RELATIVITY

Lorentz transformations which replace G.T. can be derived from the Principle of Relativity together with
the Principle of Constancy of the Speed of Light. It then follows immediately that our common sense
concepts of space, time etc. have to be radically changed.
L.T. can be derived on the basis of two postulates or Principles viz. (1) Laws of Physics are of the same
form in all inertial frames (Principle of Relativity) and (2) The speed of light in free space has the same
value c in all inertial frames (Principle of Constancy of Speed of Light).
(The Principle of Relativity is sometimes stated as: It is impossible by any physical measurements to
trace an essential distinction between any two inertial frames which are in relative motion.)
Consider two inertial frames S and S_ as shown in Fig. 3.1. S_ moves relative to S at a constant speed
v along the X-axis. X_-axis is parallel to X-axis and in fact coincides with it.
Suppose times t in S and t_ in S_ are both measured from the moment when O and O_ coincide.
By the Principle of Relativity, linear motion in S (motion under no forces) must appear as linear motion
in S_. Therefore, we assume that the transformations which give (x_, y_, z_) in terms of (x, y, z) must also
be linear. To an observer in S_ a fixed point at x in S appears to move with a velocity v along the negative
X-axis. Hence, we may write
S_
vt
O O_
V
X, X_
Z Z_
Fig. 3.1 Lorentz Transformations

Y Y_
x_ = k(x vt) ... (1a)
y_ = y ... (1b)
z_ = z ... (1c)
where k is a scale factor to be determined. The last
two equations above follow from a complete symmetry
in the plane perpendicular to the direction of motion.
According to the Principle of Relativity, the relationship
between x and x_ must be symmetric.
_ x = k(x_ + vt_) ... (1d)
where the sign of v has been changed since the frames
S_ is moving with speed v along the positive X-axis
relative to S.
S

Let us suppose that at the instant t = t_ = 0, a spherical light wave starts from the common origin of
S and S_. Its progress along the X-axis is described in S and S_ respectively by
x = ct ... (2a)
and x_ = ct_ ... (2b)
since the speed of light is c in both the frames.
_ ct = x = k(x_ + vt_) using (1d)
= k(ct_ + vt_) using (2d)
= k(c + v)t_ ... (3a)
Similarly
ct_ = x_ = k(x vt) using (1a)
= k(ct vt) using (2a)
= k(c v)t ... (3b)
Multiplying Eqns. (3a) and (3b),

c2tt_ = k2(c2 v2)tt_

_ k2 =
221122
2222

1
_ _ ___ _ _
________
ccvv
cvcc
_k=
2 1/ 2
2 1/2
2

1 v (1 )
c
_
_

___
_____
= _ ... (4a)
where _ = v
c
From Eqn. (1d), t_ =
x kx x k2 ( x vt )
kv kv
____
_ using (1a)
=
22222
22

x k x k vt k ( x k x k vt ) x ( k 1)
kt
kv k v k v
____ __
_____
__
=
2

k t vx
c

because
2
2

k1
k
_
= _ 2=
2
2

v
c
Substituting value of k = _, the set of Eqns. (1a, 1b, 1c and 5) may be re-written as
x_ =
1 2/ 2
x vt
vc
_

_
= _(x vt) ... (6a)
y_ = y ... (6b)
z_ = z ... (6c

t vx
c t vx
vc
c
... (6d)
These equations are known as Lorentz Transformations. The inverse equations may be readily written
down by interchanging primed and unprimed quantities and replacing v by v. They are
x=
1 2/ 2
x vt
vc
___
_
= _(x_ + v_t) ... (7a)
y = y_ ... (7b)
z = z_ ... (7c)
t=
2
22
2

1
t vx
c t vx
vc
c
___
_ __ _ _ _ _
__
_
... (7d)
Note that: (i) There is an appreciable quantitative difference between L.T. and G.T. only when v/c is
appreciable, that is only at high speeds. (ii) In the limiting case c = _, L.T. reduce to G.T. and in particular
t = t_. (iii) Eqns. (6a) and (6d) or (7a) and (7b) show that space and time get mixed up in going from one
inertial frame to another. Distinction between space and time is apparently less rigid or a little blurred in
relativity! We shall have more to say about this in a later chapter. (iv) If v > c, then _ is imaginary and
we face the problem of imaginary spaces and imaginary times. It is impossible therefore to think of two
inertial frames relative to each other (in real space and time) at a speed v > c!
_
_ ____________________________________
Suppose a rod is at rest on the XX_ axis in the frame S_. Frame S_ (and so also the rod) is moving with a
velocity of v along the positive X-axis with respect to frame S. See Fig. 3.2.
Let the two ends of the rod be labelled x2_ and x1_ in frame S_ and x2 and x1 in the frame S. Then
(x2_ x1_) = L0 say is the length of the rod in the frame S_ in which it is at rest.
By L.T., we have L0 = x2_ x1_ = 2 2 1 1
2 1/ 2
2

()()
1
x vt x vt
v
c
___
__

___

S S_

V
vt
O
O_
X, X _

Fig. 3.2 Space Contraction

Y Y_

where t2 and t1 are the times at which the observer

in S measures the end points. Now to measure the
length L = (x2 x1) in S frame, it is necessary that
the end point coordinates x1 and x2 are measured
simultaneously in S. (Remember, length is meaningless
otherwise since the rod is in motion for observer
in frame S). That is t1 = t2.
ZZ

The above equation now becomes

L0 = 2 1
2 1/2 2
2

11
_

_
_
______
xxL
vv
cc
or L = L0
2
2

1_v
c
... (1)
The observer is S finds the moving rod to be shorter by the factor
1/2
2

1
_ __
___
v
c
as compared to L0
measured in S_ where the rod is at rest. This shortening of length for moving objects is called length
contraction or space contraction or Lorentz Contraction.
We see that length of an object is not absolute but depends upon the relative velocity of the object and
the observer. Proper Length of an object is defined as its length measured in a reference frame in which
the object is at rest. All observers who are moving with respect to the object (or with respect to whom the
object is moving) will find that its length is shorter than its proper length.