C 2006)

Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 30, No. 3, June 2007 (

DOI: 10.1007/s10608-006-9000-6

The Role of Experiential Avoidance in the Relationship

Between Maladaptive Perfectionism and Worry1
Amanda W. Santanello2,3 and Frank L. Gardner2,4
Published online: 10 March 2006

This study examined the role of experiential avoidance in the relationship between
maladaptive perfectionism and worry. The hypothesis was that experiential avoidance
would mediate the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. A total of 125 undergraduate participants completed measures assessing perfectionism,
experiential avoidance, worry, depression, and social anxiety. A series of regression
analyses showed that maladaptive perfectionism and experiential avoidance were significantly associated with worry and that experiential avoidance was a partial mediator
in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. Partial correlations
revealed significant relationships between experiential avoidance and worry and between one aspect of maladaptive perfectionism and worry independent of depression
and social anxiety. Results suggest that experiential avoidance may be an important
variable contributing to the occurrence of worry within the context of maladaptive
perfectionism.
KEY WORDS: experiential avoidance; perfectionism; worry; mediation.

The role of experiential avoidance in various forms of psychopathology has

been the subject of recent behavioral and clinical discussion (Hayes et al., 2004;
Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999; Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Follette, & Strosahl, 1996).
Experiential avoidance is the phenomenon that occurs when a person is unwilling to remain in contact with particular private experiences (e.g., bodily sensations, emotions, thoughts, memories, behavioral predispositions) and takes steps
to alter the form or frequency of these events and the contexts that occasion
them (Hayes et al., 1996, p. 1154). In other words, experiential avoidance involves attempts to avoid uncomfortable internal experiences by trying to suppress
or control these unpleasant private events and/or avoid the situations that produce
them.
1 This

research was part of the first authors dissertation.

of Psychology, La Salle University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
3 Present address: 52 Meriam Ct., Owings Mills, Maryland, 21117.
4 Correspondence should be directed to Frank L. Gardner, Department of Psychology, La Salle University, 1900 West Olney Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19141; e-mail: gardner@lasalle.edu.
2 Department

319
C 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
0147-5916/07/0600-0319/1

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Individuals often attempt to use strategies to try to control their thoughts and
feelings (Hayes et al., 1996, 1999). Because avoidance strategies often briefly and immediately diminish unwanted internal events, individuals continue to engage in experiential avoidance without realizing that avoidance strategies are not effective in
the long term (Hayes et al., 1996, 2004). Repeated efforts to avoid aversive thoughts
or feelings often result in an increase in the thought or feeling that one intends to
avoid (Gold & Wegner, 1995). Thus, control strategies may not always be effective
in reducing aversive internal events.
Persistent experiential avoidance can have maladaptive consequences. There
are circumstances in which it is essential to experience certain difficult feelings (e.g.,
grief), and attempts to avoid such emotions may lead to unhealthy behaviors (e.g.,
substance abuse; Hayes et al., 1996, 1999). Furthermore, the initial discomfort associated with change may prevent individuals from making constructive changes
in their lives (Hayes et al. 1996), and the inhibition of positive behavioral actions
may elicit distressful reactions and maladaptive behavior (Polivy, 1990). As mentioned previously, attempts to control internal experiences actually may increase
the targeted private events (Gold & Wegner, 1995). Overall, experiential avoidance
may contribute to the development and/or maintenance of psychopathology when
individuals continue to engage in efforts to control internal experiences despite unwanted and adverse outcomes.
This study focuses on the role of experiential avoidance in the relationship
between two variables associated with psychopathology: maladaptive perfectionism and worry. Significant correlations between features of maladaptive perfectionism and worry have been established (Kawamura, Hunt, Frost, & DiBartolo, 2001;

