Internship

Report
June July 2014
At

Idea Cellular Ltd, Noida

Subject
Department
Supervisor
Mentor

2G and 3G RF Planning
Network Planning
Mr. Vishwas Yadav
Mr. Inderjeet Yadav

Submitted by:

Bhavyai Gupta, B.Tech. III Year, ECE

Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur
Main Bawana Road, Delhi-42
1

Certificate
This is to certify that the project report entitled 2G and 3G RF Planning
is a bona fide record of Seminar submitted by Bhavyai Gupta as the
record of the work carried out by him under my guidance. It is being
accepted in fulfillment of the Summer Internship, in the department of
Network Planning, Idea, Noida.

Superviso
r

Mr. Vishwas Yadav

Deputy General Manager
Network
Planning

Acknowledgement
Simply put, I could not have done this work without the lots of help I
received cheerfully from the whole of Idea. The work culture in Idea really
motivates. Everybody is such a friendly and cheerful companion here
that work stress is never comes in way.
I would specially like to thank Mr. Manish Rastogi, the AGM HR of Idea,
Noida for providing me a platform for the internship. For me it was a
unique experience to be in Idea.
I would also like to thank Mr. Vishwas Yadav for providing the nice ideas
to work upon. I am also highly indebted to my mentor Mr. Inderjeet
Yadav, who seemed to have solutions to all my problems.

Abstract
There are now over 500 million GSM users worldwide. GSM is the most
widely used network service.
This report covers the basics of GSM and related technologies and their
architectures. The concentration of this report is the Network Planning,
how the GSM network is planned, how site is surveyed and installed.
Then the optimization of the network is briefed.
Then our focus shift towards the evolving technologies and the
architecture of 3G.

Table of Contents

S No.

Topic

Page No.

01

Introduction to GSM

02

Introduction to TDMA

03

Evolution of GSM

10

04

Open Interfaces in GSM

11

05

Registration and Databases

12

06

2G Network Architecture

15

07

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

15

08

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

21

09

Network Management System (NMS)

25

10

Channels

26

11

Access Technology and Modulation

30

12

GSM Frame Structure

33

13

Bursts

37

14

Signaling

38

15

OSI Model

45

16

Location Update

49

17

Call Set up in GSM

50

18

Handover

52

19

Charging

57

10

S No.

Topic

Page No.

20

Services

60

21

Problems in Air Interface

63

22

Abis

66

23

Multiplexing

67

24

Network Planning

69

25

Optimization

95

26

3rd Generation

101

27

3G Network Structure

107

28

3G Network Architecture

112

29

Differences between 2G and 3G

116

30

Cell Site Visit

117

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Introduction to GSM
What is GSM?
Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) is a standard developed
by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to
describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks
used by mobile phones. It is the de facto global standard for mobile
communications with over 90% market share, and is available in over 219
countries and territories.
Originally, GSM stood for Groupe Spcial Mobile, a group formed by the
Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) in 1982 to research
the merits of a European standard for mobile telecommunications. The
GSM is now commonly known as Global System for Mobile.
The USA, South America, in general and Japan had made a decision to
adopt other types of mobile systems which are not compatible with
GSM. However, in the USA the Personal Communication System (PCS)
has been adopted which uses GSM technology with a few variations.
The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation
(1G) analog cellular networks as it was developed using TDMA
technology.

Objectives of GSM
At that time, the objectives of the GSM network were the system must be pan European
the system must maintain a good speech quality
the system must use radio frequencies as efficiently as possible
the system must have high/adequate capacity
the system must be compatible
communication specifications

with

other

data

the system must contain good security concerning both subscriber

and transmitted information

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Advantages of GSM
uses radio frequencies efficiently
new services offered compared to analog cellular systems
quality of speech is better than analog systems
encryption of speech
international roaming possible
lower prices due to competition
The system must be pan European

GSM Phase II+ Features

With improvements in computing and radio access technology, GSM
offered continuous improvement and more services. In 1995 the Phase
2 recommendations were frozen. The GSM 900 and GSM 1800
specifications were merged and additional supplementary services were
defined, the short message service was improved and improvements in
radio access and SIM cards were introduced.
After the Phase 2 recommendations, GSM continues to evolve at full
speed. Many new features are being introduced to GSM and the number
of improvements is so large that together they are called "Phase 2+"
features.
Support for dual band handsets
High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) services
General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)
Support for hierarchical cell structures
Supplementary services support when roaming
Enhanced full rate coding
Enhancements to SMS
Call line identity and restriction
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 Call waiting
Call hold
Multi party communication
Closed user groups
Advice of charge
Unstructured supplementary services for data for operator
Operator determined barring

Introduction to TDMA
What is TDMA?
Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for
shared medium networks. It allows several users to share the same
frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The
users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its
own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same
transmission medium while using only a part of its channel capacity.

Characteristics of TDMA
Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users
Non-continuous transmission makes handover simpler
Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA
Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra
cell interference
Pulsating power envelope: Interference with other devices

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18

Evolution of GSM

1982
1985

CEPT made decision on time schedule and action plan.

1986

CEPT tested eight experimental systems in Paris.

1987

Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). Allocation of the

frequencies. [890-915 Uplink; 935-960 Downlink]

1988

European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) was

created includes members from administrations, industry and
user groups.

1989

Final recommendations and specifications for GSM Phase 1.

1990

Validation systems implemented and the 1st GSM World

congress in Rome with 650 participants.

1991
1992

1993

1994

19

CEPT initiated a new cellular system. The European

Commission
(EC) issued a directive which required member states to
reserve
frequencies in the 900MHz band for GSM to allow for roaming.

First official call in the world with GSM on 1st July.

Worlds first GSM network launched in Finland. By December
there were 13 networks operating in 7 areas. New frequency
allocation for GSM 1800 (DCS 1800). [1710-1785 Uplink; 18051880
Downlink]
GSM demonstrated for the first time in Africa at Telkom '93 in
Cape Town. Roaming agreements between several operators
are established. By December 1993 there were 32 GSM
networks
operating in 18 areas.
The first GSM network in Africa was launched in South Africa.
The
GSM Phase 2 data/fax bearer services were launched. By
December 1994 there were 69 GSM networks in operation. The
GSM World Congress was held in Madrid with 1400 participants

1995

There were 117 GSM networks operating around the world. Fax,
data and SMS roaming was implemented. The first GSM 1900
network is implemented in the USA.

1996

By December 1996 there were 120 GSM networks operating

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20

Open Interfaces in GSM

When an interface is open, it defines strictly what is happening through
the interface and what kind of functions must be implemented between
the interfaces.
The two truly open interfaces are between Mobile Station and Base Station, called Air Interface
between Mobile Services Switching Centre and Base Station
Controller, called A interface

Fig: Air Interface and A Interface

To prevent excessive load on a central system, intelligence is

distributed throughout the network by dividing the network into
three separate subsystems Network Switching Subsystem
Base Station Subsystem
Network Management Subsystem

The actual network needed for establishing calls is composed of the NSS and
the BSS. The BSS is responsible for radio path control and every call is
connected through the BSS. The NSS takes care of call control functions. Calls
are always connected by and through the NSS. The NMS is the operation and
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maintenance related part of the network and it is needed for the control
of the whole GSM network.

Mobile Station (MS)

Mobile Station (MS), or sometimes also called User Equipment (UE) is a
combination of terminal equipment and subscriber data. The subscriber
data is stored in a separate module called SIM (Subscriber Identity
Module).

Registration and
Databases
A connection through the mobile network is possible only if there is a point
to point connection between the caller and the person who is called.
Therefore, it is absolutely necessary that the network knows the
subscribers location. The network keeps track of the subscribers location
with the help of various databases.

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

It is an integrated circuit that securely stores the international
mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) and the related key used to
identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices
(such as mobile phones and computers).
It is
database inside the mobile
contains user specific information
identification number of the user
list of subscribed services
list of available networks
23

 tools for authentication and ciphering

12

24

 storage for messages and contacts

PIN and PUK passwords
Each SIM is internationally identified by its integrated circuit card
identifier (ICCID). ICCIDs are stored in the SIM cards and are also
engraved or printed on the SIM card body during a process called
personalisation.
The number is composed of the following subparts:
Issuer Identification Number
Individual account identification
Check digit

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

It is used to identify the user of a cellular network and is a unique
identification associated with all cellular networks. It is stored as a 64 bit
field and is sent by the phone to the network. It is also used for
acquiring other details of the mobile in the home location register (HLR)
or as locally copied in the visitor location register.
To prevent eavesdroppers identifying and tracking the subscriber on the
radio interface, the IMSI is sent as rarely as possible and a randomly
generated TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) is sent instead.
TMSI is reallocated after every successful authentication verification.
IMSI is composed of the following subparts:
Mobile Country Code (MCC)
Mobile Network Code (MNC)
Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN)

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Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

It is the number used for routing calls to the subscriber. MSISDN is the
number normally dialled to connect a call to the mobile phone. A SIM has
a unique IMSI that does not change, while the MSISDN can change in
time, i.e. different MSISDNs can be associated with the SIM.
It is composed of the following subparts:
Country Code (CC)
National Destination Code (NDC)
Subscriber Number (SN)
MSISDN is not used to identifying subscribers because Country Code is of different length for different countries. A
length indicator would be needed.
MSISDN identifies the service used. Therefore one subscriber
would need several MSISDNs depending on the type of services
used.

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

The serving MSC/VLR generates a temporary MSRN and associates it with
the IMSI. The roaming number is used in initiating the connection and it
has the following structureIt has following subparts
Country Code (CC)
National Destination Code (NDC)
Subscriber Number (SN)

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2G Network Architecture
The GSM network is divided into three subsystems Network Switching
Subsystem (NSS), Base Station Subsystem (BSS), and Network
Management Subsystem (NMS). These three subsystems, different
network elements, form the GSM network architecture.

Fig: 2G Network Architecture

Network Switching Subsystem

(NSS)
NSS is the component of a GSM system that carries out call switching
and mobility management functions for mobile phones roaming on the
network of base stations. It is owned and deployed by mobile phone
operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other
29

and telephones in the wider public switched telephone network (PSTN).

The architecture

15

30

contains specific features and functions which are needed because

the phones are not fixed in one location.

Elements of NSS
1. Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
2. Home Location Register (HLR)
3. Variable Location Register (VLR)
4. Authentication Center (AC)
5. Equipment Identity Register (EIP)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for
GSM, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services
such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data.

Fig: MSC

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The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles

mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of
charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC)

The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC
the subscriber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces
with the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are
routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call
since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the Visited
MSC function, however, some manufacturers design dedicated high
capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These
MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone
subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be
several logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN),
though one international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair
can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several
physical nodes) at a time.
The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone
operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the
primary key to each HLR record.
Data stored include
1. MSISDN

33

2. IMSI

Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number

International Mobile Subscriber
Identity

3. VLR address

Current location of the Subscriber

4. Data

Subscriber Data stored permanently

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34

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The visitor location is a database of the subscribers who have roamed
into the jurisdiction of the MSC which it serves. Each main base station in
the network is served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be
present in more than one VLR at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or
collected from the MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors
integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the
VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.
Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating
a new record in the VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber,
apprising it of the new location of that MS.
Data stored include
1. IMSI

International Mobile Subscriber

Identity

2. LAC
3. Data

Location Area Code

Subscriber Data stored temporarily

4. MSRN

Mobile Station Roaming Number

Authentication Center (AC)

The authentication center (AC) is a function to authenticate each SIM
card that attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when
the phone is powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR
is allowed to manage the SIM and services described above. An
encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all
wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone
and the GSM core network.
It is a procedure used in checking the validity and integrity of subscriber
data. Proper implementation of security in and around the AC is a key part
of an operator's strategy to avoid SIM cloning.
The authentication procedure is based on an identity key, Ki that is issued
to each subscriber when his data are established in the HLR. The
authentication procedure verifies that the Ki is exactly the same on the
subscriber side as on the network side.

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36

Authentication is performed by the VLR at the beginning of every call

establishment, location update and call termination (at the called
subscriber side).
In order to perform the authentication, the trick is to compare the Ki
stored in the mobile with the one stored in the network without actually
having to transmit it over the radio air interface.

The GSM uses 3 algorithms for the purposes of authentication and

ciphering. These are A3, A5, and A8.
A3 authentication
A5 ciphering
A8 generating ciphering key
A3 and A8 are located in the SIM module and in the Authentication
Center (AC). A5 is located in the MS and in the BTS.

The mobile subscriber is created in the Authentication Center, before

he starts to use the security functions. The following information is
required in creating the subscriber:
IMSI of the subscriber
Ki of the subscriber
algorithm version used

The same information is also stored in the Mobile Subscriber's SIM. The
basic principle of GSM security functions is to compare the data stored by
the network to the data stored in the subscribers SIM. The IMSI number
is the unique identification of the mobile subscriber. Ki is an
authentication key with a length of 32 hexadecimal digits. The algorithms
A3 and A8 use these digits as a basic value in authentication.
The Authentication Center generates information that can be used for all
the security purposes during one transaction. This information is called
an Authentication Triplet.

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The authentication triplet consists of three numbers:

RAND
SRES
Kc
RAND Random Number
SRES Signed Response is a result that A3 produces
Kc Ciphering key that A8 generates
A certain RAND inserted to the algorithms with a certain Ki always
produces a certain SRES and a certain Kc.
When the VLR has this kind of three-value combination and the Mobile
Subscriber authentication procedure is initiated, the VLR sends the
random number RAND through the BSS to the SIM in the mobile station.
As the SIM has (or it should have) exactly the same algorithms as used in
triplet generation on the network side, the RAND number that the SIM
receives and inserts to the algorithm should produce exactly the same
SRES value as the one generated on the network side.
The speech of the user and the ciphering key, Kc, are processed by
the ciphering algorithm (A5) which produces the coded speech
signal.

Equipment Identity Register (EIP)

The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR
keeps a list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be
banned from the network or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking
of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones
should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR.
The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this
function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a
database that contains information about the identity of the mobile
equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective
mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset
attempts and store it in a log file.

