Automotive Shock Absorbers

Features, designs, applications

Automotive Shock Absorbers ................................................................................................1

Features, designs, applications ...........................................................................................1
Purpose of vibration damping................................................................................................2
Vibration damping basics ......................................................................................................3
Vehicle suspension models.................................................................................................3
Damping requirements ......................................................................................................5
Damping principles ............................................................................................................6
Hydraulic damping.............................................................................................................6
Telescopic shock absorber designs .........................................................................................8
Twin-tube shock absorbers ................................................................................................8
Twin-tube spring strut (McPherson strut)..........................................................................10
Monotube shock absorbers..............................................................................................11
Coil over shock absorbers ................................................................................................13
Special designs of the monotube damper.........................................................................13
Light-weight shock absorbers ..........................................................................................14
Custom features through modular design ........................................................................15
Rebound and compression stops ..................................................................................15
Damper end mounts ....................................................................................................16

Purpose of vibration damping

Vehicle shock absorbers are actually vibration dampers. However, in automotive chassis
applications shock absorber has become the most widely used term. Shock absorbers or
vibration dampers are not only used in automotive suspensions but also in truck cabins, seats,
steering, and as impact absorbers for vehicle bumper systems. The major portion of this book
will focus on chassis vibration damping, since this is the major and most significant area of
application. Other designs will be defined in the sections Special designs of the monotube
damper and Impact absorbers.
Vibration dampers are arranged parallel to the vehicle suspension and have the following
tasks:
To damp post-vibration of the vehicle body caused by uneven roads or driving conditions
To quickly settle road-induced wheel and axle vibration, i.e. to provide a constant tire to
road contact and subsequently ensure good tracking and braking performance.
When the vehicle drives over a bump,
suspension springs and vibration dampers are
compressed. The resulting shock to the vehicle
m
will be absorbed by the suspension. The
suspension prevents a contact between the
Driving direction
sprung mass (m2: body and payload) and the
unsprung mass (m1: axle and wheels).
m
However, the springs strive to release the
stored energy by relaxing themselves again. In
Ground elevation
order to quickly settle this recoil action of
Fig. 1: Coupled vibrations of chassis and body masses
vibration between axle and body, the chassis is
equipped with vibration dampers. Sprung and unsprung masses vibrate in different frequency
ranges. The vibration graphs shown in Figure 1 clearly illustrate how the vibrations caused by
a road input (undamped vibrations: blue curves) are settled through the damper (red curves).
The dampers and springs of a vehicle suspension
should not be viewed separately. During driving
Elasticities
Kinematics
operations, the various chassis parameters will
Pivot
bushings
Axle systems
affect each other. Figure 2 illustrates the various
Mounts
Articulation point
effects on the chassis vibration behavior. Besides
Axle parts
Set values
Body
the springs, spring-loaded stops, dampers and
stabilizers, the axle kinematics influenced by its
elasticity and the interaction between kinematics
and elasticity are very important. Today, these soFunctional
Other
called elasto-kinematics are applied in particular
elements
influences
for horizontal movements. The chassis dynamics
Springs
Steering
are not only influenced by the steering system,
Stops
Tires
Dampers
Engine mounts
but also by the tires and the engine mounting.
Stabilizers
These are individual vibrating systems. Today,
engine transmission mounts are optimized to the
Fig. 2: Mutual influences of chassis parameters
resonance range of the driveline.
2

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This applies in particular to diesel engines with

