what is the maximum change in temperature the panels could handle without expansion joints? f= EolAT) ... AT = Eo = 16ksi/{10,000ksi(12.8% 10-*iin/*F ) = 125°F 120 3 t 1x1" sotpost | E=29,000K61 BL 1 5+ 1.5+ Bronze post E = 12,004 63 (Chapter 6 Practice exercises Practice Exercises: 6-1: A don ension brace, 15 long end having round cross section witha dame’ of 3s subjected to 1 of tension. Wat the change in ongth ofthe brace € = 290005? 6-2: AW14x22 with an area, A = 6.49in® and a length of 24° is installed on the roof of a bulding when the temperature is 80°F. What will be the change in length when the temperature drops to 15°F if the coefficient of thermal ‘expansion for stool is 6.5% 10-tinfn/*F? (6-3: Whats the required length of the bronze post ifthe ‘beam must remain level? 6-4: A 12’ canopy supports a load of 600" with a hinge et the ‘wall and a cable at the end, The cable is attached to the wall at some distance h above the canopy. Determine the distance so thatthe canopy remains level given the cable properties of: E = 29,000ksi, A = tin? e008 12.seven Shear and Flexure in Beams 7.1 Neutral Axis and Moment of Inertia ‘The shear and bending stresses in @ beam are dependent on the shape and size ofthe cross-section ofthe beam. In order to determine the shear and bending stresses, the neutral axis, of the beam must be located. The neutral axis is located at the center of gravity ‘Table 7:1 lists the center of gravity for some common ‘geometric shapes. For a beam with a simple geometric form, finding the neutral axis is as simple as referring to the table. Often, however, a cross-section is not @ simple geometric shape. For complex cross-sections, the center of gravity can be found by using the folowing equations: Xu = ZAXVEA, and Y, = ZAY/EA, where the center of gravity is located at a distance X,, from the Y-axis and a aistanceY,, from the X-axis and where X, is the distance X from the Y-axis to the conter of gravity of an individual component and where Y, is the distance Y from the x¢Axis to the center of gravity ofan individual component and Where A, is the area ofan individual component, Example 7-1: Find the center of gravity for the L-shaped cross-section in Figure 71a,SHEAR AND FLEXURE 1 BEAMS a Table 7: Propertie of simple rome shapes Shape ean] eager] ey. i i Rectangle yo =| br | pe | ne wine wine wwe | os | ns ori6 rea x Cirle wr? ° ° prs pia Semiccle we o | ate | (5-8) x48 é Ee Bt Quarter Ciclo Y mis | arte | acon | (Fe- fe} (-e)e Parabolic Hal y = ‘| aos | so’ | ans | sonin7s 19hb"480 b + : i 3 bhs | ab/s | awio | a7bHf/2100 nt802 STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 2 a 2 k | lz Ea ae ie ee 7 : o 8 8 Ne c 2 2 ~ = L _ @ © Finding the centr f gravity ‘Consider the cross-section above that has been broken nto three simple geometric shapes, labeled A, B and C in Figue 7:1 The best way to solve for the center of gravity involving ‘multiple geometric shapes is to create a table: a a ee a A Wa Wat OO)-8 2042 a2 ut Bama as 2087 2428 267 2 2e7 580 =2eT 558 Cea a8 +96 22-1 ae Teale 2y, mks 209 Xpq = ZAKVEA, = 49,99/22 = 2.2" ‘The neutral axis Y-Y is located 2.24” to the right ofthe origin. Yog = ZAY/EA, = 49.33/22 = 2.24" ‘The neutral axis X-Xis located 2.24” above the origin Note: The center of gravity fora given cross-section wil remain the same regardless of how the shape is divided into geometric components Consider the cross-section has been broken into three simple geometric shapes, labeled A, B and C in Figure 7.10) B sen 431067 o138 c 2@)R=2 2-218 266 2133 Tole 24-22 AY, 4933 TAX/EA, = 4939122 = 2.24" The nota xs Y-Y is located 2.24n tothe right of he ogi. You = FAY/EA = 49.39/22 = 2.28" ‘The neutol axis X-Xis located 224" ebove the origin When a cross-section contains a void, the vod is @ ‘component with a negative area or an area that may be subtracted from the solid portion ofthe cross-section.SHEAR AND FLEXURE IN BEAMS 52 Example 7-2: Find the center of gravity for the 8x12 Wyda rectangle with a 4x6 void. fyody = bhy24 + By24 = wher 7 oo. 2 ea) It's not so easy for more complicated shapes. By breaking a complex shape into simple geometric components, and by finding the neutral ais, the formula 7 below canbe used to find the momento inertia: e* 2 ze z pe a oe * 1 ' ae | : fe 7 | indng the ceterof gary ina shape witha ok i i comp Ak a KM, Sid «0-95 ad 3k 57B Void 4(6)=-h 2442-98108 4 7 = yO 2 a TEE Had omenot nei Xyq® ZAX/EA = 288/72 = 4” om A a Yq # BAY EA = 408/72 = 6.87" A 29-2 wena 357-3 539 *s +87 B24 aera 367-5708 7.1.2 Moment of Inertia oes c ayaa a67-4 os? s087 Moment of inertia defines the abilty of a cross-section to A-24 TAY, 1-48 fesist bending and deletion. 68 21334 You" BAY/EA, = 88/24 = 3.67" This formula is easy for simple shapes such asa bx a), + BAdy! #484 1334 =61.34nt rectangle where Find forthe cross-section in Figure 7.3. Note that for ay rectangles, | = hb?/12, yh andSTATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ce ae A -WO=1 21 12 6D 267-1 9347 ” 7 Baek 2422 12 2aDAD 267-3 044 pe 2133 © HB 422 40 aye 3 7287 2-24 TAY, ys EAX/EA, = 64/24 =2.67" El, + EAM? = 8 + 77:34 = 85.34iné What and reveal about the cross-section in Figure 7.3 is that aload placed vertically, and therefore causing bending about the X-X axis will create more deflection of the beam than a load acting horizontally, and therefore causing bending about the Y- axis. This is because |, < I, and so the resistance to bending around the X-X axis is less than that ‘around the Y-Y axis, 7.1.3 Moment of Inertia in Rolled Steel Components ‘The AISC Steel Manual ists section propertios for all standard rolled stool components. Among the section properties listed are the moment of inertia values | and I, When using 2 standard rolled member, there i nécaleulation necessary. But if the cross-section is bul up using rolled sections andor plates, then the equations |= 1, + EAdy? and | =2),+ BAde? must be used. Example 74: Find the momont of inertia about the X-X axis ora W14x22 with an L5xSx! welded tothe top flange as shown in Figure 74. Lsxext2| wiaxee Finding moment of inertia insta shapes Section properties: Wid 22: A = 649i int Lsxsic!: A= 475i, tan Comp. = = Ga ste 4 Ady wie? 649 «iam 4450 69 1038-as? 7990 veer as IsiSsV2 475 19740 7205 9 1038-1517 20508 iacisy ne ze Bs z ma 11865 2103 169.08 Yo # 116.65/11.26 = 10.38" 10.3 + 189.04 = 399.34int Note: If all components are symmetrical about the bending ‘axis XX, dy = and the equation for I, reduces tol, = 2, 7.2 Bending Stress Tho basic equation for bending stress is: {y= Meil = Ss ‘The derivation ofthis equation comes from examination of particles in a beam subjected to bendingSHEAR ANO FLEXURE IN BEAMS 55 Bendingstress Consider @ beam subjected to bending, as shown in Figure 75 The beam wants to deform under the load. The ‘area above the neutral axsis in compression and the ares below the neutral axis is in tension. stance from neutral axis to outer most point of cross-section The greatest stress will accu at the greatest distance from the neutral axis, c, The stress due to bending at any point is f= fly = Every particle in the cross-section is at some distance y from the neutral axis and has some area, dA. The force in tension of compression acting on each particle is F = dACM. ‘The moment caused by the force acting on any particle ata distance y from the neutral ays Interaal coupler yAKtIyic) = yFaAIe The bending stress, f, on any particle i f, = Me/y*dA and the total bending stress is the sum ofthe bending stress on all particles: EMlyidA = Me/By0A Since moment of inertia = Zy*dA, the value I can be substituted into the equation, giving the bending stress formule: Mell Section modulus is defined as Wc, further simptyng the equation to: t= MS Note: Be careful to reconcile the units inthe bending stress ‘equations. If the moment found is in units of # ork, it must be multiplied bya factor of 12 inches per foot to obtain a stress in pounds per square foot ost or kbs por square foot (ksi, respectively For example, if M= 48k and § = 16in8, f= 48k1C12/6i? = 36s Example 75:Find the maximum bending stress in a simply supported beam carrying a uniform load of 2k/f over a span of 14 given the cross-section shown in Figure 7 - ten +e ® @ Example 7-5 Myc = W218 = 24/4 ALZB |= 710812 ~ 619°V12 = 218.83in*STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS o=1072=5" f,= Mell = 588k:in(5"/218.83iné = 13.44ksi ‘What is the bending stress ata distance of 4” from a support? = woe /2 = AeA PIZ™2 = 192kin a f,= Mell = 192k in(5"/218.83in* = 4.38ksi For rolled stel, standard size tables usually include the value of the section modulus, S. Example 7-6: Find the maximum bending stress for the beam in Example 7-5 if the cross-section is a W16x31 4720i0°. with, {© Mell = M/S = SB8k:in/47.20in? = 12.46ksi 7.3 Shear Stress 7.3.1 Shear in Beams with Geometric Cross-section Unlike shear stress caused by an axial loadin which fv = P/A 2s described in Chapter 6, a beam with bending causes both transverse and longitudinal shear forces within the beam, This occurs bocause the transverse shear action creates @ ‘moment within particles that must be resisted by an equal ‘and opposite moment. Vr= Transverse Shear Vr Longitudinal Shear ‘Shea tees in beam with geometric cross-sections The equation for shear in beams is: The shear stress in each patil is vudyib) For the entire cross-section: By ‘This can be multiplied by 1 = BdAy/SdAy to yield 1, = VEdAy/Ey7dAb Recognizing | = By2dA, the equation can be reduced to: 1 Edy Let Q = ZdAy = EAdy when considering individual ‘geometrical entities in the cross-section, this wil yield the standard shear stress formula: fv=VOrtb where \V = shear from the shear diagram Q=ZAgy ‘A, = area above or below the shear plane dy = distance from the neutral axis to the center of gravity of the area A ment of inertia. b= the width ofthe cross-section at the shear plan. Example 7-7: Find the shear stress at the neutral axis for 12 4°x6', 12” beam with a uniform load of 500", Ves wL/2 = 50012172 = 30008 |, = (69/12 = 72int baa" Yga = 3” = the location ofthe neutral axis X-X A =O) = 12k Y= 3+ 1.5 = 4.5" = location of contr of arity of Av dy = yy" Y=45-3=18" = Davy = 1201.57 = 180? ‘VOrtb = 30008(8in i724 4") = 187 SpiSHEAR AND FLEXURE IN BEAMS 300 #ft 30008 ca ‘30008 v i ' : ' aS a “NA J + Shear sess at stra axis Note that fora rectangular cross-section bxh, prin, A= bh y= Bhd — H2 = hi = wiv2)na) = bree Vtohenvitbn® 12) = 3v/2bh = 372A Example 7-8: The T-shape in Figure 7.10 spans 16° and. carries a uniform load of 2k/f over its entire span. Find the maximum shear stress atthe neutral axis. 2h 18 186 16k v 1 H 4 4) 4 ‘Sheaeatese ina shape Ve wL/2 = 2k/t(16'V2 = 16k come. (ae ee Hinge 8 4022 «VAD «S-358 3 rae7 318 Wee a8 42-2 18 yD 2-358 sus? 15 rete 56 B~13.99 6 Yigg = 56/16 = 3.5" 1, = 19.83 + 36 =49.33int (= EAdy = 811.5) +2161,25) = 12.250? f= VOI = 16K(12.25n8/149,33in4(2"} = 1.99psi58 STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Find the maximum shear stress atthe bottom of the flange. ‘A, = Bin? (from the table on page 87: Flange A) Y¥_ = 5” = (from tho table on page 87: Flange Y) dy =5-35 = 15" from the table on page 57: Flange dy) = EAdy = Bin. 5") = 12.0in° {,= VOllb = 16k(12i"Y149.33in4(2"I] = 1.96psi "Note: Always check the shear stress at points where the width, b, changes, especially when b decreases in a direction ‘away from the neutral axis Example 7-9: Find the shear stress for the cross-section in Figure 7.11 if V= 100k. s [oles | 2 » |e Finding shear tess in compost shapes ee ey Top 5 55 75 im 267 68 Fg «7257S 0s8 oma se oe Beis _EeSi_ 6130 25649 Yue # 51/18 = 2.89" 18,0 + 66.49 = 69.49in¢ A,=6 +171) =6.1982 Y= [Sine(S + 5/2) + 17(7172.83 + .17/2V6.19 = 6.00 = location of center of gravity af A, from bottom Y= 94 ~ Yoq = 5.00 ~ 2.83 = 2.17" (= EAvdy = 6.19in#12.17") = 13.43in? Vor 100K13.43in°V149.83in4(7") = 3.89ksi Find the maximum shear stress atthe top of the lange. A Bin? dy=3+25 2.83 = 267" Q= Avdy = Sin2(2.67") = 13.95in? voy f (00K in /149.33in(2") = 24.93ksi 7.3.2 Shear in Rolled Steel The AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) recommends using a value for actual shear stress of £, = Vitwd. By using this value, he flange components {and filets connecting flanges to webs are ignored, ‘making the calculation much simpler. Example 7410: Find the shear stress in a WBx40, 8 long carrying a concentrated load at center of 50k f the web thickness, t, = 0.36" and the depth, d= 8.25", Ve wl/2 + P/2 = 408(1k/10008)8'V2 + 60k/2 = 25.16k £,= id = 25.16K/10.36"18.25")} = 8.47ksi Practice Exercises: 74 through 7-6: Find |, and |, forthe cross-sections shown: 7-7 through 7-10: Find the maximum bending stress in the beams and cross-sections shown 741 through 7-14: Find the maximum shear stress in the. beams and cross-sections shown,SHEAR AND FLEXURE IN SEAMS 59 (Chapter TPrstice exercises } avuliy Te Tre eoecaseas I 4 = 4 tettet was tatiteFeight Deflection in Beams 8.1 Deflection Charts ‘Most architects find the deflection in beams through the Use of deflection charts. Deflection charts can be found in such publications as the AISC Steel Menuel, or readily in cline sources. A sample of shear, moment and deflections for some typical beam loading soenaries can be found in Appendix At.2. "Note: Al deflection charts assume thatthe length of the beam is in inches. tthe length of the beer isnot converted to inches, ft is used in units of feet, the deflection equation must be multiplied bby 1728 in order to find a deflection in inches. \What isthe deflection at a point 8” from the support? (1728/24 = Bk/(G"N2 ~ 212718") + 8° 172819 (24129000ksi)(a00in‘} = 0.23" x= wall = 2L84 Example 8-2: Not all loads are symmetrical, Consider the beam in Figure 8.2(a} witha concentrated load of 10k placed at 3" from the left support of a 12" span. What is the maximum deflection if € = 15,000ksi and | = 600in*? Tho placement ofthe concentrated load is such that the equation in ‘1.2, load type cannot be used because @ b. If this situation occurs, consider the beam from the other side as shown in Figure 8,2). Example 4 Find the maximum defection ina 126 beam with a Ski oad given E= 2,000ks and = 300in* 7. From A12 load type 1 f@) + 7 + £ t 10 eames (b) Sag = SUL'TQB4EI @x=L/2 w= 54 L= 12, € = 20000ks |= 20int f * 4,4, = SISK IZ 11 728in*Y384(29,000ksi) (00in8 = 0.27" rample 82DEFLECTION IN BEAMS a P= 10k, = 600in# Y, E = 15,000ksi, Boas= Pabla + 2bNIala + 2o0/27EIL += 10(9)(3N9 + 213VI3IONS + 2(3)]117281/(27116,000) (6001) = 0.68" Example 8-3: Combining loads. ‘Many times @ beam will have @ combination of load scenarios, For example, a beam may have a uniform load from @ floor loading and from its own weight plus @ concentrated load from the reaction of @ beam it supports. Find the maximum deflection of the beam in Figure 8.3 if E = 1,500,000psi and the cross-section is 8” wide by 12” deep. 9608 760 at Example8-3 = DHI/I2 = 8(12//12 = 1182in* Using load scenarios 1 and 3: w= 160", P=9608 16, E = 1,500,000psi, | = 1162int, yg ® BWL'/SBAEl + PLYABEL = 5(160)(16°)1728)3841T,500,0001(1152)] + 960116") (1728)/148(1,500,000)115211 22" Note: Deflection charts list the absolute value of deflection without regard to the direction. Care must be taken to note in ‘what direction @ load will cause deflection, especially when ‘adding deflections from different loading scenarios. Example 8-4: Find the deflection atthe end of the overhang {or the beam in Figure 8.4 f E= 29,000ksi and I= 199in*. 16k 1 a Lei,xt=a=4, = 16k, E= 29,000ksi, A= -[wL xt 1/246 + Pot + a3 Notice thatthe deflection at the end of the overhang caused by the uniform load willbe upwards. Because ofthis, the ‘equation is entered as @ negative value when adding it to the ‘equation for the point load at the end of the overhang, which will be downward, A= -(9(129)4(1728yI24(29000}1199N + 1614)12 + 4) (1728y3(29000(199)] = ~0.259" + 0.409" = 0.16°L 8.2 Double Integration Method A= [Mawel Deflaction isthe second integral of the moment equation. The first integral ofthe moment equation, JMakxis the slope of the deflected bear. The Double Integration Method may not seem as easy to use as deflection charts, but itis useful \when the location of the maximum deflection is unknown and When there are many combined loading scenarios. Example 8-5: Find the maximum deflection of a simple beam with a length, L, and a uniform load, w. 1. Begin by writing the moment equation: M = whx2— wet)? 2, Tako the first integral of the moment equation. Femember to add the constant to the equation. EIA = slope = [Max = wll - wol8 +,STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS In many cases, itis not know where the slope will equal 2010; but with @ symmetrical load on a simple beam, itis known that the maximum deflection wil be atthe center (of the beam and that isthe point at which the slope will equal zero. Slope = Oatx=L/2 = wL{L/2F/4 ~ wiL/2)9/6 + C, = wLi/16 ~ wL948 +C, =0 wl /24 q But, fr this example, assume thatthe location of the ‘maximum deflection is unknown, EIA = [Max = wLeya — wee /6 + C, 3, Toke the second integral ofthe moment equation: 1A = IMidx = WL7t2 - vot24 + 6x4, 1d = Oat the supports, @x = 0, 0 = wh(ovr2 - wiaV24 + C0) + 6, ..C,=0 O= wLiL9/12 — wiL'V/24 + CL) = wL4/24 + CLL. c= waa Inserting the veo nto the [Mas ecuation and setting the equation equal to zero wil reveal whee the slope equals zero and therefore pins of maximum deflection. ELA = JMdx = wLx'/4 ~ wot/6 — wi u2 lA = {Mex = wLxo/12 — wet 24 ~ wal3)24@x = L/2 Eta = (IMdx = wL4/96 — wL.a/aea ~ wits wL4s ~ 1 ~ 8/984 = ~BwL4/384 Le = 4-2 0 gg = ~BWLYGBAEL Notice thatthe Double Integration Method gives the direction of the defection. A negative value indicates that the deflection Is downward. A... = SwL'/984EI is the value giv in the doflections charts. Example 8-6: Find the maximum deflection in the beam shown in Figure 85, if E = 29,000ksi and |= 199in‘, 8K 1k _—— 7 Cee. os Bangles 6 Find reactions: EM, = 0 = 8k(10")~ B,(12" + 1K(16"1 Anat 8, =aKt =A, ~ 8k + Bk ~ 1k Wiite the moment equation: Ma t~Bex~ 10> + Bex ~ 12> Find the frst and second integral of the moment equation EIA = v2/2 — Bx — 10572 + Bex ~ 125272 +, EIA = X16 ~ Bex ~ 102796 + Box ~ 12548 +C,x4C, Sove for Cand C, A=0@x=0and@x=12 @x=0,610=0-0+0404C,...C,=0 x= 12, Ela = (12716 812016 + 0+ 120, =0 6, = [10.666 ~ 28eyn2 = -23.11 Set dBA =O to find point of maximum dflction EUs = 116 — Bex ~ 10516 + Box 125216 ~ 2.11x ELA = X2/2 ~ Bex ~ 10542 + Bex ~ 1254/2 ~ 23.11 = 0 where deflection changes direction | Amax ocours between x = O-and x = 10" 0= 2-23.11 ...x= 6.80" lf Amax ocours between x = 10° and x = 12’: = x72 — Ble ~ 10/2 ~ 23.1 = x2 ~ 22.86x + 120.89 143 ~ 3.12 = 14.56% or 8.21’ nelther of which {alsin the range between x = 10" and x = 12’ and therefore are not valid,DEFLECTION IN BEAMS o Hf Amax occurs at some point where x > 12" 0 Bex ~ 10>#2 + Bex ~ 1254/2 2311 X= 16 + 7206i which is an unreal answer meaning thatthe ‘slope never equals zero in this range, but proceeds to increase. Find deflection: @x = 6.8, A= [16.8196 - (0/6 + B(OF/6 - 23.16.81) (172a/129000(199)] = -0.03" = 0.03°L x= 16,4. (172ay\29000(199)] = 0.03” Icer%6 - 9(6)96 + B(4y76 ~ 23.11(16) ost 8.3 Moment Area Method ‘The Moment Area Method is @ useful tool to find the deflection in beams with concentrated loads, especialy if the moment diagram has already been drawn. Just as the ‘accumulated area under the shear curve equals the moment, the accumulated area under the mornent curve equals the slope of the deflected beam. Using theorems developed by Motr, the deflection ata given point can be found by creating ‘second moment diagram with a virtual load at the point of interest and then summing the product of the moment from the second diagrams at the center of gravity of areas from the first diagrarn multiplied by those areas. Example 8-7; Find the deflection at the mid-span for the beam shown in Figure 8.6 if E = 29,000 and =53.8in‘. 1. Find reactions: My. B= 35k TSK) + 15KI6") ~ B,(127 + 15KL16") Bf, = 0A, ~ 15k ~ 15k + 35k ~ 18k A= 10k 2, Draw the shear and moment diagrams. 3. Redraw the beam with only a virtual load of 1 atthe mid-span. 4. Find Virtua reactions: A, = B, = 0.5 5. Draw virtual shear and moment diagrams. 6. Divide the real moment diagram vertically where the ‘virtual load is placed and at any point where the virtua ‘moment changes direction. In this caseit willbe at 6" and x = 12’ Divde the real moment areas into simple ‘geometric shapes and number them as components, (ees 15k 10k 4OKF oy Finding deflection using Moment Area Method 7, Caleulate the area of each geometric shape (A) and locate the center of gravity 4. Calculate the virtual moment (M) at the centers of gravity (6. In this case: M = x ~ tex - 6> + Bex ~ 12>. Therefore: x<6,M,=0.5x 6 3V/2F, VA,SSF, for rolled stee! shapes .. t,d2 WF, ‘A= [some equationl< Ay... 12 some equationl/y Example 9-1 Design a 2? X_ joist spanning 14¢ with a Joa of 160", E = 1.100,000psi, F, = 1400psi, F, = 170psi and Ay, = L/240. Do pot consider beam weight. Bending Mg, = L378 = 16O™ (NAHI = 47,040#-in MISSF, ... S2 M/F, = 47,040#-in/1400psi = 33.60? For a rectangle, § = bh’/6 h2ie3.6t6y/2)) = 10.04" H/6 233.6 Shear: Reactions = Vmax = wl 160™(14"/2 = 11208 1, = 9VI2AS F, for rectangular sections Az SWF, = 3(11208/(2(170psil = 9.88in? Fora rectangle, A = bh = 2h2 9.88in2 h29.98/2 =4.94" Deflection: yu, SWLYSBAEI = 5(IGO™IAHL72BIIPY £38441,100,000psiti = 126.73/ y= 240 = 1470127240 = 0.7" ‘A= [some equationl/ I< Ay. | 2 [some equation, = 125.73/0.7" = 179.61 Fora rectangle, | = bh#/12 = 2hi/122 179.61 .. heNit79.61112/2) = 10.25" Deflection governs with the highest value ofh required: h=10.25" USE a rectangular section 2x 10.25" Example 9-2: Design a stee! W14 section, 40¢ long carrying concentrated loads of 10k every 8¢. Do not consider bear weight F, =20ksiand a, = L240 29,000ksi, F, = 30ksi, Bending From the multiple point load Table A. for 4 point loads evenly spaced: Mee = 3PLIS = S(10K1(40"112"V5 = 2860k-in M/S 1201.26int, $2 96in* ‘and t,42 lin?, Note that a W14x68 would work for bending because S, = 103 > 96; butt fails for deflection because |, = 722 < 1201.24. Therefore, A larger size must be used to satisfy the deflection orteria. USE Wi4x 108: |= 1240 > 1201.26, $ = 173 > 96in?, and td = 0.525(14.9) = 75 > tir Example 9-3: Check whether the cross-section design in Figure 9.1 is adequate for the beam and loading shown if F, = 1800psi, F, = 17Spsi, E= 1,100,000psi and A,,=L/240.STATICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 2000# 20008 © 20008 a ‘Trapenidal cross-section Determine cross-section properties: (ee ee ee a Wt oo 2 om of 4s mt Cn a ee ae) Right 36 at a 1823240 328 = 1612/144 = 10.5" |, ©3260 + 324 = 9664int 08" S,= lye = 9564/10.6" = 339.43in® batN.A. =4+218)(10.5/18) = 8.67" Find 0: Gimp Arenabove nal ens % ay left 75'Ta2"-86ryay2~625750/5)=5 3125 Mid 75°@67)-65 7872-375 1375 Right 75{A2-B67AV2~625 750/5)=5 B15, 30825 Bending M=PL/2 = 2000#(40'N12"/2 = 480,0008-n f, = MIS = 480,000/339.49 = 1414.14psi < 1800psi ‘okay for bending Shear: V=3P/2 = 3(20008)/2 = 30008 1, = VOflb = 300081306. 25in7/13564in416.67") = 29,74 < 170psi .. okay for shear Deflection: ‘all = 240 = 40'112/240 = 2" Bpuc = 0495PLY/EI = .0495120008)140'F1728n°1PY 11,100,000psit3664in‘) = 2,79" > 2"... NO GOOD for detiection At this point, the designer must make a decision about how to mosity the cross-section to satisty the deflection criteria, Enlarging the cross-section proportionaly wil increase |, Sand Q. Since the new |, > 9564(2.79/2) = 4971.78 it is an increase by a factor of 2.79/2 = 1.4 Since | involves b and h?, increasing both dimensions by 1.49% = 1,09 should satisfy the ofiteria. By changing the ‘op width to 13", the bottom width to 4.5" and the height to 19.78"; the values change to: Y= 5175.56, S, = 451.08, b = 8.65, 4, = 1084.12 < 1800psi.. okay for bending 16.51 < 170psi .. okay for shear 92" < 2" .. okay for deflection, Practice Exercises: 9-1; Design the lghtost W12 for the beam shown if 29,000ksi, F, = OKs! F, = 20ksi and A, = L/240.DESIGN OF BEAMS 9-2: Design a 4” widexh’ deep beam with a rectangular ‘cross-section forthe beam shown if E = 1,200,000psi F.,= 1800psi, F, = 180psiand A, = L/240. 193: Find the most economical W'4 for the beam shown if E = 29,000ksi, F, = 21.8ksi, F, = 14.4ksi and Ay = L360. ‘9-4; Design the most economical fightest weight) HSS rectangular shape forthe beam shown i E = 29,000ksi, F,=21.6ksi,F, = 14.4ksiand a, = L/240. {9+5: Find the maximum load, P the cross-section shown can cary for the beam and loading shown if E = 900,000psi, F, = 1600psi, F, = 190psi and A, = L/240 5 8 FOE Le e dl at ot 92 3 ft =20k & 7 10] 94 o Chapter 9 Practice exercises 98ten Design of Columns Columns are designed to prevent failure in two modes: crushing and buckling Crushing occurs when the load distributed on the cross- section s higher than the compressive stress that can be resisted by the column material 1.