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Functions of NSS
1. Call Control

2. Charging

3. Mobility
Management
4. Signaling
5. Data Handling
6. Locating
Subscriber

identifies subscriber, establishes call and clears

after
conversation is over
collects charging information about services used
and transfers it to Billing Center
maintains information about location of
subscriber
signaling with other networks and the BSS and
PSTN
permanent storage in HLR and variable data in
VLR
locates subscriber before establishing call

Base Station Subsystem

(BSS)
The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular
telephone network which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling
between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. The BSS
carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to
mobile phones, paging, transmission and reception over the air interface
and many other tasks related to the radio network.

Elements of BSS
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Transcoder (TC)

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Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving radio
signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and
decrypting communications with the base station controller (BSC).
Typically a BTS for anything other than a picocell will have several
transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several different frequencies
and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base stations).
A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function"
(BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in
a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an operations and
maintenance (O&M) connection to the network management system
(NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software
handling and alarm collection.
By using directional antennas on a base station, each pointing in different
directions, it is possible to sectorise the base station so that several
different cells are served from the same location. Typically these
directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85 degrees. This
increases the traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can
carry eight voice channels) whilst not greatly increasing the interference
caused to neighboring cells (in any given direction, only a small number
of frequencies are being broadcast). Typically two antennas are used per
sector, at spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart. This allows the
operator to overcome the effects of fading due to physical phenomena
such as multipath reception. Some amplification of the received signal as
it leaves the antenna is often used to preserve the balance between
uplink and downlink signal.

Picocell
A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area,
such as in-building (offices, shopping malls, train stations, stock
exchanges, etc.), or more recently in-aircraft. In cellular networks,
picocells are typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas where
outdoor signals do not reach well, or to add network capacity in areas with
very dense phone usage, such as train stations or stadiums. Picocells
provide coverage and capacity in areas difficult or expensive to reach
using the more traditional macrocell approach.

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Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC provides the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has
tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles
allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile
phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of
an inter-BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of
the anchor MSC, from where handover has been initiated). A key function
of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity
connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilization) become reduced to a
smaller number of connections towards the MSC.

Fig: BSC

The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier
frequencies, frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving
levels for cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is
obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves
modelling of the signal propagation as well as traffic projections.

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Transcoder (TC)
To enable the efficient transmission of the digital speech information over
the radio Air Interface the digital speech signal is compressed.
For transmission over the air interface, the speech signal is compressed
by the MS to 13Kbits/s (Full Rate) or 5.6Kbits/s (Half Rate). This
compression algorithm is known as "Regular Pulse Excitation with Long
Term Prediction" (RPE-LTP).
However, the standard bit rate for speech in the PSTN is 64Kbits/s.
Therefore, a converter has to be provided in the network to change the bit
rate from one to another. This is called Transcoder.

Functions of BSS
1. Radio Path
Control
2. BTS and TC
Control

3. Synchronization

4. Interface
Signaling
5. Connection b/w
MS and NSS
6. Mobility
Management
7. Collection of
Data

BSS takes care of Radio resources like radio

channel
allocation and quality of radio connection
BSCs maintain the BTS. BSC is capable of
separating
BTS from network and collects alarm information
from BTS and TC.
MSC synchronizes the BSC and BSC synchronizes
BTS
associated with it. Synchronization is controlled
by
BSC inside a BSS.
Air and A interface signaling. MS must have a
connection through the BSS.
Connection may be of either signaling type or
traffic
type.
Different cases of handovers
Statistical Data is collected and sent to NMS for
post
processing purposes.

A Base Station Subsystem is controlled by an MSC. Typically, one

MSC contains several BSSs. A BSS may consists of many cells.
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Cell is area covered by one or more frequency resources. Each cell

identified by Cell Global Identity (CGI). It has following subparts
Mobile Country Code (MCC)
Mobile Network Code (MNC)
Location Area Code (LAC)
Cell Identity (CI)

Paging
Paging is a signal that is transmitted by all the cells in the Location Area
(LA). It contains the identification of the subscriber. All the mobile
stations in the LA receive the paging signal, but only one of them
recognizes the identification and answers to it. As a consequence of this
answer, a point to point connection is established.

Network Management
System
(NMS)
Its purpose is to monitor various functions and elements of the
network for slow and failing components. These tasks are carried out
by the NMS/2000 which consists of a number of Work Stations, Servers
and a Router which connects to a Data Communications Network
(DCN).
The operator workstations are connected to the database and
communication servers via a Local Area Network (LAN). The database server
stores the management information about the network. The communications
server takes care of the data communications between the NMS and the
equipment in the GSM network known as Network Elements.

These communications are carried over a Data Communications

Network (DCN) which connects to the NMS via a router. The DCN is
normally implemented using an X.25 Packet Switching Network.
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Functions of NMS
1.

Fault Management Its purpose is to ensure the smooth operation

of the network and rapid correction of any kind of problems that
are detected. It provides the network operator with information
about the current status of alarm events and maintains a history
database of alarms.

2.

Configuration Management It maintains up to date information

about the operation and configuration status of network
elements. It includes management of radio network, software
and hardware management of the network elements, time
synchronization and security operations.

3.

Performance Management NMS collects measurement data from

individual network elements and stores it in a database. On the
basis of these data, the network operator is able to compare the
actual performance of the network with the planned
performance and detect both good and bad performance areas
within the network.

Channels
TDMA divides one radio frequency channel into consecutive periods of time,
each one called a "TDMA Frame". Each TDMA frame contains eight shorter
periods of time known as Time Slots. TDMA timeslots are called "Physical
Channels" as they are used to physically move information from one
place to another.

The radio carrier signal between the MS and the BTS is divided into a
continuous stream of timeslots which in turn are transmitted in a
continuous stream of TDMA frames.

When MS is turned on
1. The MS scans all the radio frequencies and measures them
2. It selects the frequency with the best quality and tunes to it

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3. With the help of synchronization signal in a TDMA Frame, the

mobile synchronizes itself to the network

The synchronisation information required by this process is broadcast

by the network and analysed by the mobile.
In terms of Channels, when MS is turned on,
Searches for BTS to connect to
Scans entire frequency band or uses list containing the
allocated carrier frequencies for this operator
Search for particular BCCH
And the BCCH contains Current LA identity
Synchronization information
Network identity

Without above information, a MS cannot work with a network. This

information is broadcasted at regular intervals, leading to term
Broadcast Channels (BCH). All Broadcast Channels are downlink,
and point to multipoint.
1. FCCH- downlink, point to multipoint
BTS transmits a carrier frequency. MS identifies BCCH carrier
by the carrier frequency and synchronizes with the frequency.
2. SCH-

downlink, point to multipoint

BTS transmits information about the TDMA frame structure in a cell

and BTS identity (Base Station Identity Code). MS synchronizes with
the frame structure within a particular cell, and ensures that the
chosen BTS is a GSM BTS. BSIC can only be decoded by an MS if the
BTS belongs to a GSM network.

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3. BCCH- downlink, point to multipoint

BTS broadcasts some general information such as LAI, maximum
output power allowed in the cell and the identity of BCCH carriers
for neighbouring cells. MS receives LAI and will signal to the network
as part of the Location Update procedure. MS sets its output power
level based on the information received on the BCCH. The MS stores
the list of BCCH carrier frequencies on which RX level measurement
is done for Handover Decision.
When the MS has finished analysing the information on a BCH, it then
has all the information required to work with a network. However, if it
roams to another cell, it must repeat the process of reading FCCH, SCH,
and BCCH in the new cell.

If the mobile subscriber then wishes to make or receive a call, then

Common
Control Channels must be used.
1. PCH-

downlink, point to point

BTS transmits a paging message to indicate an incoming call or

short message. The paging message contains the identity
number of the mobile subscriber that the network wishes to
contact. At certain time intervals, MS listens to the PCH. If it
identifies its own mobile subscriber identity number on the PCH,
it will respond.
2. RACH- uplink, point to point
BTS receives access request from MS for call set-up, location
update or SMS. MS answers paging message on the RACH by
requesting a signalling channel.
3. AGCH- downlink, point to point
BTS assigns a signalling channel (SDCCH) to the MS. MS
receives signalling channel assignment (SDCCH).

At this stage, MS and BSS are ready to begin call set-up procedures. For
this,
Dedicated Channels must be used.
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1. SDCCH- bi-link, point to point

BTS switches to the assigned SDCCH, used for call set-up signalling.
TCH is assigned on here. (SDCCH is also used for SMS messages to
MS). The MS switches to the assigned SDCCH. Call set-up is
performed. The MS receives a TCH assignment information (carrier
and time slot).
2. CBCH- downlink, point to multipoint
BTS uses this logical channel to transmit short message
service cell broadcast. MS receives cell broadcast messages.
3. SACCH- bi-link, point to point
BTS instructs the MS on the allowed transmitter power and
parameters for time advance. SACCH is used for SMS during call.
MS sends averaged measurements on its own BTS (signal strength
and quality) and neighbouring BTSs (signal strength). The MS
continues to use SACCH for this purpose during a call.
4. FACCH- bi-link, point to point
BTS transmits handover information. MS transmits necessary
handover information in access burst.

Once call set-up procedures have been completed on the control

physical channel, the MS tunes to a traffic physical channel. It uses the
TCH logical channel. Types of Traffic Channels1. Full RateTransmits full rate speech (13Kb/s). It occupies one physical channel.
2. Half RateTransmits half rate speech (5.6Kb/s). Two Half Rate TCH can share
one physical channel, thus doubling the capacity of a cell.

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Another form of traffic channel is the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) Traffic
Channel. The speech coding in EFR is still done at 13Kbits/s, but the
coding mechanism is different than that used for normal full rate
traffic. Traffic channels can transmit both speech and data and are bidirectional channels.

Call to a MS
1. The MSC/VLR knows which LA the MS is located in. A paging
message is sent to the BSC that is controlling the LA.
2. The BSC distribute the paging message to the BTS in the desired
LA. The BTS transmits the message over the Air interface using
PCH.
3. When the MS detects a PCH identifying itself, it sends a request
for a signalling channel using RACH.
4. The BSC uses AGCH to inform the MS of the signalling channel
(SDCCH and SACCH) to use.
5. SDCCH and SACCH are used for call set-up. A TCH is allocated and
the SDCCH is released.
6. The MS and BTS switch to the identified TCH frequency and time
slot. The MS generates ring tone. If the subscriber answers, the
connection is established. During the call, signals can be sent and
received by the MS using SACCH.

Access Technology and

Modulation
In a mobile communications network, part of the transmission
connection uses a radio link and another part uses 2Mbit/s PCM links.
Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base
Transceiver Station and the information must to be adapted to be
carried over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through the remainder of the
network.

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Frequency Ranges of GSM 900

Uplink
Downlink

GSM 1800

Uplink
Downlink

890MHz to 915MHz
935MHz to 960MHz
1710MHz to
1785MHz
1805MHz to
1880MHz

Uplink MS to BTS
Downlink BTS to MS

Difference between GSM-900 and GSM-1800

GSM 900 provides 124 RF channels (channels numbers 1 to 124)
spaced at 200 KHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. Guard Bands
100 kHz wide are placed at either end of the range of frequencies.
GSM 1800 provides 374 channels (channels number 512 to 885).
Duplex spacing is 95 MHz.

Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base
Transceiver Station and the information must to be adapted to be
carried over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through the remainder of the
network.
In GSM 900 the duplex frequency (the difference between uplink
and downlink frequencies) is 45 MHz and in GSM 1800 it is 95 MHz
The total number of carriers in GSM 900 is 124, whereas in GSM
1800 the number of carriers is 374.
Digital transmission in GSM is implemented using two methods known as
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA).

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA is a channel access method
used in multiple-access protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA
gives users an individual allocation of one or several frequency bands, or
channels. FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal. Each
user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a
unique frequency slots.
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Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt

the transmission.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In the GSM system, the synchronization of the mobile phones is achieved
by sending timing advance commands from the base station which
instructs the mobile phone to transmit earlier and by how much. This
compensates for the propagation delay resulting from the light speed
velocity of radio waves. The mobile phone is not allowed to transmit for its
entire time slot, but there is a guard interval at the end of each time slot.
As the transmission moves into the guard period, the mobile network
adjusts the timing advance to synchronize the transmission.
Initial synchronization of a phone requires even more care. Before a
mobile transmits there is no way to actually know the offset required. For
this reason, an entire time slot has to be dedicated to mobiles attempting
to contact the network (known as the RACH in GSM).
The mobile attempts to broadcast at the beginning of the time slot, as
received from the network. If the mobile is located next to the base
station, there will be no time delay and this will succeed. If, however, the
mobile phone is at just less than 35 km from the base station, the time
delay will mean the mobile's broadcast arrives at the very end of the time
slot. In that case, the mobile will be instructed to broadcast its messages
starting nearly a whole time slot earlier than would be expected
otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond the 35 km cell range in GSM,
then the RACH will arrive in a neighbouring time slot and be ignored.
It is this feature, rather than limitations of power, that limits the range of a
GSM cell to 35 km when no special extension techniques are used. By
changing the synchronization between the uplink and downlink at the
base station, however, this limitation can be overcome.
Each timeslot on a TDMA frame is called a Physical Channel. There
are 8 physical channels per carrier frequency in GSM.

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Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

GSM uses a phase modulation technique over the air interface known
as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK).
In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK is a
continuous-phase frequency-shift keying modulation scheme. It is similar
to standard minimum-shift keying (MSK); however the digital data stream
is first shaped with a Gaussian filter before being applied to a frequency
modulator. This has the advantage of reducing sideband power, which in
turn reduces out-of-band interference between signal carriers in adjacent
frequency channels. However, the Gaussian filter increases the
modulation memory in the system and causes intersymbol interference,
making it more difficult to differentiate between different transmitted data
values and requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms such
as an adaptive equalizer at the receiver. GMSK has high spectral
efficiency, but it needs a higher power level than QPSK, for instance, in
order to reliably transmit the same amount of data.
The radio air interface has to cope with many problems such as variable
signal strength due to the presence of obstacles along the way, radio
frequencies reflecting from buildings, mountains etc. with different
relative time delays and interference from other radio sources. With such
levels of interference, complex equalisation techniques are required with
GMSK.

GSM Frame Structure

Two types of Multi Frames
26 TDMA frame multi frame used to carry TCH, SACCH, and FACCH
51 TDMA frame multi frame used to carry BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH,
and SACCH.