Stober
& Joormann, 2001). This study attempts to examine the relationship between
maladaptive perfectionism and worry further by suggesting that experiential avoidance is a mediator in this relationship.
A mediator variable is defined as the generative mechanism through which the
focal independent variable is able to influence the dependent variable of interest
(Baron & Kenny, 1986, p. 1173). In other words, it is proposed that maladaptive perfectionism influences worry through experiential avoidance. Therefore, experiential
avoidance must be related to both maladaptive perfectionism and worry.
Experiential Avoidance and Maladaptive Perfectionism
Recent research supports the conceptualization of perfectionism as a multidimensional construct. Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) and Hewitt and
Flett (1991) have examined multiple dimensions of perfectionism and developed
scales to reflect their conceptualizations of perfectionism, both named the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS). In a factor analysis of the Frost et al. (1990)
[MPS (F-MPS)] and Hewitt and Flett (1991) [MPS (H-MPS)], two primary factors emerged, which were labeled Positive Achievement Striving and Maladaptive
Evaluation Concerns (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, and Neubauer, 1993). Positive Achievement Striving was associated with positive affect, and thus, may be interpreted to represent attributes of adaptive perfectionism. The Maladaptive Evaluation Concerns factor was positively related to measures of negative affect and

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321

depression; therefore, it may be considered to reflect aspects of maladaptive perfectionism. A separate confirmatory factor analysis also supported the conceptualization of perfectionism according to two factors, adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism (Bieling, Israeli, & Antony, 2004).
Research studies have revealed significant relationships between maladaptive
components of perfectionism and various features of psychopathology, including
anger, depression, anxiety, social anxiety, obsessions and compulsions, and worry

(Bieling et al., 2004; Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000; Kawamura et al., 2001; Stober
& Joormann, 2001). Adaptive components of perfectionism, on the other hand,
were not significantly correlated with these variables. These findings suggest that
maladaptive perfectionism, and not adaptive perfectionism, is associated with psychopathology.
As both experiential avoidance and maladaptive perfectionism appear to be
linked to aspects of psychopathology, it is interesting to consider a potential relationship between the two. The concept of negative perfectionism, which is similar to
maladaptive perfectionism, appears to be connected to avoidance in a model of perfectionism proposed by Slade and Owens (1998). Based on reinforcement theory,
the model distinguishes between positive and negative perfectionism. Positive perfectionism is thought to be associated with positive reinforcement, whereas negative
perfectionism is assumed to be related to negative reinforcement. In other words,
positive perfectionism involves cognitions and behaviors that are focused on reaching goals and experiencing positive consequences. Thus, wanting to gain success is
a motivation for positive perfectionism. In contrast, negative perfectionism involves
cognitions and behaviors focused on achieving goals in order to avoid negative outcomes. Therefore, negative perfectionism appears to be motivated by a desire not
to fail. Individuals with high levels of negative perfectionism would be expected to
work toward the avoidance of failure and disappointment, potentially linking maladaptive features of perfectionism to experiential avoidance.
Additional support for a relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and
experiential avoidance comes from research examining perfectionism and procrastination, a form of behavioral avoidance. Studies utilizing multidimensional measures
of perfectionism have found that adaptive features of perfectionism are negatively
correlated with procrastination and maladaptive features of perfectionism are positively related to procrastination (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992; Frost

et al., 1990; Stober

& Joormann, 2001). Thus, maladaptive aspects of perfectionism
are associated with avoidance of completing tasks. On the basis of the information
presented earlier, a significant relationship between experiential avoidance and maladaptive perfectionism is proposed.
Experiential Avoidance and Worry
Borkovec, Alcaine, and Behar (2004) propose that worry is a cognitive process
serving the function of avoidance. Worry, triggered by the perception of threat, is
an effort to problem-solve or discern how to cope with negative events. Borkovec
and Roemer (1995) found that individuals rated the following as two of the most
common reasons that they engage in worry: preparing for potential future danger

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and figuring out how to avoid or prevent feared events. Additionally, utilizing worry
as a distraction from more distressing subject matter differentiated individuals with
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) from nonworried anxious and nonworried
individuals.
Roemer, Salters, Raffa, and Orsillo (2005) found that both GAD symptomatology and excessive worry were significantly correlated with experiential avoidance
in a nonclinical sample. Additionally, experiential avoidance was a significant and
unique predictor of GAD severity. Thus, empirical research has found a relationship between worry and experiential avoidance, adding support to the theory that
worry is an internal avoidance strategy.
Additional support for the idea that worry serves an avoidant function includes
evidence that worry may assist in diminishing somatic anxiety or uncomfortable
physiological sensations (Borkovec & Hu, 1990). Furthermore, worry as a verbal
activity has been linked to the avoidance of negative imagery (Borkovec & Inz,

