AN EXAMINATION OF SOME GEOMETRIC

PARAMETERS OF IMPELLER POWER

ROBERT L. B A T E S , P H I L I P

L. F O N D Y , A N D R O B E R T R . C O R P S T E I N

Chemincer, Inc., Dayton, Ohio

The simplified equation for impeller power is well known and power coefficients have been published for
most impellers. But many of the parameters of impeller and system geometry which appear in the generalized form of the equation are not well established. This paper is a study of the effect of some of the
shape factors on impeller power. Including consideration of both impeller and vessel geometry, data are
presented on impeller blade width, number of blades, blade angle, proximity of impellers to system boundaries, shrouding, spacing of multiple impellers, and extent of baffling. Both radial and axial flow turbine
impellers are treated. New basic Power number curves are presented for the full Reynolds number range
for a variety of turbine impellers.

Unwin (75) delivered a paper before the Royal

over 100
publications o n the subject of impeller power. This would
seem to indicate a subject SO well explored as to allow little
room for further fruitful study. But this is far from the case.
In the early studies the existence of a transition flow range and
the effect of flow pattern o n power were not fully appreciated.
The tendency then, in attempting to write a "power equation,"
was to select average exponents for the various variables when
actually operation under several flow conditions was represented. Experimental facilities were often crude and even in
some relatively recent papers the power data are not reliable.
The trend in recent years toward use of the simplified form
of the power number for all correlations has resulted in much
apparent conflict of data.
The initial purpose of this paper is to re-introduce the expanded form of the power equation, to establish perspective for
this and future discusion of impeller power. Then, some of
the terms representing impeller and system geometry are
examined and new data o n their effect o n power presented.
INCE

S Society in London in 1880, there have been

Background of Power Theory

General Power Equation. White and coworkers (7779) were the first to point out the possibility and advantage of correlating impeller power by dimensional analysis.
To them goes credit for originating the drag coefficient group
now known as the Power number. The development of a
full generalized form of a n equation for correlating power has
been well covered by Hixson and Luedeke ( 5 ) ,Johnstone and
Thring ( 6 ) , and Rushton, Costich, and Everett (73). A relationship in its full form, using impeller diameter. D.as the
referenced length, is:

The dependent variable in Equation 1 characterizes the

basic flow pittern, as proposed by White and Brenner (77),and
is called the Power number, Np. T h e first independent
dimensionless group is readily recognized as the impeller
Reynolds number, 'YRe. The second group is the Froude
310

l & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

number, NFr,theoretically required to account for the vortex

formation in a swirling system. The next seven terms in
Equation 1 define the effect of system and impeller geometry.
T h e last term is not a linear dimension ratio but is required to
account for a change in number of impeller blades, referenced
to some standard design basis. T o be fully inclusive, the
equation should be expanded to include: baffle nidth and
number of baffles; spacing of multiple impellers; and offcenter impeller positioning.
Simplification of Power Equation. The last seven terms of
Equation 1 and the three just mentioned are parameters of
geometry. If geometric similarity is stipulated and a nonswirling system employed, the equation simplifies to
A',

= K(NR,)*

(2)

The justification for this simplification is twofold. First,

it makes for easier evaluation of the more critical factors affecting power since, admittedly, the effect of many of the shape
factors can be minor. And it recognizes that geometric
is
similitude is easily maintained in scale-up work-and
usually desirable.
For illustrative purposes and for many applications, the
simplified version is acceptable. But the very ease ivith which
it can be used has led to widespread use for correlating all
power data, irrespective of geometry. The result has been
some confusion and several useless correlations. There are
many ways of treating the shape factors in correlating power.
The full general equation could be used but is obviously
cumbersome. The conventional plot of log Zip zs. log i\rRe is
undoubtedly the best way to present the basic power behavior
of a n impeller, but its use would seem to be best restricted to
representing a stipulated and essentially standardized set of
conditions for impeller and system geometry. Deviations from
the standard can then be treated individually or collectively in
the manner best adapted to the particular variables. Foreglimpsing the results of this study, we find that some of the
parameters may be analyzed individually and that others are
interrelated and must be grouped. Thus, it may be anticipated that a simple exponential representation as indicated in
Equation 1 is not always feasible or especially helpful for
many of the geometric factors.

