Center for

Photosynthesis Research
Towards BioSolar Cells
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Leiden University
VU University Amsterdam
University of Groningen

May 2008

Towards BioSolar Cells

Center for Photosynthesis Research

Towards BioSolar Cells

May 2008

Center for Photosynthesis Research

Prof. dr. H. van Amerongen:

Prof. dr. R.J. Bino:
Dr. R. Croce:
Prof. dr. R. van Grondelle:
Prof.dr. H.J.M. de Groot:

Wageningen University
Wageningen UR
University of Groningen
VU University Amsterdam
Leiden University

Colofon
Editor:
Dr. H.J.M. Lffler
Graphic Design: Wageningen UR Communication Services
Printing:
Proppress B.V. Wageningen

Information
Prof. Dr. R.J. Bino (Raoul.Bino@wur.nl)
Dr. H.J.M. Lffler (Huub.Loffler@wur.nl)
Phone: (+31) 0317 481001
Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen UR
Droevendaalsesteeg 1
6708 PB, Wageningen

Towards BioSolar Cells

1 Executive summary
The Netherlands is in an excellent position to initiate
and to establish the Center for Photosynthesis Research within its borders. Such an effort would:
Capitalize on the scientific excellence present in
The Netherlands,
Contribute to the exploration and exploitation of
photosynthesis for energy to meet future energy
demands,
Contribute to high agricultural yields to meet
future biomass demands,
Disclose and develop scientific fields related to
photosynthesis,
Offer education for future generations of scientists
and capacity building for industry and society,
Open business opportunities in the energy-related
sectors,
Put the Netherlands in the drivers seat in photo
synthesis research in societally and economi
cally highly relevant fields.
A joint effort of the scientific community, companies
and the government is needed to realize the initiative.
The center is a virtual organization with a foreseen
lifetime of three times five years. For the first 5-year
phase, a financing of at least 10 M per year will be
necessary. Both the government and private companies will be asked to financially support the programme. This underlying concept note summarizes the
objectives, strategy and organization of the center.

Photosynthetic organisms evolved the capacity to

convert solar energy into biomass. This biomass is
used for food, feedstock and increasingly for bioenergy. To fulfill these needs for a growing (world)
population without irreversible damage to the ecosystem is a formidable challenge. The main hurdle is that
overall organisms are not very efficient in harvesting
the free source of solar energy. Less than 1% of the
solar energy reaching a typical crop plant is stored as
biomass. Therefore, improving the energy harvesting
efficiency of organisms will have an enormous effect
on biomass production, to the benefit of food, feedstock and bio-energy supply. Even more challenging is
designing systems that allow photosynthetic energytapping before the energy is converted into biomass. A
thorough understanding of photosynthesis, its hierarchical organization and its underlying mechanisms is
essential to capitalize on these approaches.
New innovative technologies in the field of biotechnology, nanotechnology and genomics, provide us with
tools to improve photosynthetic energy conversion.
These tools enable us to study and understand the
fundamental processes of photosynthesis from the
molecular building blocks via the thylakoid membrane
to the leaf of a plant including its biological and physical diversity. This knowledge is the key to improving
the energy efficiency of photosynthesis either by direct
energy tapping or by the production of energy-efficient
biomass.

2 Vision
The world faces a rapidly increasing demand for sustainable energy. This need is mainly driven by concern
for climate change and energy-security. To address this
concern, The European Union formulated the directive
to use 20% sustainable energy by 2020, of which half
is of biological origin. In the long term, the share of
sustainable energy needs to increase further to replace
fossil fuels, and in all possible scenarios solar energy
plays a major role. The sun is by far the biggest source
of energy and we need to exploit solar energy better.

Dutch research groups are world leaders in photosynthesis. Here we propose a new initiative to combine
the work of these groups with the ultimate goal of revealing and developing the potential of photosynthesis
for the benefit of mankind. To accomplish this goal we
plan to establish a Center for Photosynthesis Research
(CPR) that will form the backbone of a national photosynthesis programme. This business plan summarizes
the objectives, strategy and organization of the CPR.

