In the solution of this equation there is a solution for the sub critical flow Fh<1 and one for
the
supercritical case Fh>1. Physically this corresponds respectively to the aerodynamic
conditions of subsonic and supersonic flow if the Froude number is replaced by the Mach
number U/a because this equation is also the equation governing the linearized steady state
two dimensional flow in aerodynamics, with compressibility effects represented by the speed
of sound which is a.
Imagine now that this analogy is applied to explain what happens in shallow water and it is
referred to (a) in Figure 5.7 where a point representing the vehicle is radiating a wave
spreading with the speed of sound. After a certain time step dt, the wave front has got the
radius a dt. In meantime, the point with velocity U has travelled over a distance U dt. Since U
< a, a picture as on (a) in Figure 5.7 is obtained. We are still in the sub critical region where
the V shape depends on U/a.
Figure 5.7 Sound waves (Mach)
Figure 5.7 (c) an example of supercritical flow is shown. If we apply the relation given above
between T and Fnh, we get the following values for T and Fnh, which are also given in Figure
5.3:
147
Fnh
0.38
0.42
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.70
0.82
0.92
0.96
0.99
1.00
1.005
1.41
1.73
2.00
3.00
T (degrees)
19.47
19.47
19.48
19.50
19.62
20.30
23.70
39.32
59.45
78
90
84
45
35
30
19.47
In a towing tank, the depth is approximately 5 to 6 meters. The maximum speed of the models
is approximately 10 m/s. A consequence of this is that speed prognoses based on results from
tests in a towing tank should be made with carefulness.
From Figure 5.1, Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.4 and the few examples below it is evident that:
x Fast ships with lengths up to 40 meters operate at a FN number close to 0.90 and at depths
between h/L= 0.10 and 0.30, where the influence of shallow water is marked. However, if
the model tests shall be relevant for deep water the test should be made at h L t 2.0
which means h t 6 8m . In other words: The model tests are not always 100%
representative for the service condition.
x A fast ship with a length of 150 meters and a speed of 50 knots operates at FN = 0.67. At
this speed the critical depth is 67.4 which gives h/L = 0.45. This shows that a larger an fast
ship often may operate near the critical speed in full scale. In model scale the depth in a
normal tank is about 5.5m, which gives h/L=0.33. If we study Figure 5.1, it is indicated
that tests in the towing tank are valied for shallow water. However if it is required that the
model tests shall be valid for "deep water", this can not be fulfilled.
x A frigate has a length of 100 meters and does often operate at h/L=0.23 and FN=0.435. A
normal model length would be 6 meters (h/L =0.92). As seen from Figure 5.2 and Figure
5.4, the wave resistance may be doubled, due to the shallow water effect.
In cases where both Fnh and FN >1.25, the transverse waves are not present any more. Figure
2.46 indicates that the wave resistance in this case is due to divergent waves and decreases
with FN. The resistance due to the transom stern becomes more important.
148
6 DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
COMPONENTS
the main point in this section is
x
to show how it is possible to measure the wave resistance, viscous resistance and
resistance due to wave breaking separately, using special measurement techniques.
The waves generated by the ship are distributed in the direction of motion (transverse waves)
and out to the sides (divergent waves) (see Figure 2.45). At low and moderate speed most of
the wave energy is in the waves following the ship (transverse waves). If the speed is high,
most of the energy is in the divergent waves.
It is possible to measure velocities and static pressure at different distances from the surface
and out to the sides behind the ship. The measurements can be made with a pitot rake placed
at a distance equal to 0.5 L behind the model, as shown in Figure 6.3 and below. During tests
with a conventional model, measurements are normally made in a depth down to 1 m and in a
width of about 3 m.
In such measurements, one control plane is placed in front of the model and one control plane
is placed behind the model. The planes follow the model as indicated in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Definitions for wave resistance measurement
The total resistance can, as already discussed, be expressed by the change in pressure and
momentum between two control planes, one far in front and one behind the model:
RT
(( p U u (u V )) dy dz (( p U u (u V )) dy dz
A
(6.1)
where A is the control plane far in front of the model while B is the control plane behind the
model.