Experimental

T h e content of this paper is derived from a broad study of

all types of impellers--radial, axial, and tangential-in
the
range of flow from laminar to fully turbulent. Since the
majority of geometric factors are prevalent in the turbulent
range and, i n practice, with turbine-type impellers, the data
presented here (with the exception of Figure 1) are for these
conditions. Table I presents the range of variables used i n
this work. I n the portion of this study where it was desired to
maintain geometric similitude, the following "standard conditions" were used: D,/T = l / 3 , C / T = ;/?, Z / T = 1, nb = 4,
t u b = T/12.
Table 1. Range of Variables Used in This Work
Vessel diameters. 6, lC, 12, 15, and 24 inches
Turbine diameters. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 inches
Turbine styles. Flat six-blade disk style; flat, curved, and 45
pitched six-blade open styles ; four-blade open
styles with blade angles 25 to 90
w / D range. 0.062 to 0.37
D I T range. 0.25 to 0.50
nb range. 1 through 12
w b / T range. 7 to 15%
nbwb/T range. 0.1 to 1
Newtonian fluids used. Water, corn sirup
Viscosity range. 1 to 120,000 cp.
N R range.
~
10 -l to 106

T h e variable-speed drive and dynamometer assembly used in

most of the work was the Model ELB assembly manufactured by
Chemineer, Inc., and described by Bates ( 7 ) . A larger version
of this system was used for runs in the 24-inch diameter vessel.
Impeller dimensions were controlled very accurately. This
was accomplished here by using investment castings for the

standard impellers and machined fabrications for the special

styles studied, T h e projected blade width of the pitched blade
impellers was rigorously controlled by machining both blade
edges in the plane of rotation. This was necezsary to eliminate
any possible "edge" effect in the smaller impellers.
Impeller Geometry

Figure 1 is the conventional log-log plot of the simplified

power equation and is presented here to submit new data o n
radial discharging impellers and to illustrate the characteristic
curves for different impeller styles. These data represent over
1000 points recorded for the various designs under t h e
"standard" conditions in Newtonian fluids.
Style. Curve 1 is the correlation from this study for the
radial discharging six-blade turbine impeller on which data
were originally presented by Rushton, Costich, and Everett
(74). Several investigators (3, 70) have since obtained values
of the Power number lower than the 6.3 reported by Rushton
for the turbulent range. T h e data of this study indicate a
value of 4.8 for four T/12 bafRes and 5.0 for four T/10 baffles..
Noteworthy is the finding that a difference in power requirement exists between the disk style of construction and the flatblade turbine in the turbulent range. Curve 2 is this open
flat-blade style with a full blade originating a t the hub.
Though it has a longer blade than the disk style, it consumes
approximately 25% less power. Since this study was concerned only with impeller power consumption, it has not been
established whether the vaned-disk construction yields a higher
performance for its increased power requirement.
For the same "standard" system conditions, full curves are
also shown for flat, curved: and 45" pitched-blade open style
six-blade turbines kvith rc/D of l/,+

500
I

CURVE 3

CURVE 4

CURVE 5

CURVE 6

IO
5

0.5
I

Figure 1.

IO

I'
0

-PND~
NRI- 7

o3

I'
0

Io5

Power number-Reynolds number correlation in Newtonian fluids for various iurbine impeller designs
VOL. 2

NO. 4

OCTOBER 1 9 6 3

311

0 05

01

02

03

05

04

#
Figure 2. Effect of width and number of turbine
blades on power

Blade Width a n d N u m b e r of Blades. In using the simplified relationship where power is proportional to D3 in the laminar and D5 in the turbulent range it is often assumed that w is
equivalent to a D term and that power is directly proportional
to the blade width. This is not true in the laminar and transition range but has been generally thought to be true for the
turbulent case. The fact that the exponents of all linear
dimension terms will total the exponent of the diameter term
merely confirms the cumulative effect of impeller geometry.
T h e exponent of the D term must always be recognized as of
variable composition.
In the fundamental study of OConnell and Mack (72),
where open-style radial discharging turbines were used, blade
width and number of blades were found to be interdependent
variables. For the six-blade design they found power to vary
as ( z e ~ / D ) ~ Their
. ~ ~ . four-blade design had a blade width
effect of ( w D ) 1 . l j .
Figure 2 is the correlation from this work for both the fourand six-blade open-style designs again operating in the
standard system. The range of 0.067 to 0.37 w / D ratios
more than spans those commercially used.
For the four-blade design, the exponent of the a / D ratio
was found to be 1.25 but the six-blade was 1.O.