=PIA Bucking is compressive failure due to the lateral deflection in 8 column caused by compression in slender members, The ‘ateral deflection curve will vry depending on the type of ‘Support at each end of the column, 10.1 Axial Loads on Columns Axial loads are theoretically atthe center of gravity of across: ‘sectionin the direction of the axis of the column, Theoretical, ‘an axial load should produce no bending stress on @ colurn. But, in realty, either the load isnot perfecty placed at the Center of gravity or even if tis, the material imperfections of ‘the column wil eause an imbelance in stresses. Euler noticed that slender compression members tend to buckle while ‘compact members tend to crush under compression loads. 10.1.1 Critical Buckling Stress Eulor developed an equation for etical bucking stress: fog EMLIA? Where L and rare both in inches and r = WAI = radius of Ayftion. The higher the value of (Li, the more susceptible ‘2 column is to buckling. Both erections must be considered. Unless @ column is symmetrical along both axes, both Lt, and LY, must be considered and te higher value used. For steel components, the values fr r, andr can be found in the AISC Steel Construction Manuel. For geometric shapes, + canbe determined by nding |, and, For example, fora ‘ectangulr column bh, = Bh/12 and = hb, = AJA Woh 12bh = W/I2 and, = VIVA = hb/t2bh = ba Example 10-1: Find the critical buckling stress for a W14x90 pinned column with a length of 18: E = 29,000ksi, 1, = 6.14% 1, = 3.70", A= 26:6in® fog = BEML = 1(29,000ksiMtt8 1128.70" = 83.98 ksi What isthe citical bucking load = P.,? f= PIA, Pay = fag = 83.98kSi(26.5in®) = 2,225.47k tis important to note thatthe rtical Bucking stress is ‘ot the allowable compressive stress, but only one factor in determining the alowabie compressive stress. For short columns, crushing will govern the value of allowable Compressive stress and for long columns, buckling wil ‘Govern. Every type of material has its own rules governing the determination ofthe alowable compressive stress for these rues include the use of an Effective Length Factor, k. ‘The Effective Length Factor, k, is determined by evaluating lateral deflection over the length of the column.DESIGN OF COLUMNS n 85 0 1.0 12 20 2a _Mfectiv Length Factor, k based on Table... ASC Steel Construction Manual, th edition ‘The effective longth of a column = kL, where the value of k is the recommended design value wien ideal conditions are appraximated in the chart above, NOT the theoretical value, The slenderness ratio = kL/r In steel columns the slenderness ratio is limited to KL/r < 200. ‘To find the allowable compressive stress in steel based on ‘the AISC guidelines and the LRFD Method, see Chapter 22. Example 10-2: Find the slenderness ratio of a W14x90 column, 20’ long. 4) pinned connections at both ends 'b) pinned at one end and fixed atthe other )_ fixed connections at both ends ity, sandr, = 37: 9, Kr, = Lotzo"n12"1/6.14 Lr, = 1.0:207112187" = 75.71 39.09 Use the larger value: 75.71 8 kU, KL = .8(20")01218.7 -BI20'I(12"/6.14" = 31.27 1.89 Use the larger value: 51.89 o) k= 0065 KL, = 651207102996.14" = 25.41 Ur, = 65120112/0.7" = 42.16 Use the largor value: 42.16 itis easy to see thatthe larger slenderness valu sin the \woak direction when the unbraced length is equa in both directions. But, if the unbraced length is different in each direction, be sure to check both. Example 10-3: Find the slenderness ratio of a W14x90 column, 20" long and braced at the mid-point in the ‘weak directic ‘pinned connections at both ends, pinned at one end and fixed atthe other (©) fixed connections at both ends ifr, = 6.14" and, 0, L=20;L,= 10" a kL, = 1.0(10'10278.7" = 92.43 Use the larger value: 39.09STATICS ANO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 08 N27 Kur, = 81207112"/6.14" kU, = BI012"/8.7" = 25.95 Use the larger value: 3.27 85 Li, = 65(209(12Y6.14" = 25.41 KL, = 65110711279/3.7" = 21.08 Use the larger value: 25.41 ‘What is the maximum allowable length of the W14x90 ‘column if pinned connections are used? kr, O1LI12""/3.07 s 200... L< 61.17" Ifthe allowable compressive stress, F, at kL/t = 200 is 3.73ksi, what load can the 51.17" column carry? Aw 265in? 7ks(26. Sin) 98.8k In wood columns the slendemess is kL/the smallest side \LJd's 50. For the LAFD method to find the allowable compressive stross in wood based on the AWC National Design Specifications, see Chapters 16 through 18. Example 10-4: Find the maximum allowable unbraced length for a 4x6 column with actual size dimensions 3.5'x8.5" if the connections are pinned at both ends. LjekL=MOL=L U8." $50... Ls 5013.5") = 175" = 14.58" If the allowable compressive stress F = 400psi, what load can the column cary? P= PA 400psi(3.5°)5.5") = 77008 It may be noted that the slenderness limitations for steel and wood are very similar, For wood: Ld-<50. Where L, = kL... KU/dS50 For steel: kL/r< 200. For rectangular cross-sections, r N12 ... KLV12/6 < 200 or kL/d s 57.74. In concrete columns, slendemess is much more limited because unlike steel and wood, the tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 % of the compressive strength, ‘Therefore, concrete columns are categorized and designed as short columns if Lt < 22 for pinned connections or Ur < 34 ~ 121MM) for fixed connections where IM, = smaller end moment and M, = larger end moment. Again, r= N12 for a rectangular section, and a comparable lok atthe slenderness limitations of conerete to those of ‘wood and steel would be: KL/d < 6.36 for pinned concrete columns. For design of short concrete columns using the LLRFD Method and the ACI code, see Chapter 30 Example 10-6: Is a 20’, 36" square concrete column with pinned connections a short column? KU = 1.0(20"12""Y(36A112} No, itis not short, 3.09 > 22. ‘What unbraced length would make ths size column short? L 1120112"71/22 = 10.909 and d> 37.79" round up to 38". 10.2 Column Design 1. Selecta trial size and determine the slendemess ratio in each direction. (Alteriately, select atrial slendemess ratio) 2. Determine the allowable compressive stress for the given ‘material and slenderness ratio. 3._ Find the actual compressive stress inthe column: , = PAA. Check thatthe actual stress is less than the allowable stress. 10.2.1 Design of Columns for Metals For Stoel, the AISC determines the allowable compressive ‘stress = $F, by the following equations: Edd: F, = wE/KL/C. Ths is Euler's equation for ciitical buckling stress £9.2:if KLFs A7INEIF), then F = (658 IF, EB.SLifKUr> 4.7 NEF), thn F 1877F,DESIGN OF COLUMNS 73 140 THAL4V| S ‘Allowable Compressive Sress/ Euler's Creal Buckling Stress 120 too | TreAlav’, z” 60 A882 Stoo! 4 20 . ab compared Ble formula “These equations canbe used with any metal as they wil k=065 Yield @ curve such as those shown in Figure 10:2 forstee! and §tanium aly, Note thet as kL/r proaches 0 F, approaches Lie = 0,65112)(12"1.127 = 83.05, F,, Because Fis used with the Resistance Factor, in the 2. ATINIEIF) = 4:71N18000/14) = 48.68, F, = (PEARL LLRED Method and because the loads in the LRFD Method are = 21464 Lltimate loads or factored loads, the value of @F,, = allowable 3, EB-3:if kLir> 4.71VIE/F) then F< 0.877, = 877(21.464) = 18.82ksi 4, P= 18.8Tksit2.75in‘) = 51.73 1A. Select a larger tial size: Hollow core 6"x6"x.5" thik Compressive stress has an adequate factor of safety built ito it. Example 10-6: Design a titanium TI-6AL- 500k but not very efficent. 1B. Selecta smaller tril size: Holow core 5"x5"x.5° thick = 5/12 ~ 44/12 = 3076in* Acb! di = int 180.75) = 1.85" 65 kU = 0.68(12'102"/1.85 = 50.59 28, 4.7¥IE/F,) = 4.711I6000/141) = 48.58, F, = (PIENLAP = 57833 38. EB-SiTKL/E> A.71VIE/F), thon F, = 0.877F, = 8715783) = 50.7231 4B, P= 60.72ksi(in®) = 456.48k < 600k no good. IC. Solect a slightly larger tal size: Hollow core 8°x5"x 625" thick sea - 3.7841 35.6in* ~ 8.78? = 10:94in? 26 AkLinl? = 64.75 3C, EBS:ifkL/r> A.7NIEIR), then F, = 0.8778, 877184.75) = 48.02si AC. P= 48.0210, 94i} = 525.29k > 500k... okay USE 5°x5"«5/8" HSS in THALG-AY Example 107: Design an A992 steel column for a factored compressive load of P, = 500k with an unbraced length of 12! and fixed ends if E =29,000ksi and F, = 50ksi. 1. Select a trial size: Hollow coro 6"x6"x.5" thick: = 56.92in* (65.92/11) = 2.25" k=065 kL fr = 0.65112012Y/1.127 = 41.6 2. A.7WIE/F) = 4.719129000/60) = 113.43, F, = OPIE/KL? = 165.99 3. EZ: ifRLUFS4.7NIE/FY), then F, = (658, 4, Poe 4A 06ki Tn) = 484.63 < 500k go larger. 1A. Selec a tia size: Hollow core 6”x6"x.625" thick 64/12 - 4754/12 = 65.58in* = 6 ATS = 13.44in? 1(65.59/13.44) = 2.21" k=0.85 kur 2A. A 7HIEIF) = A7N(29000/60) = 113.43, F, = (SEMKLAP = 16958 3A, ESQ ifKLISATHIE/F), then F, = (SSBF, = 43.85 4A, P= A3,85ksi12A4in?) = 589.41 > 500K .. kay USE 66"x5/8" HSS in A992 see Not thatthe tarum alloy column uses less material with an area of 10,94? compared tothe steel column that reques an ‘tea of 18.4. Given the current costo aru aly at about ‘xt the cost of steal the steel columns the economical choice at about 21% of the cost ofthe ttariam aay column, Given the density of tel is 490pcf andthe densty of TrAI6-4v is 276 ABpet, the respective weights ofthe steel and titanium alloy Y2ft columns are 548. 8# and 252.068, Te stool cokrmn ‘has more than double the weight of the titanium alloy colurnn. It ‘should be noted that for kL/r > 57.5, the allowable compression in stels higher than that of T-AI6-4v, Changing the column length in the previous two examples to 20 ves 1512 HI2™Y2.21 = 42:95 Example 10-8: Design a titanium TI-6Al-4V alloy column for a factored compressive load of P, = 500k with an tunbraced length of 20' and fixed ends if = 15,000ksi and F, = 141ksi. 1. Select a trial size: Hollow core 6.25°x6,25"% 1 thick: =, = 6.254712 ~ 4.254712 = s9.97in® A= 6.28? 4.25" = Din? = 99.97/20) = 2.18"DESIGN OF COLUMNS 1% k=065 Lie = 0.65(20")12Y2.18 = 71.56 2. ATWIEIF) = 47NIIS000/I = 48.58, F 28.91 3, E3-3:if KLir > 4.7 1NIE/Fy), then F,, £87 7128.91) = 2.35ks! 4, P= 736. 36ksi(2in?) = 892.44k > 500K .. okay USE 6.26"6.25" x1" HSSin THAI6-4V 877Fe Example 10-9: Design an A982 steel column for a factored ‘compressive load of P, = 500k with an unbraced length of 20’ and fixed ends if E=29,000ksi and F, = 50k. 1. Selecta trial size: Hollow core 6” x6"x.75" thick: = 64/12 - 454/12 = 73.82in* P= 4.6 = 15.75? V(73.82/15.75) = 2.17" 65 kl = 0.65(207112/2.17 = 72.05, 2. ATWEIF,) = 4.719129000/50) = 113.43, F, = (PIEMKLIM? 6 13ksi 3. ER2:ITKLie S47 IEF then F, (estar, okay USE 6x6” x34" HSS for Stee 10.2.2 Design of Wood Columns ‘The allowable compressive strength in wood columns: depends on the species end grade of wood, the moisture, ‘temperature end incising conditions as well as the actual size ofthe column, A builder's rule of thumb for wood columns is F=0.3E/IL/aP. The accuracy of this rule of thumb is shown below: Example 10-10: Design a 12ft column of structural Select Red Oak with pinned ends, a square cross-section and a factored compressive load of 20,0008. ‘The LRFD Method and NDS specifications, as shown in Chapter 17, yield an answer of 6x6. Using the builder's rule of thumb, F = 0.3E/L/G, and 2 tial size of 6x6 (5.5"x5.5” actual dimensions) yields the following: E 300,000psi F = 0.311,800,000psii(12'112V/5.5"F = 568.94psi FA = P= 568 Sépsi(S SP = 17210.44# < 20,0008 no ‘004. Trya larger size: 6x8 FJ =0,311,300,000psiv(12"12"V5.6°F = 668.94psi = 568, 94psi(7.5)5.5) = 23488.78# > 20,0008 Fa. okay Using the rule of thumb as a quick estimating too! generally yields larger size, but the exact size required should always be determined, or at least the rule of thumb size should be verified, using the AWC National Design Specifications as, outlined in Chapters 16 through 18. Practice Exercises: 410-1: Determine the critical buckling stress and eitical bucking load fora Aft, WW14 x 108 column with pinned ends. 10-2: Given a 4"X6" actual dimensions) 10ft wood column with E = 1,600,0009si Determine the critical buckling load. b)IFF/ = 1600psi, what is the load that will cause the column to crush? ©} Wil the column buckle or crush fst? 10-3: Determine the critical buckling stress of a W21 x56 ‘column, with E = 29,000ksi and an unbraced length of 20” in the strong direction and 12’ in the weak direction. 