1990; Stober,
Tepperwien, & Staak, 2000). Mennin, Heimberg, Turk, and Fresco
(2002) also propose that worry may be utilized as a distraction from overwhelming
emotions in order to control or avoid uncomfortable emotional experiences.
Although worry has been proposed to be an internal avoidance strategy
(Borkovec et al., 2004) and found to be correlated with experiential avoidance
(Roemer et al., 2005), there is a distinction between the two variables. Experiential
avoidance is a pathological process involving a general tendency to avoid unwanted
internal experiences, which includes attempts to change the type or frequency of
these experiences and/or the situations that elicit such reactions (Hayes et al., 1996,
1999, 2004). Worry, rather than being a general tendency to avoid, is a specific cognitive behavior involving verbal thought activity and problem solving with a probable

function of avoiding threat (Borkovec, Ray, & Stober,

1998; Borkovec et al., 2004).
Experiential avoidance is a broader construct that includes any behavior aimed at
avoiding uncomfortable internal events.
Experiential Avoidance as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Maladaptive
Perfectionism and Pathological Worry
It is proposed that maladaptive perfectionism affects experiential avoidance,
which in turn, influences worry. Theoretically, there are a few possible explanations
of how maladaptive perfectionism may lead to experiential avoidance. Beck (1995)
suggests that individuals may develop and engage in compensatory strategies designed to help them avoid the activation of painful core beliefs such as, I am not
good enough or I am a failure. Perfectionistic behaviors such as working long
hours, rechecking completed assignments, and redoing tasks may be strategies used
to deny or distract oneself from unwanted thoughts and feelings (e.g., doubts about
ones abilities, self-critical thoughts, feelings of inadequacy).
Additionally, once a perfectionist realizes that a desire to be perfect is unattainable, reactions of self-criticism, self-doubt, lowered self-respect, and a decreased satisfaction with ones abilities and performance may be produced (Burns, 1980). These
reactions may create a wish to withdraw from painful circumstances (Burns, 1980,
p. 37). In an attempt to avoid contact with negative emotions, self-critical thoughts,

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323

and opportunities for failure, the perfectionist may give up or become less likely
to begin or complete tasks. This serves as a possible explanation for positive correlations found between maladaptive features of perfectionism and procrastination

(Flett et al., 1992; Frost et al., 1990; Stober

& Joormann, 2001). Whether individuals constantly engage in work or procrastinate, the behaviors exhibited may reflect
experiential avoidance, or the tendency to avoid the negative feelings and thoughts
associated with maladaptive perfectionism.
As worry has been proposed to be a method utilized by individuals to avoid
threat and distract themselves from upsetting topics (Borkovec et al., 2004), it is
likely that individuals with traits of maladaptive perfectionism may worry in order
to attempt to avoid failure by preparing for future performance situations and/or to
distract themselves from negative experiences, such as self-criticism or disappointment in their abilities. Thus, the worry helps such individuals to continue to avoid
the experiences with which they do not want to be in contact. When individuals
worry and the situation about which they worry rarely happens, the worry is negatively reinforced and seems like an effective strategy to avoid threat (Borkovec
et al., 2004). The seeming ability to avoid uncomfortable experiences by worrying
maintains this behavior, which illustrates the cyclic connection between experiential avoidance and worry. As types of avoidance appear to be associated with both
maladaptive perfectionism and worry, it is proposed that experiential avoidance mediates the relationship between these two variables.
Another purpose of this study is to determine whether aspects of maladaptive
perfectionism and experiential avoidance are specific characteristics of worry by

controlling for other related variables. Stober

and Joormann (2001) discuss the
importance of controlling for anxiety and depression when examining relationships
between worry and perfectionism. The researchers found that after controlling
for anxiety and depression, pathological worry remained significantly correlated
with overall perfectionism and with aspects of perfectionism reflecting concern