hydraulic damping. It is beyond the scope of
2
this book to also explain the interactions
10
between the damper and these components
8
KZ 112
6
and/or functions. However, it is important to
KZ 100
4
KZ 50
mention these existing influencing factors.
2
On one hand, the vibration damper must
KZ 25
108
support the functions necessary for a safe
KZ 12.5
6
operation, like tracking, braking and
4
KZ 6.3
acceleration; on the other hand it must
2
KZ 3.15
maintain a low vibration transmissibility for the
10
KZ 1.6
8
passengers in order to ensure their maximum
6
KZ 0.8
comfort.
4
KZ 0.4
Figure 3 shows the human bodys sensitivity
2
(particular the torso region) to sinusoidal
KZ 0.2
10
8
vibration exposure as a function of the exciting
KZ 0.1
6
frequency. The illustration shows curves with
4
equal vibration amplitude values at exciting
2
frequencies up to 80 Hz. The human torso is
10
4
4
2
6 8 10
2
6 8 10
10
especially sensitive to vibrations between 4
Excitation frequency [Hz]
and 8 Hz; i.e., in the range between the
Fig. 3: Vibration effects on the human torso;
source: Mitschke, Manfred: Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge
natural frequencies of the vehicle spring mass
(0.9 to 1.6 Hz) and the wheels (10 to 18 Hz).
The graph does not show the sensitivity to vibrations affecting the arms and legs. It is very
strong in the range between 8 and 16 Hz. Vibrations in this frequency range are transferred
from the steering wheel to the hands, and from the floor panel to the feet (Literature: source
[1]). These vibrations can be reduced only slightly by a suitable damper arrangement.
4

Acceleration [m/s2]

-1

-2

-3

Vibration damping basics

Vehicle suspension models
A

Body

Drivetrain

Subframe
Frame
Axle

Axle

Operator cab

Frame

Axle

Body

Wheel

Axle

The vibration action of vehicles can be illustrated with the

aid of complex mass systems, whereby sprung and damped
masses are coupled and have different natural frequencies
depending on their balance. Figure 4A shows a simple
single-track model (i.e., only one half of the vibration
system will be evaluated) including wheel suspension, axle
mass, sprung and damped frames or subframes, and the
connected body (four masses). The axle damper is located
between the frame and the axle. The damping elements
between subframe or frame and body are usually made of
rubber-metal (elastic) elements. Their damping effect is
small. Section B of the figure shows a sprung and damped

Fig. 4: Models for the investigation of vehicle vibration characteristics;

source: Mitschke, Manfred: Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge

cab on a utility vehicle frame. Section C of the figure shows a connection between the axle
and the powertrain. Occasionally dampers are used between the powertrain or engine and
the body. However, in general, so-called engine mounts with a rubber-metal design including
hydraulic damping are used. Section D of the figure shows a double-wishbone axle with a
parallel spring and damper arrangement.
To better understand the vibration and
z
damping functions of the chassis, we will
first look at a single-mass vehicle
m
m2
suspension system (Fig. 5 top). The wheel
has zero mass and follows the
unevenness of the road surface. To
c
c2
k
k2
simplify matters, lets assume linear
spring and damping characteristics.

m1

k1

c1

Fig. 5:
Single-mass and dual-mass vehicle models
m2 Body mass
m1 Axle mass
This simple model does not correspond with todays damping force designs with non-linear
characteristics that are different in each direction of movement. However, it serves well for
the explanation of the basic physical interrelationships, in particular for the dependence
between damping on one hand as well as vehicle mass and spring rate on the other hand.
The non-dimensional damping factor (D), which characterizes the timed settling progress of
the vibration, is calculated from the differential equation at damped resonant vibrations.

The connection is slightly more complex with the dual-mass vehicle suspension system
(Fig. 5 bottom). The damping ratio of the wheel vibration (D1) is calculated as follows:
c1

Wheel damping constant

k1
Wheel spring constant
n1
Resonant frequency of axle
c2
Damping constant of shock absorber
k2
Body spring constant
D11
Partial damping factor of wheel
4

For the body vibration damping factor (D2), the following equation applies:

v2
Resonant frequency of body
The natural body (sprung mass) frequencies usually range from 0.9 to 1.6 Hz, and the natural
axle (unsprung mass) frequencies from 10 to 18 Hz. The light-weight construction of todays
vehicles tends to increase the values for natural axle frequencies. Comfortable vehicles usually
have lower natural body frequencies.