10-4: A 16ft metal clurnn hes a hollow circular cross-section ‘with en outside diameter of 18” and a thickness of 1”. Which ‘metal will old mare load? Metal 1 (E = 10,000ksi and F = 38ksi or Motal 2(E = 12,000ksi and F, = 25ksi?Part Il Structural Design Principleseleven Structural Patterns Patterns exist everywhere, whether in an architectural ‘Two general types of patterns are hierarchy and network Context, 2 natural context, or an organizational conte pattems. These types can further be identitied es radia, Human beings easily recognize, and utlize patterns. ‘orthogonal, or algorithmic, Facial Oxhogona Alri ierarchal Newark Pater typesSTRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES ‘Hierarchal patterns are systems in which components, ‘members or elements have varying size, status or contributing characteristics that are ordered accordingly. In hierarchal pattems, there isa defined source with subsequent lesser components as a branch from the source. A corporate personnel structure or a tree is an example of a hierarchy, Network patterns are systems in which all components, ‘members or elements have relatively the same size, status ‘oF contributing characteristics. In network patterns, multiple telationships between relatively similar components exist. ‘A honeycomb or a checkerboard is an example of a network pattem. In architecture, geodesic domes and space frames are goad examples of network pattems, Patterns can also be @ combination of hierarchy and networks. Whether hierachal or networked, patterns allow the designer to identily gid systems that may be used for vertical support systems such as columns, bearing walls or vertical trusses. Orthogonal, radial and algorithmic grids are Usually based on a mathematical principle, Grids may also be random or appear random but follow spatial and contextual input. In pian, structural patterns consist ofthe configuration cof supports, horizontal spanning members and lateral force resisting systems. In section or elevation, structural patterns reveal the relationship between the grids from each level and cither respond to or mimic the horizontal grids. PLAN 4 SECTION ‘AXONOMETRIC ‘orzontl and vertical pattern relationshipSTRUCTURAL PATTERNS — 1 Structural patterns either correspond with or remain independent ofthe building shape. In the later, the structural pattern ofthe building gives no indication of what takes place spatialy or contextually inthe building. Likewise, the exterior ‘and interior viows are not indicative ofthe structural patterns in place, © na Structural pattern (a) independent from form and (integrated with form Structural pattems are not usualy independent from the spatial ‘and contextual patterns of a project. Because the structure isthe skeleton, the physical strength of a building, structural patterns that integrate with spatial, contextual and conceptual patterns help the designer to create a holistic solution. Spatial pattems are usually defined by program and design intent or by environmental comfort factors such as natural lighting, acoustics or thermal convection. Contextual patterns fare patterns dictated by topography, site boundaries or context ofthe site including views, circulation, solar shadows, Prevalent winds and the lke. Conceptual patterns are tho ‘oduct of oreative diagramming of the concept or big idea bbohind the project. A concept may derive from a social or cultural statement, a natural metaphor fora project or an independent idea conceived by the designer. Once a concept is defined, the tools of defining form such as weaving, siding, expanding, twisting and the fe become tools for the structural patterns as well. Structural pattems that respond to the spatial, conceptual and contextual requirements of a Project find the best solution for the parameters given 11.1 Defining the Structural Grid ‘The first decision regarding structure isthe pattern of support. Pattern of support is determined by soverl factors, ‘most of which influence the location and distance between columns, walls or ther vertical support systems. The site context defines the perimeter within which a ‘structure is placed. Once the perimeter is defined, consider ‘activity, circulation and materials to determine a preliminary rid pattern. The type of activity dictates the options for width, length and height of spaces to be included. Larger clear spaces require structural systems that can handle large spans, Multilevel spaces often prevent horizontal bracing at the levels between floor and ceiling, The programmatic relationships that exist between types of activity determine the connections and ciculation between spaces. Circulation affects the structural grid because columns and other vertical support systems can either define or interfere with 2 pathway. A colonnade isa perfect example of circulation defined by the structural support system. Conversely, it can be argued thatthe line of colurmns in the colonnade is placed for structural support in order to define a fine of Circulation. Another influence of site context on structural system choices is one of views and privacy. Where views, ‘are important, vertical support systems that allow large or ‘multiple perforations ee desired. When privacy is important, vertical support systems could be massive bearig walls. The ‘material choices forthe structural system will aso dictate the allowable spans of beams and size of components. ‘A gtd is a patton of lines that denotes the placement cof columns or bearing walls. An area enclosed by the least ‘number of connected columns is called a bay. In orthogonal systems, bays are rectangular. In diagrid systems, bays are triangular and in honeycomb grids, bays are hexagonal NANAVA Sa VV Bayoin grid systemsSTRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES. 11.1.1 Orthogonal and Radial Grids ‘Most grids are orthogonal because orthogonal grids are easier to design and construct than other types of grids. Orthogonal grids have many identical members, reducing the number of beams or columns to be designed, The ‘square or rectangular bays in orthogonal grids mean that in ‘construction, connections are at 90°. This means connections ‘are simple to design, fabricate and construct. n the many cases, the bays are of uniform size, butt should be noted that bays may be of varied size. Orthogonal gids may be ‘combined to suit design needs, When combining orthogonal aids, align column tines from each grid to create lateral stability in the system, Radial grid lines may be connected by circumferential, racial or diagrid pattems of beams. Radial grids may stand alone, be used as a connector between grids or used as @ focal point. Connections become more complicated ina radial ‘rid. Creating reguiarity in the radial grid, and designing the connections for ease of installation will make @ rial rid ‘nearly as practical as an orthogonel grid “| | sp FET (rhogona gids 11.1.2 Complex or Irregular Grids Complex grids may be a combination of orthogonal and radial grids or may involve algorithmic, geometric or natural pattems. For example, a set of grid lines may follow topographic ines, perimeter lines or circulation patterns. In the grid shown in Figure 11.6, longitudinal grid lines follow ‘topographic curves. Transverse grid lines are perpendicular 10 outer longitudinal lines and evenly space along the center longitudinal tne. The grid is strengthened by the triangulated pattem of bracing. Complex grids can be created igitally ‘and components can be manufactured from the digital, ‘mode! meaning that there is an ease of creating double curvature forms. Consider carefully how such forms are to be constructed rather than commiting toa structural design based solely on form,STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES 11.1.3 Integration of Structural, Spatial and Contextual Patterns A structural grid rust be developed with ragard to the volumes it supports It is important to define the structural ‘rid eary so that spaces may be designed to fit the grid, but its also equally important to understand that grids may need tobe altered to ft the design of spaces or the relationship to site context. While regular grids with equidistant colurnn lines ‘ate economical, there is no rule that states grids must be uniform. Do not be afraid to vary distances between column lines or create combined or complex grids in order to achieve the best solution for pattern of support. 11.2 Natural Design and Structural Form Nature is endowed with structure, Plants, trees, animals, rock formations and most other nature forms such as cobwebs have a structure and a structural pattem. Natural forms are very efficient and very effective. By observing structural pattems in nature, the designer may find inspiration for solutions to structural design problems. TINA VANNYAN) | NANA YN IANA VAN NMA NWNZNZN ‘Structural comparisons of) iia sea sponge (8) 30 St. Mary Axe ulding, Foster Partners Silica sea sponge is a deceptively stiong creature with an exoskeleton made of tiny glass rods that bundie to form struts in an elaborate cylindrical truss wrapped in helical nutrient tubes. The glass rods not only provide a structural skeleton {and conduit for nutrients, but also transmit light through fiber ‘optic qualities ofthe glass rods. Silica sea sponge bears a remarkable resemblance to the Foster & Partners building ‘at 30 St. Mary Axe in London. This building utilizes a diagrid structure with helical ciculation, atrium and mechanical system schemes. From a structural perspective, the most interesting thing about silica sea sponge i its strength, Itrises the question: Are bundled tubes stronger than individual tubes? If so, ist because bundled tubes have more 4area or do they have 8 higher moment of inertia? Bundled sabes Consider the seven bundled tubes in Figure 11.9 fall tubes have the same outer radius (,) and inner rads (), the area of the seven bundled tubes A = 7.2 ~ 1). fe single tube in Figure 11.910) has an outer radius equal to 3r,, and the ‘same amount of material, and therefore the same area, tho thickness of the tube (t) can be found. The single tube would have an outer diameter that is equal to the three diameters of the bundled tubes, o 6, The inner radius would then be Sr, ~ tf the total area ofthe bundled tubes equals the area of the single tube, we get: ro Ax Tale = 19) =nil8r ~ Gr, 31, an +7) The moment ofinrtia forthe bundled tubes is sso = TRUE = FA 4 4 mle F2N0.7324, (n/N, — 484,22 — 758) Newiuen/A = 6542 + 72/28STRUCTURAL PATTERNS ‘And the moment of inertia forthe single tube is: lar = Hr ~ (Gr, - UM = wl B) 7, — 281312 — 4948) lswculA = (7752 + 4955128 Cleat Lai i8 O00" than laue/ A, Since the adus of gyration r= VA, te singe tbe wl also have o higher velue of «, meaning thatthe slendemess ratio, kL wil be male and therefore the allowable compressive stress wilbe higher. So, when bundled tubes have the seme area as a single tube, the single tube will perform better in compression ialltubes have th same thickness where f= —t then tho area and moment of neta of the seven bundled tubes remain the same: A alt = 12) (n/AN55,$ 487242 — 760) Mygurseevnocen = (512 + 7170/28 ‘The single tube has an outer radius, 3, and thickness t. The 21, + and the area of the single tube is: inner radius is 3r, ~ Aaace ® TUSK? = (r, - 0) = atl, = ali, — 1I6r, +6) ‘And the moment of inertia forthe single tube is: Kanne = HS — (1, - 24 in/AN65r,* 321%, ~ 247242 — 8103 — (9) Neves = 0982 + 4g + 4 tre + 28+ 72128 In this case, the radius of gyration forthe single tube is stil larger, but the area is smaller and so while the allowable compressive stress willbe lager forthe single tube, the allowable compressive loads would have to be compared on a case by case basis, For example, i designing in ste!, when kL/r > 4.71EV Fy the allowable compressive stress = $Fzq = .877H7E/KLI9 () = (8777°E/KLPNVA) and the allowable compressive oad 15 OF (A) = (8772°E/KLIND.Iyuyouz 8 Oreater than Myeue whenever the r,2 0.4489r, Buti kLir< 4.7 WIE/F), the allowable compressive stress = 0Fzq = (658°™F,) and the equations become complicated and dependent on the KL and Fy values of the problem, The points, when observing natural phenomena, itis important to observe, but equally important not 10 imitate unless fully understanding why a system works. Understanding why something works in nature allows the designer to employ the strategy successfully. The idea of bundled tubes was analyzed for compression, but what about flexure? Its important to analyze a natural system for all of ‘the conditions under which it may be used, Itis not the form ‘observed in nature, but how the form behaves that influences, structural thinking Biorimicry is aterm coined by Janine Benyus in her book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. Benyus goes beyond observing structural systems found in nature to using natural solutions to inspire