SDCCH is divided into 8 groups D0-D7 so that it can serve 8 MS

concurrently. A0-A7 are the corresponding SAACH channel groups which
are used for TX. Power Control, TA correction if necessary while the MS is
located in SDCCH.
TDMA with 8 basic physical channels per carrier. The carrier separation is
200 kHz. A physical channel is therefore defined as a sequence of TDMA
frames, a time slot number, and a frequency hopping sequence.
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The longest recurrent time period of the structure is called hyperframe

and has a duration of 12533.76 seconds.
1 hyperframe is divided into 2048 superframes which have a duration of
6.12 seconds. Superframe is divided into multiframes. 1 superframe has
1326 TDMA frames.
There are four types of multi frames 26 - multiframe (51 per superframe) with a duration of
120ms, comprising of 26 TDMA frames.
51- multiframe (26 per superframe) with a duration of 235.
52 multiframe (25.5 per superframe)
Duration of one slot
Duration of one frame

=576.92
=4.61

us
ms

Duration of one 26-multiframe

=120

ms

Duration of one 51-multiframe

Duration of one Superframe

=235.38
=6.12
=12533.7
6

ms
s

Duration of one Hyperframe

67

[4.61 / 8]
*
[26 4.16]
*
[51 4.16]
[51 * 120]
[6.12 *
2048]

Fig: Channel Configuration

34

68

Multiframe is used for distribution of logical channels

Superframe is used for Mobile synchronization

Hyperframe is used for signaling procedures and Ciphering

Fig: 26 Frame Traffic Channel Multiframe

The 12th frame (no. 13) in the 26-frame traffic channel multiframe is used
by the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) which carries link control
information to and from the MSBTS. Each timeslot in a cell allocated to
traffic channel usage will follow this format, that is, 12 bursts of traffic, 1
burst of SACCH, 12 bursts of traffic and 1 idle.

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The duration of a 26-frame traffic channel multiframe is 120ms (26 TDMA

frames) .When half rate is used, each frame of the 26-frame traffic
channel multiframe allocated for traffic will now carry two MS subscriber
calls (the data rate for each MS is halved over the air interface). Although
the data rate for traffic is halved, each MS still requires the same amount
of SACCH information to be transmitted, therefore frame 12 WILL BE USED
as SACCH for one half of the MSs and the others will use it as their IDLE
frame, and the same applies for frame 25, this will be used by the MSs for
SACCH (those who used frame 12 as IDLE) and the other half will use it as
their IDLE frame.

Fig: 51 Frame Control Channel Multiframes

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The 51-frame structure used for control channels is considerably more

complex than the 26-frame structure used for the traffic channels. The
51-frame structure occurs in several forms, depending on the type of
control channel and the network providers requirements.

Bursts
Types of Bursts
1. Normal
Used to carry information on traffic and control channels.
2. Frequency Correction
Used for frequency synchronization of the mobile.
3. Synchronization
Used for frame synchronization of the mobile.
4. Access
Used for Random and Handover access.
5. Dummy
Used when no other channel requires a burst to be sent and carries
no information.

Bursts Used

73

Frequency Correction Burst

FCCH

Synchronization Burst

SCH

Access Burst

FACCH and RACH

Normal Burst

All Others

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Signalling
Signalling in telecommunication systems is basically a set of messages
used for setting up, supervising and clearing the call.

Functions of Signalling
To set up a call
To supervise a call
To clear a call

Due to differences in signalling standards, the international governing

body for telecommunications, ITU, recommended the Channel
Associated Signalling System (CAS) as the standard.
Drawbacks of CAS
Suitable only for the cases where traffic is low
Not possible to send signalling in the absence of a call
Wastes bandwidth

Common Channel Signalling

The ITU came up with a new recommendation which was the
Common Channel Signalling System Number 7, abbreviated as SS7.
SS7 is a Common Channel Signalling System with a signalling path
bandwidth of 64Kbit/s. It is modular in design although the modules are not
as clearly defined as is the case with the OSI 7-layer model, which it predates.

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It consists of two parts- first part was responsible for transferring the
message within a signalling network and the second part was the user
of these messages.
Message Transfer Part (MPT) responsible for transferring messages
Telephone User Part (TUP) user of messages

Message Transfer Part (MTP)

The entire SS7 is built on the foundation of this MTP which consists of
three sub-layers.
Layer 1
Lowest Level

Physical Connections
defines physical and electrical characteristics

Layer 2
Mid-Level

Data Link Control

helps in error free transmission of signalling messages
between adjacent elements

Layer 3
Highest Level

Signalling Message Handling

responsible for taking the message from any element in a
signalling network to any other element within the same
network

Fig: MTP Layers

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Telephone User Part (TUP)

User who receives, sends, and acts on these messages.
Small variations in messages within one country were allowed, which
were now called National User Part (NUP).
With the introduction of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN),
which has a broader capability than the PSTN, some extra sets of messages
were required. These became known as the ISDN User Part (ISUP). Whether
its TUP,
NUP or ISUP they are all doing the same job in helping to set up a call.

Fig: Protocol stack of MTP and TUP/NUP/ISUP

Signalling Connection and Control Part (SCCP)

It was realised that the TUP/MTP combination alone was not sufficient
when "virtual connections" became necessary. MTP guarantees the
transfer of messages from any "signalling point" in the signalling
network to any other "signalling point", safely and reliably.
But, each message could reach the destination signalling point by using
different paths. This may cause situations where the order of messages
that are received, are different from the original sequence. When this
order is important, there is need for establishing a "virtual connection".
Virtual Connections use a "Connection Oriented" protocol that will
provide sequence numbers to enable the messages to be placed in the
correct order at the distant end.
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MTP is capable of routing a message within one network only. The case of
setting up a call across multiple networks is not the same as signalling
across the same network. The signalling goes leg by leg according to the
call. But in the absence of a call, MTP cannot route a signalling message
across multiple networks.
Solution to above problemsCreation of another protocol layer on top of MTP which was called the
Signalling Connection and Control Part (SCCP). SCCP takes care of
virtual connections and connectionless signalling.
TUP and SCCP both use services of MTP and hence parallel to each other.
At the moment there is no other protocol in SS7 for PSTN exchanges.

Fig: Location of SCCP

Other Applications of SS7 in GSM

A continuous tracking of the mobile station is required which results in
what is known as the Location Update procedure. Additional sets of
standard messages are required to fulfil the signalling requirements of
GSM networks.

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The additional protocol layers are1. Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP)
2. Mobile Application Part (MAP)
3. Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP)

It is used when an MSC communicates with the BSC and the MS. Since the
MS and MSC have to communicate via the BSC, there must be a virtual
connection, therefore the service of SCCP is also needed.
The authentication verification procedure and assigning a new TMSI all
take place with the standard sets of messages of BSSAP. Communication
between MSC and BSC also uses the BSSAP protocol layer.
Therefore, BSSAP serves two purposes MSC-BSC signalling
MSC-MS signalling

Fig: Location of BSSAP in SS7

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Mobile Application Part (MAP)

While a mobile terminated call is being handled, the MSRN has to be
requested from the HLR without routing the call to HLR. Therefore, for these
cases another protocol layer was added to the SS7 called Mobile Application
Part (MAP). MAP is used for signalling communication between NSS elements.

The MSC-MSC communication using MAP is used only in case of noncall-related signalling. For routing a call from one MSC to another
MSC, TUP or ISUP is still used.

Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

In MAP signalling, one MSC sends a message to an HLR, and that
message requests (or invokes) a certain result. The HLR sends the result
back, which may be the final result or some other messages might also
follow (or it might not be the last result). These invocations and results
that are sent back and forth between multiple elements using MAP need
some sort of secretary to manage the transactions. This secretary is
called the Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP).

Fig: MAP and TCAP

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Protocol
MTP

TUP
NUP
ISUP

SCCP

BSSAP

Name

Function

Message Transfer Part

Responsible for transferring an SS7

message from one network element to
another within the same signaling
network

Telephone User Part

National User Part
ISDN User Part

User parts of MTP. They send, receive,

analyze and act on the messages
delivered by MTP. All of these are Call
Control Messages that help in setting up,
supervising and clearing a call

Protocol layer responsible for making

Signaling Connection
virtual connections and making
and Control Part
connectionless signaling across multiple
signaling networks
Base Station
Protocol layer responsible for
Subsystem
communicating GSM specific messages
Application Part
between MSC & BSC, and MSC & MS

MAP

Mobile Application
Part

A GSM specific protocol for non-callrelated applications between NSS

elements

TCAP

Transaction
Capabilities
Application Part

Protocol layer responsible for providing

service to MAP by handling the MAP
transaction messages between multiple
elements.

SS7 Requirements for individual GSM elements

Protocol Stack in MSC
The MSC is the element in GSM networks which is responsible for
call control, therefore, TUP/ISUP sits on top of MTP for that purpose.
The MSC/VLR is also responsible for location updates and
communication with the BSC and the HLR. For this reason it also
needs to have BSSAP and MAP which sit on top of SCCP. The MSC
also has TCAP to provide services for MAP. It can be seen therefore,
the MSC/VLR has all the SS7 protocol stacks implemented in it.
Protocol Stack in HLR
MTP, SCCP, TCAP and MAP as the signalling protocols in the HLR.

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 Protocol Stack in BSC

The BSC only needs BSSAP, but since BSSAP needs the services
of the SCCP which in turn needs the MTP, the BSC contains MTP,
SCCP and BSSAP.

Other Signalling Protocols in GSM

Between the BSC and the BTS, a signalling protocol is used known as
LAP-D (Link Access Procedure for the ISDN "D" channel). This is the
same protocol that is used in ISDN networks between the customer and
the network.
Between the mobile station and the BTS, the same signalling protocol is
used with small modifications to cope with the characteristics of the
radio transmission medium. This protocol is known as LAP-Dm where the
"m" denotes modified.
The LAP-D message structure is similar to SS#7 but it does not support
networking capabilities, therefore, it is used for point to point
connections.
Protocols for Radio Resource (RR) management are passed using LAP-Dm
and LAP-D. Other protocols for Mobility Management (MM) and Connection
Management (CM) are passed between the Mobile Station and the MSC.

A Virtual Connection uses packet type switching principles and the

connection only exists when packets or messages are being transferred.
In the simplest form of packet switching each packet is regarded as a
complete transaction in itself. This is known as Connectionless mode as
there is no sense of a connection being set up before communication
begins and the network treats each packet independently.

Open Systems
Interconnection
Model (OSI Model)
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model
that characterizes and standardizes the internal functions of a
communication system by partitioning it into abstraction layers.
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The model groups communication functions into seven logical layers. A

layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For
example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a
network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls
the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the
contents of that path. Two instances at one layer are connected by a
horizontal connection on that layer.

Fig: OSI Model

a) Physical Layer
It defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data
connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a
physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper or fibre optical
cable). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance,
cable specifications, signal timing, hubs, repeaters, network
adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks)
and more.
It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a
connection between two directly connected nodes over a
communications medium.
It may define the protocol for flow control.
It defines a protocol for the provision of a (not necessarily reliable)
connection between two directly connected nodes, and the
modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data
in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over
the
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physical communications channel. This channel can involve

physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or a wireless
radio link.
b) Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides a reliable link between two directly
connected nodes, by detecting and possibly correcting errors
that may occur in the physical layer.
The data link layer is divided into two sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling
how computers in the network gain access to data and
permission to transmit it.
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - control error checking and
packet synchronization.
c) Network Layer
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams)
from one node to another connected to the same network. A
network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on
which every node has an address and which permits nodes
connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it
by merely providing the content of a message and the address of
the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver
("route") the message to the destination node.
d) Transport Layer
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a
destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the
quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through
flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control.
Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that
the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit
those that fail. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends
the next data if no errors
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occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message

received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of
dividing the long message into smaller messages.
e) Session Layer
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between
computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the
connections between the local and remote application. It provides
for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes
checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.
The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of
sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol,
and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not
usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is
commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that
use remote procedure calls.
f) Presentation Layer
The presentation layer establishes context between applicationlayer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use
different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a
mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation
service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units,
and passed down the TCP/IP stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g.,
encryption) by translating between application and network
formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that
the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to
be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer
g) Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which
means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly
with the software application. This layer interacts with software
applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.
Application-layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication. When identifying communication
partners, the application layer determines the identity and
availability of communication partners for an application with data
to transmit. When determining resource
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availability, the application layer must decide whether

sufficient network or the requested communication exists.

Location Update
MS constantly receives information sent by the network, which includes
ID of VLR address of current area. MS stores that ID. Every time ID is
broadcasted, MS compares the ID stored with the new ID. Whenever
there is a change, MS sends a registration enquiry to the area it has just
entered. The network registers the MS in new VLR area and the HLR is
informed about the new VLR address.
There are 3 types of location updates location registration
generic
periodic

Location Registration takes place when MS is turned on. It is also called

IMSI attach because as soon as MS turns on, it informs VLR that it is back
in service. As a result, network sends MS LAI (Location Area Identity
Number) and TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity Number). TMSI
is transmitted so that IMSI is not transmitted over Air Interface for security
reasons.

Generic location update is performed if the stored LAI is different from the
received LAI (MS keeps receiving data through control channels). The MS
starts a Location Update process by accessing the MSC/VLR that sent the
location data. A channel request message is sent that contains the
subscriber identity and LAI stored in SIM card.
When the target MSC/VLR receives the request, it reads the old LAI
which identifies the MSC/VLR that has served the mobile phone up to
this point. A signaling connection is established between the two
MSC/VLRs and the subscribers IMSI is transferred from the old MSC to
the new MSC. Using this
IMSI, the new MSC requests the subscriber data from the HLR and
then updates the VLR and HLR after successful authentication.
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Periodic Location Update carried out when network does not receive
any location update from the MS in specified time. If the subscriber is
moving within a single location area, there is no need to send a
location update request.
The network broadcasts the timer value so that a MS knows the periodic
location update timer values. Therefore, when the set time is up, the MS
initiates a registration process by sending a location update request
signal. The VLR receives the request and confirms the registration of the
mobile in the same location area.