Damping requirements

Stroke [mm]

Damping requirements differ. They depend on the absolute values of the wheel and body
masses, and also on the ratio of both masses
as well as the ratio of the tire and ride
spring rates. Additionally, the influencing characteristics specified in Figure 2 have to be
considered. And there are a few more damper-specific effects:
Ratio between damper movement and wheel movement (constant, or variable depending
on suspension geometry)
Utilization of damping properties outside of pure vertical body motions parallel to ride
spring, i.e., in connection with roll and pitch movements
Adaptation of the damping to the requirements resulting from the vehicle utilization in
regards to operational safety (sports suspension or comfort suspension).
The body damping factor should not be selected too high in order to ensure good comfort
and also maximum safety. If this damping factor exceeds critical values beyond D2 = 0.5,
certain exciting conditions will make the damper so stiff that the vehicle bounces on the
wheels. This results in an increase of the natural body frequency to an uncomfortable level for
humans. A body damping factor between 0.25 and 0.35 is a good range satisfying all
considerations.
Figure 6 shows the damper evaluation standards for different uneven road conditions and
functional requirements. The rolling comfort is affected by very minor road irregularities
throughout the entire frequency range of the damper
100
(range 1). Axle and body movements are definitely
5
associated with the natural frequencies of both
10
2
3
4
systems (2, 4). Out of phase vibration (3) usually
results from the interaction with other vibrating
systems in the vehicle. This type of vibration can be
1
1
only slightly influenced by the shock absorber design
without affecting the optimization of the actual
1
10
100
functions of the shock absorber. With low damping
Frequency [Hz]
and dampers with a short stroke, the stop effect
Fig. 6:
Evaluation standards for critical excitations
occurring during operation (mechanical/design stroke
1 Rolling comfort/harshness
2 Body movements
limit, 5) is mainly noticeable due to the noise it
3 Counter-phase vibrations (shaking)
4 Axle movements
5 Damper stops
generates. It can be avoided by using higher damping
or stroke-dependent damping systems.
5

Damping principles
In the past, many different damping principles for vehicle applications were studied. From the
start of this century to the thirties, friction dampers were the preferred damping method.
They were designed with frictional parabolic springs or as special spring-loaded friction
dampers, usually in the form of lever or multi-disk dampers (similar to multi-disk clutches).
The possibility of pneumatic damping systems, in particular in connection with a ride-height
control system (air spring) had been studied and considered until recently. However, its
implementation failed due to its low damping capacity, especially for small strokes at wheel
natural frequencies.
In todays automobile design, the hydraulic-mechanical damping system prevails. The most
widely used form is the telescopic shock absorber, since it provides an optimum design due to
its small dimensions, low friction, precise damping, and simple construction. The following
sections provide more details on the hydraulic-mechanical damping principle with fixed and
variable or controlled settings. The promising principles of magneto-rheological and electrorheological damping are explained in the Trends and development goals section.

Hydraulic damping
The damping action of hydraulic vibration dampers is
generated by the differential pressure at the piston valve
(hydraulic resistance), which is converted to forces by the
piston rod cross-section and piston ring surface (Fig. 7). In
an ideal damper, the differential pressure ( p) is directly
Piston rod
proportional to the damping force (F), and the flow rate
quantity (Q) is directly proportional to the compression
velocity and rebound velocity (v).
Piston valve
F = A p
(5)
v = Q/A
(6)
A
Damper displacement surface area
Base valve
Figure 8 shows three hydraulic resistances as they can occur
in shock absorbers with the respective valve design i.e.,
single or multi-stage. The graph applies the respective
Fig. 7: Damper principles
differential pressure at the valve vs. the hydraulic flow rate.
The pure orifice cross-sections (bottom left), however, will not occur in real life applications,
since they cannot be implemented in the damper in this form. In most cases, the differential
pressure depends on the square of the flow rate with a linear percentage (top left), which
corresponds to the effect of the fluid
8

l
p

p
viscosity.
p =
Q
r
Figure 8 (right side) shows a simplified
F
Laminar
cross2 r
illustration of the function of a pressure
Pressure-limiting
section
valve
limiting valve. As long as the elastic force
l
A
is higher than the product of the hydraulic
Orifice
A
pressure and the effective surface, the
Static:
p A = F
Q
p =
valve remains closed and the flow rate
2 A
Dynamic p A = F
+F
equals zero. With increasing pressure the
0
0
Q
Q
valve will open as soon as the hydraulic
Fig. 8: Hydraulic resistances
force is higher than
4