over mistakes and doubts about actions. Additionally, Stober

and Joormann
(2001) suggest that future studies include social anxiety as a control variable,
as maladaptive features of perfectionism (concern over mistakes, doubts about
actions, and perceptions that others have unreachable expectations) have been
found to be related to measures of social anxiety (Saboonchi & Lundh, 1997).
This study investigates whether experiential avoidance and aspects of maladaptive
perfectionism have unique relationships with worry by controlling for depression
and social anxiety. In addition, this study examines whether features of maladaptive
perfectionism are specific characteristics of worry by partialing out experiential
avoidance in addition to depression and social anxiety.
METHOD
Participants
Participants were 125 students attending college in eastern Pennsylvania. A
total of 80 were recruited from a small liberal arts university, and 45 were recruited
from a community college. The sample included 61 men and 64 women. The average

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age of participants was 20.1 years (SD = 4.76), with a range from 16 to 47 years. The
sample was 84.0% Caucasian, 6.4% African American, 3.2% Asian/Pacific Islander,
3.2% Hispanic/Latino, and 0.8% Native American, with 2.4% classified as other.
Measures
Acceptance and Action Questionnaire
The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ; Hayes et al., 2004) is a selfreport instrument that measures experiential avoidance. Items were developed to
assess a need to control thoughts and emotions, avoidance of negative internal experiences, the capability to act despite experiencing emotional distress, and negative
appraisals of private events. This study uses the 16-item version of the AAQ. Responses are rated on a 7-point scale from never true (1) to always true (7). The items
were coded so that higher scores reflect higher levels of experiential avoidance.
Example items are I try to suppress thoughts and feelings that I dont like by just
not thinking about them and If I promised to do something, Ill do it, even if I
later dont feel like it (reverse scored). A strong relationship between the 16-item
AAQ and the final nine-item AAQ (r = .89) has been demonstrated (Hayes et al.,
2004). Although psychometric research on the AAQ is in its early stages, the measure appears to have adequate validity and internal consistency (Bond & Bunce,
2003; Hayes et al., 2004; Roemer et al., 2005).
Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MPS; Frost et al., 1990) is
a 35-item questionnaire that assesses perfectionism. The F-MPS includes a 5-point
rating scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The following
four subscales have been shown to reflect maladaptive evaluation concerns: Concern over Mistakes (CM), Doubts about Actions (DA), Parental Criticism (PC),
and Parental Expectations (PE; Frost et al., 1993). Sample items from the CM subscale include If I fail at work/school, I am a failure as a person and I should be
upset if I make a mistake. The DA subscale includes items such as Even when I do
something very carefully, I often feel that it is not quite done right and I usually
have doubts about the simple everyday things I do. Items like As a child, I was
punished for doing things less than perfect and My parents never tried to understand my mistakes make up the PC subscale. Example items from the PE subscale
include My parents set very high standards for me and My parents wanted me

to be the best at everything. Stober

(1998) found that the CM and DA subscales
best combined into one subscale, Concern over Mistakes and Doubts (CMD), and
that the PE and PC subscales are best joined into one subscale, Parental Expectations and Criticism (PEC). Thus, CMD and PEC were used to measure maladaptive
perfectionism.
The Personal Standards (PS) subscale has been shown to be a component
of adaptive perfectionism (Frost et al., 1993). Sample items include It is important to me that I be thoroughly competent in everything I do and I set higher
goals than most people. Research supports the reliability and validity of the