Locating the Subscriber

GMSC is connected to the serving MSC/VLR. Now we have to set-up
connection to the called subscriber. Since the exact location of the called
subscriber is unknown, we have to conduct an entire search in the
MSC/VLR area unless area is divided into smaller areas. Therefore, the
MSC/VLR area is divided into smaller areas. These are called Location
Areas (LA) and they are managed by the MSC/VLR.
Each LA is identified by a Location Area Identity (LAI). Location Area
Identity Code has following subparts
Mobile Code Country (MCC)
Mobile Network Code (MNC)
Location Area Code (LAC)

Call Set-up in GSM

1. MSISDN is dialed.
2. PSTN analyzes MSISDN. Result of analysis is the routing
information required to find mobile network. Mobile network is
identified on the basis of NDC, and then PSTN accesses nearest
GMSC.
3. GMSC analyzes MSISDN. Result of analysis is that GMSC obtains
HLR address of the subscriber. GMSC sends MSISDN to HLR.

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4. HLR determines current location of subscriber, as it has VLR

address of the subscriber
5. HLR interrogates
MS/Subscriber.

the

MSC/VLR

that

is

currently

serving

Interrogation is done instead of connecting right away so that avoid setting call to a switched off MS
we need to have information that enables the GMSC to route
the call to the target MSC.
6. The servicing MSC/VLR is the destination of the call in terms of
routing. The servicing MSC/VLR generates a temporary MSRN and
associates it with the IMSI. This MSRN is used in initiating the
connection.
7. MSRN and MSISDN have same structure but used for different
purposes. MSISDN is used for interrogating HLR whereas is the
response given by the servicing MSC/VLR and is used for routing the
call.
MSRN identify the subscriber
points to exchange so that all intermediate exchanges know
where the call is routed

8. MSC/VLR sends MSRN to HLR. HLR does not interrogates MSRN

because MSRN is used for traffic transactions and HLR does not
handle traffic. HLR forwards MSRN to GMSC.
9. GMSC analyzes the MSRN. MSRN identifies the location of the
called subscriber. Result of this analysis is a routing information
which identifies the destination of the call.
10. The final phase of the routing process is taken care of by the
serving MSC/VLR. In fact, the serving MSC/VLR also has to receive
the roaming number so that it knows that this is not a new call, but
one that is going to terminate here i.e. a call to which it has
already allocated an MSRN. By checking the VLR, it recognizes the
number and so it is able to trace the called subscriber

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11.
To locate the subscriber, a Paging process is initiated in the
Location Area. The mobile phone of the called subscriber recognizes
the paging signal and answers it.

Fig: Simplified Steps in Call Set-up

Handover
Handover or Handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing
call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to
another channel.

Purpose for handover

when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell
and entering the area covered by another cell the call is transferred
to the second cell in order to avoid call termination when the phone
gets outside the range of the first cell

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 when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up
and an existing or new call from a phone, which is located in an area
overlapped by another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to
free-up some capacity in the first cell for other users, who can only
be connected to that cell
when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by
another phone using the same channel in a different cell, the call is
transferred to a different channel in the same cell or to a different
channel in another cell in order to avoid the interference

The decision to perform a handover is always made by the BSC that is

currently serving the subscriber, except for the handover for traffic
reasons. In case of traffic reasons, the MSC takes the decision.

Factors Determining Handovers

Reported by Mobile on SACCH uplink
RX Level Downlink
RX Quality Downlink
Reported by BTS
RX Level Uplink
RX Quality Uplink
Timing Advance
Possible Additional Factors
BTS Load
Recent Handovers
Neighbor Priority

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Timing advance
Timing advance value corresponds to the length of time a signal takes to
reach the base station from a MS. Each user transmits periodically for less
than one-eighth of the time within one of the eight timeslots. Since the
users are at various distances from the base station and radio waves
travel at the finite speed of light, the precise arrival-time within the slot
can be used by the base station to determine the distance to the mobile
phone. The time at which the phone is allowed to transmit a burst of
traffic within a timeslot must be adjusted accordingly to prevent collisions
with adjacent users. Timing Advance (TA) is the variable controlling this
adjustment.

Types of Handovers
1. Intra Cell Intra BSC
Subscriber is handed over to another traffic channel (generally in
another frequency) within the same cell. In this case the BSC
controlling the cell makes the decision to perform handover.
2. Inter Cell Intra BSC
The subscriber moves from cell 1 to cell 2. In this case the
handover process is controlled by BSC. The traffic connection
with cell 1 is released when the connection with cell 2 is set up
successfully.
3. Inter Cell Inter BSC
The subscriber moves from cell 2 to cell 3, which is served by
another BSC. In this case the handover process is carried out by
the MSC, but, the decision to make the handover is still done by
the first BSC.
4. Inter MSC
The subscriber moves from a cell controlled by one MSC/VLR to a
cell in the domain of another MSC/VLR. The MSC/VLR currently
serving the subscriber (also known as the anchor MSC), contacts the
target MSC/VLR and the traffic connection is transferred to the
target MSC/VLR. As both MSCs are part of the same network, the
connection is established smoothly. It is important to notice,
however, that the target MSC and the source MSC are two telephone
exchanges. The call can be transferred between two exchanges only
if there is a telephone number identifying the target MSC.
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Types of Handovers
Other classification of Handovers can be
1. Preventive
Improve call quality or minimize interference
Power Budget Based on Downlink Signal Levels
Distance Based on Timing Advance
2. Rescue
Prevent dropped calls or poor quality calls
Level Triggered by low signal on either downlink or uplink
Quality Triggered by poor quality on either downlink or uplink
3. Power Budget
Based on downlink signal levels
Uses power budget handover margin
If neighbor is better than serving cell by more than the margin,
initiate handover
In a well performing system, most handovers will be caused by
power budget
4. Distance
Based on timing advance
Uses distance handover margin can be negative
If serving cell timing advance is greater than a set distance, and
neighbor cell is better than the serving cell by more than the
margin, then initiate handover
Distance handovers are not generally used extensively, as they
can cause ping-ponging
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5. Level
Triggered by both uplink and downlink
Uses level handover margin generally set less than power
budget margin
If serving cell RX Level (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set
value, and neighbor cell is better than the serving cell by more
than the margin, then initiate handover
Level handovers are intended to handover the call before the
signal level gets so low that quality is affected
6. Quality
Triggered on both uplink and downlink
Uses quality handover margin generally set less than level
margin can be negative
If serving cell RX Quality (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set
value, and neighbor cell is better than the serving cell by more than
the margin, then initiate handover
Quality handovers are intended to handover the call before the
quality level gets so low that the customer notices

Handover Strategy
Power Budget margin is set to 6dB
Level margin is set to 3dB
Quality margin is set to 0dB
In high signal areas, Power Budget is always looking for a handover, but
the neighbor cell must be must stronger than the serving cell for the
handover to happen.
In low signal areas (worse than the level trigger), the neighbor cell only
needs to be somewhat stronger than the serving cell for the handover to
happen. In poor quality areas (worse than the quality trigger), the
neighbor cell only needs to be as strong as the serving cell for the
handover to happen.

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This structure allows different behavior in different without

extensive optimization of each individual cell.

Handover Number (HON)

The anchor MSC/VLR receives the handover information from the BSS. It
recognizes that the destination is within the domain of another MSC and
sends a Handover Request to the target MSC via the signaling network.
The target MSC answers by generating a HON and sends it to the
anchor MSC/VLR, which performs a digit analysis in order to obtain the
necessary routing information. This information allows the serving
MSC/VLR to connect the target MSC/VLR. When the two MSCs are
connected, the call is transferred to a new route.
The Handover Number has following subparts
Country Code (CC)
National Destination Code (NDC)
Subscriber Number (SN)

Charging
In addition to a standard fee, subscribers have to pay for the calls they
make and the services they use. The actual charging practices vary
considerably from one network operator to another.

1. Subscription Charge: To cover the costs of operations like receiving

of SIM card, recording of basic information to the HLR, network
operators often charge the subscriber an initial subscription
charge.

2. Renting of Service: Subscriber is usually charged for the availability

of the network services and the right to use them. This is a regular
fee which is charged irrespective of whether the subscriber makes
any calls or not.

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3. Charge for using Network: list of parameters that can be used

as a basis for charging the subscribers type of service e.g. Speech, SMS
duration of call
time of day the call was made
destination of call
origin of call
use of network e.g. the PSTN
use of supplementary services like call barring, call forwarding
use of radio services
international roaming leg

Whom to Charge
If the called subscriber is registered in a location area belonging to his
home network, the connection is established as explained in the
previous chapter and the calling subscriber pays for the call.
If the called subscriber is outside the service area of his home network
and is connected to another network, then the call has to be routed to
him using the services of one or more foreign networks. In such a case,
the charge will be shared according to the following principle The calling subscriber pays for the connection to the number he
dialed
The called subscriber pays for the international roaming leg.

International Roaming Leg refers to the connection between the

home network and subscriber via a foreign network.
The same principle is applied when the mobile subscriber has
forwarded incoming calls to another number. The called subscriber
pays for the forwarded call.

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Collect call is the case in which the called subscriber pays for the call. In
the Collect Call, called subscriber has to accept the call, after which he is
responsible for all the costs.

Charging Procedure
Charging is normally determined by collecting metering pulses, by which
the exchange can calculate the price of the call. It is called time
charging.
The record containing the information about one chargeable event is
called the charging record. These records are stored primarily as charging
files in the MSC or HLR and then transferred to a separate billing center.
The serving operator controls the entire charging process. The process
begins when a call is set up and at the same time, a charging record is
opened in the serving MSC/VLR. In general the first and the last MSC
involved in a call set up, collect the charging record.
When the subscriber moves and inter MSC handover is performed, the
charging record is not transferred to the new MSC during handover.
Instead, first MSC keeps record of the call as long as it lasts.
When a sufficient number of charging records have been accumulated
they are sent to a billing center in one bulk via an X.25 or Ethernet
connection.

Distributed Charging
In order to produce bills for each subscriber, Billing Centers should
collect detailed charging data from all the MSCs within the PLMN.
With International Roaming, this operation should be extended covering
all the PLMNs where a Roaming Contract is signed. Charging information
must be collected from the Billing Centers (BC) of all the networks that
subscribers have been visited and passed to the Billing Center of the
home network.
When two GSM operators sign a roaming contract, they agree how
often they will transfer charging data between each other.

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Services
Services can be grouped as speech services, where the transmitted data
is speech and data services which covers the rest of the information types
such as text, facsimile (fax), etc.
Services can also be grouped as Basic Services which are individual functions and may be
automatically available and included in the basic rights of the
subscriber as soon as he registers
Supplementary Services which are extra services that are not
included as basic features, but are associated with the basic
services by enhancing and/or adding extra features to the basic
services

When a user subscribes for more than one basic service, he will
have a different MSISDN for every basic service to which he
subscribes. Standard Classification of Services Teleservices which provide the full communication capacity by
means of terminals and network functions as well as those
provided by dedicated centers
Bearer Services which provide the capability of transmitting
signals between a GSM network access point and an
appropriate access point in the terminating network

Speech and Emergency Calls

These are the most common teleservices used in the GSM network.
Speech is also the basic service that each subscriber is guaranteed to.
The normal security procedures apply to all such calls except in the
case of emergency calls which are processed regardless of possible
security violations.

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Short Message Service (SMS)

The Short Message Service (SMS) is a service enabling the mobile
subscriber to receive and/or send short (max. 160 characters) messages in
text format.
This service requires a dedicated equipment called Short Message Service
Center (SMSC) which may be located in the NSS or outside the GSM network,
but it always has signaling connections to MSC. The SMSC acts as a
temporary storing and forwarding center if the Mobile Station is unreachable.

The tasks of an SMSC can be described as

1. Reception of text messages (SMS) from wireless network users
2. Storage of text messages
3. Forwarding of
4. Delivery of text messages (SMS) to wireless network users
5. Maintenance of unique time stamps in text messages
When a user sends a text message (SMS message) to another user, the
message gets stored in the SMSC (short message service centre) which
delivers it to the destination user when they are available. This is a
store and forward option.
An SMS message is stored temporarily in the SMS centre if the recipient
mobile phone is unavailable. It is possible on most mobile handset to
specify an expiry period after which the SMS message will be deleted from
the SMS centre.
The SMS sender needs to set a flag in the SMS message to notify the SMS
centre that he wants the status report about the delivery of this SMS
message. This status report is sent to the SMS sender in the form of an
SMS.
The services of SMSC are not required in cell broadcasting, as the BSC is
equipped with the necessary SMSC functions. The maximum length of a
cell broadcast SMS is 93 characters.

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Facsimile (Fax) Transmission

Facsimile transmission is a teleservice that sets requirements for
terminal equipment and their adaptation. There is one predefined case in
which the Mobile Station needs to be interfaced with a computer
equipped with a fax modem. However, because it is used for data
transmission, there has to be a provision for the bearer service in order
to define the characteristics of the bearer such as data transmission rate
and Air Interface error correction protocol.
In the case of T61 Facsimile transmission, the receiver is either not
aware that the incoming call is addressed to the fax and so he has to
establish the nature of the call by talking with the calling party first, or
the receiver knows that it is a facsimile call but still wants to talk with
the calling party. In both cases, the nature of the transmitted information
is data (group 3 facsimile) and speech alternately (during the same call).
The T62 automatic facsimile is an automatic fax service where the
receiver has a different MSISDN for the fax service and all calls to this
number are purely data transmission calls.

Supplementary Services
Supplementary services enhance or supplement the
basic telecommunication services.
Advice of Charge
Alternate Line Service
Barring of all incoming calls
Barring of all incoming calls when roaming outside the HPLMN
Barring of incoming calls when abroad
Barring of outgoing calls
Barring of outgoing International calls
Barring of outgoing international calls excluding those directed to
the HPLMN country
Call forwarding on mobile subscriber busy
Call forwarding on no answer

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 Call forwarding unconditional

Call Hold
Call Waiting
Calling line identification presentation
Calling line identification restriction
Conference call
Explicit Call Transfer
Operator Determined Barring

Problems in Air Interface

Multi path Propagation
It is quite rare that there is a direct "line of sight" transmission between
the mobile station and the base transceiver station. In the majority of
cases, the signals arriving at the mobile station have been reflected from
various surfaces. Thus a mobile station (and the base transceiver station)
receives the same signal more than once. Depending on the distance that
the reflected signals have travelled, they may affect the same information
bit or corrupt successive bits.