Spring

2
D

Static

Static

Dynamic

Compression
force

Rebound
force

the elastic force. In real-life applications, the physical intenelationships are significantly more
complex, since the flow force actions during opening and closing also have to be considered
(see Literature: source [2]).
With
different
resistance
A
combinations
it
is
possible
to
v [m/s]
achieve characteristics with
degressive,
linear
and
0.52
0.26 0
-0.26 -0.52
progressive
segments.
A
v [m/s]
mechanical or servo-hydraulic
*25
*50
test machine is used to measure
*75
*100
these damper characteristics. At
constant speed (rpm), this
Constant speed for all strokes: 100 min (*=stroke[mm])
machine
produces
various
strokes
in
rebound
and
B
compression direction, and
subsequently different damper
compression
and
rebound
speeds. The resulting force vs.
stroke diagrams (Fig. 9, left side)
C
can be converted to force vs.
velocity diagrams (F-v diagrams:
Fig. 9, right side).
F-v diagrams are the commonly
used graphical form to illustrate
damper characteristics. They
Fig. 9: Damping characteristics
offer the advantage that the
A Degressive, B Progressive, C Linear
association between damping
force and compression and rebound velocity can be read immediately. However, they only
show maximum values of the damping forces in rebound and compression direction at
various strokes or compression and rebound rates. Therefore, it is advisable to also view a
damping force vs. stroke diagram in order to immediately find any inconsistencies in the
dampers force progress. Degressive, linear, or progressive characteristics curves can be
quickly recognized from the distances between lines.
Alternatively to the above, damper characteristics can be determined at constant stroke with
various speeds (rpm) in form of so-called VDA (German Automotive Manufacturers and
Suppliers Association) characteristics.
The fluid used in a hydraulic damper consists of mineral oil with special additives suitable for
the damper. Due to the constant throttling action of the damper, the oil should have very
good shear strength. Only mineral oils have this shear strength. The inside components
require good lubrication properties. Additionally, the oil must have a very low cavitation
tendency over the entire operating temperature range in order to keep the noise level and the
foaming tendency at high damper speeds at a minimum. Other viscous media, e.g., silicone
oil, were studied. However, they were found unsuitable. So-called bio-oils were developed
and marketed; however, they still are not used due to a minimal demand.
-1

Telescopic shock absorber designs

Twin-tube shock absorbers
In the twin-tube shock absorber, the working cylinder and the outer tube form two
chambers: the working chamber in the working cylinder and the oil supply chamber located
between the working cylinder and the outer tube. In the working chamber, the piston and
the piston rod move. The annular oil supply chamber equalizes the oil volume changes in the
working chamber, which are caused by the piston rod movements (Fig. 10). The oil supply
chamber is filled with mineral oil and with air that is pressurized at 6 to 8 bar (0.6 to 0.8
MPa). The extension and retraction of the piston rod causes an increase or decrease of the
gas pressure in the oil supply chamber which corresponds to the exchanged oil volume.
For damping, two valves are
used: the piston valve and the
Mounting joint
bottom valve. These valves
consist of an arrangement of
spring disks, helical springs,
Piston rod seal
and
valve
bodies
with
Piston rod guide
restriction bores. When the
vehicle suspension rebounds
Gas
(rebound stage, Fig. 10, top
Piston rod
right), the piston valve alone
will take over the damping by
Oil reservoir
applying resistance to the oil
Protective tube
flowing downwards from the
Rebound stage
chamber above the piston.
Reservoir tube
This will slow down the
Working cylinder
upward movement of the
Piston valve
piston. The oil needed in the
working chamber can flow
unrestricted from the supply
chamber through the open
check-valve located in the
Base valve
bottom valve. When the
vehicle suspension compresses
(compression stage, Fig. 10,
Mounting joint
bottom right), the bottom
Compression stage
valve and partially also the
flow-rate resistance of the
Fig. 10: Design and function of a vehicle twin-tube shock absorber
piston
in
compression
direction will determine the
damping. The oil displaced by the piston rod will flow into the supply chamber. The bottom
valve applies resistance to this flow and slows down the movement. The piston valve is
equipped with a small resistance which can be adjusted according to the damping
requirement.
The piston rod is sealed in the upper damper section. Small amounts of leak-oil can pass
between the rod guide and rod into the space between seal and guide to lubricate the piston
rod and the seal edge. Through bores in the piston rod guide this leak-oil is returned to the oil
8