10
09
OB

07
06

05

0
L.

04

03

02
02
POWER

Figure 3.
312

03

04

RATIO

I
05

06

07

08 09 10

P, IPw.

Effect of turbine blade angle on power

I & E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Thus the effect of blade width and number of blades for these
two designs is seen to be interrelated. I t is not possible to
establish the independent effect of blade width and number by
the simple (w/D)O and (nzlnl)%from Equation 1. The easiest
approach involves preparing a plot similar to Figure 2 for the
style of impeller being considered and obtaining power correction factors directly.
Impeller Pitch. The universal use of the 45 blade angle for
pitched-blade turbines has resulted in a complete lack of
data on the effect of blade angle on power. The two frequently cited sources, Hixson and Baum (4)and Van de Vusse
(76), are for unbaffled systems and thus not helpful for the
usual application. Since turbine impellers have a constant
blade angle, as contrasted with the helicoidal design of propellers, the term pitch has no real significance. Thus. this
correlation of power with pitch uses a function of blade angle
rather than the ( p / D ) term of Equation 1.
Figure 3 is the correlation for four-blade open-style pitched
turbines operating in a standard system. Projected blade
width in the elevation ( w sine B ) was held constant for each
series of runs. The abscissa term P B / P s ois~simply the ratio of
power in a given condition of pitch to the power consumption
o f a radial discharging style with vertical blades. Over a blade
angle range of 25 to 90 then, we may substitute-for fourblade turbines-for the (p/D) term the expression (sine e)? 5 .
Shrouded Impellers. A radical discharging turbine is
frequently equipped with a partial or full plate on the top
and/or bottom to control the suction. The few writers who
mention this style of construction used impellers similar to a
centrifugal pump impeller and the separate influence of the
shroud is not indicated. Lee, Finch, and Wooledge (7) used a
shrouded disk turbine in their high viscosity work, and their
data for the laminar and transition range indicate an increase
in power of as much as 50%.
From this study. data o n the effect of the two most common
shroud modifications are available. The basis is operation in
the turbulent flow range, with impeller location and baffle
design as stated earlier for standard conditions. With the
shroud plate fully covering the top of the turbine, the power
increase is 30%. \Vith a full bottom shroud, the increase is
47%.
System Geometry

T h e environmental effect of fluid properties is generally well

appreciated and always included in evaluation of a given impeller. But the external factors of geometry relating the impeller to the system boundaries and influencing flow pattern
have received remarkably scant attention.
DIT a n d Barnes. An investigation to confirm the published
statement that the ratio of impeller to tank diameter ( D / T )
has no effect on power revealed that there is an effect-at
least with the flat open-style six-blade turbine-and that this
variable is interrelated with the extent of antiswirl baffling
present.
The phrases 100% baffling or full baffling are commonly
used in both academic and industrial parlance, but are variously
defined in terms of the number and width of baffle plates.
These are, of course, assumed to be conditions which give approximately maximum power consumption. Four flat baffles
are most frequently used. Many fundamental studies have
used a baffle width of T/10. but industrial practice is almost
universally T/12. T h e precise effect on power of variation in
number of baffles and baffle widths has been presented in two
contemporary works, although the findings are not in agreement. Bissell et d.( 2 )tabulated, without supporting data, the

per cent power based o n four T I 1 2 baffles and show a n increase

in power above four baffles and above T12 width. Mack and
Kroll ( 8 ) found a limiting condition of number and width of
baffle. above which no increase in power occurred. The recent
work of Sagata and associates ( 7 7 ) shobvs that the power for a
given number of baffles reaches a maximum and then decreases
somewhat as width increases. An approximation of their
results gives the relation
nbZeb

30
2.5
2.0

01

Figure 4.