Solutions to Multi path Propagation

1. Viterbi Equalisation
This is generally applicable for signals that have been reflected from
far away objects. When either the BTS or MS transmits user
information, the information contained in the burst is not all user
data. There are 26 bits which are designated for a "training
sequence" included in each TDMA burst transmitted. Both the MS
and BTS know these bits and by analysing the effect the radio
propagation on these training bits, the air interface is
mathematically modelled as a filter. Using this
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mathematical model, the transmitted bits are estimated based on

the received bits. The mathematical algorithm used for this
purpose is called "Viterbi equalisation".
2. Channel Coding
Channel coding (and the following solutions) is normally used for
overcoming the problem caused by fading dips. In channel coding,
the user data is coded using standard algorithms. This coding is
not for encryption but for error detection and correction purposes
and requires extra information to be added to the user data. In the
case of speech, the amount of bits is increased from 260 per 20ms
to 456 bits per 20ms. This gives the possibility to regenerate up to
12.5% of data loss.
3. Interleaving
Interleaving is the spreading of the coded speech into many bursts.
By spreading the information onto many bursts, we will be able to
recover the data even if one burst is lost. (Ciphering is also carried
out for security reasons).
4. Frequency Hopping
With Frequency Hopping, the frequency on which the information
is transmitted is changed for every burst. Frequency hopping
generally does not significantly improve the performance if there
are less than four frequencies in the cell.
Call is transmitted through several frequencies in order to

average the interference (interference diversity)

minimize the impact of fading (frequency diversity)

5. Antenna Receiver Diversity

In this case two physically separated antennas receive and process
the same signal. This helps to eliminate fading dips. If a fading dip
occurs at the position of one antenna, the other antenna will still be
able to receive the signal. Since the distance between two antennas
is a few metres, it can only be implemented at the BTS.

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Shadowing
Hills, buildings and other obstacles between antennas cause shadowing
(also called Log Normal Fading). Instead of reflecting the signal these
obstacles attenuate the signal.
Shadowing is generally a problem in the uplink direction, because a BTS
transmits information at a much higher power compared to that from the
MS.

Solution to Shadowing
The solution adopted to overcome this problem is known as adaptive power
control. Based on quality and strength of the received signal, the base station
informs the mobile station to increase or decrease the power as required.
This information is sent in the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH).

Propagation Delay
Information is sent in bursts from the mobile station to the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS). These bursts have to arrive at the base
transceiver station such that they have to map exactly into their
allocated time slots. However, the further away the mobile station is from
the BTS then the longer it will take for the radio signal to travel over the
air interface. This means that if the mobile station or base station
transmits a burst only when the time slot appears, then when the burst
arrives at the other end, it will cross onto the time domain of the next
timeslot, thereby corrupting data from both sources. This problem is
called Propagation Delay.

Solution to Propagation Delay

The solution used to overcome this problem is called "adaptive frame
alignment". The Base Transceiver Station measures the time delay from
the received signal compared to the delay that would come from a mobile
station that was transmitting at zero distance from the Base Transceiver
Station. Based on this delay value, the Base Transceiver Station informs
the mobile station to either advance or retard the time alignment by
sending the burst slightly before the actual time slot. The base station
also adopts this time alignment in the down link direction.

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Abis
The transmission between the other network elements, in particular from
Base Transceiver Station to Base Station Controller (BSC) is called Abis.

Base Transceiver Station

It is physical site from where the radio transmission in both the downlink
and uplink direction takes place. The particular hardware element inside
the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) responsible for transmitting and
receiving these radio frequencies is appropriately named "Transceiver
(TRX)". These TRXs are then configured into one, two or three cells. If a
BTS is configured as one cell it is called an "Omnidirectional BTS" and if it
is configured as either two or three cells it is called a "Sectorized BTS". In
an omnidirectional BTS the maximum number of TRXs is ten, and in a
sectorized BTS the maximum number of TRXs is four per sector.

Transmission between BSC and BTS

There are three alternative methods to provide the connections
between a BSC and several BTSs. There are three options available:
point-to-point connection, multidrop chain and multidrop loop.

Point to point connection indicates that the Base Station Controller

(BSC) is connected directly to every BTS with a 2Mbit/s PCM line. This is
a simple and effective method particularly in cases when the distance
between BSC and BTS is short.
One PCM line has ample capacity to transfer data to several BTSs
simultaneously. Therefore, it is possible to draw just one BSC - BTS
connection and link the BTSs as a chain. This technique is called
Multidrop Chain. The BSC sends all the data in one 2Mbit/s PCM line and
each BTS in turn analyses the signal, collects the data from the correct
timeslots assigned for itself and passes the signal to the next BTS.

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Fig: BTS BSC Connections

In Multidrop Loop, instead of a chain we connect the BTSs in the form

of a loop. The flow of the signal is similar to the signal flow in multidrop
chain, except that a BTS will change the listening direction if the
signal from one side fails. This ensures that the BTSs always receive
information from the BSC even if the connection is cut off at some point
in the loop.

Multiplexing
According to GSM 900 and GSM 1800 specification, the bit rate in the air
interface is 13 Kbits/s and the bit rate at the Mobile Services Switching
Centre (MSC) and PSTN interface is 64 Kbits/s. This means that the bit
rate has to be converted at some point after the signal has been received
by the BTS and before it is sent to other networks.
The actual hardware which does the conversion from 13 Kbps to 64 Kbps
and vice versa is called a transcoder. In theory this piece of equipment
belongs to the Base Transceiver Station. However, by putting the
transcoder at a different place we can take some advantages in reducing
the transmission costs.
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If the transcoder is placed at the BTS site (in the BSC interface), then the
user data rate from BTS to Base Station Controller (BSC) would be 64
Kbps. The transmission for this would be similar to standard PCM line
transmission with 30 channels per PCM cable. The same would also apply
between BSC and MSC.
If we put the transcoder somewhere else, say just after MSC, then also we
cannot get significant advantage. This is because although after
transcoding the bit rate reduces to 13 kbps we still have to use the PCM
structure to send the traffic channels, with 8 bits per time slot. However
since after transcoding we have a bit rate of 13 Kbps and an additional 3
Kbps (making 16 Kbps) only two bits per time slot will be used. The other
6 bits are effectively wasted.
Independent from its actual position, the transcoder belongs to the BSS
even if it is placed next to the MSC. (When the TC is placed away from
the BTS it is called a Remote TC according to the GSM
recommendations).
We saw that from the MSC data comes out at 64Kbits/s rate and from the
Transcoder it comes out at 16Kbits/s. Each PCM channel (time slot) has 2
bits of information. It appears that we are able to put in data from other
3 PCM lines also here by multiplexing. However there are other issues as
well such as Common Channel Signalling information, OMC data and
some other network information which cannot be transcoded. Thus we
are able to multiplex 3 PCM lines and send 90 channels in one PCM line
from MSC (transcoder) towards the BSC. The BSC is able to switch 2 bits
per time slot (or 1 bit) to the correct direction.

Fig: Transcoder and Sub multiplexer

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Network Planning
A good geographical coverage is the basis for providing network
services. Careful network planning is thus a primary aspect of
implementing GSM networks.
The goal is to achieve optimum use of resources and maximum revenue
potential whilst maintaining a high level of system quality. Full
consideration must also be given to cost and spectrum allocation
limitations. A properly planned system should allow capacity to be
added economically when traffic demand increases.
By doing a proper RF Planning by keeping the future growth plan in mind
we can reduce a lot of problems that we may encounter in the future and
also reduce substantially the cost of optimization. On the other hand a
poorly planned network not only leads to many Network problems, it also
increases the optimization costs and still may not ensure the desired
quality. Requirements that must be taken into consideration in the early
stages of the planning process:
1. Cost of building the network
2. Capacity of the network
3. Coverage
4. Maximum congestion allowed
5. Quality of calls
6. Further development of the network

The main steps of a Network Planning process are as follows:

1. Collection of all relevant information such as topographical map
and statistical books
2. Network Dimensioning
requirements

based

3. Selection of Base Station sites

4. Survey of intended sites

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5. Use of computer aided design system for coverage

prediction, interference analysis and frequency planning

Site Survey
A wireless site survey, sometimes called an RF site survey or wireless
survey, is the process of planning and designing a wireless network. The
survey usually involves a site visit to test for RF interference, and to
identify optimum installation locations for access points. This requires
analysis of building floor plans, inspection of the facility, and use of site
survey tools. Interviews with IT management and the end users of the
wireless network are also important to determine the design parameters
for the wireless network.
A radio frequency (RF) site survey is the first step in the deployment of a
Wireless network and the most important step to ensure desired
operation. A site survey is a task-by-task process by which the surveyor
studies the facility to understand the RF behaviour, discovers RF coverage
areas, checks for RF interference and determines the appropriate
placement of Wireless devices.

Why Site Survey is done?

To provide a wireless solution that will deliver the required wireless
coverage, data rates, network capacity, roaming capability and Quality
of Service (QoS).
In a Wireless network, many issues can arise which can prevent the
radio frequency (RF) signal from reaching all parts of the facility.
Examples of RF issues include mulitpath distortion, hidden node
problems, and near/far issues.
In order to address these, you need to find the regions where these issues
occur. A site survey helps you to do this. A site survey helps define the
contours of RF coverage in a particular facility. It helps us to discover
regions where mulitpath distortion can occur, areas where RF interference
is high and find solutions to eliminate such issues. A site survey that
determines the RF coverage area in a facility also helps to choose the
number of Wireless devices that a firm needs to meet its business
requirements.

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How Site is surveyed?

Wireless site surveys are typically conducted using computer software
that collects and analyses WLAN metrics and/or RF spectrum
characteristics. Before a survey, a floor plan or site map is imported into a
site survey application and calibrated to set scale. During a survey, a
surveyor walks the facility with a portable computer that continuously
records the data. The surveyor either marks the current position on the
floor plan manually, by clicking on the floor plan, or uses a GPS receiver
that automatically marks the current position if the survey is conducted
outdoors. After a survey, data analysis is performed and survey results
are documented in site survey reports generated by the application.
All these data collection, analysis, and visualization tasks are highly
automated in modern software. In the past, however, these tasks
required manual data recording and processing.

Types of Site Survey

There are three main types of wireless site surveys: passive,
active, and predictive.
During a passive survey, a site survey application passively listens
to WLAN traffic to detect active access points, measure signal
strength and noise level. However, the wireless adapter being used
for a survey is not associated to any WLANs. For system design
purposes, one or more temporary access points are deployed to
identify and qualify access point locations. This used to be the
most common method of pre-deployment wifi survey.
During an active survey, the wireless adapter is associated with
one or several access points to measure round-trip time,
throughput rates, packet loss, and retransmissions. Active surveys
are used to troubleshoot wifi networks or to verify performance
post-deployment.
During a predictive survey, a model of the RF environment is created
using simulation tools. It is essential that the correct information on
the environment is entered into the RF modeling tool, including
location and RF characteristics of barriers like walls or large objects.
Therefore, temporary access points or signal sources can be used to
gather information on propagation in the environment. Virtual access
points are then placed on the floor plan to estimate expected coverage
and adjust their number and location. The value of a predictive survey
as a design tool versus a passive survey done with only a few access
point is that modeled interference can be taken into account in the
design.
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Depending on the survey type, a number of software and

software/hardware options are available to WLAN surveyors.
Software
Passive and active surveys are performed using software and typically
require only a compatible off-the-shelf Wi-Fi adapter; no additional
specialized hardware is required. Predictive surveys require no hardware
at all, as no wireless data collection is needed. Currently, professionallevel site survey applications exist primarily for Microsoft Windows. Some
site survey applications for other platforms, including iOS and Android,
also exist, however they are limited in functionality due to the limitations
of the underlying platform API. For example, signal level measurements
cannot be obtained on iOS without jailbreaking.
Hardware
Unlike passive and active surveys, RF spectrum surveys require
specialized RF equipment. There are various types of spectrum analyzers
ranging from large and expensive bench-top units to portable ("field
units") and PC-based analyzers. Because portability is a decisive factor in
conducting wireless site surveys, PC-based spectrum analyzers in
CardBus and USB form factors are widely used today. WLAN chipset
manufacturers are starting to incorporate spectrum analysis into their
chipset designs; this functionality is integrated into some high-end
enterprise-class 802.11n access points

After all the installation sites have been surveyed, a detailed network
plan can be made. This includes the design of a transmission network
which is usually supplied by existing operators (leased PCM lines), or
by microwave links.
The radio environment has to be measured and tested to ensure its
proper operation and coverage after installation.

In sparsely populated areas we use powerful BTSs which are usually

mounted on high ground to provide maximum unobstructed coverage to
all directions. This type of BTS is called Omnidirectional BTS.
In urban areas, where traffic volume is higher, the size of a cell is much
smaller and the distance between BTSs is shorter. The standard type of
BTS is also different: the cell is divided into three sectors that have a few
frequencies each. This is called Sectorised BTS.

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Types of Towers
1. Roof Top Tower (RTT)
Telecom service provider installs a cellular tower on the roof
of a building, paying the rent for the space used.
2. Roof Top Pole (RTP)
Telecom Service Provider installs a pole/antenna on the roof of
a building, paying the rent for the space used.
3. Pole (POL)
Telecom Service Provider pays the rent for the ground and erects
his pole from the ground level.
4. Cell On Wheels (COW)
Used where a very large temporary gathering is organized.
For temporary providing of signals.

Tools Used for RF Planning

1. Network Planning Tool
2. Propagation Test Kit
3. Traffic Modelling Tool
4. Project Management Tool

Network Planning Tool

Network planning tool is used to assist engineers in designing and
optimizing wireless networks by providing an accurate and reliable
prediction of coverage, doing frequency planning automatically, creating
neighbour lists etc.
With a database that takes into account data such as terrain, clutter,
and antenna radiation patterns, as well as an intuitive graphical
interface, the Planning tool gives RF engineers a state-of-the-art tool
to:

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 Design wireless networks

Plan network expansions
Optimize network performance
Diagnose system problems

Propagation Test Kit

The propagation test kit contains of
Test Transmitter
Antenna
Receiver to scan RX Level
Computer to collect data
GPS to get altitude and longitude
Cables and accessories
wattmeter

The transmitted power levels are then measured and collected by the
Drive test kit. This data is then loaded on the Planning tool and used for
tuning models.