Center for Photosynthesis Research

Re-engineering organisms for optimal photosynthetic

energy conversion into biomass.
Different organisms like plants, algae and cyanobacteria
possess photosynthetic systems. A large variation in the
efficiency of various components of the photosynthetic
systems exists across organisms, in particular regarding the energy efficiency of CO2 sequestration. This
variation can be exploited by re-designing organisms
with genomic tools. An increased energy-efficiency of
organisms will yield a higher biomass production, that in
turn can be used for food, feed-stock or fuel.

3 Objective and strategy

The objective of the Center for Photosynthesis Research is
to explore and exploit photosynthesis to improve the
quality of life
To reach this objective, the center will focus on three
topics:
1) Systems biology of photosynthetic processes,
2) Re-engineering organisms for optimal photo synthetic energy conversion into biomass,
3) The design of systems for energy-tapping before
the energy is converted into biomass.

The design of systems for energy-tapping before the

energy is converted into biomass.
Much energy loss in plants is caused by the conversion
of the captured energy into biomass. Therefore, systems that allow the tapping of energy from intermediates of early photosynthetic processes are more efficient
as energy-source than biomass.
The ultimate goal of the CPR is to increase the quality of life by increasing the efficiency of solar energy
conversion by biological systems from a typical, humble
1% to at least 10%. The ultimate goal of the CPR is to
increase the quality of life by increasing the efficiency
of solar energy conversion by biological systems from a
typical, humble 1% to at least 10%. To accomplish this
objective, a massive research effort will be needed. The
CPR intends to deliver these goals in cooperation with
the best scientific and industrial partners, and through
its network in the international scientific community.

Systems biology of photosynthetic processes.

Studying the fundamental processes of photosynthesis
requires a concerted effort of different scientific areas
including (photo-)physics, biochemistry, plant physiology, genomics and nano-technology. Systems biology
is the new scientific area that enables the integration
of these different areas and hence will deliver a keytechnology in the CPR. The fundamental research
will result in a versatile quantitative systems biology
description of the energy conversion from photon to
carbohydrate, including the spatial organization of the
constituents, in the context of the physiology of cells
and leaves. This knowledge will serve the other objectives.

NADPH
ATP

Calvin
Cyclus

Glucose

Energy

Energy

Towards BioSolar Cells

4 Introduction into photosynthesis

Research example 1: Solar Cells for Methanol

Through photosynthesis, aerobic green plants, algae,

cyanobacteria, and a number of classes of anaerobic
bacteria are able to transform solar energy into chemical energy. The first photosynthetic reactions are the
absorption of light by an antenna or light-harvesting
complex, the rapid transfer of the energy of the absorbed energy through antennas until it reaches a special
chlorophyll molecule in a reaction centre, the transfer
of an electron from this reaction centre chlorophyll to
an adjacent acceptor molecule, and the stabilization
of this charge separated state by rapid secondary
proton-coupled electron transfer processes and protein
dynamics. Subsequent electron and proton transfer
reactions use the available energy to extract electrons
from water while producing oxygen and to synthesize
a variety of energy-rich molecules that can be used by
metabolism, for instance light-driven CO2 reduction to
produce starch (H2CO) with high efficiency. This task
is performed by the Calvin cycle that runs in the chloroplast organelle. Along the way, a series of photophysical, photochemical and electrochemical reactions
that process the energy from the solar photons convert
part of the free energy of these harvested photons into
chemical free energy in a metabolically useable form
(typically as ATP, NADPH). In plants and eukaryotic
algae, these reactions are located in and around the
thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts, and involve
both photosystem I and II, the thylakoid electron transport chain and the thylakoid ATP synthase. In the case
of the prokaryotes (cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria) the organization and functioning of the
photosynthetic process differ from that of the eukaryotes but nonetheless share the same operational
principles.