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325

F-MPS as a measure of perfectionism (Frost et al., 1990, 1993). High internal consistency has been established for the overall measure and for each subscale (Frost
et al., 1990).
Penn State Worry Questionnaire
The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer, Miller, Metzger, &
Borkovec, 1990) is a 16-item inventory that measures pathological worry, or persistent, excessive, and uncontrollable worry. Items are rated on a 5-point scale from
not at all typical of me (1) to very typical of me (5). Example items include My worries overwhelm me and I know I shouldnt worry about things, but I just cant help
it. High internal consistency and good testretest reliability have been established
for the PSWQ (Meyer et al., 1990).
Beck Depression Inventory-II
The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) is a
21-item self-report instrument assessing the severity of depressive symptoms. The
intensity of symptoms is rated on a scale of 03. Individuals are asked to choose
a statement from each group of statements that best describes their feelings. An
example is: 0 = I do not feel sad, 1 = I feel sad much of the time, 2 = I am sad
all the time, and 3 = I am so sad or unhappy that I cant stand it. The BDI-II has
been shown to have good internal consistency for student ( = .93) and psychiatric
( = .92) samples.
Social Interaction Anxiety Scale
The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick & Clarke, 1998) is a 19item measure that assesses fear of interacting with others. Items are rated on the following 5-point scale: not at all (0), slightly (1), moderately (2), very (3), and extremely
(4). Sample items include I have difficulty talking with other people and I worry
about expressing myself in case I appear awkward. According to Heimberg and
Turk (2002), a 20-item version, which includes an additional reverse-scored item, I
find it easy to make friends my own age, is used more frequently in research. The
SIAS has been shown to have high internal consistency and test-retest reliability
(Mattick & Clarke, 1998).

Procedure
After signing a consent form, participants completed a packet including a demographic questionnaire and five self-report questionnaires (AAQ, BDI-II, F-MPS,
PSWQ, and SIAS). The demographic questionnaire was presented first, with the remaining questionnaires counterbalanced to control for order effects. Packets were
distributed in classes and athletic study halls.

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RESULTS
Descriptive statistics for the F-MPS, AAQ, PSWQ, BDI-II, and SIAS are presented in Table I. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed to determine whether there were any significant relationships between variables (see
Table I).
To test the hypothesis that experiential avoidance mediates the relationship
between maladaptive perfectionism and worry, Baron and Kennys method for testing mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Holmbeck, 1997) was utilized. The following
four conditions had to be met: (1) the predictor variable (maladaptive perfectionism) must be significantly associated with the mediator (experiential avoidance),
(2) the predictor variable must be significantly associated with the criterion variable
(worry), (3) the mediator must be significantly associated with the criterion variable,
and (4) the impact of the predictor variable on the criterion variable must be less
after controlling for the mediator.
To examine whether the criteria for mediation were met, three separate regression analyses were conducted (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Holmbeck, 1997). The first
regression analysis showed that maladaptive perfectionism significantly predicted
experiential avoidance, and the second regression equation indicated that maladaptive perfectionism significantly predicted worry (see Table II). In the third regression equation, maladaptive perfectionism and experiential avoidance were used as
predictors of worry (see Table III). Experiential avoidance was significantly related
to worry, and the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry was
less in this third equation ( = .17, p = .05) than in the second equation ( = .33,
p<.001). Given that the association between maladaptive perfectionism and worry
remained significant, results suggest that experiential avoidance is a partial mediator
in this relationship.

Table I. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations and Descriptives

Correlation
Variable

AAQ

PSWQ

F-MPS Total
PS
CMD
PEC
CMD + PEC
AAQ
PSWQ
BDI-II
SIAS

.37

.31

.25

BDI-II

.23

SIAS

.14
.42
.22
.37

.14
.42
.14
.33
.46

.08
.35
.12
.27
.52
.51

.09
.32
.12
.25
.25
.36 48.67
.29

SD

81.49
25.18
32.69
23.57
56.30
69.65
14.07
10.22
21.92

19.05
5.25
9.87
7.68
15.68
9.28
8.96
12.01

Note. F-MPS: Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale; Total: Total score; PS: Personal Standards (Adaptive Perfectionism); CMD: Concern over Mistakes and Doubts;
PEC: Parental Expectations and Criticism; CMD + PEC: Concern over Mistakes and
Doubts plus Parental Expectations and Criticism (Maladaptive Perfectionism); AAQ: Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; PSWQ: Penn State Worry Questionnaire; BDI-II:
Beck Depression Inventory II; SIAS: Social Interaction Anxiety Scale.
p <. 05. p < .01. p < .001.