Compression

Damping force

Rebound

supply chamber. The piston rod seal consists of two sealing elements. A garter spring presses
the lower sealing edge on the piston rod. To ensure a good lubrication, the seal is equipped
with two small sealing edges at a distance of 0.5 mm. This design feature increases the life of
the seal. The so-called dust-lip provides the upper seal. It keeps foreign material and dust
from entering the damper or the seal. Both sealing elements are elastic in order to absorb
transverse shifting due to tolerances or deflections of the entire component.
A piston rod dust tube
Rebound
protects the dust-lip at the
Bleed control
B characteristics
seal and the piston rod,
High-speed
keeping dirt from entering the
control
Piston spring
damper
and
preventing
Piston spring
damage from stone impacts.
A
The cylinder diameters for
passenger car suspension
range from about 22 mm to a
Bleed control
maximum of 36 mm. Usually,
the same dampers are used
for utility vehicles (trucks) with
High-speed
control
some applications requiring up
to a maximum of 70 mm bore
diameter.
Utility
vehicle
dampers have a more robust
High-speed
A, B
control
design, since they have to
Bleed control
withstand
higher
forces,
Spring plate
operating
pressures,
and
temperatures. The seals are
Compression
usually made of Viton. NBR
characteristics
only can be used for
Piston speed
temperatures up to 100C,
whereas Viton is suitable for
much higher temperatures.
The requirements for the damper valve design differ within the passenger car area and
among utility vehicles. The F-v characteristics can be linear (as mentioned above), however,
various degressive characteristics are desirable today. Figure 11 shows a few damping force
characteristics for passenger car dampers. They are associated with two different valve
designs. Design A only works with clamped spring washers providing almost linear
characteristics (blue). Design B provides pressure limiting valve-like characteristics (red). Due to
todays light-weight axle construction, a degressive curve is preferred in many cases.

Twin-tube spring strut (McPherson strut)

The basic structure of the twin-tube spring strut
(Fig. 12) is identical to the twin-tube shock
Stemtype joint
absorber. However, it has to cover the
Piston rod seal
following additional functions:
Lateral and fore/aft wheel positioning of the
Piston rod guide
axle together with the control arms
Gas
Support of the helical spring forces through
a spring seat (McPherson solution)
Rod guide
Supporting the braking torques
Transfer of the wheels steering (for spring
Spring seat
struts with steering arm, which are used
Piston rod
relatively seldom and are not shown here)
Reservoir tube
Suspension attachment point for stabilizer
Rebound stop
bar link (not shown)
Oil reservoir
Rebound stop
Attachment point for brake lines, ABS
Working cylinder
sensors, etc. (at the bracket).
In the lower part of the reservoir tube, the
steering knuckle or the fastening tabs provide
Piston valve
the connection to the vehicle axle. The steering
Base valve
Piston valve
movements are introduced into the steering
knuckle, whereby the reservoir tube usually
rotates concentrically around the piston rod in
Fig. 12: Design of a twin-tube spring strut
steering applications.
The helical spring is supported by the spring seat. The helical spring introduces the respective
load through a spring seat into the vehicle body. A stem type joint holds the piston rod in an
elastic rubber bearing mounted to the vehicle body (see Fig. 20). This mount filters those
exciter frequencies above 50 Hz that cannot be damped by the spring strut.
The damping principle is the same as with the twin-tube shock absorber. However, due to the
larger piston rod, the other hydraulic displacement cross-sections will have to be considered.
The spring strut must be designed to withstand all loads (deflection, rebound and
compression forces) resulting from the axle kinematics, the spring load, or the additional load
of a stabilizer bar. In addition, all loads caused during driving operations must be considered,
mainly deflection loads due to braking, acceleration, and side forces (Fig. 13). Piston rod
diameter, piston rod guide, and piston are especially sized for these high loads.
The piston rod is made from high-quality
Lateral force
Upper strut mount
hardened and tempered medium carbon
steel. Its surface is chrome-plated to protect
Piston rod
Lateral force
it from corrosion and to reduce friction. The
Rod guide
piston valve and the piston rod guide are
Working
cylinder tube
Lateral force
coated with Teflon or Teflon compound
Piston
Reservoir
Moment
material. This minimizes the friction caused
tube
at
by lateral forces. During the planning of the
steering
knuckle
Rebound force
vehicle kinematics it is important to keep
Lower ball joint
the lateral forces for all occurring loads as
Fig. 13: Forces and torque distribution at the spring strut
small as possible.
10

