Fenómenos de Transporte (Calor)

Transport Phenomena
Section 2: Heat Transfer
Contents of heat transfer

1.
Heat conduction: Fourier law
2.
Thermal conductivity of homogeneous media

and heterogeneous media
3.
Steady state heat conduction in slab and

composite slabs
4.
SS heat conduction in cylinder, sphere
5.
Transient heat conduction in semi-infinite

objects
6.
Transient heat conduction in finite objects

with symmetry conditions and asymmetry
conditions
7.
Transient heat conduction of objects in finite

environment
8.
Forced convection & heat conduction
9.
Free convection
10. Equations of change

11. Heat conduction with phase change
Transport Phenomena
Heat Transfer
Modes of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer
1. Conduction
So far we dealt with momentum,

now we turn to heat transfer
(energy).
From the first principles, there is no
difference between the analysis of
momentum transfer and that of
heat transfer, which you will see.
Transport Phenomena
2. Convection (forced & natural)

3. Radiation
Difference among the modes of heat
transfer
1.
Conduction: Heat is transferred due to the

temperature gradient.
2.
Convection: Heat is transferred by the motion

of the fluid. If the fluid is forced, we talk of
forced convection. On the other hand, if the
motion of the fluid is induced by the
temperature, we talk of natural convection.
3.
Radiation: only occur at high temperature
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction
Heat conduction
Simplest among the three modes of heat

transfer. It occurs in all three
phases of matter (gas, liquid and
solid). In solids, it is the only
mechanism of heat transfer.
The driving force for the heat
conduction is the temperature
gradient, that is whenever a
gradient in temperature exists there
exists a conductive heat flow.
Direction of
heat transfer
T1
T0
crosssection
area A
The heat flow is measured as the amount of

energy transferred through any given
plane per unit area per unit time. It is
called heat flux.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Conductive heat flux

heat flux: energy/area/time
Property of material
through which the heat is
conducted:
Thermal conductivity
q =
dT
dz
T1 T0
k

Temperature gradient
Pointwise:
Negative sign: Heat is moving

in the direction of negative
temperature gradient
q = k
Transport Phenomena
dT
dz
Thermal conductivity at
the plane A, k
PLANE A
q = k
Fouriers law
dT
dz
This is the fundamental equation

in heat conduction
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux as a vector

qz
z
For isotropic materials,

kx = ky = kz = k
the heat flux vector will become:
q = k T
qy
where
q = qx i + qy j + q z k
T
qx
and
i+
j+ k
x y z
grad operator
Temperature is a scalar, while heat flux

is a vector, of which components
are
q x = k x
dT
dT
dT
; q y = k y ; q z = k z
dx
dy
dz
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Momentum vs Heat ?
qy
= ky
1. Property of material through which

the heat is conducted
dT
dy
property of
material
2. Units: W/m/K
3. In general, ksolid > kliquid > kgas
driving force
yx
dv x
dy
There are three components of the heat flux

vector, while there are nine components of
the stress tensor.
Transport Phenomena
Materials
Hydrogen @ 100K
Water @ 293K
Liquid sodium @373K
Aluminum
0.067
0.600
83.70
206.0
4. Insulating materials have low k

Materials
Glass @ 298K
Brick @ 293K
Glass wool @298K
Transport Phenomena
1.00
0.60 - 1.00
0.07
5. Temperature dependence:
Gas
Theory of k for monatomic gases

1. Kinetic theory of gases
Liquid
a. Molecules are rigid sphere

Solid
d
mass = m
Temperature
Gas: k increases with temperature

Liquid: no general rule; for example k
of alcohols, benzene, toluene
decrease with T, while glycerine,
ethylene glycol increase with T
Solid: also no general rule; for
example k of polyethylene,
polypropylene, PTFE decrease
with T, while those of insulation
materials increase with T
6. Pressure dependence:
fairly independent of pressure
Transport Phenomena
b. Exchange of energy upon collision is

translational energy
1
3
mv 2T = T
2
2
Boltzmann constant
Molar heat capacity at constant

volume is
Avogadros number
Cv = N
3
d 1
2
mv T = R
2
dT 2
c. The mean free path is much shorter

than the length scale of the
Transport Phenomena
v=0
d. Results of kinetics theory of gas
y
mean molecular
thermal velocity
mean free path
wall collision
frequency per
unit area
T(y+a)
Temperature
profile
y-a
T(y)
T(y-a)
Transport Phenomena
8T
m
1
2d 2 n
Z=
1
nv T
4
a=
3
the molecules reaching
any plane,
on the average,
had their last collision
at a distance a from that
plane
y+a
y
vT =
Transport Phenomena
The heat flux qy across any plane of