Plants convert CO2 into sugars and other energyrich components by using solar energy (photosynthesis). The overall efficiency is typically only 1-2%.
Solar cells are much more efficient (15-20%), but
have the disadvantage of yielding electricity rather
than the fuel that is needed for transport. It is a scientific challenge to combine the best of two worlds:
develop a solar cell that efficiently produces fuels.
To develop such cells, photosynthesis is reduced
to its simplest core. In this simplified system, CO2
is no longer converted into sugars, but into methanol. Methanol can be used as liquid fuel or serve
as bulk-chemical for further processing. This simplified system consists of a solar cell that convert
light energy into chemical energy in the form of
NADH. The latter can react with CO2 to form methanol in a 3-step enxymatic conversion sequence.
The H+ needed for the enzymatic reactions is
delivered by NADH.
All elements needed for this simplified system are
present in living organisms. Engineering these elements and integrating them in the correct materials
will result in a new type of solar cell: a solar cell that
yields fuel instead of electricity. The cells avoid the
formation of energy-demanding complex organic
compounds as is the case in natural biomass production and thus are expected to have a high efficiency.

Solar energy
New solar cell
Solar energy
Electrical energy
(H2O
H+ + O2 + e-)

Control over the energy flows at the level of the photosynthetic membrane and optimization of the underlying
energy conversion processes by artificial means will allow for the generic improvement of biomass conversion efficiency. For instance, a secondary, but important,
function of antenna systems is to prevent photodamage by the reactive products formed by the absorp-

Chemical energy
NAD+ + H+ NADH
NADH NADH NADH
CO2 HCOOH H2CO CH3OH
Generation of methanol
(CH3OH) from CO2

Center for Photosynthesis Research

tion of light. If damage could be avoided by making the

photochemical system more robust, this would eliminate losses. Subsequent to the primary photochemical
reaction a series of electrochemical reactions convert
part of the free energy conserved by photochemistry
into metabolically useable forms, for example ATP. The
exact nature of these processes differs substantially
between different organisms and the efficiency of this
conversion depends on cellular and environmental
factors (i.e. light, temperature, water). In all organisms,
the rate of this chemical conversion is tightly controlled
because of the reactive nature of chemical intermediates that are formed. The regulation of these secondary
energy conversion processes is normally coupled to
the damage avoidance processes of the light-harvesting and antenna complexes and reaction centres.
Although these mechanisms are necessary in order to
protect the organisms against photodamage, unnecessary losses take place, especially under more permissive conditions.

Research example 2: The introduction of C4

photosynthetic machinery into C3 plants
Plants are evolutionary well adapted to their
environment. The environment, however, may
change more rapidly that evolution can respond.
Therefore, sub-optimal systems can occur. One
known example of sub-optimal performance is the
Rubisco-enzyme. This enzyme is responsible for
the binding of CO2 during photosynthesis, but is
only efficient at the high CO2 concentrations which
occurred in the early days of our planet. Rubisco
is much less efficient at the relatively low CO2
concentrations of the last million years. Nature
responded to this low efficiency by developing the
so-called C4 plants. These plants possess extra
features that lead to a higher concentration of CO2
at the surface of the Rubisco-enzyme.
The C4-system is not very common: the original
(C3) system is far more abundant. A thorough
knowledge of the C4-system enables us to transfer
this system to important C3-crops, enhancing the
photosynthetic efficiency of these crops and in that
way enhance their potential yield.

Photosynthetic organisms produce ATP and NADPH,

which are energy-rich molecules that convert carbon
dioxide to carbohydrates in the light-independent Calvin cycle. The CO2 is converted by rubisco, which is
the most abundant protein on earth. The simple sugar
phosphates formed by the Calvin cycle are further
processed into more complex carbohydrates or lipids.
The efficiency of the Calvin cycle depends on many
cellular and environmental factors that differ between
the various organisms. For instance, in plants the rate
of carbon dioxide fixation is partly controlled through
pores (stomata) in the leaves. Hot or dry weather
cause plants to close their stomata to conserve water
which limits the exchange of gasses, and consequently
reduces the rate of carbon fixation. In contrast, micro
-organisms can grow at high density in water and can
produce more than fifteen times the amount of biomass while reducing water demand. By developing
new concepts for the efficient conversion of energy
stored at the photosynthetic membrane into fuels
(hydrogen, methanol, ethanol), a leap in agricultural
production can be realized.