innovation in design. For exemple, shark denticles are a pattern of reised bony scales on the skin ‘of sharks that serve not only 2s @ form of protection but also provide hydrodynamic qualities. It is belived thatthe denticle pattern allows the shark to move noiselessly through the water. There have been studies of shark donticle patterns to explore textural pattems on the hulls of ships. Imagine using «a shark denticle pattern on @ metro train of metro station wall 10 reduce the noise levels in metro stations. That would be en ‘example of biomimic design Practice Exercises: 11-1: For the perimeter in Figure 11.10, design a pattern of support forthe perimeter shapes below. Maximum beam spacing is 8” and maximum spacing between columns is 24 om wo te q | | ] Jt | y | wo 2 | as Practice exercise.STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES 11-2: For the perimeter in Figure 11.11, frame the outer shape with @ maximum beam length of 30’ and maximum beam spacing of 10’. Frame the inner shape with a maximum beam length of 60’ and a maximum beam spacing of 10” a Practice exercise 112 ‘1-3: Create your own shape to enclose 14,000 ~ 16,000sf within the limits ofa 120” by 150’ site, Include in your enclosed ‘area a 2000 ~ 4000sF atrium and frame around it. Maximum beam length = 40" and maximum beam spacing = 10”twelve Design Loads Design loads ar the forcos used in the design of structural components The building code that governs inthe location of the project defines what design loads must be used. Most building codes are based on the Intemational Building Code (18C) although other codes do exist. States typically adopt a buiting code based onthe IBC and may include modifications or more stringent requirements, The State of Forde, for exemple, developed the 2004 Florida Building Cod with higher 3.sacond gust wind speeds than found in the IBC. Local municipalities usually refer toa state building code. However in some cases, loca building codes may be stricter than the stato building code. Be certain to use the code that apples to the site locaton. ‘Most design lots defined in the IBC ae directly based ‘on the ASCE Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures {ASCE}, The building program and site also play 2 role in determining design lads a thy affect importance factors and exposure factors. The fist step in determining design loads sto identity the occupancy category in ASCE Table 1-1. Note that Category Is for building types not covered inthe other categories The occupancy category will determine the importance factor or varius load caleulations, ‘able 12.1 ASCE Table 15-1 Occupancy Category, recreated wth permission fom ASCE FISK JcATEGORY | [NATURE OF OCCUPANCY T | Sirctores hat represent alow hazard to Raman Wea lino evento fare Tal Structures except tose Tisted in OoSipancy Icatogois, 1, and 1V TH |Sivcures fat representa sobetanval hazard human ite inthe event of tala [Sructures ot nudes in Occupanoy Category 1, wil potential to cause a substantial economic impact andioe mass disruption of day-to-day cian tein the| leven of taro [Structures noting a Osoupancy Catgoy 17 [containing suiont quanttes of toxic or explosive [substances that would be dangorous tothe pubic it teased TV |Siractures deciraid as essential actos [Siractures conaning sufient quantes of oe or lexplosive substances that would be dangerous othe publ releases [Sructures that represent a eubetantal Razoo [community nthe even of fare [Seuctures required to maintain He Tancionaly oF loner Risk Category IV structures. Table 12.2: Importance actors ‘cocupancy |r Snow Wo Wind [yor Wind] for Category | Loads [wih = 85) withV> | Seismic ‘oomph | 100mph | Loads T 08 | oa7 | —o77, i W 1 1 1 W if 15415 | 125 W 42] 4s | 1.15 [15STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES There ae three basic categories of design loads’ lve loads, ‘dead loads and lateral loads. Live and dead loads are loads that will hve a vertical impact onthe design and lateral loads | ‘are those that will hve a horizontal impact on the design. 12.1 Live and Dead Loads Live and dead loads are gravity loads because they are forces induced by gravity on mass, in other words—weight. The difference between live and dead loads is as follows: 12.1.1 Dead Loads Deedioads are the weights of al the materials permanently attached tothe structure. They ae considered dead loads because they do not move or change, Calculating dead loads requies an understanding ofthe stuctual system, fagade, partion wals and mechanical systems to be used as well as ‘an abilty to estimate sizes of components nt yet designed. ‘Many handbooks have simple material guides that wil give the density of common building materials. For spectic materials, ‘manufacturer's typicaly supply the density of a material or ‘weight of a unit. Be careful to convert all dead loads tothe same nits whether pounds, pounds per foot, pounds per square foot, ‘or kip per square foot or kilograms per square meter, et. Example 12-1; Calculate the dead load on a series of beams spaced at 8'o.c, if the beams carry a 4” concrete slab made of normal weight concrete at 160pef and 1" ‘wood flooring at 4psf. D= 150pofta7712(8'1 + dpstis’) = 492% 12.1.2 Live Loads Live loads ae all gravity loads not permanently attached 10 the structure, Live loads include people, furnishings, movable ‘equipment, plantings and installations or displays. The IBC is a source code for many local and state codes. The ASCE ‘ble 41 and IBC Table 1607. list the minimum design live loads by occupancy type. Itis important to remember that codes list the minirnur allowable five load, but not necessary the live load that should be considered in special ceases. The IBC lve loads are listed in.units of pounds per square foot (psf! for most cases, although areas such as ‘elevator machine rooms may have a concentrated load listed, Most buildings have more than one occupancy type to Consider and even within one occupancy type, there can be ‘multiple conditions listed in the ASCE Table 4-1. An office ‘building, for example, has an occupancy type: 25 ~ Office Buildings, that states tht lobbies and first flor coridors have €@ minimum 100pst lve load, while corridors above the frst floor have 4 minimum 80psf live load and offices have a SOpst minimum lve load. Further, a file room would be considered light storage with a minimum 125psf lve load, and stairs and exits have a 100pst minimum lve load, 12.1.3 Live Load Reduction ‘ASCE Chapter 4.8 states that if a member has a tibutary area ‘of more than 400 square feet, the original lve load (LLo) can be reduced Effective LL: u L025 + 15K A) Where K,, is found in IBC Table 1607.9.1, shown here in Table 12.3: Limits: LL2 0.5LLo ‘No LL reduction for Class A occupancy No LL reduction for LLo > 100psf Table 12.3: ASCE Table 42 velond clement facto, K,, with permission from ASCE ELEMENT Interior columns [Exterior columns without cantlever slabs [Edge columns with cantlever slabs [Comer Columns with cantilever slabs [Edge Beams without cantlever slabs interior beams All othor members not dented including: Edge lbeams with cantlever stabs, Cantilever beams, [One-way Stabs, Two-way Slabs, Members }without provisions for continuous shear transfer Inormal to their span, 1DESIGN LonDS cs Example 12-2: If LLo = 98psf and tributary area (A,)is 12.2 Snow Loads {600st, what is reduced live load on an interior column? From Table 1607.9.1 wo find Ky, = 4. ‘The procedure to find design snow loads can be found in ‘ASCE Chapter 7, The ASCE Figure 7-1 map, a section of Which is shown in Figure 12.1, gives minimum ground snow loads (o,) in units of pst. The numbers in parentheses are 0.SLLo = 0.5195pst) = 475pst < 52.84psf.. okay ‘the upper elevation limits in feet. Beyond these elevations, ‘and where CS is shown on the map, specific case studies are requited to establish ground snow loads due to potential UL = LLot.25 + 15AIK, A) = 951.25 + 15/a600) =52.84psh LL =52.84pst ‘extreme local variations. LAS a col ne IN q AANA ASCE. Snow loads in northeastern U.S. With permission fom ASCE90 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES Because snow may dift and create uneven loads, calculations will vary depending on the building design. But for fat roofs, the snow load 7C,C,,p, where = ground snow load from ASCE Figure 7-1 C, = Exposure Factor from ASCE Table 7-2 where terrain categories are defined as: 8: Urban, suburban and wooded (closely spaced large obstructions) CC: Open spaces with scattered obstructions D: Fat unobstructed spaces ‘able 124: ASCE Table 7-2 Bxpoure factr with erision from ASCE BPORRE (OF ROOF uy | eAaTALty lrepaxevcxrecony exvoseo | ‘ose | serene] ic [19 i os as i [aT AT jncrtrour se or | os wa fm, res ware oe aT leciwinoazmiendusctteste | 07 | os a C,= Thermal factor from ASCE Table 7-3 |, = Importance factor for snow from ASCE Table 7-4 ‘Table 12.5: ASCE Tale 73 Therma factor, wth permission from ASCE [THERMAL CONDITION G [Al structures except as indicated bolow i [Structures kept just above freezing and others with fool, vented roofs in which the thermal resistance loetween tho ventilated space and the heated space lexceeds A-25 1a [Unheated structures and structures ntentonaly Kept lbotowtrezing 42. [Continuously heated greenhouses, wit a root having la thermal resistance less than F-2 0.85, Example 12-3: Calculate the design snow load on a flat roof of a hospital in Montpelier, Vermont. , = 60pst, C, = 0.9, C,= 10, ,=1.2 $=07C,C),p, = 0.7(0.9K0.2160) 5.36pst 12.3 Lateral Loads Lateral loads are any loads exerting a lateral or horizontal force on the structure, The most common lateral loads are wind and seismic loads, but there are also other horizontal forces that must be considered. For example, hycrostatic, pressure in the soil pushes horizontally against a retaining wall ‘or the weight of a pitched oof pushes outward against the top of bearing wall supporting it. This section will discuss how to calculate wind and seismic loads. 12.3.1 Wind Loads Follow the procedures in ASCE Chapter 27 forthe calculation of wind loads. There are many scenarios descrived and care must be taken to use the correct diagrams and tables. The basics of calculating wind design loads are listed below, but arent inclusive of all wind load conditions. 1. Determine the Risk Category based on ASCE Table 1.5.1 shown in Table 121 2, Determine the Design Wind Load Speed, Vimo) atthe site location. The maps in ASCE Figures 26.5-1A, B or C provide basic wind speeds for all areas of the U.S. by risk categories, ASCE Figure 26.5-1A is for Risk Category I, «@ section of which s shown in Figure 12.2. For projects ‘outside ofthe US, refer to local bulding codes. 3. The directionality factor for the Main Force Resisting System in Buildings is K, = 0.85. For directionality factors {or other conditions, see ASCE Table 26.6.1 4, Determine the Exposure Category in ASCE section 26.7.3. In general terms, the categories ore as follows: Category B: Urban and suburban buildings with @ ‘mean root height $30" Category C: Al stuctures not coveredin categorios BandD Category D: Unobstructed (open) tern structures 5. Determine Topography Factor K,, using ASCE Table 26.8- 1. A topographic factor must be included when the building is located on or near hil, ridge or escarpment. If ‘the site does not meet the conditions described in ASCE Section 26.8.1, the Topgraphic Factor, K,, = 1DESIGN LOADS 91 Bxcerp from ASCE Table 26.5-1A: Basic wind pees for Risk Category buildings and othe structures, With permision from ASCE sry 6. The Gust Effect Factor fora rigid building or other 8. Determine the values ofK, and K, for each level using structure is G = 0.85. Lowrise buildings (buildings ‘ASCE Table 273-1 as shown in Figure 12.7. K, fs the Under 100" in height) are considered rigid, For high-rise coefficient at the mean of height. K,is the coefficient buildings, follow ASCE Section 26.9 to determine rigidity at heights where lateral loads can be transferred {and the value for 6 through structure. For values of height not istod, linear 7. This text discusses wind load calculations for enclosed interpolation is alowed, buildings only. See ASCE Sections 26.2 and 26.10 for definitions of enclosure, For enclosed buildings, GC, =-0.18STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES ‘Teble 12.6 ASCE Table 27.1 Velocity pressuteexposut cofcentsK, nd, ith emission from ASCE 12, Wind load is equal tothe design wind pressure multiplied by the tibutary area, a. P= pA, 98. The velocity pressure g at any given height i a, = 0.00256K,K, K,V# = 0.00256K, 10.85" 10. From ASCE Figure 27.4.1, C, = 0.8 for windward walls {nd C, = ~0.7 for side walls. For leeward wal, the value depends on the rato of L/B where Lis the length of the building parallel tothe wind direction and B is the width of the building perpendicular to the wind direction. See ASCE Figure 27.4-1 for roof values. wales for walls LB. Cy | Use with Allvalues [0.8 ae ot 05 Leeward [2 03 h ot “02. ‘Side Wall | AllVaues|_-07 m 11, Design wind pressure = p = qGC, ~ q6C,, where: = g, a each level as found in step 9 G = 0.85 for rigid buildings or value found in step 6 , = 0.8 for windward walls of value found in step 10 = 4, for enclosed buildings Ge, 0.18 from step 7. HEIGHT EXPOSURE Example 12-4: Find the wind loads for column line 2 if the ABOVE fully enclosed rigid structure in Pittsburg, PA, shown in GROUND Figure 123 resists wind with column lines 1,2, 3 and 4. eee Be Use Exposure Cetegory B. The buidng is anofce bun, 20 0.62 | 0.90 | 1.08 25 oes | 0.94 [1.12 fe 30 0.70 0.98 1.16 40 0.76 | 1.04 | 1.22 d 50 0.81 4.09 1.27 7 60 0.85, 1.13 1.31 70 O89 |eet.i7en [eeto4 80 0.93 1.21 1.38 90 0.96 4.24 1.40 100 0.99 4.26 1.43 @ ® © Section at Column Line 2 Bxample 125 stractore 1. From Figure 12.1, Risk Category I 2. From Figure 12.6, V = 115mph 3. K,=0.85 4. Exposure Category B: (given)DESIGN Lonos. 