constant y is obtained from:
According to the assumption c:
q y = Z mv T2
2
T y+ a = T y +
y= y a
Z mv T2
2
T y a = T y
y= y + a
2 dT
3 dy
2 dT
3 dy
thus the heat flux qy is:
dT
1
q y = nv T
dy
2
kinetic energies of
molecules that cross
in the negative
direction
kinetic energies of
molecules that cross in
the positive direction
According to the assumption b:
qy =
3
Z T y a T y + a
2
Transport Phenomena
q y = k
1
1
k = nv T = 2
2
d
dT
dy
3T
3m
compared with
=
2
3 3/ 2
m T
d2
only for dilute monatomic gases at moderate

pressures (usually less than 10 atm);
proportional to square root of temperature
and independent of pressure
Transport Phenomena
2. Chapman-Enskog theory (for gases)
10 4
k = 19891
.
T/M
2 k
collision integral
cal/cm/sec
Angstrom
g/cm/sec
Angstrom
= 2 .6693 10 5
Theory of k for polyatomic gases

More complex than monatomic gases
due to the additional rotational and
vibrational energies.
Semi-empirical formula by Eucken
5 R
viscosity
k = Cp +
4 M
heat capacity at
constant pressure
For monatomic gases, Cp = 5R/4M; thus
MT
2
collision integral
5 R
k=
2 M
as obtained by the kinetic theory of gases.

Note: Euckens formula is only used as a guide.
Experimental data should be used.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Thermal conductivity of mixtures

Semi-empirical formula is useful:
Heat conduction in
heterogeneous media
pure component
thermal conductivity
mole fraction
k mix =
i =1
Of interest to engineers is the heat

transfer to or from a packed
column (reactor).
xi k i
n
x
j
ij
j= 1
M
1
1 + i
ij =
Mj
8
1 / 2
1/ 2 M 1/ 4
1 + i j
j M i
pure component
viscosity
These formula equations are very

similar to those for the calculation
of mixtures viscosity.
Transport Phenomena
q = - ke dT/dr
molecular weight
Transport Phenomena
effective
thermal
conductivity
Hadleys formula (Kaviany, 1991)
ke
= (1 )
kf
k
f + s (1 f )
kf
Krupiczka (Int. Che.Eng., 7, 122,1967)
ke ks
=
kf kf
k
+0 .280 0 .757 log 0 . 057 log s
kf
k
1 (1 f ) + s (1 f )
kf
2
k
k
2 s (1 ) + (1 + 2 ) s
kf
kf
k
( 2 + ) s + (1 )
kf
where
f = 0.8 + 0.1
Kunni and Smith (AIChEJ, 6, 71, 1960)

Valid for 0.26 < < 0.476
ke
=+
kf
1
2 k
2 + 4.63( 0.26)( 1 2 ) + s
3 kf
where 1 and 2 are monotonic decreasing

function of (ks/kf)
and
0 < < 0.0827
log
= -4.898
0.0827 < < 0.298 log

= -0.405 -3.154(-0.0827)
0.298 < < 0.58
Transport Phenomena
log
= -1.084 -6.778(-0.298)
Transport Phenomena
Zehner and Schlunder (Chem. Ing. Tech.,

42, 933, 1970)
Procedure of transport
phenomena analysis
First principles
ke
1
=1
+
1/ 2
kf
1
( )

ks
B
1/ 2
kf
2(1 )

1
ln
2
ks
ks
k
s
1 B 1 +
B
B
kf
k f
kf
B+1 B1
ks
2
B
1
kf
where
1
B = 1.25
10 / 9
Modified version of Zehner-Schlunder

was given by Hsu et al. (Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer, 37, 2751, 1994)
1. Draw a physical diagram as

carefully as possible.
2. Identfy all possible energy
transport mechanisms
3. Set a frame of coordinates and
draw the direction of all transport
processes identified in step 2.
4. Draw a shell in such a way that its
surfaces are perpendicular to the
transport direction.
5. Carry out the energy shell balance
as below:
Rate of Rate of Rate of energy Accumulation

+
=
of energy
energy in energy out production
This should give a first-order ODE

in terms of heat flux
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
6. Apply the Fourier law