Sugarcane: a C4 crop.

Potato: a C3 crop.

Towards BioSolar Cells

Our understanding of photosynthesis is primarily

based on the work that has been done with plants.
Photosynthesis in algae and photosynthetic bacteria is
more diverse and flexible, with the capacity to produce
interesting and valuable products, such as hydrocarbons in some algae. We need to know much more
about the biodiversity of photosynthetic metabolism in
these organisms and how such diversity can be further
exploited.

Research example 3: Photosystem III

A photosystem is a system that captures solar
energy during photosynthesis. Plants have two of
those systems: photosystem I and photosystem II.
These systems interact in a synergetic way, increasing the efficiency of energy capture. Due to their
somewhat different color sensitivity, both systems
only partly compete for the available light.
Purple bacteria possess a photosystem which absorbs light in the near infrared where plants, algae
and cyanobacteria are totally inactive. Successfully
combining such a system with the two systems
already present in plants will further increase the
efficiency of photosynthesis. This combination is
a scientific challenge, that needs to be based on
a thorough knowledge of the mechanisms and the
genetic background of the photosystems. Advanced genomics technologies are already available
to transfer the responsible properties involved from
one organism to another. This will result in plants
with a higher energy efficiency.

5 Research
CPR will focus on the understanding of the fundamental processes of photosynthesis and its biological and
physical diversity. This knowledge will be exploited for
the improvement of energy production both in natural
and in artificial systems. Understanding photosynthesis
requires a multidisciplinary approach. Therefore the
CPR will work on physical, biochemical, physiological
and genetic aspects of photosynthesis in green plants,
algae and cyanobacteria in an integrated manner. The
CPR will make use of available expertise and technologies in the field of biotechnology, nanotechnology,
genomics and systems biology and will contribute to a
further development of these scientific areas.

First goal:
The photosystems contain large numbers of organic
components. These components interact in a complex
and diversified way. Elucidating the divesity and flexibility of the various components and their interactions will
show what interactions limit the overall energy conversion and how the complex system that is the result
of these interactions can be harnessed. Solving the
mechanisms of how the various components interact
requires biochemical and biophysical expertise and the
use of various types of advanced spectroscopy, imaging
and high throughput screening techniques. The essential
electron- and energy transfer processes in light-harvesting and photochemistry start in the femtosecond to nanosecond time-range and couple into processes at much
longer time scales, of the order of days. The analysis by
advanced ultrafast laser spectroscopic techniques opens
up new markers that provide a view on the complex

Center for Photosynthesis Research

processes at the membrane and cell level, and complement other imaging techniques and metabolomics
analyses. The subsequent electron and proton transport
reactions that transform the chemical energy trapped by
the reaction centre into metabolically useful forms asks
for technically innovative approaches to spectroscopy
and other biochemical analyses. We will unravel these
mechanisms by creating a comprehensive model of photosynthesis that will be tested at various physiological
conditions and in a number of organisms.

Photosynthesis@School: outreaching to
Dutch high-school students
.. Life on earth depends fully on solar energy.
Photosynthesis captures this energy. Even fossil
fuels are based on photosynthetical processes in
the far past. Wageningen UR runs mobile education programs for high-school students, enabling
students to get in touch with the fascinating world
of photosynthesis. The students are challenged
to address scientific questions by using advanced
equipment. Each year, over 65 schools and over
2500 students participate in the program. The
program serves to raise interest for technology,
to educate a future generation of experts and to
initiate and stimulate the debate on energy and
future energy options.