This can be achieved with the following measures:

Moving the spring seat center line off of the piston rod center line in the direction to
counteract the wheel overturning moment (axis shift of the spring seat)
Moving the effective spring force center off of the center axis of the piston rod in
the direction to counteract the wheel overturning moment (axis shift of the helical spring)
S-shaped spring moving the spring load effective line off of its geometric center line
Changing the angle between the spring force and the center axis of the piston rod.
In real-life applications, at least two of the four influencing parameters have to be varied in
order to achieve low strut side loads yielding low friction force and subsequently high driving
comfort.
The damper strut is a variation of the spring strut. The damper strut has no spring seat, and
the spring is located separately from the damper. Otherwise, the damper strut performs the
same functions as the spring strut. This solution is used mostly in light-weight utility vehicles,
where the space requirement of the front cab does not allow the installation of the helical
spring used in the McPherson spring strut.

Monotube shock absorbers

Mounting joint

Piston rod guide

Piston rod seal

Piston rod
Protective tube

Rebound stage
Piston valve
Working cylinder

Separating piston
Gas

Mounting joint
Compression stage
Fig. 14: Design and function of a monotube gas pressurized damper

the damping forces during compression.

11

In the monotube shock absorber, the

working chamber and the oil supply
chamber are located in one single
cylinder tube (Fig. 14). Oil and gas are
separated by a moving separating
piston with O-ring seal. The damping
valves
for
the
rebound
and
compression stages are located at the
piston. When the vehicle suspension
rebounds (rebound stage, Fig. 14, top
right), the piston valve, which is
located at the bottom of the piston,
will apply resistance to the downward
flowing oil. The gas chamber pressure
will reduce by the amount of the
exchanged piston rod volume. When
the vehicle suspension compresses
(compression stage, Fig. 14, bottom
right), the oil will be forced from the
bottom chamber through the piston
and against the valve located on top
of the piston. The gas chamber
pressure will be increased by the
amount of the submerged piston rod
volume. The pressure level of normally
25 to 30 bar (2.5 to 3 MPa) absorbs

Due to the high pressure level, another seal type is used other than in the twin-tube damper.
A rubber disk that is preloaded by the inside pressure, preloads a Viton seal. This preloading
and a precision machined, chrome-plated piston rod surface ensure tight sealing of this
damper under extreme operating conditions with operating pressures in excess of 110 bar (11
MPa). The monotube damper is usually used as a stand-alone shock absorber or in a coil over
arrangement. Trials to use this design principle for spring struts failed in large series
applications.
Twin-tube Damping

Monotube Damping

Valve Function

Less cavitation due to gas Very low cavitation tendency due to

preloading
high gas pressure and separation of oil
and gas

Characteristics

Any, due to separate valves In

compression
direction
for
rebound
and depending on charge pressure
compression direction

Damping
short strokes

with Good

Friction

Better

Low

Higher due to pressure-loaded seals

Construction
length
Installation position

limited

Longer than twin-tube damper due to

the gas space in the cylinder
Near vertical piston rod up

Weight

Piston rod up or down

Lighter than twin-tube dampers due to
the fewer parts

Table 1: Comparison of the properties of twin-tube and monotube shock absorbers

Table 1 summarizes the specific properties of monotube and twin-tube dampers. Today, the
twin-tube damper is the world-wide standard. Up until now, the monotube damper has been
used in Europe only. In the mid 80s, a few US applications have started using the monotube
damper.