This should give a second order
ODE in terms of temperature.
7. Impose physical contraint on the
boundary of the physical system.
This gives rise to BCs.
Note that the number of boundary
conditions must match the order of
the differential equation.
8. Solve the equation for the
temperature distribution.
9. Obtain the mean temperature, heat flux.
Energy production:
1. Chemical reaction
2. Electrical heat
3. Viscous dissipation (degradation
of mechanical energy)
Transport Phenomena
Boundary conditions:
1. At the bounding surface, the
temperature is specified. This is
called boundary condition of the
first kind (Dirichlet BC)
2. At the bounding surface, the heat
flux equals to the flux supplied.
Boundary condition of the second
kind (Neumann BC)
3. At the bounding surface, the heat
flux entering the domain equals the
heat flux across the thin film
surrounding the object. BC of the
third kind (Robin BC).
Concept of heat transfer coefficient
4. At the interface between the two
domains, the temperatures and the
heat fluxes of those domains are
continuous. BC of the fourth kind.
Transport Phenomena
What to follow
1. Steady state heat conduction in slab
1a. Constant k
Steady state heat

conduction in slab
Steps 1 to 4:
1b. Temperature-dependent k
constant
cross section
area, A
1c. BC of 1st kind vs BC of 3rd kind

2. Steady state heat conduction in
composite slab
3. Steady state heat conduction in
cylinder
energy in
energy out
3a. The influence of shape

3b. Composite cylindrical walls
4. Steady state heat conduction from
sphere
5. Fall of temperature in free droplet

6. Heat conduction in cooling fin (BC of
the 3rd kind)
7. Heat conduction with chemical heat
source.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
z + z
thin shell
Steps 5 and 6: Energy balance equation
First order ODE with respect to heat flux

Fouriers law
steady state
q = k
Aq
Aq
z + z
0 =
no heat
production
dT
dz
dq
=0
dz
Second-order ODE with respect to T
d dT
k = 0
dz dz
rate of energy out;

units: Joule/sec
k is constant
k is temperature
dependent
rate of energy in;

units: Joule/sec
d 2T
k 2 =0
dz
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d
dT
=0
k
(
T
)
dz
dz
Step 7: Physical constraint on the

boundary
Step 9: Heat flux
Boundary conditions of the first kind.
T(0)=T0
Apply the Fouriers law; remember

that the heat flux in general is a
function of z. So to calculate the
heat flux, where do we evaluate the
heat flux at?
At z=0 or z=L ?
T(L)=TL
z
0
L
Step 8: Temperature distribution
T( z) T0 z
=
TL T0
L
Fourier law
dT ( z)
q ( z) = k
dz
T TL
q = k 0
Temperature distribution is linear (only

valid for constant k and slab
geometry).
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T( z) T0 z
=
TL T0
L
The heat flux is proportional to the

temperature difference (only valid
for constant k).
We see that for the case of constant k the
temperature distribution is linear and the heat flux is
proportional to the temperature difference.
Is this conclusion still valid for the case of
variable thermal conductivity?
Let us look at the case when k takes

the following functional form:
Constraint on : (T0 - TL) < 1

<0
Step 7: Boundary conditions

same as before, that is:
z = 0; T = T0
2
(T( z) T0 )
z
2
=
L
(TL T0 ) + (TL T0 )2
2
(T(z) T0 ) +
k
>0
Transport Phenomena
dT
d dT d
=0
k 0 1 + (T T0 )
k =
dz
dz dz dz
z = L; T = TL
k = k 0 1 + (T T0 )
T0
Step 6: Heat balance equation
TL
Thus the temperature distribution across

the slab is not linear.
Transport Phenomena
>0
T0
Step 9: Heat flux
=0
Apply the Fouriers law
<0
q = k 0 1 + (T T0 )
TL
q = k0
Can you explain the shape of the

temperature distribution?
>0
T0
dT
] dz
k
z=L
z=0
2
(T( z) T0 )
z
2
=
L
(TL T0 ) + (TL T0 )2
2
(T(z) T0 ) +
(T0 TL )
2

(T0 TL )
2
L
independent of z,
as one would
expect physically
lower k; thus
higher gradient
Would this minus sign cause a concern to

you as it could give zero flux?
high k; thus
lower gradient
z=0
Transport Phenomena
TL
Answer: Of course not, see the constraint

on .
z=L
Transport Phenomena
Note: If we define an average thermal

conductivity across the slab as:
k avg =
TL
TL
T0
T0
k (T)dT
TL
k [1 + (T T )]dT
0
dT
TL
dT

= k 0 1 (T0 TL )
2
T0
T0
the heat flux equation is:
q = k avg
What has been done so far in steps 1

to 6 is still valid, that is the heat
balance equation is:
d dT
k
=0
dz dz
(T0 TL )
L
which is an interesting equation.