02

03

BAFFLE

RATIO

04

06

-9

IO

08

Effect of baffling and D/T on power

N,
2
050

008

3AFFLE

Figure 5.
25

03

J2

01

RATIO

04

05

06

08

10

Composite curve from Figure 4

I
05

10

15

20

IMPELLER SPACING RATIO

Figure

25

30

S/D

6. Effect of dual turbine spacing on power

35

0.5

(3)

for maximum poiver consumption. This result. however, waa

based o n a study involving a two-blade impeller in only one
vessel diameter.
Figure 4 is a summary of data for four D I T ratios. Each
poinl was computed from r.p.m.-horsepower correlations
(approximately 1000 recorded data points) of six flat openstyle six-blade turbines in three tank diameters using no baffles
1 through 12 in w o / T ratios from 7 to 15%. It is apparent
that a variable power effect results from changes in D , / T ratio
and opposed baffle area.
Figure 5, combining the curves from Figure 4, shows the
combined effect of D / T ratio and baffling. Data points are
omitted for clarity. .4t nbreb/Tvaluesless than 0.20: measured
Power numbers decrease with increasing D , I T ratio. Conversely, a t nbzeb,/Tvalues above 0.33, measured Power numbers
increase with increasing D l T . The industry standard of four
T j 1 2 baffles gives a n n,,zeb/T value of 0.33. Figure 5 shows
that the change in Power number lvith D , T ratio is essentially
negligible, within 5% for the D I T range studied.
The studies of Kushton et al. (74) indicate no effect on power
for variation in D / T . T h e only significant difference between
that work and this study is that a disk-style turbine was used.
Shape Factors. Practically all power studies have been
made in vertical cylindrical vessels. Data on other arrangements which occur in practice are limited. Table I1 shoivs
results for several common applications for flat open-style sixblade radial discharging turbines with impeller diameter 40%
the width or diameter of the tank and bottom clearance a t one
impeller diameter. T h e factor shown is the ratio of impeller
power drawn in the specific geometry to that for standard
conditions.
Even though equivalent poiver consumption is apparent for
several situations, there is a drastic difference in the nature of
the flow pattern. Choice of the style of installation Ivould be
determined by the particular process requirement.
Spacing. T h e effect of impeller spacing on power is shown
in Figure 6. Spacing as used here is the vertical dimension
between the bottom edges of the two turbines; a spacing of 0
indicates complete coincidence of the two impellers. In the
ratio P*/PI, the reference power, PI, is a flat open-style sixblade turbine in all cases. The 45 pitched-blade turbine then
falls lowest and the combination of the two styles is intermediate. Both styles have W I D = l i s . \\?thin a spacing of
four impeller diameters, dual pitched-blade turbines do not
yet equal twice the po\ver consumption of a single. The combination of two types? the pitched above the flat, reaches a
level of the sum of the two a t about one diameter spacing. But
two flat-blade turbines actually develop a total power almost
2570 greater than the sum of the two when the spacing is less
than one diameter.
Proximity to Tank Bottom. This study shows that the
space beneath a turbine impeller has a definite effect o n power.
These data are in disagreement with those of Mack and Kroll
( 8 ) :who noted no change in power for two-blade turbinesover a
range of C / D values from 0.35 to 2.5.
VOL. 2

NO. 4 O C T O B E R 1 9 6 3

313

~~~

~~~

Table II. Vessel Shape Power Factors for Six-Blade Open-Style Turbine

WID

1/8

Impellm
Location

Installation

DIT

Horizontal cylindrical tank, 5 :1

0.4

Center mounted

Square tank

0.4

Center mounted
T/4 eccentric mounted
Center mounted

Vertical Bajj7es
Location

Vumber

None
(2) T/10

To indicate clearly the typical behavior of the three styles of

turbines, Figure 7 shows the Power number for the ordinate
rather than a power factor. For direct use as a geometric
factor in Equation 1, the ratio of the N p value for a specific
condition to the N p value a t standard conditions-Le., C/ T
= l / g c a n be used.
For the disk turbine, since the suction is partitioned by the
disk, there is a marked reduction in power as clearance is decreased. The flat open-style six-blade turbine ( w / D = l / ~ )
displays a variable effect a t different clearances, but in general
a slightly higher power level a t lower values of C/D.
Increasing the proximity of a 45 pitched open-style sixblade turbine (w/D = l / ~ ) ,as expected, increases power consumption. T h e data of Miller and Mann (9) note a reduction
in power rather than a n increase, but their data were taken in
a n unbaffled system and thus are not comparable.