Second goal:
The basis of all photosynthetic reactions lies within the
genetic code of the organisms. The second goal of the
CPR is to use genomics tools to analyze the genes
that control the photosynthetic reactions and to change
this code. Using genomics, metabolomics and proteomics, in combination with state-of-the-art biotechnology
and systems biology modeling, the CPR will characterize, isolate and modify genes and gene products (i.e.
RNAs, proteins and metabolites) of the photosynthetic
building blocks. We will use these genes and products
to enable the re-engineering of genomes and organisms with a higher overall energy-efficiency. In addition, we will add genes from other organisms to produce
a variety of compounds with desired properties.
Third goal:
The third goal of the CPR is to integrate the acquired
knowledge to tap energy from intermediate photosynthetic processes. Understanding photosynthetic
complexes is key for designing these biological organic
energy-conversing devices. Research in this direction
is rapidly gaining global interest, and the Dutch scientific community plays a front-running role in this scientific
field. The CPR will integrate artificial components into
biological systems by making use of nanotechnology.

Towards BioSolar Cells

6 Education
The CPR will pay specific attention to education. The
excellent position of Dutch research groups need to
be safe-guarded for the future. In addition, the industry
is in large need of well-educated personnel that helps
to fulfill the promises of the CPR. The main goal is to
develop educational programmes as a way to improve
the attractiveness of the photosynthetic sciences to
scholars and students, leading to an increase in the
labour force concerned. The CPR will develop an education and training programme in close contact with
higher education establishments and universities in the
Netherlands and in direct collaboration with current national educational programmes. Participation of industry in educational programmes, as instituted through
the CPR framework, will generate extra opportunities
to set up an attractive education and training agenda.
The CPR will:
Create a scientific environment for graduate and
undergraduate students;
Acquire resources to finance extraordinary
professorships in the basic disciplines;
Arrange a scientific hotel function at universities for
industrial researchers to stimulate a flow of ideas
from science (students) to industry and vice versa
(compare the Casimir programme);
Invite students and young scientists to work in a
company environment as part of their professional
training;
Commit scientists from industry to participate
actively in educational programmes;
Offer support for universities in their attempts to at
tract students;
Offer students financial support for their educational
programme in the plant and other photosynthesis-
related sciences;
Organize master classes in scientific areas related
to photosynthesis, and emerging new related
technologies.

Center for Photosynthesis Research

7 Research on photosynthesis is timely

Only plants, algae and some bacteria are able to
convert solar energy into energy rich biomass and
by harnessing the photosynthetic processes of these
organisms we can develop a sustainable way to cope
with the increasing demand for biomass for energy,
food and feedstock. Scientists all over the world work
on the exploitation of photosynthesis (for more information see: www.photosynthesisresearch.org). Several recent breakthroughs have brought research on
photosynthesis to a stage where significant progress is
expected. At least ten papers have appeared within the
last three years in leading journals like Nature and Science on photosynthesis and many of them were from
European and especially Dutch laboratories (including
our network), stressing the timeliness

of the research topic. Many genomes have now been

sequenced, including those of green plants, algae and
cyanobacteria. New methods of knock-out mutants in
specific genes have been developed, as well as technologies for performing proteomics and metabolomics,
refolding of pigment-protein complexes, several types
of advanced optical and magnetic resonance spectroscopy and various microscopic techniques like cryoelectron tomography, atomic force microscopy and
single-molecule fluorescence microscopy. Structures
of all major photosynthetic complexes are now known
at intermediate or high resolution. Goal of the CPR is
to combine and integrate all the available expertise
and technologies of the best Dutch scientists and to
make a next step in the harnessing of solar energy via
photosynthesis.

10

Towards BioSolar Cells

8 Position of CPR
To achieve its objectives, the CPR will combine the
work of the best scientists of Dutch universities and
institutes, and will strengthen links with the relevant international community. Founding members of the CPR
are the universities of Wageningen (WUR), Amsterdam
(VU) and Leiden (RUL). The specific expertise of each
research group of these universities is complementary
and is required to reach the CPR research goals. The
CPR is led by the founding members and is initiated by
Wageningen University and Research Centre (WUR).
Other Dutch universities, institutes and industries will
be invited to participate on a project base.