Traffic Modelling Tool

Traffic modelling tool is used by the planning engineer for Network
modelling and dimensioning. It helps the planning engineer to calculate the
number of network elements needed to fulfil coverage, capacity and quality
needs.

Project Management Tool

Though not directly linked to RF Design Planning, it helps in
scheduling the RF Design process and also to know the status of the
project.
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 Site database: This includes RF data, site acquisition, power, civil,

etc.
Inventory Control
Fault tracking
Finance Management

MapInfo
MapInfo Professional is the tool used in Idea. It is a desktop geographic
information system (GIS) software product produced by Pitney Bowes
Software (formerly MapInfo Corporation) and used for mapping and
location analytics. MapInfo allows users to visualise, analyse, edit,
interpret, understand and output data to reveal relationships, patterns,
and trends. MapInfo allows users to explore spatial data within a dataset,
symbolize features, and create maps. It is used along with Google Earth
to view clutter and plan sites accordingly.
MapInfo Professional is used by proficient GIS users or analysts for
complex spatial analysis, building reports that describe their
conclusions, and making decisions based on those conclusions. It is
used for a wide range of business applications in many industries.
Features in Map Info
1. Layering: One of the most frequently used features of MapInfo
Professional is its ability to combine data from widely different
sources, even with different formats and projections, in the same
map window. Once combined in the map window, relationships that
only exist geographically between the different data sets can be
visualised and queried. Layers can be vector and raster together.
2. Thematic Mapping: Allows the user to shade maps, present bar &
pie charts, graduated symbols, dot density, and grids. In addition,
the Prism thematic feature that allows regions of the map to be
extruded to give the impression of height.
3. SQL Selection with Geographic Extensions: Build and save SQL
queries that access and integrate data from multiple tables.
Frequently performed queries can be written once, re-used and
distributed to others.

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4. Charts & Graphs: Interactive graphs and charts including 3D,

bubble, column, histogram, surface, area, bar, line and pie scatter
charts. Select graph templates from thumbnail sketches. Graphing
style control includes position, tilt, rotation and pie explosion.
5. Hotlinks: Any object in a map can now contain a link to a
document (URL, .doc, .xls, .ppt, .tab, .wor, .mdb, etc.) that will
automatically launch when clicked.
6. 3D Visualization: 3D viewing allows for freehand tilt and
rotations of maps as well as for traditional panning and
zooming.
7. Raster Image Support: Use raster images such as scanned paper
maps, satellite images, photographs and logos to provide detailed
content layers for your maps.
8. Linked Views: View and/or edit data in multiple linked views
(including rows and columns, graphs and maps) simultaneously.
9. Buffers around Objects: Perform detailed geographic searches
with buffering and area selection tools.
10. Geographic Searches: Integrate geographic criteria into
database queries (contains, intersects, within, etc.).
11. Drag and Drop Tool: Improve presentations by "dragging and
dropping" a map into other applications such as Microsoft Word,
Excel and PowerPoint and Corel Draw or export maps directly into
Photoshop.
12. Crystal Reports: Use the built-in report writer from Crystal
Reports to provide additional support for your visual analysis.
13. Conflict Management: Manage discrepancies in data when
multiple users write to server based data files.
14. Universal Translator: Translate bi-directional between MapInfo
Professional and other mapping environments including AutoCAD,
ESRI and Intergraph/Bentley. Formats include DWG, DXF, DGN,
Shape and E00 and so on.
15. Rotate Map Window Utility: Rotate the map window a specific
number of degrees.
16.

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Easy Loader: Upload MapInfo TAB files into database.

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MapInfo Snapshots

Fig: Area served by a particular BTS. Area in brown

colour is served by sector displayed in brown colour,
and so on.

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Fig: Other BTS along with the their coverage areas

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Google Earth Snapshots

Fig: Direction of antennas and clutter served by respective sectors

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Fig: A more detailed picture showing coverage areas

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Fig: Easily distinguishable clutter and open areas

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Path Loss
The propagation attenuation, or path loss, is defined as the ratio between
the transmitted and received powers on each end of a radio link:
L = PT/PR
Path loss is defined in such a way that it is always greater than one. It
is the general formula for Path Loss.
Path loss can further be divided into two factors: free space loss and
additional loss. The free space loss comes from the fact that the power
from the transmitter radiates in all direction as a spherical wave.
Additional losses come from the fact that the radio waves are usually not
propagating in ideal free space. There is a nearby earth plane,
precipitation like rain, hail and snow, natural obstacles like hills,
mountains and forests and man-made obstacles like buildings and
vehicles.

RX Level
RX Level means Received Level, it is the level which MS receives.
It is calculated by
RX Level (dBm) = EIRP (dBm) Path Loss (dB)
where

EIPR is Effective Isotropically Radiated Power

EIRP (dBm) = Pt (dBm) Lc (dB) + Ga (dBi),

where

Pt is Output power of transmitter,

Lc is Cable Losses, and
Ga is Antenna Gain

Path Loss (dB) = 20 log(4d) 20 log()

It is the formula of Path Loss used by radio and antenna engineers.
where

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d is distance, and
is wavelength

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Link Budget
A link budget is accounting of all of the gains and losses from the
transmitter, through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber,
etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system. It accounts for the
attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the
antenna gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly varying
channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some
margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount
of margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques
such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
A simple link budget equation looks like:
Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) Losses
(dB)

A link budget equation including all the effects,

PRX = PTX + GTX LTX LFS LM + GRX - LRX
where,

PRX = received power (dBm)

PTX = transmitter output power (dBm)
GTX = transmitter antenna gain (dBi)
LTX = transmitter losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)
LFS = free space loss or path loss (dB)
LM = miscellaneous losses (fading margin, body loss,
polarization
mismatch, other losses...) (dB)
GRX = receiver antenna gain (dBi)
LRX = receiver losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)

Radio Propagation Model

A radio propagation model, also known as the Radio Wave Propagation
Model or the Radio Frequency Propagation Model, is an empirical
mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio wave
propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other conditions. A
single model is usually developed to predict the behaviour of propagation
for all similar links under similar constraints. Created with the goal of
formalizing the way radio waves are propagated from one place to
another, such models typically predict the path loss along a link or the
effective coverage area of a transmitter.
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As the path loss encountered along any radio link serves as the dominant
factor for characterization of propagation for the link, radio propagation
models typically focus on realization of the path loss with the auxiliary
task of predicting the area of coverage for a transmitter or modelling the
distribution of signals over different regions.
Because each individual telecommunication link has to encounter different
terrain, path, obstructions, atmospheric conditions and other phenomena,
it is intractable to formulate the exact loss for all telecommunication
systems in a single mathematical equation. As a result, different models
exist for different types of radio links under different conditions. The
models rely on computing the median path loss for a link under a certain
probability that the considered conditions will occur.

Different models have been developed to meet the needs of realizing

the propagation behaviour in different conditions.
a) Okumura Model
The Okumura model for urban areas is a Radio propagation
model that was built using the data collected in the city of
Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many
urban structures but not many tall blocking structures. The
model served as a base for the Hata Model.
Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban,
suburban and open areas. The model for urban areas was built
first and used as the base for others.
Coverage
Frequency = 1501920 MHz
Mobile station antenna height: between 1 m and 10
m Base station antenna height: between 30 m and
1000 m Link distance: between 1 km and 100 km
Mathematical formulation
The Okumura model is formally expressed as:
L = LFSL + AMU HMG HBG Kcorrection

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where,

L = median path loss in dB

LFSL = free space loss in dB
AMU = Median attenuation in dB
HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.
HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of
environment, water surfaces, isolated
obstacle
etc.)

Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for

signal prediction in urban areas. This model is applicable for
frequencies in the range 1501920 MHz (although it is typically
extrapolated up to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1100 km. It can
be used for base-station antenna heights ranging from 301000
m.
b) Hata Model
This model is based on Hata Model. . It is turn has developed
separate models for varying environments:
Hata Model for Urban Areas
Hata Model for Suburban Areas
Hata Model for Open Areas

Hata model for urban areas

In wireless communication, the Hata model for urban areas, also known
as the OkumuraHata model for being a developed version of the
Okumura model, is the most widely used radio frequency propagation
model for predicting the behaviour of cellular transmissions in built up
areas. This model incorporates the graphical information from Okumura
model and develops it further to realize the effects of diffraction,
reflection and scattering caused by city structures. This model also has
two more varieties for transmission in suburban areas and open areas.
Applicable to/under conditions
This particular version of the Hata model is applicable to the
radio propagation within urban areas.

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This model is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast transmissions

and it is based on extensive empirical measurements taken.
PCS is another extension of the Hata model. The Walfisch and Bertoni
model is further advanced.
Coverage
Frequency: 1501500 MHz
Mobile Station Antenna Height: 110 m
Base station Antenna Height: 30200 m
Link distance: 110 km.
Mathematical formulation
The Hata model for urban areas is formulated as following:
LU = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) 13.82 log(hB) CH + [44.9 6.55 log(hB)]log(d)
For small or medium sized city,
CH = 0.8 + (1.1 log(f) 0.7)hM 1.56log(f)

and for large cities,

CH =
8.29
CH =
3.20
where

[ log(1.54* hM) ]2 1.1

[ log(11.75* hM) ]2
4.97

for150 f 200
for200 f 1500

LU = Path loss in urban areas in dB

hB = Height of base station antenna meters
hM = Height of mobile station antenna in
meters f= Frequency of transmission in MHz
CH = Antenna height correction factor
d = Distance between the base and MS in km

Hata model for suburban areas

The Hata model for suburban areas, also known as the OkumuraHata model
for being a developed version of the Okumura model, is the most widely used
model in radio frequency propagation for predicting the behavior of cellular
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transmissions in city outskirts and other rural areas. This model

incorporates the graphical information from Okumura model and develops
it further to better suite the need. This model also has two more varieties
for transmission in urban areas and open areas.
The Hata model predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial
microwave or other type of cellular communications. And is a function
of transmission frequency and the average path loss in urban areas.
Applicable to/under conditions
This particular version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions
just out of the cities and on rural areas where man-made structures are
there but not so high and dense as in the cities. To be more precise, this
model is suitable where buildings exist, but the mobile station does not
have a significant variation of its height. This model is suited for both
point-to-point and broadcast transmissions.
Coverage
Frequency: 150 MHz 1.50 GHz
Mathematical formulation
Hata model for suburban areas is formulated as,
LSU = LU 2[ log(f/28) ]2 5.4
where,

LSU = Path loss in suburban areas in dB

LU = Average path loss in urban areas for small sized city in dB
f = Frequency of transmission in MHz

Hata model for open areas

The Hata model for open areas, also known as the OkumuraHata model
from its origins in the Okumura model, is the most widely used model for
predicting the behavior of cellular radio transmissions in open areas. It
further exploits the graphical information from the Okumura model. Two
additional varieties for transmission are urban areas and suburban areas.

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The Hata model for open areas predicts the total path loss along a link of
terrestrial microwave or other type of cellular communications. It is a
function of transmission frequency and the median path loss in urban
areas.
Applicable to/under conditions
This version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions in open
areas where no obstructions block the transmission link. It is suited for
both point-to-point and broadcast transmissions.
Coverage
Frequency: 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz
Mathematical formulation
The Hata model for open areas is formulated as:
LO = LU 4.78 [ log(f) ]2 + 18.33 log(f) 40.94
where

LO = Path loss in open area in dB

LU = Path loss in urban areas for small sized city in dB
f = Frequency of transmission in MHz

Dimensioning Cells
A cell is the basic construction block of a GSM network. One cell is
the geographical area covered by one BTS. Cells are grouped under
Base Station Controllers (BSC).
Erlang is the measuring unit of network traffic. One Erlang equals
the continuous use of a mobile device for one hour.
X Erlangs = (Calls/hour) * (Avg Conversation Time)/3600 sec
Amount of traffic is independent of the observation duration.

If one hundred six-minute calls are received on a group of such circuits,

then the total traffic in that hour is six hundred minutes or 10 Erlangs.
When used to represent carried traffic, a value followed by erlangs
represents the average number of concurrent calls carried by the circuits (or
other service-providing elements), where that average is calculated over
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some reasonable period of time. The period over which the average is
calculated is often one hour, but shorter periods (e.g., 15 minutes)
may be used where it is known that there are short spurts of demand
and a traffic measurement is desired that does not mask these spurts.
When used to describe offered traffic, a value followed by erlangs
represents the average number of concurrent calls that would have been
carried if there were an unlimited number of circuits (that is, if the callattempts that were made when all circuits were in use had not been
rejected). The relationship between offered traffic and carried traffic
depends on the design of the system and user behavior. Three common
models are (a) callers whose call-attempts are rejected go away and never
come back, (b) callers whose call-attempts are rejected try again within a
fairly short space of time, and (c) the system allows users to wait in queue
until a circuit becomes available.
A third measurement of traffic is instantaneous traffic, expressed as a
certain number of Erlangs, meaning the exact number of calls taking place
at a point in time. In this case the number is an integer. Traffic-levelrecording devices, such as moving-pen recorders, plot instantaneous traffic.

Erlang-B (sometimes also written without the hyphen Erlang B), also
known as the Erlang loss formula, is a formula for the blocking probability
that describes the probability of call losses for a group of identical parallel
resources (telephone lines, circuits, traffic channels, or equivalent).
The Erlang B formula applies under the condition that an unsuccessful
call, because the line is busy, is not queued or retried, but instead really
vanishes forever. It is assumed that call attempts arrive following a
Poisson process, so call arrival instants are independent. Further, it is
assumed that the message lengths (holding times) are exponentially
distributed (Markovian system), although the formula turns out to apply
under general holding time distributions.

Grade of Service (GOS) is the maximum congestion allowed. Supposing

that GOS is 5 % - which means that during a certain observation period
(usually 1 hour) 5 out of 100 calls fail due to lack of resources.

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Fig: Erlang B Table

Find number of channels required for communication if Erlangs and GOS

is known by using the Erlang B Table. Suppose the channels required are
16. Since each carrier supports 8 channels, we can make estimation that
this cell must be equipped with 2 carriers, i.e., 2 TRX.