2 BKy=t 6. G=0.85 7. GC, = -0.18 8. Determine the values of K;, and k, for each evel using Table 12.6: k,isatz=65" Interpolate between K, = 0.85 @ 60" and K, = 0.89 @ 70" Uso ratios: [89 ~ 851/70 ~ 60) = {K, ~ 86/165 - 60) k,=087 ‘The same method is used to find Kz at each level resisting wind loads @7=50:K,=081 @ z= 38% K, = (76 ~ 7036 ~ 30/(40 - 30) +70 = 0.73. @z=20: K,=062 At this point itis helpful to create a table as shown at the ‘end of the example, 9. The velocity pressure @, at any given height is: a, 0.00256K,K,K,V" = 0.00256K,(1(0.85)(116) = 28.78K, 10. From ASCE Figure 27.4-1, C, » 0.8 for windward walls 11, Design wind pressure =p = aC, ~ 46C, = 9,851.8) + Qyl18) = 689, +451 12, Wind loadis equal to the design wind pressure multiplied by the tributary area, a. P = pA For Column Line 2, the tributary width = (26° + 30/2 =28 @ z= 65: tibutay height = 7.5 8175) = 210sh @ z= 50% tibutay height = 16.0 ... A= 28'(15.0") 42081 @ z= 38% tributary height 16.0... A= 2815.0 WindIoason Bxample 12-4 structure 12.3.2 Seismic Loads Seismic loads are caused by the horizontal shear force induced on buildings by earthquakes. Seismic Design Loads are covered in Chapters 11 through 23 of the ASCE. The basies for determining seismic loads using the Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure are covered below and through Example 12-5, V= C,W = seismic base shear Ws effective seismic weight = total dead load floors and walls plus weights specified in ASCE Section 12.7.2. C= Sag/IFI,] = the seismic response costficient Fi = the Response Modification Factor found in ASCE ‘Table 12.24, a small portion of which is shown in Table 12.9. Table 129: Sample of ASCE Table 1221, with permission fom ASCE 20st < 3 Tas een Ca @ z= 20’ wbutary height = 17.5 ... A= 281175 = 490 mom A SOLUTION: oa Ora chowder era * Table 12.8: Windledmeashect, ray haces a als 2 Lets nts tet wih ane voit | ke | cee [P= 841 wa |p Toso ence Sel het - wot | Ke | care, [asngen | AA | Pikoe) ica) 8, ang Fae Sane Som To [aise [ao | ae [ere rate a rescore a clare any fon 7 2s [ays | aior_ [188 _[ [79 ts zo [age 1 i7a0 [1668 |e [as ‘eral cocoa ator = i eed cone ss a s ©. More stg Fae Sts ey See Morera = ray Rated cnet monet ane z94 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES us [Asumpeof ASCE 2210.20 Seismic Response Map for Ske Cat B, wth permission from ASCBDesign Loans |, = Importance factor for earthquakes based on Bulding Risk Catagory (Table 12.10) ‘Table 12.10: Importance factor fo eeismic lds with permission rom ASCE Fisk Category 1 7 1 1 Ww 125 S, = mapped spectral response acceleration for short periods from ASCE Figure 22-1, a portion of which is shown in Figure 12.6. F,= site coefficient from ASCE Table 11.41, summarized as in Table 12.11 ‘Table 12.11: Site coffin, em ASCE Table 11.41, with emission from ASCE Sie Gass] 655025 [ ss -05 [65 =075 Sania a | oa | os | os m1 sf 3 1 1 1 aes a | ee eran | o [16 | 14 | 12 | as = [es [17 | 12 | 09 | 09 F Soo ASCE secon Tra 8, = 2ISHF IS) 'S, = mapped spectral response acceleration for a 1-see Period from ASCE Figure 22-2, a portion of which is shown in Figure 12.6. F, = site coetticient from ASCE Table 11.4-2, summarized as, in Table 12.12: able 12.12: Site cotien from ASCE Table 1.42, wth pemiasion from Sco Sotaes| Seo | Si=02 | S=08 | Sao | Sons a a ae ee ne ess erage | i ee 7. env [es a(n oe] 2 | 18 | 18 | 15 «| as] az | 20 | 24 | 20 F See ASOE secon TAT Example 12.5: Determine the seismic loads for column line 2 ofthe building in Figure 12. The site has very dense soil. The dead loads are 80psf for floors and 16psf for walls. The structure isa steel braced frame with pinned connections. Assume Risk Category IV. 1. Using ASCE Table 20.3-1 or IBC Table 1613.5.2, determine the Site Class. The site classifications are as follows: Sito Class A: Hard rock Site Cass B: Rock Site Class C: Very dense soll and soft rock Site Class D: Stiff soil Site Class E: Soft clay sol Site Ciass F: Soils requitng site response analysis If unsure of site conditions, use Site Class D. For this example, very dense sollis Cass C. 2. Find the mapped spectral acceleration for short period (0.2see} (Ss) rom Figure 12.5, The values on the map are shown as percentages. For calculations, Ss is used in decimal form. Therefore the map value for Pittsburgh of 15% means that S, = 0.15. 3. Find the mapped spectral scceleration for 1-sec period (S) from Figure 12.6. S, = 06 4. Find the site coefficient (F,) from Table 12.10, For Site Class Cand §, < 0.25, F, = 1.2 5. Find the site coefficient (F,) from Table 12.11 For Site Class C ands, < 0.1, Fy = 17. 6. CaleulateS,, and S, Spo (ARMS) = (2/9)1.200-16) = 0.12 Ss (2/9)1.71.05) = 0.087 7, Find the Response Modificatin Factor from ASCE Table 12.24, For Case 8-2, ste! braced frames with on-moment-resisting connections, R= 7. Some sample values forR factors are given below. Note thet there are limitations for buildings in Seismic Design Categories B, C, D, Eand F. See ASCE sections 11.6 and 11.7 to determine the Seismic Design Category before choosing 8 value for. In this example, the structure is in category ‘A because S,, = 0.12 < 0.167 and the requirements of section 11.6 are met. 8. From Table 12.10, l= 1.5, = (PSHE NS)9% STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES sample of ASCE222 LOsec Selmi Response Map for Site las B, with permision from ASCEesign Loans 9, Find the coefficient forthe upper limit on calculated period (C,) in ASCE Table 12.8-1 shown in Table 12.14 Cy=17 whens, <0: ‘ble 12.13: Sample Seismic Response Moifiston Factors from ASCE ‘able 42. With permison fom ASCE = W,h,18078202) ve W = .0111875.9} = 20.635 = C,(V) = lateral force in kips. “able 12.14: Seismic lad spredsheet, 10. Find C, and X from ASCE Table 12.8-2. C, = 03 and 178 for eccentrically braced stee! frames. 11. h,= height feet to highest point of bulding = 65” T,= (C,Nh,2) = (0365) = 0.687 = approximate ‘fundamental perio. 12. T= (CyIT) = the structure petiod inverse of frequency of ‘scilation. T= 17,687) = 1.168 13, C= Sou = 0.12 (1.517 = 0.0257 021... okay 57/1 168I7I1.5] = 011 17. K= an exponent related to the structure period tT <08 =2iT>25 10.52.5, you may use 2 or interpolate between 1 + and2..K=2 18, Make a spreadsheet whore: W, = total weight of building at given level = Wane Meow ‘At each lavel, the weight of the floor = Bopsf(52'(78") = 824,4808 = 324.48k ‘At each level the weight ofthe walls = 1Spsf(2178 + §2)) (tioutary height) = 3.9K/fth) @2= 65: Wg, = 3.9K/7.5) = 29.25k... W, = 353.73k 392.73 363.48k wy, w, W= total weight of buldngldead loads) = 1875.9k Wipsftonp C,,= vertical distribution fact =e] fam F sete Ean Fame coal —oa ew ee aie] (eww salto] [sae | es [reer | oa | mae [iors aes Sertocie ars aval eo oo so_| wase [eso [esr [oan es |e ate ee a = ‘a7 | wo | sero | oo | mess | 105 wae] o | o [0 12.4 Factored Loads ‘The LRFD (Load Resistance Factor Design) Method uses load factors to create an ultimate or factored laad thats ‘the design load. It also uses Resistance Factors (9) which ate discussed in chapters related to design with specific. material, Ultimate or design loads are based on the folowing types of loads. U = The design or ultimate load = factored load W, = factored uniform load P. ctored concentrated load D = dead load L = live load Lr = roof lve load = snow load R = rainweaterie load, not ponding) W= wind load E « earthquake load ‘Allloads are placed into one ofthese categories and factored Using the six equetions below. The largest result from the six ‘equations is used as the design load, 1. Us14D 2, U=1.2D + 16L+05 (Lor Sor R)STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES 3, U=1.2D +16 (LrorSorf) + (Lor0.8W) 4, U=1.2D + L6W+ 0.1 + O.6iLr oF Sor R) 5. U=12D +E +L +028 6. U=0.9D + (1.6Wore) Example 12-6: Beams weighing 22" spaced 8’ on center, ‘support a 50psf dead load, 150" lve load and a 20"" seismic load. Find W D = 508") +22" = 422" L = 150%(8" = 1200" E=20" 1. W,= 1.41422) = 590.8" 2. W, = 1.21422) + 1.611200) + 0.5(0) = 2426.46 3, W, = 1.21422) + 1.6(0) + (1200 OR 0} = 1708.4" 4 1.21422) + 1.610) + 0.6(1200) + 0.5(0) = 1106.48 5. W, = 1.21422) + 208 + 1200 + 0.210) = 1726.4" & 1686.4" 6. W, = 0.91422) + (1.6(0)0R 20) = 399.8" & 369.8%" W, = 2426.44" (highest governs) Practice Exercises: 124: I LLo = 8Opst and tributary area (A,) is 750%, what is ‘reduced lve load on a comer column with a cantilevered slat? 12:2: Calculate the design snow load on a flat roof of an office bulging in Denver, Colorado. 12-3; Find the wind loads for Column Line 2 if the fully enclosed structure in Melbourne, Florida, shown in Figure 12.7 resists wind with column lines 1, 2, and 3. Use Exposure Category D and Occupancy Category Il 12-4: Determine the seismic loads for column line 2 ofthe building in Figure 12.17. The site has very dense soll. The dead loads are 100ps for floors and 5Opst for walls, The struoture isa reinforced concrete moment frame. 88 re] 46- 32 1e- 30" 30 ® ® © ‘Section at Column Line @ 30 © 30 @ 30 (Chapter 12 Practice exercisesthirteen Horizontal Framing Systems Horizontal framing systems are required to carry floor loads ‘and usually to carry roof loads. The main idee of a horizontal framing system isto transfer all loor or roof loads as well 2 any lateral loads tothe vertical support system, To do this, structural bays in orthogonal, radial or other patterns as discussed in Chapter 11 are employed to suit the individual project. The structural materials will define the limitations of the horizontal framing system, Horizontal spanning systems consist of a deck that supports the floor or roof load and spans between and is ‘supported by beams or joists. The deck not only distributes | the loads to the beams, but provides a continuous sif ‘medium that enables the horizontal spanning systems to ‘act as a horizontal ciaphragm, meaning it acts as one rigid body. Decking material ranges can be any material capable of transferring the floor or roof loads to the beams or joists, The beams and/or joists transfer the loads from the deck to either carier beams or girders or directly to a vertical Support system. Beam spacing is dependent on the allowable span of the deck. While some beams or joists may frame into ‘the walls or colurnns ofthe vertical support system, many wil frame into carrier beams or girders, Most horizontal spanning systems employ an orthogonal ‘rid pattern that allows for efficiont use of materials and ease ‘of connections. However, ths is not required. As discussed in Chapter 11, grids can also be radial, complex or organic in form, 13.1 Typical Steel Framing Systems Components of a horizontal steel framing system include the decking material, steel beams or joists, and the angles, plates and bolts used for connections. The design of steel components is covered in Chapters 21 through 24, Horizontal {framing systems in steel may aso take the form of @ space frame or space truss as discussed in Chapter 15. 