12

Coil over shock absorbers

In addition to their major function of vibration damping, coil over
shock absorbers (Fig. 15) also transfer spring forces. They may be
constructed as a twin-tube or as a monotube design. The body
spring is supported by a spring seat mounted to the outer tube of
the damper. The major advantage of the coil over shock is its
compact design. However, the lower damper joint must be
designed to absorb the high static spring forces in addition to the
damping loads. The same may apply to the piston rod, if required
due to the bending moments resulting from the spring force and
the chassis kinematics.
The bending moments increase friction and reduce the comfort
level. This can be avoided by an appropriate arrangement and
design of the spring. Friction effects can be minimized with a lowfriction, plastic-coated bushing at the lower mounting joint and/or
appropriate friction-reducing measures in the coil over shock (same
as in the spring strut).
Variations of the coil over shock using steel springs or air springs are
often used as cabin spring struts in trucks.

Fig. 15:
Coil over shock

Special designs of the monotube damper

A

Fig. 16: Special damper designs

A Plunger
B With bottom valve
C With compensation chamber

In addition to the vibration damper chassis

applications described above, there are several
other vehicle applications. Various monotube
damper designs are used, with cylinder
diameters up to 24mm and in some cases in
particular steering dampers even up to 60
mm. The plunger damper (Fig. 16A) is the
most simple monotube damper design
without separation between gas and oil
chambers, and without gas pressure. Section
B in the figure shows a monotube damper
with bottom valve. This valve significantly
extends the application and adjustment range
of the single-tube damper. Design C is a
monotube damper with bottom valve and
expansion chamber. A membrane separates
oil and gas. This solution is used mainly for
steering dampers. Table 2 shows a few
applications for the damper designs described
above.

13

Table 2: Special damper applications

Application/Damper
type
Hinged covers, doors
Drivers seat
Motor pitch damping
Belt tensioning damper
Steering damper
Run-away brakes

Function

Design

A
Stroke-dependent damping during opening
and closing
Reduce seat vibrations
Damping of drive vibrations
Prevent belt slippage and belt wobble
Avoid vibrations at the steering linkage
Avoid power peaks in the brake cables and
wheel standstill

Light-weight shock absorbers

Environmental protection measures to reduce
automotive exhaust emissions and fuel
consumption
have
resulted
in
the
development of lighter components. Since
light-weight construction also reduces the
unsprung masses of dampers, this also has a
positive effect on driving comfort.
When sizing spring struts, special attention
must be paid to stiffness, and for dampers,
the piston rod buckling load has to be
considered. The selected materials should
provide a high modulus of elasticity and high
rigidity. Typical light-weight materials used in
todays vehicles are aluminum, magnesium,
and in some cases even titanium. These
materials offer the adavantage of a low
specific weight, however, their modulus of
elasticity is considerably lower than steel.
Therefore, steel has a good chance to
maintain its position even in light-weight
chassis
design.
Considerable
weight
reductions can be achieved by using hollow
piston rods.
Figure 17 shows an example of a modern
light-weight damper design. The outer tubes
Fig. 17: Light-weight shock absorbers and struts
of the spring strut and the coil over shock are
made of aluminum. To accommodate the spring struts high bending load, the piston rod has
been designed hollow, and the outside tube wall thickness is tapered from the bottom
upwards in accordance with the load. The integration of an eye into the outside tube and the
spring seat mounting illustrate the material-specific design.
14