Frequency Reuse
There is a limited number of frequencies available to each Base
Station Subsystem and they must be distributed between the cells
to ensure a balanced coverage throughout the BSS.
The GSM network includes a specification of the Frequency reuse pattern.
The next step involves the dimensioning of the Location Areas. This is
carried out according to the traffic characteristics of each area. The final
phase is the dimensioning of the Fixed Network on the basis of the traffic
requirements and dimensioning of the entire radio network.
The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and
the reuse factor.
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The reuse distance, D is calculated as

D = R (3N)1/3
Two types of sites Coverage Sites- for providing coverage of network
Capacity Sites- to share traffic

Traffic that can be handled by a particular site is determined by the

number of TRX in that BTS. In earlier days, there was a limit to the BTSs
that there can be maximum of 4 TRX in each sector of the BTS. In
general, for 3 sectors, that would mean 12 TRX in each BTS and hence
12 TRX at each site. In case to handle more traffic, 2 BTS were installed
in parallel, side by side. But newer BTSs support more TRX in each
sector, may be up to 8 TRX for each sector; and hence 24 TRX at one
BTS.
Each frequency is divided into 8 slots, each having one TCH of Full rate. If
TCH of Half rates are used, then each slot would have 2 TCH of half rate.
Erlang B Table consider TCH of Full rates only. Grade of Service (GOS) is
the threshold of percentage of Call Blocks.

Traffic that can be handled by one BTS with a particular number of TRX
with specified GOS (usually 2%) is determined by Erlang Table. It is
theoretical traffic value that BTS can handle. With the use of Half rate TCH,
capacity to handle traffic would increase, but the quality of service would
decrease.

Idea implements Nokia Architecture in BSS. BTS that Idea use were
manufactured by a joint venture of Nokia and Seimens called Nokia
Seimens Network. But after the possession of Idea by Microsoft, it is done
by Nokia only.
It is very much possible that BSS is manufactured by some company and
NSS is manufactured by other company. In that case, NMS for both will
be different. But the BSS and the NSS will still be compatible so that they
can communicate with each other and the OSS.

Drive Testing
Drive Testing is a method of measuring and assessing the coverage,
capacity and Quality of Service (QoS) of a mobile radio network.
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Fig: 2G drive testing

The technique consists of using a motor vehicle containing mobile radio

network air interface measurement equipment that can detect and record a
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wide variety of the physical and virtual parameters of mobile cellular

service in a given geographical area.
By measuring what a wireless network subscriber would experience in
any specific area, wireless carriers can make directed changes to their
networks that provide better coverage and service to their customers.

Fig: 3G drive testing

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Drive testing requires a mobile vehicle outfitted with drive testing

measurement equipment. These equipments are usually highly
specialized electronic devices that interface to OEM mobile handsets. This
ensures measurements are realistic and comparable to actual user
experiences.

Data Collected during Drive Testing

Drive test equipment typically collects data relating to the network
itself, services running on the network such as voice or data
services, radio frequency scanner information and GPS information
to provide location logging.
The data set collected during drive testing field measurements can
include information such as:
1. Signal intensity
2. Signal quality
3. Interference
4. Dropped calls
5. Blocked calls
6. Anomalous events
7. Call statistics
8. Service level statistics
9. Quality of Service information
10.

Handover information

11.

Neighbouring cell information

12.

GPS location co-ordinates

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Site Audit
The act of conducting a review, examination and reconciliation of
Telecom, Wireless and Network customer service records, invoicing
and contract agreements in order to ensure the accuracy of
budgetary forecasting.
Independent review and examination of records and activities to
assess the adequacy of system controls, to ensure compliance
with established policies and operational procedures, and to
recommend necessary changes in controls, policies, or
procedures.
Analysis of invoices, lines, rates, tariffs, taxes, plans, usage, call
volume, systems, and contracts resulting in cost reduction, proper
invoicing and optimization of telecommunication systems often
conducted by an independent telecommunications consultant or
firm.

Optimization
Reasons for Optimization
Maintain/Improve QoS
Attract new customers
Maximise revenue-generating service
Maximize efficiency of network functional elements
Original design information has changed
Flawed original design information
Congestion may exist in certain areas and by prudent optimisation,
additional capacity can be generated with no additional
infrastructure investment.

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Performance Management Cycle

Fig: Performance Management Cycle

The initial step in performance management is to define a set of QoS

(Quality of Service) parameters such as dropped call rates and call
success rates. Key metrics are derived from data collected from sources
such as drive tests, statistical data, customer complaints and field
engineer reports and are used to measure the performance of the
network. These metrics are analysed and compared to the QoS targets in
order to identify any performance degradation in the network.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

KPIs should be maintained within threshold for good performance of
the network.

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KPIs to be monitored

SDD

Standalone Dedicated Drop

TCHD

Traffic Channel Drop

SDB

Standalone Dedicated Block

TCHB

Traffic Channel Block

HOSR

Handover Success Rate

Fig: KPIs

What is Dropped Call?

All cell resources are available but calls are failing, then we have a call
drop scenario. This could be caused by software errors, congestion, C7
link failures, HW problems or many other reasons.
If a call is abnormally disconnected, a Clear Request is sent to the MSC .If
the Call is disconnected in a normal Fashion then Clear Message with
cause code Call Control is sent. It is important to establish what types of
calls are failing, and over what percentage of the network it is occurring.

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SD Blocking
SD blocking means that you are not getting SD resource for the call
origination. When MS connects with NW then RACH and AGCH are
provided. After AGCH, SDCCH is provided but if SDCCH is not provided at
this time due some problems or due to unavailable of SD by BSC, its
called as SD Blocking. There are no of reasons for that. If such a case
arises the customer will not be able to originate any call.
If all the SD resources are full and not available for SD assign then it
comes under congestion. If at a particular time call is attempted and it
fails then it known as Blocking.

Solutions to SD Blocking
Check the No. of SDCCH channel Available, if less then increase
SD channel taking care that there is no TCH Blocking.
Check LAC boundary, if location update is more, then change the
LAC of that site and set C2 and HYS.
Use of Dynamic SDCCH (It is a BSC parameter and will be applied
on whole BTS).
Hardware check / shift SD to new time slot.
Use report number 182 in the OSS to analyses SD Blocking
reasons and 130 for SD congestion.

SD Drop
It occurs between allocation of SD and before TCH allocation. Sometimes
SD drop occurs because queuing is not activated in the system.
If SD drop is high, look on parameters like overshooting, shift the SD
time slot, may be hardware issue, interference, change the values of RXP,
PMAX, may be issue of uplink or downlink issue in that cells for UL put a
TMA in that cell and for DL provide tilt, re-orient that antenna.

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Solutions to SD Drop
Check the BCCH Plan.
MapInfo to find out proper frequency to reduce interference.
The best way to find the real issues for Interference makes Drive
Test.
Check interference by Interference scanning.
Check clean BCCH by frequency scanning.
Use report ZEOL to find the alarms.
Use 208 for Path loss analysis.
Use 196 for UL-DL Interference.
Use 163 report for SD drop.

TCH Blocking
When TCH is not allocated to the user after SD allocation, it is TCH
Blocking. It is the failed call attempts which the MS user can notice. It
takes place due to lack of TCH Resource.

Solutions to TCH Blocking

Implement half rate or Dual rate.
Add another TRX.
If TRX addition not possible, try to share the traffic of that cell
with the neighboring cell by changing tilt or orientation.
Use report number 135 TCH Congestion.

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TCH Drop
Drop during conversation is known as TCH drop.

Solutions to TCH Drop

Check the BCCH Plan.
If a cell is picking call from long distance, check the sample
log according to TA.
Site Orientation.
Effective tilt should be check.
Mount position should be check

Handover Success Rate

If HOSR will be good TCH drop will also be good.
If Handover success rate degrades, call drop rate will take place.

Solutions to HOSR
Try to retune neighbours.
The best way to find the real issues for HO fail make Drive Test. By
DT it is very easy to find the fail between cells.
153 reports for HO fail between two cells.

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rd

Generation

The third generation, 3G, is expected to complete the globalisation

process of the mobile communication. The trend is that 3G will mostly be
based on GSM technical solutions due to the reason: the GSM as
technology dominates the market and great investments made to GSM
should be utilised as much as possible.
Access to the Internet will become more important and executives will
want to access corporate databases from virtually anywhere. New
services will be required in addition to speech and data, therefore
network operators will offer video and other multimedia applications.

Specification Process for 3G

As the 3G system is expected to be global, world-wide and generic, the
Specification Bodies related are also global ones as the following list
indicates. In addition to the Specification Bodies, the specification
process includes operators and manufacturers co-operation.

There are four international standardisation bodies acting as generators

for 3G specification work, these being:
1. ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union): This organisation
provides in practise all the telecommunication branch specifications
that are official in nature. Hence, these form all the guidelines
required by the manufacturers and country-specific authorities. ITUT has finished its development process for IMT2000, International
Mobile Telephone 2000 and the specification work is transferred to
the 3GPP.

2. ETSI (European Telecommunication Standard Institute): This

organisational body has had a very strong role when GSM
Specifications were developed and enhanced. ETSI is divided into
workgroups named as SMG (number) and every workgroup has a
specific area to be developed. Because of the GSM background ETSI
is in a relatively dominant role in this specification work. In Europe,
the further developed IMT-2000 is called 3G.

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Fig: 3G Specification Bodies

3. ARIB (Alliance of Radio Industries and Business): ARIB provides

commercially oriented contributions for the specification process
from the Australiasian area. It has remarkable experience, both
commercial and technical, in the new selected 3G Air Interface
technology and several variants of it.

4. ANSI (American National Standard Institute): ANSI is the American

specification body defining telecommunication-related issues in
that part of the world. ANSIs role is relatively small as far as 3G
concerned because of some political points of view. ANSI is mainly
concentrating on a competing 3G Air Interface technology
selection called as cdma2000.

rd

Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

In order to maintain globality and complete control of the 3G

specifications, a separate Specification Body called 3GPP (3rd Generation
Partnership Project) takes care of the specification work in co-operation
with previously listed institutes. The outcome of the 3GPP work is a
complete set of specifications defining the 3G-network functionality,
procedures and service aspects.

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The initial scope of 3GPP was to make a globally applicable third-generation

(3G) mobile phone system specification based on GSM specifications within
the scope of the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 project of
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The scope was later
enlarged to include the development and maintenance of:

the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) including GSM

evolved radio access technologies (e.g. General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE))
an evolved third Generation and beyond Mobile System based on
the evolved 3GPP core networks, and the radio access technologies
supported by the Partners (i.e., UTRA both FDD and TDD modes).
an evolved IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) developed in an
access independent manner

Operator Harmonization Group (OHG)

Global system means global business and this is why there has been a lot
of pressure to select or emphasise certain solutions more than others. This
political debate actually delayed the specification work remarkably and
finally an organisation taking care of harmonisation issues was
established. This organization, OHG aims to find a common understanding
concerning the global issues. The results of this organisation are used as
inputs in 3GPP work as well as in 3G future implementations.

The aim of OHG work is to affect the specifications so that all the radio
access variants are compatible with all the variants meant for switching;
this will ensure true globality for 3G.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephony System) is the name for the

European, ETSI driven 3G variant. It emphasises the interoperability
and backward compatibility between the 3G implementation and GSM.

IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telephony-2000) is the ITU-T name

for the 3rd generation cellular system. The Japanese view of 3G is
based on the IMT-2000. The switching part of this variant is quite
open issue but it is expected to be based on the existing GSM
technology. The Radio Access is almost similar to the European
variant but some enhancements/extensions are made.

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 IMT-2000 / cdma2000 are the names for the American 3G variant. In

the American variant, the TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
scenario which is at least partially based on the enhanced GSM
(EDGE) is also considered as an alternative.

GSM systems will evolve towards the UMTS by progressively introducing

new techniques to provide higher bandwidth. These steps are as follows

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

Traditionally TDMA timeslot provided a bit rate of 9.6 Kbps; however a
new modified air interface brings the speed up to 14.4 Kbps. With
HSCSD, a combination of up to four TDMA timeslots could be used to
provide data transfer rate at 57.6 Kbps.

General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data
service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication system. GPRS allows
users to be charged for the actual amount of data they transfer. The
mobile user doesn't have to connect to the network each time he wants
to transfer data, he can stay connected all day.
With the higher transmission speeds provided by GPRS, end users will
find that file downloads are faster, applications that were previously not
possible now become possible and the overall attractiveness of the data
services will increase.
GPRS
was
originally
standardized
by
European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). It is now
maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
In order to offer package switched data service, there should be some
modifications done in the GSM network architecture. Data packages
are handled with the help of two new network elements

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 SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)

GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)

The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is a router that maintains the
location information of the mobile station and the Gateway GPRS Support
Node (GGSN) enables the data packets to be passed on to other packet
switching networks.

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

EDGE will provide a bridge from GSM into the 3rd Generation mobile
networks. It will use an advanced GSM modulation technique to provide
data speeds of 384Kbits/s but still using the existing 200 kHz GSM
channel.
The extra capacity is achieved by increasing the data capacity of a
single GSM timeslot from 9.6 Kbps to 48 Kbps and possibly up to nearly
70 Kbps under good radio conditions.
EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an
Internet connection.

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for accessing
information over a mobile wireless network. A WAP browser is a web
browser for mobile devices such as mobile phones that uses the
protocol. Before the introduction of WAP, mobile service providers had
limited opportunities to offer interactive data services, but needed
interactivity to support Internet and Web applications.
Wireless Markup Language (WML), based on XML, is a markup language
intended for devices that implement the Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP) specification, such as mobile phones. It provides navigational
support, data input, hyperlinks, text and image presentation, and forms,
much like HTML (HyperText Markup Language).

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High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)

HSDPA is an enhanced 3G (third-generation) mobile-telephony
communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also
dubbed 3.5G, 3G+, or Turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data-transfer
speeds and capacity. As of 2013 HSDPA deployments can support down-link
speeds of up to 42.3 Mbit/s. HSPA+ offers further speed increases, providing
speeds of up to 337.5 Mbit/s with Release 11 of the 3GPP standards.