13.1.1 Decking in Steel Framing Systems Decking can be comprised of almost any material that wil ‘support and safely transfer the flor or of loads to the joists or beams, In steel framing the decking material is ‘most common stee! deck, although grating is often used for catwalks and mezzanines in industrial applications, Other choices for decking on steel framing systems include precast ‘concrete siabs and in some cases wood planking. Stee! decks often covered witha concrete slab. In ‘composite decking, the concrete and metal deck work ‘together to support the loads. The concrete handles the ‘compression forces and the steel deck handles the tension forces. In order for this to happen the deck must be bonded ‘0 the concrete through the cross-sectional pattern of the deck and also through the use of steel shear studs welded to the top of the metal deck.100 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES In non-composite or form decking, the metal deck is simply a {orm that supports the concrete when itis placed and until it ‘cures. The concrete carries the entire floor or roof load. Steel deck is selected by reviewing manufacturers’ catalogs. Consider the proximity ofthe manufacturer's facity 10 the jb site; closer is better because less energy will be used for transportation. Consider the recycled content in the steel by observing the total scrap steel, post-consumer recycled content and pre-consumers recycled content of each facility Stel decks 13.1.2 Steel Joists and Beams ‘The deck is supported by a seties of joists, beams or bearing alls, Most steel ems are wide flange beams (W:shapes) \W shapes have callout names based on depth and weight. For ‘example, a W14x22 will have an approximate depth of 14° and ‘a weight of 22", M-and S-shapes are other I-beam shapes. that may be used. Stel -beam shapes are most efficent when spanning distances between 20° and 40’. For ighter loads and shorter spans, channel sections (C-shapes!, hollow structural sections (HSS-shapes) or angles (L-shapes) may be used.HORIZONTAL FRAMING SYSTEMS 101 Castelated beams are beams with a perforated web with holes usually in a series of circles or hexagons. They are constructed by combining the top half of one W-shape ‘withthe bottom half of another W-shape so that the beam becomes highiy efficient. The top half is designed for ‘compression and the bottom for tension. Ifa castellted ‘beam is used in a scenario involving an overhang, the beam ‘must be checked for compression in the bottom section near the overhang support. Castelated beams are used when it is desired thatthe openings in the web accommodate ducts, pipes or conduit or when it is necessary to reduce weight. Contlted beams COpen-neb joists (OVW) are another spanning option for steal framing systems. OWJ consist of a top aid bottom flange usually made of double angles with bar struts placed in a truss configuration forming the web. OW are most cffcient when usod in spans over 30°. The open web not only provides an economical solution, but allows space for ducts, pipes or conduit to pass through the web. ‘There are three classes of OW with depths and spans 18 shown in Table 13.1. Design may vary by manufacturer, ‘making itimportant to consider manufacturers clase to the site before designing and caling out an OW component, “Table 13.4 Classe of pen nb olste \Series [depth [span fers [205 fos Lee ea [tto4e [ose ut feats anatro spans [272 frente” (OWs must be braced laterally using horizontal or diagonal bracing to prevent displacement that could cause torsion inthe joist. Further, OWJs must be bridged to prevent lateral sway. Open-web joists Rules of thumb for preiminary planning of steel framing ystems are as follows where L. = span in feet and d ininches: fepth Steel form deck: . SB, Lee Steel Composite deck and roof deck d= 1/85, Lg = 15° ‘Stool beams: d= 1/20 Steel carrier beams or girders: d= L/16 13.2 Concrete Framing Systems Concrete framing systems consist of stool reinforced ‘concrete components that are either cast in place or precast. The design of concrete components is covered in Chapters 25 through 83. Concrete systems can be designed to.any shape for which a form can be fabricated, However, because concrete is heavy, weighing about 180pef, concrete design should sive for efficiency of materiwe STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRiNciPLES 13.2.1 Slabs Concrete slabs can have either @ uniform, tapered or ribbed cross-section depending on the span and loads cared. The most common type of slabis one with @ uniform depth. A ‘ule of thumb for slab depth is d = L/20, although slabs may 'be designed to be much thinner by calculating deflection, ‘lowing the slab to be continuous aver multiple spans or by ‘employing pre-stressing methods. Thinner stabs can also bbe achieved by using a high-strength or ultra-high stength concrete. 13.2.2 Concrete Beams and T-beams Concrete beams are typically rectangular in cross-section, but this isnot a requirement, The shape of the cross-section is dependent only on ts abilty to carry the load over its span {and the ability to create formwork to support it while it cures. ‘The depth of @ concrete beam is dependent on the span and loads carried as wellas the amount of steel reinforcement ‘and strength ofthe concrete mix. A rule of thumb forthe ‘atio of the width (bt the effective depth (a) of concrete beam is 1.5 < d/b < 2.2. If shallower, the beam will begin to behave like @ slab and if deeper, the beam will need additional ‘einforcement along the sides, 13.3 Wood Framing Systems “There are two basic mothods for framing in wood: Western Framing and Post and Beam Framing, both of which are cliscussed in Chapter 15 “Structural Typology.” The difference between the two in horizontal framing systems is as follows. Western Framing Systems use closely spaced wood joists with a plywood or thin plank deck while post and beam systems use timber beams witha thicker plank deck. 13.3.1 Wood Deck For Westem Framing Systems, plywood decking is used as the subfloor and then topped with finished floor product. ‘The thickness of plywood is typically 2* to 1” depending on the span andthe grade of plywood used, OSB, particleboard and other non-veneer constuction products may be used if feted for us by the manufacturer, 7 fe} ° 7 i fu L Blac u eel (ee eel 5 i age: fae Re ee eS Pate sob- Two-way beamed sb- (One-way beamed sab- Typical spansto 20. prestressed, Slab spans in two directions. Slab thickened around columns to prevent punching shear. Best suited for square or ‘Typical spans upto 30'or more Slab spans in two directions. ‘Typical spans 8 to 12%, but maybe longer Slab spans in short deection, ea quae ule of thumb for sab de Bs ule of thumb for sab depth = — span/20 a Concrete span/a0, Rule of thumb for slab depth = oes span 20. slab systemsHORIZONTAL FRAMING SYSTEMS 199 fe a Ly oo i fe | tu 4 r Hood Joist Sia - ‘Typical joist spans 15'to 36. Joist cimensions are dependent on length and. Wale Stab - ‘Typical spans 24” to 48. loads. Coffer depth dependent on span and lad. Typical coer spacing is 2't0 5'o.c. Joists are supported by beams which may or may Not be the same depth. A distribution rb is usually placed a joist midspan. ‘Typical joist spacing is 20° to 30" o.c, Fle of Thumb for overall depth = spari20 +30" Diagonal shethng ey be used in Western Framing Systems Diagonal sheathing const of thin plank bord 3 or greater spaning between joists and used as a subfloor To ensure the shesthing cs as oe uit iis recommended that the boards have a ship-ep of tnguo and groove connection Decking consists planks paced ether dogonalyor perpendicular tothe span of the boom ost. Decking planks ar type 15" ik or greeter to span 4 twit tongue tnd grove comectons between pans, Cutdoordectng consists of 2x dimensional amber spoced oleae asl gap between the boards for damage The span of th dectng depends on the aby of single board cat the entre weight of person who might step ona snl board, This means tat he span botween dock lists is much smar than when the decking is made of plywood or ong ard grove planks of the same thickness CCoffers omited around columns to prevent punching shear. Rule of thumb for overall depth = span/30 + 3°. 13.3.2 Wood Joists and Beams ‘Wood joists and timber beams typically have standard-sized, ‘ectangulr cross-sections for economy. But wood is easly shaped and so custom sizes and non-prismatic members aro sometimes used to convey a style or design concopt. Sizes cof wood joist and timber beams are dependent on the loads, spans, species of wood and factors such 2s water content, termite protection and heat. See Chapters 16 through 18 for design of wood beams. ‘Wood framing systems may also employ glue-leminated beams. Give-laminated beams are manufactured by gluing thin layers of wood together to form a particular size and ‘shape. Laminations may be vertical or horizontal, and horizontal laminations may employ oross-laminating, a process of alternating laminations at 90 degree angles toHORIZONTAL FRAMING SYSTEMS 0s Create 8 stronger beam. Glue-laminated beams are costlier than sawn lumber, but are capable of longer spans. 13.3.3 Wood Built-up Members, L-beams and Trusses ‘Wood joists and beams may have cross-sections built up {rom sawn lumber or fabricated wood materials such as OSB. (or combination of both. Typical bull-up members include box beams, I-beams and trusses as shown in Figure 127 13.4 Bay Framing ‘A bay is an area with a perimeter defined by a set of vertical support components, typically four columns. Often there are openings with a bay due to vertical shafts for stairwells, elevators, or MEP services. These openings cause lscontinuity in the transfer of loads from deck to beams. ‘except in cases where the opening is very small or the deck can handle an overhang or cantilever. ‘To frame a bay, begin atthe perimeter and frame between the columns. Decide in what direction the deck spans and ‘evenly space beams to span perpendicular tothe dack span. Consider the typical spacing and spans for the material to be Used, See Table 13.2 as a starting point “Table 1.2; Typical pacing and spans et soe nse —nidma ge TS cele an EE a ao ie re te es Se carom eared ‘SEN = ne 3 ae _ % aa ts ad a +e oe 3 we 7 a eS % tas fe a one eee e Bs a = Where openings exist, place a beam along each side of the ‘pening not already framed by a beam and choose the order of the load transfer. For example, in Figure 13.10 (a the deck spans E-W and the beams span N-S to create four spans, The opening is 10°x20 and so the beam on the right is truncated before it Post and beam systems106 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES penetrates the stairwell. A header beam is placed supported by the center beam and the beam along the colurnn line. The 'N-S edge of the opening is framed, supported by the header beam anda girder. In Figure 13.10 (b) the deck spans N-S and the beams span E-W. Two beams must be tuncated before before penetrating the stairwell. A header beam is placed spanning N-S and the E-W edge ofthe opening is framed, supported by the header beam and the girder, 13.5 Framing Process ‘The process to frame a roof or floors as follows: 1. Define the perimeter 2. Locate stairwells, elevator shafts, ventilation shafts and ‘ny other large perforation inthe floor or roo, 3. Locate muttilevel spaces Define circulation patterns and other areas where columns should be avoided. 