Perfectionism, Experiential Avoidance, and Worry

Table II.

327

Regression Results for Prediction of Experiential Avoidance and Worry

from Maladaptive Perfectionism
Variable

DVExperiential avoidance
Maladaptive perfectionism
DVWorry
Maladaptive perfectionism

R2

.37

.37

.14

19.60

.33

.33

.11

14.98

Note. Beta weights are standardized.

p < .001.

Following the series of multiple regression equations, a test for the indirect effect of the predictor variable on the criterion variable via the mediator
was calculated. The Aroian version (Aroian, 1944/1947) of the Sobel test (Sobel,
1982) was used, as recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986). Results indicated
a significant indirect effect of maladaptive perfectionism on worry via experiential avoidance, z = 3.16, p < .01. Thus, the association between maladaptive perfectionism and worry was significantly reduced by the inclusion of experiential
avoidance.
Partial correlations were conducted in order to determine whether aspects
of maladaptive perfectionism and experiential avoidance have unique associations
with worry (see Table IV). The correlations revealed that experiential avoidance
and CMD remained significantly associated with worry after depression and social
anxiety were partialed out. Additionally, partial correlations were conducted between worry and aspects of maladaptive perfectionism while controlling for depression, social anxiety, and experiential avoidance. Only CMD remained significantly
related to worry.

DISCUSSION
This study examined the hypothesis that the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry would be mediated by experiential avoidance. Results
suggest that experiential avoidance may partially, rather than fully, mediate the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. These findings highlight
the importance of the role that experiential avoidance plays in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry while at the same time suggest that
other factors also may influence this relationship.
Table III. Regression Results for Prediction of Worry from Maladaptive Perfectionism and
Experiential Avoidance
Variable
Maladaptive perfectionism
Experiential avoidance
Note. Beta weights are standardized.
p < .001.

R for set

.17
.40

.49

R2 for set
.24

F for set
18.70

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Table IV. Partial Correlations

PSWQ

Variable

Controlling for depression

and social anxiety

Controlling for depression,

social Anxiety, and
experiential avoidance

AAQ
F-MPS Total
CMD
CMD + PEC

.26
.17
.23
.17

.12
.18
.12

Note. AAQ: Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; F-MPS: Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale; Total: Total score; CMD: Concern over Mistakes and Doubts; CMD +
PEC: Concern over Mistakes and Doubts plus Parental Expectations and Criticism (Maladaptive Perfectionism); PSWQ: Penn State Worry Questionnaire.
p = .05. p < .05. p < .01.

Similar to research results showing relationships between aspects of perfectionism and avoidance coping (Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000; OConnor & OConnor,
2003), this study found that maladaptive perfectionism was significantly related to
experiential avoidance. As levels of maladaptive evaluation concerns increased, so
did a tendency to avoid aversive thoughts and feelings. Additionally, a significant
relationship was found between experiential avoidance and worry in that higher
levels of experiential avoidance were associated with higher levels of worry. This
significant correlation is consistent with findings from Roemer et al. (2005) and with
the assertion that experiential avoidance is associated with various forms of psychopathology (Hayes et al., 1996, 1999).
When predicting worry from maladaptive perfectionism and experiential avoidance, the addition of experiential avoidance reduced the association between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. The relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry remained significant, suggesting that experiential avoidance only
partially mediates this relationship. However, experiential avoidance was shown to
play an important role in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and
worry, as a significant indirect effect of maladaptive perfectionism on worry via experiential avoidance was found.
Dunkley and Blankstein (2000) found that maladaptive coping, which included but was not limited to avoidance coping, fully mediated the relationship
between self-critical perfectionism and distress. Endler and Parker (1990, 1999)
have shown that high levels of emotion-oriented and distraction avoidance coping along with low levels of task-focused coping, as measured by the Coping
Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS; Endler & Parker, 1990), are related
to distress. As avoidance appears to be only one aspect of maladaptive coping, this may explain why experiential avoidance partially, but not fully, mediated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry, a form of
distress.
Perhaps the examination of multiple aspects of maladaptive coping (avoidance,
emotion-oriented, and task-focused) would show that overall coping style fully mediates the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry, with separate
coping types serving as partial mediators. This could be a topic for future research