Description of founding members:

Wageningen University and Research Centre
(Wageningen UR): Chairs of various Wageningen UR
departments work on molecular, physiological and cellular biophysical aspects of photosynthesis, with special
emphasis on ultrafast fluorescence, microspectroscopy
and genomics of photosynthesis. Keywords are: Modeling, Molecular Biophysics, Biological Spectroscopy,
Biophysical Imaging, Genomics, Metabolomics, Proteomics, Physiology and Sensor technology. Wageningen
UR participates in the graduate research school Experimental Plant Sciences, and various related initiatives
such as the Centre of Biosystems Genomics, the Technological Top Institute Green Genetics, the Netherlands
Metabolomics Centre and the Netherlands Proteomics
Centre. Photosynthetic platform technologies, including
systems biology, are available for plants and algae.

Vol 436|7 July 2005 | doi:10.1038/nature03795

Molecular basis of photoprotection and control of photosynthetic light-harvesting

Andrew A. Pascal, Zhenfeng Liu, Koen Broess, Bart van Oort,
Herbert van Amerongen, Chao Wang, Peter Horton, Bruno Robert,
Wenrui Chang & Alexander Ruban
Vol 450|22 November 2007 | doi:10.1038/nature06262

Identification of a mechanism of photoprotective energy

dissipation in higher plants
Alexander V. Ruban, Rudi Berera, Cristian Ilioaia, Ivo H. M. van Stokkum,
John T. M. Kennis, Andrew A. Pascal, Herbert van Amerongen, Bruno Robert,
Peter Horton & Rienk van Grondelle
NATURE | VOL 421 | 6 FEBRUARY 2003 |www.nature.com/nature

Plants lacking the main lightharvesting complex retain

photosystem II macro-organization

VU University Amsterdam: The VU in Amsterdam

accomodates one of the world leading research groups
on the primary events in photosynthesis. State of the
art ultrafast and CW-laserspectroscopic tools have
been implemented as an important part of the VU-lasercentre (LCVU), a European access facility. Using a
variety of infrared- and single-molecule- spectroscopic
techniques the dynamics of the photosystems can be
followed over many orders of magnitude in time. Both
molecular modeling, multi-scale and systems biology
modeling techniques are employed with great suc-

A. V. Ruban, M. Wentworth, A. E. Yakushevska, J. Andersson, P. J. Lee, W.

Keegstra, J. P. Dekkerk, E. J. Boekema, S. Jansson & P. Horton
NATURE | VOL 430 | 26 AUGUST 2004 |www.nature.com/nature

The native architecture of a photosynthetic membrane

Svetlana Bahatyrova, Raoul N. Frese, C. Alistair Siebert,

John D. Olsen, Kees O. van der Werf, Rienk van Grondelle,
Robert A. Niederman, Per A. Bullough, Cees Otto & C. Neil Hunter
NATURE | VOL 412 | 16 AUGUST 2001 |www.nature.com

A giant chlorophyll-protein complex induced by iron deficiency

in cyanobacteria
E. J. Boekema, A. Hifney, A. E. Yakushevska, M. Piotrowski,
W. Keegstra, S. Berry, K. P. Michel, E. K. Pistorius & J. Kruip

11

Center for Photosynthesis Research

cess to bridge the relevant lengthscales (nm-mm) and

timescales (fs-min). Key words are: Physics of photosynthesis, ultrafast laserspectroscopy, single molecule
biophysics, membrane organization, photoprotection,
multi-scale modeling, systems biology.
Leiden University: Leiden Research groups work on
Photosynthesis and artificial photosynthesis with emphasis on magnetic resonance, atomic force microscope, single molecule and quantum chemical modeling
for in-silico design of artificial components. There is
cross fertilization with groups involved in genomics,
metabolomics, soft condensed matter, catalysis and
electrochemistry of biomolecules on surfaces and
interfaces. Keywords are: Biophysical chemistry, Solid
State Nuclear magnetic resonance, Imaging, atomic
force microscope, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance,
Density Functional Theory, Soft Condensed Matter,
Biosensors, Electrochemistry, Bioinorganic Chemistry, Catalysis, Photosynthesis, Artificial Photosynthesis, Molecular Plant Sciences, Ecology, Biodiversity.
Leiden accommodates the centre for environmental
studies Institute of Environmental Sciences and participates in several Netherlands Genomic Initiative centers, for metabolomics, systems biology and industrial
fermentation. It also participates in the Cyttron cell
imaging observatory. Biodiversity is a core activity for
the Nationaal Herbarium and Naturalis.
University of Groningen: Within the Groningen Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology Institute (GBB)
there is a strong emphasis on structural biology by
electron microscopy, biochemistry and spectroscopy of
photosynthesis. State of the art transmission electron
microscopes have been implemented as an important
part of the GBB research school. Using a variety of
techniques, membrane protein structure, functions and
interactions are studied, either after purification or in
the native cell. Keywords are: Structure of photosynthesis, cryo-electron microscopy, single molecule averaging, membrane organization, electron tomography,
proteomics, biochemistry of photosynthesis, molecular
biology of photosynthesis, light-harvesting, photoprotection and, biological spectroscopy.