So far so good, but are there anythings that
need to be addressed?
1. Existence of gas film surrounding the slab
furnace.
2. Slab is made of many different materials.
Lets consider these one by one.
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction in slab:

Gas film resistance
k is constant
d 2T
k 2 =0
dz
k is temperature
dependent
d
dT
=0
k
(
T
)
dz
dz
Lets study the constant k first, and

then deal with temperaturedependent k.
Transport Phenomena
Step 7: Physical constraints

T(0)
T0
unknown
T(L)
T( z) T(0) z
=
T( L) T(0) L
Note: T(0) and T(L) are yet known, but
we proceed anyway.
this is the flux
through the slab
Step 9: Heat flux

TL
L of the gas film, we

With the existence
talk of BC of the third kind.
z = 0; h 0 [T0 T(0)] = k
dT
dz
z = L; h L [T( L) TL ] = k
h=
Transport Phenomena
z=0
dT
dz z = L
T ( 0) T ( L) ]
[
q=k
L
which must be the same as the heat

fluxes through the gas film
surrounding the slab, that is:
q = h 0 [T0 T (0)] = k
kf
f (Re, Pr )
L
Transport Phenomena
[T(0) T( L)] = h
L
[T( L) TL ]
Rearranging the above equation as:

q=
T0 T (0) T (0) T ( L) T ( L) TL
=
=
L
1

1

k
hL
h0
Recall the following identity
a
c e a + c+ e
= = =
b d f
b+d + f
We can write the heat flux equation as:
q=
(1 + Bi
k
1
0
+ Bi L
T0 TL
L
where Bi0 and BiL are nondimensionless and

are defined as follows:
Bi 0 =
h0 L
;
k
Bi L =
hL L
k
which are called the Biot numbers.
we get the heat flux equation
q=
T0 TL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
written in terms of known parameters and

operating conditions.
Transport Phenomena
Physical significance of Biot number

Bi =
heat transfer through the film

heat transfer through the object
1. Bi >>1: Heat transfer through the

object is limiting.
2. Bi << 1: Heat transfer through the
fluid film is limiting.
Transport Phenomena
Avoid the confusion
How about T(0) and T(L)?
Bi and Nu
Recall the following equations:

q=
Their definitions:
Bi =
hL ( fluid film heat transfer coefficient)( length)

=
k
solid thermal conductivity
Nu =
hL ( fluid film heat transfer coefficient)( length)

=
kf
fluid thermal conductivity
Bi is seen in the analysis of heat transfer to

or from an object.
Nu is seen in many correlations of heat
transfer coefficients; hence it involves
only film properties.
More about this later.
Transport Phenomena
q=
T0 T (0) T (0) T ( L) T ( L) TL
=
=
L
1

1

k
hL
h0
T0 TL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
we get
T(0) = T0
T( L) = TL +
1

h0
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
1

hL
1 L 1
+ +
h0 k hL
Transport Phenomena
(T0 TL )
(T0 TL )
Heat conduction in slab:

Gas film & k(T)
Steps 1 to 6:
dT
d dT d
=
+
=0
k
T
T
k
1
(
0
0)
dz
dz dz dz
Constraint on : (T0 - TL) < 1
dT
dz
T ( 0) T ( L )
L
where

k avg = k 0 1 [T(0) T( L)]

2
This flux must be the same as fluxes

through the film at both sides of the
solid object, that is
Step 7: Boundary conditions

z = 0; h 0 [T0 T(0)] = k
We can write immediately
q = k avg
The heat balance equation is:
Step 8 and 9: Temperature distribution &

heat flux
z=0
dT
z = L; h L [T( L) TL ] = k
dz z = L
q = h 0 [T0 T (0)] = k avg
with T(0) being the solid object

temperature at z=0, and T(L) being
that at z=L.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
[T(0) T( L)] = h
L
[T( L) TL ]
Thus, we get
q=
So far
T0 TL
1 L 1
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
Heat conduction
This equation still involves unknown

variables T(0) and T(L).
Thermal conductivity, k
Like before, we solve for T(0) and T(L)
First principles of solving heat conduction

problems
T( 0) = T0
1

h0
1 L 1
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
(T0 TL )
1

hL
T(L) = TL +
(T0 TL )
1
1
L
+
+
h 0 k avg h L
Two nonlinear algebraic equations

in terms of T(0) and T(L) as kavg is a
function of T(0) and T(L).
Transport Phenomena
Theory of thermal conductivity for

monatomic gases
Heat conduction in slab object:

BC of the first kind
BC of the third kind
Constant thermal conductivity
T-dependent thermal conductivity
Now let us turn to composite objects and
objects of different geometries than
slab, cylinder and sphere.
Transport Phenomena
Utilizing results obtained earlier for a

single slab object, we can write:
Composite slab objects

Area A
T1
T2
T3
q = h 0 (T0 T1 ) = k 1
T1 T2
T T3
T TN +1
= k2 2
= = k N N
= h N +1 (TN +1 TN + 2 )
L2
LN
L1
T4
or writing in the ratio form, we get
q=
(T0 T1 ) =
1

h0
T TN + 1 (TN + 1 TN + 2 )
T1 T2 T2 T3
=
=
= = N
L1
L2
LN
1
kN
h N +1
k1
k2
Thus
q=
k1
L1
k2
k3
L2
L3
Let deal with constant k, and N layers.
Transport Phenomena
(T0 TN + 2 )
1 N Lj 1
+ +
h
k
h
0 j= 1 j N + 1
The interfacial temperatures can be found

by equating the above two equations.
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction in cylinder

In constrast to slab geometry, the area is
changing along the heat flow direction.
Steps 1 to 4
Step 5:
no heat generation
Heat balance around the annulus shell

( 2 rL )q ( r ) 2 L ( r + r )q ( r + r ) + 0 = 0
incoming
area
incoming
flux
R1
R2
outgoing
area
outgoing flux
A compact mathematical form:
[(2rL )q (r )] r =r [(2rL )q ( r )]r =r + r

means all r in the bracket are
r
evaluated at r+
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
=0
[(2r)q ( r )]
r=r
[(2r )q ( r ) ]
r = r + r
=0
Define
f ( r ) = 2r q ( r )
Thus, the final heat balance equation valid

at a point is:
d
[rq ( r ) ] = 0
dr
First-order
ODE wrt q
Step 6:
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r = 0
Apply the Fourier law of heat conduction
q (r) = k
Divide by r:
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r
r
into the heat balance equation to get:
d
dT
=0
r
k
dr
dr
=0
Now making the shell as thin as possible:
lim
f ( r ) r = r f ( r ) r = r + r
r 0
Transport Phenomena
dT
dr
df ( r )
=0
dr
If k is constant
d dT
r = 0
dr dr
Transport Phenomena
If k is a function of
temperature
d
dT
=0
rk
dr
dr
r=R1; T=T1
r=R2; T=T2
T( r ) T2
=
T1 T2
r
ln
R2
always associated
with cylindrical
geometry
R1
ln
R2
Step 9: Heat flux
Fouriers law
q (r) = k
q(r) =
Lets start with boundary
conditions of the first kind
Let us deal with the case of constant

thermal conductivity first.
Transport Phenomena
dT
dr
k(T1 T2 )
R
r ln 2
R1
Unlike the slab case, this heat flux is not a

constant, but rather decreases as the
heat moves away from the center.
Transport Phenomena
This is not entirely unexpected.

r
heat flux
small
large
large
small
area
small
large
Heat flow =
flux area
the same
the same
Although the heat flux changes with

distance r, the heat flow (energy/time)
must be a constant, a requirement of
steady state.
Compare this heat flow with that for the

slab geometry.
Slab
Cylinder
A
Q = k(T1 T2 )

2L
Q=
k T T2 )
R ( 1
2
ln
R1
Irrespective of the geometry, the heat flow

is proportional to
1. thermal conductivity
Heat flow:
Q = (2rL)q ( r ) =
2. temperature difference
2Lk
(T1 T2 )
R
ln 2
R1
The only difference is the geometrical

factor.
constant as expected
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
When the annulus is very thin, that is no

curvature
R2 - R1 << R1
We would expect that the solution
obtained for the cylindrical geometry
will reduce to that of slab.
Proof:
d
dr
dT
1
r
k
T
T
+
(
)
1
=0
1
dr
Step 7: Same boundary constraints

r = R1 ;
T = T1
r = R2 ;
T = T2
It is not difficult to show that:

Area
2L
2R1L
=
=
R R 2 R1 Thickness
ln 2
R1
Q.E.D.
r
2

ln

(T T1 ) + (T T1 )
R1
2
=
2

(T2 T1 ) + (T2 T1 ) ln R 2
2
R1
Now lets consider the case of nonconstant thermal conductivity.
k = k 1[1 + ( T T1 ) ]
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Step 9: Heat flux
q( r ) =
Heat conduction from a sphere
k1
T
T
T
T
(
)
(
)
1
2
2
2 1
R 2
r ln
R1
dr
Heat flow
r
2Lk 1
2