Perfectionism, Experiential Avoidance, and Worry

329

studies. Additionally, the measure of experiential avoidance used in this study, the
AAQ, has been found to be related to avoidance subscales of the Ways of Coping
Questionnaire (WOC; Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). Future research could also investigate whether the avoidance subscales of the CISS are associated with the AAQ,
which would add support to the notion that experiential avoidance is one aspect of
maladaptive coping.
Partial correlations showed that experiential avoidance remained significantly
associated with worry after controlling for depression and social anxiety. This finding suggests that experiential avoidance has a unique relationship with worry independent of depression and social anxiety, adding further support to Borkovec et al.s
(2004) theory that worry has a unique avoidant function.
Additionally, a unique association was found between a feature of maladaptive
perfectionism and worry. Concern over mistakes and doubts (the tendency to become upset when making mistakes, to believe that mistakes equal failure, to think
that other people will react negatively to ones mistakes, and to lack confidence in
the ability to perform tasks competently) was related to worry not only after partialing out depression and social anxiety but also after controlling for depression, social
anxiety, and experiential avoidance. Being overly concerned about making mistakes
and doubting the ability to complete tasks proficiently seems to play an important
role in worry.
The direct effect between maladaptive perfectionism and worry remained significant after the inclusion of experiential avoidance, which may be due to the distinctive relationship between concern over mistakes and doubts about actions and
worry. This finding may explain why experiential avoidance partially, rather than
fully, mediated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. Alternatively, there also is a possibility that a variable not examined in this study influences the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry, contributing
to the finding of partial, rather than full, mediation.
Weaknesses of this study should be addressed. First, the generalizability of the
findings may be limited, as the sample was composed of college students. Future
studies should examine the role of experiential avoidance in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry in other groups, especially clinical populations (e.g., individuals with GAD). Second, the use of self-report measures may
have limited the accuracy of the data due to factors such as social desirability. Third,
a cross-sectional research design was used in this study; therefore, it is not possible to
determine if changes in the predictor variable (i.e., maladaptive perfectionism) preceded changes in the criterion variable (i.e., worry). Without establishing temporal
precedence, causal relationships among variables cannot be assumed. An additional
limitation of this study involves the measurement of maladaptive perfectionism.
This study measured maladaptive perfectionism in the same manner as Kawamura
et al. (2001), by using subscales of the F-MPS. In the Frost et al. (1990) factor analysis of the F-MPS and the H-MPS, the Maladaptive Evaluation Concerns factor was
comprised of not only the CM, DA, PC, and PE subscales of the F-MPS but also the
Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP) component of the H-MPS. Including both
the F-MPS and H-MPS in future studies would provide a more complete method of
measuring maladaptive perfectionism.

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If further study supports the hypothesized relationships, this would hold implications for the treatment of worry within the context of maladaptive perfectionism. For example, it may be beneficial for clinicians to increase research on the
utility of interventions that directly target experiential avoidance, such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes et al., 1999), for individuals exhibiting high levels of maladaptive perfectionism and worry. The cognitive-behavioral
methods for coping with perfectionism introduced by Antony and Swinson (1998)
may be enhanced by the addition of therapeutic elements aimed at decreasing experiential avoidance. Additionally, the incorporation of acceptance-based therapeutic
strategies and mindfulness techniques has shown promise in the treatment of GAD
(Orsillo, Roemer, & Barlow, 2003). These interventions could be investigated in the
treatment of individuals experiencing difficulties with maladaptive perfectionism as
well as excessive worry. The results of this study also highlight the potential importance of examining the role of experiential avoidance in the relationship between
maladaptive perfectionism and other forms of psychopathology.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Cynthia L. Turk and Randy Fingerhut for their helpful
feedback on this research project. Many thanks also to Chad Morrow, Sharon
Armstrong, and Montgomery County Community College for assistance with data
collection

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