12

Towards BioSolar Cells

9 Deliverables

Research example 4: Green Microbial Fuel cells

Our goal is to advance the Dutch industrial and technological position in photosynthesis by a continuous
flow of innovations. Operational effects are based upon
the quality of the programme, achievement of innovation, quality of research, and effects on education. The
quality of the programme will be reviewed by internal
and external panels according to a fixed set of parameters. We will ask an external organization to measure
the level of satisfaction from the three stakeholders:
industrial, research and governmental partners. Our
ambition is to score excellent at all levels.
Innovation deliverables will be based upon return on
investment. We expect that CPR will lead to active
participation of companies and to major contributions
to the R&D of the participating companies, leading to
a greater and broader worldwide market penetration.
The direct financial effect will be monitored by the economic position of the participating companies annually.
The external satisfaction interview will be targeted to
this parameter. Another innovation deliverable is the
number of patents. We expect to generate four patent
applications annually. Also the number of spin-offs will
be measured and considered as an innovation deliverable.

Plants produce simple sugars via photosynthesis.

These simple sugars are biochemically converted into complex compounds that are needed for
growth and maintenance of plants. The second
generation of bio-fuels focuses on converting these
complex compounds again into simple sugars that
are suitable for the easy production of biofuels.
Evidently, it is smarter to avoid the formation of the
complex compounds and tap the simple sugars
directly before they are converted.
In nature, plants exude part of the simples sugars
via the roots to the soil. These sugars are used by
soil-organisms like fungi and bacteria. Alternatively,
mankind can harvest the exudates for the production of energy. In a next step, the recently discovered electrogenic bacteria are par excellence suited
for converting the sugars into electricity or pure
hydrogen. Economically this new technology is only
interesting if the exudation is enhanced to a large
extent. Technical options to do so are within reach.
A higher exudation will result in a poor growth of
the plants, but that is no problem since these plants
function as sugar-factories rather than as biomass
producer.
The new technology fits perfectly with advanced
cultivation technologies like energy-yielding greenhouses. By combining various technologies, new
systems can be developed that are flexible, efficient and are specifically suited to deliver various
forms of energy on a small-scale.

Research deliverables in the coming five years will

be the number of scientific papers (target: about 100
publications in journals with an impact factor higher
than 3.00), the number of presentations at international
conferences (target: 150), the number of PhD theses
(target: 50) and the number of granted projects (i.e.
NWO, STW, EU, EZ Omnibus, IOP) that are additional
to the programme.
Education deliverables will be based upon the contribution to existing study programmes and the number
of new study programmes within the scientific groups
collaborating in CPR, the number of master students
active in CPR projects (target: 50), the number and
quality of master classes (target: four) and increased
interaction with Polytechnic Institutes (HBO/MBO).

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Center for Photosynthesis Research

10 The socio-economic environment

To stimulate the transfer of knowledge, a direct involvement of industrial partners will be organized and
interactive projects between universities, institutes
and industries will be faciliated. After having protected
the intellectual property rights (IPR) and after having
transferred the knowledge to participating companies,
the research groups will publish all the results of the
research in high-rated scientific journals, in theses or
in the popular press.