5. Create the pattem of support using columns or bearing vals. Columns cannot be spaced farther apart than the ‘maximum span of the beams, 66. Frame between vertical supports, Do not place framing ‘members through vertical shafts such as stairwells or levator shafts. Bay framing) B-W deck pan (8) NS deck eps 7. Provide additional beams to support the deck. Beams ‘cannot be spaced farther apart than the maximum span of the deck. 8. Frame around all openings. in Figure 13.11 (a) if using structural steel with @ ‘maximum beam spacing of 10’ and a maximum column spacing of 40", Include an atrium of approximately 5000? and an 8"20" stairwell at each end of the building 1. Draw column tines in one direction, Do not exceed ‘maximum colurnn spacing. Try t: 2, place column lines near corners ofthe building . evenly space column lines for economy or ereate a pattern of space for a design concept ©. if stairwells or other vertical shafts fall on a column line, adjust shaft location if possible. H not, adjust column lines or plan to frame around the opening, 2. Create column ines in the perpendicular direction, 3. Frame each bay. 4, Frame around openings, 5. Add beams to support decking. See Figure 13.11 (b. Possible solutions are shown in Figures 13.11 (cd, e and fh.HORIZONTAL FRAMING SYSTEMS 107 sea ee Te XS XY RR SNS WAY © \ ® © Framing exampleSTRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES Practice Exercises: 18-1 through 13-3, Frame the bay shown if the maximum ‘deck span isa) 8ft and b) TOF, 13-4: Freme a structural floorplan that fies within a 96" by 144’ rectangle. ‘The plen must include: 1. at least 1,000sf of enclosed space fincluding the atrium and stairwells listed below}; 2, one atrium space between 800 and 1200sf, located ‘anywhere you choose: 3. two 8'x20" stairwells along the perimeter and spaced at ‘opposite ends of the building; maximum slab span = 12’ = maximum beam spacing: 5. maximum beam span = 40’ = maximum column spacing.fourteen Lateral Bracing Systems ‘There ate three basic methods to resist lateral loads, Trusses, trussed tubes and braced frames with diagonal tension counters, al rely on diagonal bracing to resist lateral loads. ‘Moment frames rely on rigid connections to resist lateral loads. Shear walls, whether made of reinforced concrete, ‘masonry or sheathed stud walls, rely on the stiffness of the wall 0 resist lateral loads ‘When resisting lateral loads, whether wind or seismic, itis important to maintain @ belance of resistance throughout the structural system, Otherwise, the bulding will be subjected to torsion s one portion resists @ lateral motion while another Js free to deflect. 14.1 Braced Frames This section explains the Diagonal Truss Method for 8.32k/30ksi = 0.28in?. And sco A=.28 4, 620.60" Rounding po he next ys a” daneter od Other stuctuashpos tat could usd rue Lita 1-44x3/16, A = 0.43 Orcaxas, 09 Or HSS2x 1x18, A= 0.61 14.2 Moment Frames Moment frames resist lateral forces by virtue ofthe rigid Connections at each joint. Although the connections are rigid, a moment frame is actually more flexible than a braced frame. ‘This section explains how to use the Portal Method to solve ‘or adsitional shear and axial forces and addtional moment in beams and columns of a moment frame subjected to lateral forces. -3.2k 16 = ‘The Portal Method has six basi steps: 1. Fed sharin each column 2. Sumxretion forces 8. Frid moment caused by shear colrins 4, Balance moment teach jit ‘5. Find shear in beams caused by moment 6. Sum y-direction forces P Pre => | is # — kere = Tbsp ame Consider a portal of height h and length L subjected to @ lateral force P Itis assurmod that each legis equally cepabie Cf resisting the force P and so the reaction at the base of ‘each lag is Pr. The horizontal force is transferred through theLATERAL BRACING SYSTEMS 1a vertical leg by shear force. At any given point in the leg, there isa force of P/2 in shear, Summing the horizontal forces at the point of load we find thatthe top of the portal has an axial {force = F/2 in compression. 72 : M=Phig M=-Pad Momeatin the vetcallegs ‘The moment at either end ofthe leg will be M = ~(P/2Khv2) Ph, And sum of moments at the connection between leg ‘and top must equel zero or else the connection will otate. Pia his i Moment in portal frame erent ‘The moment at either end ofthe top will create shear equal ‘0 the moment divided by half the length of the top or (Ph/4l/ (U2) = Phat, ‘Multiple portals in a frame, Each leg on any given level equally resists the sum ofall loads above thet level ‘legs = 2(#bays across) p_| pu —P2— pn Ph Pe ee Piva Se Phat. Pris Pra —Keepe = ‘Moment, shear and axial forces ins simple portl frame Example 142: Use the Portal Method to determine the additional shear, moment and a forces in the ‘moment frame components shown in Figure 14.11. 20. 16 3.2% 2| 72k, se san Portal Method example 1 Find shear in each column, Each row has 2 portals and cach porns 2 logs fr atl o es. Tis means thatthe exterior clus eit g/g oa or he lateral loads above them andthe intr colin cesits (loses ta or the eter ads above them,m4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES @ 20 a = sal | ‘ E 1 a ae 5B Gay laesz Lee Shearincolumne 2 bays = 4 legs: For the 16” segment in the columns, the total forces above are P, = 3.2k Pyitlogs 2kjAlegs = 8klleg ‘Outside columns have 1 leg, interior columns have 2 legs: VY, = Ve = 8k shear on exterior columns. Vg = 812] = 1.6.0n interior column For the 20° segment in the columns, the total forces above are: B, #Py = 3.2k + 7.2k = 104k (P1 + P2}/# legs = 10.4Idlegs = 2.6kileg ‘Outside columns have 1 leg, interior columns have 2 legs: V,= Ve = 2.6k shear on exterior columns V, = 2.612) = 6.2k on interior column 2. Sum xdrection forces. Start at the top and sum the »edlrecton forces at each joint, bo 2 we 26-18 =01 q 1.6+54- Joint A2: EF, = 0 = 3.2k ~ 0.8k + AB2 AB2 =0.8~3.2=~2.4k. Because the forces in the bear are pointed toward the joints «-), the beam is in compression. The force exerted on Joint 82 is equal and opposite and therefore positive. 24k ~ 1.8k + BC2 08k Joint B2: ZF, C2 = 16-2 Joint €2: BF, = 0 = 0.8k ~ 0.8k. This is corract. The ‘sum should equal 20 although sometimes there will bbe‘ small cifference atthe last joint in a row due to the rounding of values. Joint AI: BF, = 0= 0.8k + 7.2k ~ 2.6k + AB1 ABI = ~6.4k = 64k Joint BI: EF, = 0 = 1.6k + 5.4k - 5.2k + BCI BCI = 1.8 = 18k Joint Ch 3F,=0=0841.8-2.6=0LATERAL BRACING SYSTEMS 5 Horizontal reactions atthe column bases are equal to the shear in the column: Joint AO: BF, =0= 2.8 +A, .. A, = ~2.8k =2.6ke Joint BO: 3F, 2k +B, .. By = ~B.2k = 6.2ke ~2.8k = 2.8ke Joint CO: BF, = 0 = 2.6k +, 3. Find moment caused by shear in columns. There is @ negative moment atthe end of each column segment = M-= Vh/2 where V = the shear in the column segment ‘and h = height ofthe column segment. 20" 18 24 08. Se 64] 2 64] 7a, 48454, pars, |e, 26 3 2 a. 26 52 26 a 52 fe Momentin columns For the 16” segments onthe exterior columns: 8k (16172) = 6.4 kt For the 16” segment on the interior column: 16(16/2) = 128 For the 20” segments on the exterior colurmns: 26 (20/2) = 26 For the 20” segment on the interior column 5.2 (20/2) = 52 4, Balance moments at eech joint. 2M = O at each joint Moments are equal at bath ends of a beam segment because shear is constant throughout the beam. 16 6a] “2 ‘al oh ea 20. ape i Bat oe 52 6 2 - ol a2: 2M. Moment in beams 64k Joint 82:2 412.8 + Myoy oe Magy = 6.4K Joint C2:EM = 0 = 6.4 - 6.4. This is correct. Joint At: 2M Joint 81: 2M Mgey = 2.4K Joint C1: 2M = 0 = 82.4 ~ 6.4 ~ 26, This is correct. 5. Find shear in beams caused by moment. V = M/IL/2) ‘where M = moment in the beam segment and of the beam segment. length hearin beameM6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PaINCIPLES Vu AkN2072) = 0.64 Vacs = 6.441162) = 0 Vjgy = 82.44 12012) = 3.24 12.4kI16 12) = 4.058 6. Sum y-direction forces 16 20" ‘Ala forces in columns 064k = 064K) doin A2: 3, = 0= 0.64 +F, ..F, Joint AI: 3, = 0= 0.64 +3.24+F, 3.88k =3.88kL. 9.8844. A,=-988k = 3.8841 Joint 82: 2f,=0=-064+08+F, F,~ 0:16 = 0.16Kd Joint BI: Ef, = 0=-3.24 + 16 +4.06+F, F,=-0.97k=0.97K Joint 80:24, =0= 0.97 +8, . 8, = -087k=0971 doin C22, k= okt Joint C:3f, Fy 85k = 4.8547 Joint CO: Bf, = 0 = -4.85+C,...C, Sum Y reactions: Hf, = 0 = -3.88- 97 + 4.85 =0 okay ‘When you design your beams and columns for shear and flexure and deflection, you must add the values you obtain for shear and moment from this chart. Remember the lateral forces may actin either direction, 14.3 Shear Walls A shear wall acts as a rigid body capable of transferring lateral loads to the foundation through internal moment. Most shear walls are made of dense material such es masonry or reinforced concrete. But shear walls can also be created by lighter materials such as plywood on Western Framing if adequate tie-downs are provided to resist turnover. Hf no tie-downs ate used, the resisting moment caused by the ‘weight ofthe wall must be 60% greater than the overturning ‘moment: My 2 15M, W2+Ph/L Sheaewall ‘Consider the shear wall in Figure 14.18, The lateral loads push ‘2gsinst the wall and if not counteracted, wll overturn the wall about Point B called the toe with an Overturning Moment = M,= Ph. The weight ofthe wall) helps to counteract the ‘overturning moment by creating a negative moment due tothe weight of the wall acting vertically at the center of gravity. Ifthe shear wallis fully connected to columns as in case A, the column reactions due to wall weight W and lateral load P willbe A, = W2 ~ Phy/L and 8, = W/2 + Phyl. But ifthe wall is not connected to colurnns, then the weight of the walls Uniformly distributed and the lateral aad causes a uniform ‘change from tension to compression along the base of the wall asin Case B. The wall will equi tie-downs wherever the net reaction is in tension. Example 14-3: Determine the reactions on the columns if the normal-weight concrete, 8" thick shear wall in Figure 1419s fully connected to the columns. Determine a density forthe wall based on materia: concrete density = 150pct W= 16196"18"1(1712"){150p) = 57,600# = 57.6k 10K(36") + 20K(20") ~ 57.6KI8'1 + A, A, 299.2K1 ~299,2k ~ 876k +B, ...B, = 956.8k = 366.87 20° caael6! 32k, a 7.2 al &| Shear wall examples Example 14-4: Determine the required thickness of the ‘normal-weight concrete wall in Figure 14.19 in order to Avoid tie-downs if the wall is not connected to columns. Find weight of wal in terms of some thickness t W = 16f(36F)tC150pcH11000¥/K = 86.4t M, = 10136) + 20120) 760K CCheck the moment about the toe to ensure that M/M, > 1.5, M, 86 4()(8tt = 691.210 69121760215 121.649" = 19.78” use a 20" wall CCheck reactions along the base of the wall: T = (SPiMI)GVb = Mb Wb = 86.4 /(20"7712/16" I TEOK-/T6*) = 8.908KM 8.0K/t ogakt Reaction at point A = Wb -T = 9.0 ~ 8.90 therefore no tie-downs are required. “Multiple shear walls along a plane of resistence may be Used. In such cases, the portion ofthe load carried by an individual wall proportional to the total load may be assumed ‘equal to the width ofthat wall divided by the total width ofall, the walls in thet plane Practice Exercises: 114-1; For the braced frame shown in Figure 14.20, find the additional axial loads in the beams, columns and diagonals, caused by the lateral loads. Use the Diagonal Truss Method. 14.2; For the moment frame shown in Figure 14.20, find all ‘additional shear, moment and axial forces in all components ‘caused by the lateral loads. Use the Portal Method. 114-3: Determine the additonal axial loads on the columns. ‘connected to the shear wall shown in Figure 14.20 ifthe density of the wall = 9Opct and the wall thickness is 12°, 14-4: Determine the required thickness of the unconnected shear wall shown ifthe wall density is 120pcf.STRUCTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES +o oe 44 Chapter 14 Pesci exercises 142fifteen Structural Typology ‘Most structures are unique in that they are composed of a set of components that are sized for specific requirements of spatial and contextual conditions. However, many buildings | have very similar structural systems that can be grouped as a type. Typology isthe study of types. In this chapter structural systems are grouped by type and the basic characteristics of cach explained. A building may have one structural system or It may have ‘multiple different structural systems grouped as structural ‘zones within the building. A building may also have multiple but similar type structural systems grouped or massed within the same building ‘Structural Zones may be parts within one volume or may be Separate volumes. Stractural aones 15.1 Beam and Column Systems Beam and column systems are the most common of structural types. Often called bulk active systems because loads are transferred through the components by virtue oftheir material qualities, this type of system has distinct subsystems: the horizontal spanning system which is usually ‘a sot of floor and roof assemblies; andthe vertical support system which s comprised of a pattern of columns, bearing walls or vertical uss or frame assemblies. The components, ‘and their connections may be subject to axial andor shear {forces as well as moment during the transfor of loads. These ‘systems tend tobe, but are not necessarily orthogonal in vertical section with a combination of vertical support systems and horizontal spanning systems, 15.1.1 Horizontal Spanning Systems Mest hort speming syste consi of deck tat a ‘supported by beams or joists. The deck not only distributes the loads tothe beans, but provides a continues sft rmeciu ha rbles te horizontal spring sjte tat ss ahora depveg,meering ket oe id bay Decking mati can be 2 plywood, desing umber, metal deck. grating, contte sb or ry ther atrial copa of wnsering te floor oo oeds tothe bess o iit