149
If the total resistance is known, and the wave resistance is wanted, the viscous resistance is
subtracted from the total resistance. The viscous resistance follows from measurements of the
total pressure between the control planes. This is done applying Bernoulli's equation, as
indicated in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Measurement of total head
The definition total head has been applied and is defined as:
H
pUgz
U
2
(u V ) 2 v 2 w2
(6.2)
where u, v and w are velocities induced by the hull in the x, y and z directions and V is the
velocity of the ship.
A has a position so far in front of the ship that these velocities are zero or close to zero.
The total head far in front of the ship is then:
H0 = U g z +
U
2
V2
which gives the following total resistance:
RT
( H
H ) dy dz U g z dy dz
B
2
B
((v 2 w2 u 2 ) dy dz
(6.3)
The total resistance is according to this, expressed by the velocities induced in the control
plane behind the hull. The second link is transformed in such a way that the total resistance
becomes:
RT
( H
B
H ) dy dz
U
2
g ] 2 dy
B
U
2
(v 2 w2 u 2 ) dy dz
(6.4)
150
where ] is the wave height behind the boat in control plane B at the breadth y
It is assumed that the flow on the outside of the viscous wake is free from rotation, and that H
therefore is constant along the streamline (and that Bernoulli's equation can bee applied).
Inside the wake, the flow has rotation. For such cases it is assumed that the width of the wake
1
2
1
2
is proportional to x . Maximum wake (maximum back flow velocity) is proportional to x .
With these assumptions:
( H
B
H ) dy dz U V uW dy dz
(6.5)
in the wake where:
uW
W
U
friction velocity and a measure of formation of turbulence and
transmission of momentum due to turbulent fluctuations in the wake
W = shear stress
The viscous resistance is expressed as:
RV
( H
H ) dy dz
(6.6)
and the wave resistance as:
RW
U
2
g ] 2 dy
B
U
2
(v 2 w2 u 2 ) dy dz
(6.7)
H and Ho are measured in different ways. It is for example normal to measure H directly as
shown in Figure 6.2, where the total head is measured directly applying a Prandtl tube.
The wave pattern resistance can be measured by measuring the wave elevation in a
longitudinal cut along the side of the ship, as sketched in Figure 6.10.
It is also possible to determine the viscous resistance by measuring the velocities and static
pressure at different distances from the surface and in the breadth behind the model. The
measurements are made with pitot rakes at approximately 0.5 L behind the model as shown in
Figure 6.3.
151
Figure 6.3 Measurement of viscous resistance using a rake of pitot tubes. The vertical
rake of tubes must be traversed across the width of the wake.
As shown before, it is possible to express the viscous resistance with the total pressure behind
and in front of the model as:
RV
( H
H ) dy dz
(6.8)
where H and Ho can be measured in different ways but it is normal to measure H directly
without measuring pressure and velocity separately.
The viscous resistance is registered as a change in pressure and momentum between an
undisturbed point in front of the model and a point in the control plane behind the model. The
plane is placed so far behind the model that the static pressure no longer is influenced by the
local flow.
Figure 6.4 shows as an example results from such measurements for a slender model with a
sharp forebody and for a full tanker model. It is observed that two types of curves are present.
The tanker model has a top in the middle but also one top on each side. These tops on the
sides are not due to the viscous resistance. They contain the energy in the breaking wave, as
indicated in Figure 6.5.
152
Figure 6.4 Results of wake traverse measurements of two different ship types (Baba)
When the wave is breaking, the energy is transformed in such a way that it may be registered
as false viscous resistance as shown in Figure 6.5.
Two components of the viscous resistance are therefore identified:
Rv
Rv 0 Rv1
(H
A
H ) ds ( H 0 H ) ds
(6.9)
The first integral is valid for the central part, while the second integral is valid for the region,
which is influenced by the wave breaking.
Figure 6.5 Division of wake zone due to viscous resistance and due to wave breaking
153
The last component may become large but is not proportional to CF. It is only dependent on
FN. In resistance calculations, this component must therefore be added to Cw if Cw has been
measured by wave cuts. Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7 show that good correlation is obtained
between resistance from towing of the model and resistance obtained by summing up the
components measured separately.
Figure 6.6 Resistance components of a slender ship
Figure 6.7 Resistance components of tankers in ballast.