For HSDPA, a new transport layer channel, High-Speed Downlink Shared

Channel (HS-DSCH), has been added to 3GPP release 5 and further
specification. It is implemented by introducing three new physical layer
channels: HS-SCCH, HS-DPCCH and HS-PDSCH. The High Speed-Shared
Control Channel (HS-SCCH) informs the user that data will be sent on the
HS-DSCH, 2 slots ahead. The Uplink High Speed-Dedicated Physical
Control Channel (HS-DPCCH) carries acknowledgment information and
current channel quality indicator (CQI) of the user. This value is then used
by the base station to calculate how much data to send to the user
devices on the next transmission. The High Speed-Physical Downlink
Shared Channel (HS-PDSCH) is the channel to which the above HS-DSCH
transport channel is mapped that carries actual user data.

Hybrid automatic repeat-request (HARQ)

Data is transmitted together with error correction bits. Minor errors can
thus be corrected without retransmission; see forward error correction.
If retransmission is needed, the user device saves the packet and later
combines it with retransmitted packet to recover the error-free packet
as efficiently as possible. Even if the retransmitted packets are
corrupted, their combination can yield an error-free packet.
Retransmitted packet may be either identical (chase combining) or
different from the first transmission (incremental redundancy).
Since HARQ retransmissions are processed at the physical layer, their
12 ms round-trip time is much lower compared to higher layer
retransmissions.

Fast packet scheduling

The HS-DSCH downlink channel is shared between users using channeldependent scheduling to make the best use of available radio
conditions.
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Each user device continually transmits an indication of the downlink

signal quality, as often as 500 times per second. Using this information
from all devices, the base station decides which users will be sent data in
the next 2ms frame and how much data should be sent for each user.
More data can be sent to users which report high downlink signal quality.
The amount of the channelization code tree, and thus network
bandwidth, allocated to HSDPA users is determined by the network. The
allocation is "semi-static" in that it can be modified while the network is
operating, but not on a frame-by-frame basis. This allocation represents a
trade-off between bandwidth allocated for HSDPA users, versus that for
voice and non-HSDPA data users. The allocation is in units of
channelization codes for Spreading Factor 16, of which 16 exist and up to
15 can be allocated to the HS-DSCH. When the base station decides
which users will receive data in the next frame, it also decides which
channelization codes will be used for each user. This information is sent
to the user on one of up to 4 HS-SCCHs, which are not part of the HSDSCH allocation previously mentioned, but are allocated separately.
Thus, for a given 2ms frame, data may be sent to a number of users
simultaneously, using different channelization codes.

Adaptive modulation and coding

The modulation scheme and coding are changed on a per-user basis,
depending on signal quality and cell usage. The initial scheme is
quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), but in good radio conditions
16QAM and 64QAM can significantly increase data throughput rates. With
5 Code allocation, QPSK typically offers up to 1.8 Mbit/s peak data rates,
while 16QAM offers up to 3.6 Mbit/s. Additional codes (e.g. 10, 15) can
also be used to improve these data rates or extend the network capacity
throughput significantly.

3G Network Structure
The obvious lack of GSM systems is and was the bandwidth offered to the
enduser. In the beginning the bandwidth offered to the end-user was
reasonable but later on when the technology developed and the end-user
requirements increased and new services such as the Internet became
more common the bandwidth became inadequate.
This was the main reason for starting the specification for the next
generation cellular networks.
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Fig: 3G Network Principle Diagram

The abbreviation RAN comes from the words Radio Access Network and
the term CN means Core Network. The multiple access method used in
RAN is Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, WCDMA. The RAN is
limited with open interfaces in order to guarantee multi-vendor scenarios.
Also the interfaces within the CN and between the CN and the other
networks can be considered as open but there may be several national
limitations / enhancements / extensions present. The 3G network can also
be presented as a collection of Management Layers, which cover certain
parts of the network.

The Radio Resource Management is completely covered between the RAN

and the UE and it involves managing how the channels are allocated. The
Mobility Management, Session Management and Call Control are maintained
by the Core Network Domains and there function is dependent upon the
domain is the CS (circuit switched) or PS (packet switched). The higher layer
functions performed between the UE and CN are often called as CM,
Communication Management. The CM entity covers the topics like Call
Control (CC), Supplementary Services (SS) and Short Message Service (SMS).
The 3G network will have the means and readiness for data transfer in all
forms. The traffic to be delivered through 3G can be divided into two
categories being Circuit Switched and Packet Switched. The Circuit Switched
traffic normally has a high real-time requirement (i.e. no delay or the delay
occurring must be constant). Normal speech and Video Phoning are examples
of this kind of traffic. The Packet Switched traffic normally does not

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have such exact real-time requirements and a good example of this kind
of traffic is an Internet connection.
W-CDMA (Wideband-Code Division Multiple Access) will be employed on
the air interface mainly for wide area applications and will use paired
frequency bands, one for the uplink and one for the downlink. This is
commonly referred to as Frequency Division Duplex (FDD).

UMTS will also employ TD-CDMA (Time Division-Code Division Multiple

Access) for low mobility indoor applications using Time Division Duplex
(TDD) similar to cordless technologies. Together, these two elements of
the air interface (FDD and TDD) are known as UTRA (UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access).

The evolution of UMTS progresses according to planned releases.

Each release is designed to introduce new features and improve upon
existing ones.
Release 99
Bearer Services
64 kbps circuit switch
384
kbps
switched
Location Services
Call Service: compatible with GSM, based on
USIM Voice Quality Features
Release 4
Edge Radio
Multimedia Messaging
Improved
Location
Services IP Multimedia
Services
TD SCDMA

Release 5
IP Multimedia
Subsystem IPv6, IP
transport in UTRAN
Improvements in GERAN, MExE, etc
Release 6
WLAN integration
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Multimedia broadcast and multicast

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218

Improvements in IMS
HSUPA
Fractional DPCH
Release 7
Enhanced L2
64 QAM, MIMO
Voice over HSPA
CPC

continuous
packet
connectivity FRLC Flexible RLC
Release 8
Dual Cell HSDPA
Release 9
Dual Cell HSUPA
In FDD, transmit on one frequency and receive on another frequency.

Fig: FDD

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In TDD, TX and RX is on the same frequency but on different times.

Fig: TDD

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access is a technique that allows many
different mobile telephones to use the same frequency at the same
time but with each phone assigned a unique code sequence known
as a "spreading code".
CDMA is a form of "spread spectrum" where the information is spread
across the available bandwidth of the radio channel.
The spreading code is used to encode an information bearing digital
signal. The receiver uses the same code to decode the signal and recover
the information data. As the bandwidth of the code signal is chosen to be
much larger than the bandwidth of the information signal, the encoding
process enlarges (spreads) the spectrum of the signal. This spectral
spreading of the transmitted signal gives CDMA its multiple access
capability.

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA)

For the 3rd generation mobile systems, a high bit rate is required for
multi-media data. Therefore, the spreading code must be of a higher
bit rate. CDMA uses a bandwidth of 1.25MHz but the W-CDMA systems
for UMTS will occupy a bandwidth of approximately 5MHz.

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In the W-CDMA system the spreading codes are used to spread out the
data signal to cover the whole wideband spectrum which is allocated for
the data transfer.
The data rates of 144Kbits/s and 384Kbits/s are achievable within this
bandwidth and can provide reasonable capacity 2Mbit/s peak rate
under limited conditions.
The large 5MHz bandwidth can resolve more multipaths than narrower
bandwidths. This will increase diversity and improve performance.
Wider bandwidths of 10, 15 and 20MHz may be proposed in the future
to support high data rates more effectively.

3G Network Architecture
UMTS can in many aspects be looked upon as an extension to GSM and
GPRS. The greatest changes are related to the access part of the
network. The access network, called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Network
(UTRAN), consists of base stations and base stations controllers.
The base stations are called Node B. A Node B can support FDD mode,
TDD mode or dual-mode operation. Several base stations are managed
by a Radio Network Controller (RNC).
The RNC is responsible for the Handover decisions that require
signalling to the UE.

Node B
Node B is a term used in UMTS equivalent to the BTS (base transceiver
station) description used in GSM.
The utilization of WCDMA technology allows cells belonging to the same or
different Node Bs and even controlled by different RNC to overlap and still
use the same frequency (in fact, the whole network can be implemented
with just one frequency pair). The effect is utilized in soft handovers.
Since WCDMA often operates at higher frequencies than GSM (2,100 MHz as
opposed to 900 MHz for GSM), the cell radius can be considerably smaller for
WCDMA than for GSM cells as the path loss is frequency dependent. WCDMA
now has networks operating in the 850900 MHz band. In these networks, at

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these frequencies, the coverage of WCDMA is considered better than that

of the equivalent GSM network.

Fig: 3G Network Architecture

A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An
equipment cabinet contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal
processors and backup batteries.
Node B Setup
A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An
equipment cabinet contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal
processors and backup batteries. What you can see by the side of a road
or in a city center is just an antenna. However, the tendency nowadays
is to camouflage the antenna (paint it the colour of the building or put it
into an RF-transparent enclosure). Smaller indoor nodes may have an
antenna built into the cabinet door.

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A Node B can serve several cells, also called sectors, depending on the
configuration and type of antenna. Common configuration include omni
cell (360), 3 sectors (3120) or 6 sectors (3 sectors 120 wide
overlapping with 3 sectors of different frequency).

Radio Network Controller (RNC)

The Radio Network Controller (or RNC) is a governing element in the UMTS
radio access network (UTRAN) and is responsible for controlling the Node
Bs that are connected to it. The RNC carries out radio resource
management, some of the mobility management functions and is the point
where encryption is done before user data is sent to and from the mobile.

The logical connections between the network elements are known as

interfaces. The interface between the RNC and the Circuit Switched Core
Network (CS-CN) is called Iu-CS and between the RNC and the Packet
Switched Core Network is called Iu-PS. Other interfaces include Iub
(between the RNC and the Node B) and Iur (between RNCs in the same
network). Iu interfaces carry user traffic (such as voice or data) as well as
control information, and Iur interface is mainly needed for soft handovers.

Media Gateway (MGW)

A media gateway is a translation device or service that converts digital
media streams between disparate telecommunications network. Because
the media gateway connects different types of networks, one of its main
functions is to convert between different transmission and coding
techniques.

Soft Handover
Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and
W-CDMA standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to
two or more cells (or cell sectors) during a call. If the sectors are from
the same physical cell site (a sectorised site), it is referred to as softer
handoff. This technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover, CDMA cell
phones continuously make power measurements of a list of neighboring
cell sites, and determine whether or not to request or end soft handover
with the cell sectors on the list.

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Hard handover is a typical Handover mechanism in a communication

network which is designed to work by first breaking off from the initial
connection with a base station before switching to another base station.
This is done in order to retain communications in a session for mobile
users after incurring a non-perceptible and insignificant brief interruption.
A Hard handoff is also referred to as Break-before-Make handover.

Cell Radius
Hatas Empirical formula
Path Loss =
= 69.55 + 26.16 * log(fc) 13.82 * log(hb) + [44.9 6.55 * log(hb)] log(R)
a(hm)
where,
hb is the base station effective antenna height in
meters fc is the carrier frequency in MHz
hm is the mobile station effective antenna height in
meters PL is the propagation loss or path loss EIRP in
dB
a(hm) is the correction factor for the mobile station antenna
height, hm in meter. A = 0 for hm = 1.5 m.
R is the cell radius in kilometers
From above equation, cell radius R can be calculated.

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Differences between 2G and

3G

Parameter

2G

3G

License fees is low. Network License fees is high. Network

Cost
construction and
construction and
maintenance is also low.
maintenance is also high.
Lower data speeds, and less High data speeds, and more
Data
compatible with functions of
compatible with newer
Transmission
smartphone.
technology.
Data
236 kbps (UL and DL)
21Mbps(DL) and 5.7Mbps (UL)
Speed
Basic services and
Mobile TV, video transfers and
Features
supplementary services
GPS
Frequency
200kHz
5MHz
Band Width
Security

Low

High

Modulation

GMSK

QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, BPSK

Channel
Access

FDMA with TDMA

FDD with WCDMA

Frequency

900MHz and 1800MHz

2100MHz

No. of Sites

231

Required less for a particular Required more for a particular

area as frequency of
area as frequency of
coverage is less
coverage is more

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232

A Visit to the Cell Site

During the course of the internship, I was allowed to visit the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS), and inside its shelter, and I was briefed about
all the network equipments.

Inside the Shelter

1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Fig: BTS

The BTS of used here was manufactured by NSN. This model was
called Flexi Edge BTS. It can support a maximum of 24 TRX.

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2. Power Interface Unit

It stops the fluctuations of AC. Its output is smooth AC. Its output
is fed to SMPS.
3. SMPS

Fig: SMPS

To convert AC to DC. It has many modules for conversion. If power

conversion limit exceeds, new modules need to be added to
convert more power. Power converter by the SMPS is supplied to
BTS and its TRXs. For connections, feeder cables are used. MCB is
used in the SMPS for protection of the circuit.
4. Battery bank
Its output is -48V. Battery Bank is used to supply power in the
time interval of main power cut and switching to the power
supplied by Diesel Generator. It can supply power for 4-5 hours.
-48V is kept as a standard for Cathodic Protection.

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Fig: Battery Bank

5. Duplexer
A duplexer is a device that allows bi-directional (duplex)
communication over a single path. It isolates the receiver from
the transmitter while permitting them to share a common
antenna.
6. ACs and Fans
The AC prevent the overheating of all the instruments of the
shelter. Fans provide immediate backup in case AC goes off.

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On the Tower

Fig: GSM Tower

1. Microwave Antenna

Fig: Microwave Antenna

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To transmit or receive data from other sites, like from a BTS to

other BTS or from a BTS to a BSC. Frequencies has no relation with
size of the microwave antennas. Microwave antennas used for Line
of Sight communications only.
2. GSM Antennas

Fig: GSM Antenna

These antennas are used for providing network coverage.
Signals received in the MS are due to them.
3. Grounding
Grounding used to protect the site from current leakage. Site
always installed on a proper concrete support pillar.
4. Shape of the Tower
Triangular or Straight shape doesnt matter. Neither does three
tower pillars or four. It all depends on design and cost management
and load of antennas it should handle.

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