Custom features through modular design

Automotive dampers have many tasks. Therefore, automobile manufacturers usually will
request more or less customized solutions for each application. In order to keep the amount
of variations within limits, damper manufacturers try to meet these demands by using
modular systems; i.e., dampers are designed and manufactured with a limited number of
diameters for piston rods, working cylinders, outer tubes, and dust tubes. This selection also
defines the damping range. This diameter range also includes standard components for the
piston rod seal/guide unit, piston valve, bottom valve, rebound stop and the end mounts.
Especially for truck dampers, the modular system provides a good selection of various designs
for application-specific requirements.
Rebound and compression stops
Rebound and compression stops limit the damper stroke. In many cases, the damper also will
limit the axle movement due to these stops and has to absorb significant loads, which must
be considered in the design. The
stops usually consist of a hard, progressive spring that may be designed with or without
material damping. In a few instances, particularly with rebound stops, hydraulic damping is
applied.
Rebound and compression stops are required to ensure a soft stop of the damper during
unusually high load inputs (i.e., driving through a pothole or over a curb). On one hand this
protects the vehicle components, and on the other hand it reduces the noise created during
such maneuvers. The chassis should have an adequate stroke/travel, and spring rate and
damping factor should be designed in a way that the stops are utilized in extreme situations
only.
The elastic rebound stop is mounted at the piston rod. It is usually supported by a flanged
ring attached to the piston rod by crimping or welding. At the respective rebound stop action,
the stop will be pressed directly onto the piston rod guide, applying rebound load to the
entire damper. The elastic stop ring consists of one or more parts with different dimensions.
Figure 18 shows several rebound stops
with various designs. Soft stops made of
polyurethane usually have very large
dimensions. Short stops usually consist of
relatively tough and wear-resistant plastic
materials,
whereby
the
required
characteristics
are
achieved
by
appropriate forming. All utilized materials
indicate a minor hysteresis which has a
damping effect.
In addition to elastic rebound stops, there
are also spring-loaded rebound stops with
helical springs. They are used mostly in spring struts to allow low stabilizer and spring
characteristics for increased passenger comfort. The helical springs are made of high-strength
spring steel. Sometimes they are designed with square cross-sections in order to adapt them
ideally for the mounting space or the applicable loads. Occasionally, hydraulic and mechanical
stops are combined. The elastic compression stop is pushed onto the piston rod directly
belowthe piston rod upper mount. The material used is rubber or microcellular urethane.
15

40

48.8
2

Test force [kN]

33
10 0.3

20
R2

R3

R2

20
13

24
29

9
8
7
6
5

90

R2

75

57

40

32

450 100 N

10

45

10

4
3
2
1
0

35

10

20

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Spring travel [mm]

50

Figure
19
shows
an
example for a compression
stop and the associated
spring characteristics curve.
In coil over shocks, the
compression stop is also
used as an auxiliary spring,
where it works parallel to
the usually linear helical
spring.

Fig. 19: Compression stops and characteristics

Damper end mounts

Damper mounts are used to fasten the dampers to the vehicle frame or body, and to the
suspension system. They have the following tasks and properties:
Equalization of manufacturing-based axle and body tolerances
Cardanic angular resilience at lowest possible counter-torque to absorb kinematic
movements
Elasto-kinematic properties within the overall axle kinematics
Noise attenuation at vibrations above 30 Hz.
Basically there are two types of mounts:
Eye ring mount
eye ring mounts and stem mounts (Fig.
20). In the eye ring mounts, all three
Eye
Mount plate
components are connected through a
Mount rubber
Mount rubber
F2
high static preload. For very high loads,
Inner sleeve
e.g. coil over shocks or HD dampers (HD =
heavy duty), the mount rubber is bonded
F1
to the inner and outer metals.
F

Spacer sleeve
Each of these mounts can withstand

2
2
different articulations. The maximum
F

angular articulation is /2 = 15 and

2
2
/2 = 4 for the eye ring type mount, for
F
the stem type mount /2 = 6.
To ensure the lowest possible damper
friction and minimum wear, the dampers
F

should be installed with end mounts

2

torsion-free at vehicle curb level.

F
2
F

Fig. 20:
Damper end mounts

16