At MARINTEK, several tankers were tested in a research program on energy saving in
shipping. Different fore and after bodies were tested and the wave resistance Rw and the
components Rvo+Rv1 measured. Two of the hulls are shown in Figure 6.8 and Figure 6.9,
together with the wake measurement results and derived resistance. It is possible on both
models to recognise the shape of the waterlines or the frames in the after body. It is observed
that Rw+Rvo+Rv1 corresponds well with measured total resistance.
154
CT
Resistance coefficients *1000
5.5
CW
5
CV
CV
4.5
3.5
CF
3
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.2
0.21
0.22
FN [-]
Figure 6.8 Frame shape, wake measurement results, and calculated resistance for ship
model M32 (Marintek)
155
4.8
CT
Resistance coefficients *1000
4.6
4.4
CW
4.2
4
CV
CV
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
CF
3
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.2
0.21
0.22
FN [-]
Figure 6.9 Frame shape, wake measurement results, and calculated resistance for ship
model M49 (Marintek)
156
6.1.1
Measurement of the Wave Pattern and Estimation of the Wave Resistance.
We have seen that the wave resistance increases with the square of the wave height, and seen
that it is possible to measure the wave resistance by measuring the wave pattern of the ship or
the model. In the following, it will be shown that this is also the case if the flow is three dim.
Figure 6.10 shows arrangements for such measurements in three- dim flow.
Figure 6.10 Longitudinal cut measurement of wave pattern resistance
According to Havelock (1953), a three- dim wave system created by a ship may be expressed
as:
S
[ ( x. y )
S S (T ) sin K
2
sec 2 T ( x x0 cos T y sin T ) dT
S
2
C (T ) cos K 0 sec 2 T ( x x0 u cos T y sin T ) dT
(6.10)
S
2
where
[ ( x, y ) wave height at a given point (x, y)
T = angle between the wave direction and the longitudinal axis of the ship. See Figure
2.44.
157
S (T ), C (T ) = amplitude functions (or constants) determined from analysis of a
measured wave system and dependent on the shape of the waterlines of the ship.
K0
g
V2
g = acceleration of gravity
It is also possible to calculate these functions theoretically for a given ship shape.
Assume two planes one in front of ship and one behind the ship perpendicular to the direction
of the ship's course. The plane A is far ahead of the ship. The plane B is far in the rear. At a
given time, the wave system is crossing the plane B. After a time step ' t the wave system has
moved to the plane A.
The increase in energy in the fluid between the two planes is equal to an increase in wave
energy corresponding to the increase in the area of the free-wave pattern. By introducing the
distance 'x V 't between the two planes, Havelock by a lengthy calculation obtained an
expression for the time average of this energy as:
S
2
E 'x S U V 3 't A2 (T )
S
2
cos3 T
dT
1 sin 2 T
(6.11)
where
A2 (T )
S 2 (T ) C 2 (T )
is the square of the wave amplitude.
This increase of energy is attributable to the work W1 performed by the ship as it advances
against wave-making resistance, RW:
W1 't
RW 'x
RW V 't
The second source, W2 is the work performed through vertical plane B, by the fluid through
the rear plane. W2 is the energy transfer due to the wave motion. The values of W2 and energy
E changes with time according to the phase of the wave. The time average is expressed as
follows:
S
W 2 't
S
2
U V 3 't
A2 (T )
S
2
cos5 (T )
dT
1 sin 2 (T )
(6.12)
From the law of conservation of energy:
E 'x W1 't W 2 't
the wave resistance is expressed in the simple form:
158
RW
W2
E
V
S
2
U V 2 S 2 (T ) C 2 (T ) cos3 T dT
(6.13)
It is observed that the wave making resistance is obtained by an integration of the quantity
A2(T) weighed by the quantity cos3T. This shows that the wave making resistance increases
little when T varies. It is also clear that mainly the amplitude of the transverse wave
determines the wave making resistance. As the diverging wave, especially at a large T-value,
has a small wavelength, it is more visible than the transverse wave when ship's waves are
observed from above downward vertically. This is because of the fact that the diverging wave
has a steeper slope than the transverse wave. This sometimes tends to give an erroneous
impression about the relative importance of these two waves with respect to wave-making
resistance.
It is now possible to connect the visible ship's wave directly to the wave-making resistance
and to compare theoretical computations with experimentally observed ship's waves.
159
160