DISC TYPE

None
None
(4) TI10
(2) T/10

T
w

wb
Z

=
=
=
=

Factor

,
02

03

04

CLEARANCE RATIO

Figure 7.

06
+

OB

10

I
20

C/D

Effect of turbine proximity on power

Nomenclature

impeller distance off tank bottom, measured from

underside of impeller
D = impeller diameter
g, = gravitational constant o r conversion factor
K = constant
1
= blade length
n
= number of impeller blades
nb = number of baffles
.V = impeller speed, r.p.m.
ArFp= Froude number
N p = Power number
NRe= Reynolds number
= blade pitch
= power
S = impeller spacing

0.75
1 .o
1. o
1 .o

90, wall center

180, wall center

tank diameter
impeller blade width
baffle width
liquid depth

GREEKLETTERS

e
p
p

angle of impeller blade from horizontal

= viscosity
= density

SUBSCRIPTS
1
= condition 1
2
= condition 2
EXPONENTS
= a, b ,

G,

etc.

literature Cited

(1) Bates, R. L., Ind. Eng. C h m . 51, 1245 (1959).

(2) Bissell, E. S., Hesse, H . C., Everett, H. J., Rushton, J. H.,
Chem. Eng. Progr. 43, 649 (1947).
(3) Calderbank, P. H., Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs. 36, 443 (1958).
(4) Hixson, A. W., Baum, S. J.. Ind. Eng. Chem. 34, 194 (1942).
(5) Hixson, A. W., Luedeke, V. C., Ibid., 29, 927 (1937).
(6) Johnstone, R. E., Thring, M. W., Pilot Plants, Models and
Scale-up Methods in Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill,
New York. 1957.
(7) Lee, R. E., Finch, C. R., Wooledge, J. D.. Ind. Eng. Chem.
49, 1849 (1957).
(8) Mack, D. E., Kroll, A. E., Chem. Eng. Progr. 44,189 (1948).
(9) Miller, S. A., Mann, C. A.. Trans. A.I.CI1.E. 40, 709 (1944).
Unzv.
(10) Nanata. S.. Yokovama., T.,, Mem. Fac. Ene., Kyoto
,
(Japm,17, 253(195 5).
(11) Nagata, S., Yokoyama, T., Maeda, H., Ibid., 18, 13 (1956).
(12) OConnell, F. D., Mack, D. E., Chem. Eng. Aogr. 46, 358,
(1950).
(13) Rushton, J. H., Costich, E. W.,Everett. H J.. Ibzd., 46,
395 (1950).
(14) Ibid., b. 467.
(15) Unwin, W. C.: Proc. Roy. Sac. (London) A31, 54 (1880).
(16) Van de Vusse, J. G.. Chem. Eng. Sci.4, 178, 209 (1955).
(17) White, A. M.: Brenner, E., Trans. A.Z.Ch.E. 30, 585 (1934).
(18) White, A. M., Brenner, E.: Phillips, G. L4.,Morrison, M. S.,
Ibid., 30, 570 (1934).
(19) White, A. M., Somerford, S. D., Chem. M e f . Eng. 43, 370
(1936).
.

RECEIVED
for review December 31, 1962
ACCEPTED
June 10, 1963
A.1.Ch.E. Meeting, Chicago, Ill., December 1962.

PP

314

1 .O

...
...

I
01

1. o

D/4 distance, 180 longitudinal

axis

I h E C PROCESS D E S I G N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Correction

THE KINETICS OF NICKEL CARBONYL

FOR MATION
I n this article by M. M. Goldberger and D . F. Othmer
[IND. ENG. CHEM.PROCESSDESIGNAND DEVELOP.2, 202
(1 963) 1, on page 209, reference 8 should read :
Othmer, D . F.. Luley, .4.H.. Ind. Eng.Chem. 38,408 (1946).