Results of science will be implemented if they fit in the

proper context. This will only happen when the results
open ways to applications that are socially, economically and ecologically sustainable. This context will be
leading for all activities of the CPR. Social sustainability requires an open eye for the impact of the research
on society at large. For example, due to the enormous
volume of any sustainable energy source, land-coverage is an issue that needs to be addressed. For
ecologically sustainability, the impact on biodiversity
and greenhouse gas emissions need to be addressed.
The economic sustainability requires that any solution
has the potential to become financially attainable.

CPR will take action for the timely and adequate

protection of research results, inter alia via IPR protection. The protection and valorization of IPR will be
in line with the European Community Framework for
State Aid for Research and Development, the new EU
regulations on State Aid for Innovation and the Regulations concerning IPR laid down by the Dutch Ministry
of Economic Affairs. The arrangements for IPR protection and knowledge transfer will be fully defined and
described before the start of CPR.

11 Knowledge transfer and

IPR protection
The main objective of CPR is to develop and convert
knowledge into value for the Dutch economy in the
energy area. Therefore, the participating companies
and research organizations will implement the results
of research into product innovations. For this purpose, the transfer of knowledge between partners and
awareness of the value of such knowledge is one of
the major priorities. The valorization and transfer of
knowledge, technology and material will be the responsibility of all CPR partners.

12 Organization
The organization proposed in these paragraphs will
serve as a guide-line for the final organization, and will
be subject of discussion with the ultimate partners and
financing agencies.
CPR is a virtual institute aimed at scientific collaboration between research organizations and companies
that are interested in research and the exploitation of
photosynthesis. CPR will use the existing infrastructure
of the research partners. A (small) organization will be
formed that is responsible for acquiring and managing
research and educational projects. The total organization and office costs are budgeted at a maximum of
5% of the total budget. The legal form of CPR will be a
not-for-profit foundation according to Dutch law.
A Supervisory Board is responsible for the vision and
strategy of the CPR. It consists of representatives of
the research organizations, companies involved and

Courtesy of A. van Aelst and P. Lamers

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Towards BioSolar Cells

financing agencies. The Supervisory Board appoints

the Managing Director and Programme Leaders. The
Managing Director forms a management team together
with three Programme Leaders, one for each of the
three primary research lines of CPR. The Managing
Director is responsible for the internal organization and
supervises the personnel, financial and administrative
aspects of the organization. Programme leaders are
responsible for the implementation of scientific projects
within their domain.

carried out by Project Review Committees (one committee for each programme). These (international)
committees work under the responsibility of the Management Team. The exact nature of the committees
will be decided in consultation with financing agencies.
In reviewing the proposals, the committees take into
account:
confidentiality regarding the contents of the pro
posal and the participants;
scientific quality of the proposal;
valorization opportunities;
commitment of the companies and research institu-
tes involved, both in financial terms and in terms of
the implementation of results.
The Project Review Committees advise the Supervisory Board. This board decides whether or not a
project is accepted and under what conditions.

The Management Team is responsible for the scientific quality of the research programme and the dissemination of research results. It is also involved in
guarding the processes of valorization of research
results and the protection of intellectual property rights.
The Management Team plays an important role in the
evaluation of the research proposals, together with
the Project Evaluation Committees. The management
team represents the CPR in all external relations.

Selected projects will be executed within the Research

Programmes, each under the responsibility of a project
leader. The project leaders report to the Programme
Leader, who in turn reports to the Management Team.

Research groups will be invited to submit project

proposals. The evaluation of these proposals will be

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Center for Photosynthesis Research

13.

Finances

CPR is a virtual organization with a foreseen lifetime

of three times five years. For the first 5-year phase, a
financing of at least 10 M per year will be necessary.
Acknowledging the character of CPR, both fundamental research and the exploitation of results, a public
private financing scheme is foreseen. Both the government and private companies will be asked to financially
support the programme.
To acquire funding, the CPR will approach agencies
that finance scientific programmes, companies that are
involved in biomass production and energy conversion
and the Dutch government for alignment with the innovation agendas.

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Center for
Photosynthesis Research
Towards BioSolar Cells
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Leiden University
VU University Amsterdam
University of Groningen

May 2008