T
T
T
T
Q=
( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 )
2
R 2
ln
R1
shell
which is independent of r.
Boundary condition
r=R; T = T0
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
d
dr
2 dT
r k dr = 0
q = h (T0 - T)
fluid thermal
conductivity
r = R;
r ;
If the heat transfer coefficient is

defined as
T = T0
T = T
Compare this with the solution obtained

from first principles, we get:
h(2R )
k
Step 9: Heat flux
k
q R = (T0 T )
R
hD
=2
k
known as the
Nusselt number
T ( r ) T R
=
T0 T
r
Thus, from first principles the Nusselt

number of a stagnant medium is 2.
Correlation of the form:
Nu = 2 + a Re n Pr m
therefore, comes as no surprise.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
The influence of shape

on heat balance
Slab
Cylinder
Sphere
d dT
k
=0
dr dr
d
dr
d
dr
1.
dT
=0
r
k
dr
2 dT
r k dr = 0
The general form for the three shapes is:
d
dr
s dT
r k dr = 0
s is called the shape factor.

2.
Those equations can be cast into the form:
dQ
=0
dV
that is the rate of change of energy per
unit volume is zero.
Fall of temperature of a free droplet

Rate of mass transfer from the liquid
surface is:
I = 4
R D (C0 - C)
If H is the latent heat of vaporization,
the heat gain by the droplet is equal
to the heat required to vaporize the
liquid, that is:
4Rk(T T0 ) = 4RD(C 0 C )
Therefore, the drop in temperature is:
T0 = T
HD
(C 0 C )
k
Example: Benzene droplet in air.

The drop in temperature is 60C.
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Transient heat conduction
Thermal diffusivity
1. New parameter: Thermal diffusivity

Chem
Eng.
2. Heat conduction in a semi-infinite

slab object.
a. Penetration heat front
b. Constant surface temperature vs
constant surface heat flux
3. Heat conduction in a finite object.
a. Slab geometry
b. Cylindrical geometry
c. Spherical geometry
4. Heat conduction in a finite object with
asymmetry boundary conditions.
5. Heat conduction in objects within a
finite environment.
6. Determination of heat flux from
temperature measurements.
Transport Phenomena
Engine Oil
Air layer
You will feel the heat first with which

system?
Transport Phenomena
Answer:
The proper parameter characterises

this transient situation is
The air system will transport heat

quicker than the oil system.
THE THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

It is defined as:
Does this seem odd as the thermal

conductivity of oil (0.14 W/m/K) is
about 5 times larger than that of air
(0.03 W/m/K)? Answer: No
The larger is this parameter, the faster

is the heat transport.
The heat transfer in this system is

transient; that is heat travels from
the left surface, portion of which is
conducted through and portion is
absorbed by the material to increase
its latent heat.
Since oil has a much higher heat
capacity per unit volume, most of
the heat is retained by the oil and
hence it retards the movement of
heat front to the right surface.
Transport Phenomena
ability to conduct
k
C p
ability to absorb
We shall see that this parameter will

evolve naturally during the
analysis.
Now, coming back to our example.
Cp
k
Oil system
848 kg/m3
2130 J/kg/K
0.14 W/m/K
7.75 10-8 m2/sec
Transport Phenomena
Air system
1.1 kg/m3
928 J/kg/K
0.03 W/m/K
2.94 10-5 m2/sec
Heat conduction in a
semi-infinite slab object
Constant temperature at x=0 surface

Heat balance over the shell:
Aq
Aq
x + x
+ 0 = ( A x) C p
T
t
accummulation
of energy
Ts
x)-surface
energy out at (x+
time
energy in at x-surface
x
x and take
divide by A
the limit when x 0
Consider two cases:

Case 1: Constant temperature at x=0
surface
Case 2: Constant heat flux at x=0 surface
Transport Phenomena
q
T
= C p
x
t
thermal diffusivity
evolves naturally
Transport Phenomena
Fouriers law
q (r) = k
2 T T
2 =
t
x
dT
dr
Initial and boundary conditions
Temperature distribution
t = 0;
x = 0;
x ;
T( x, t ) Ts
x
= erf
4t
T0 Ts
T = T0
T = Ts
T = T0
special
combination
of x and t
where erf is the error function.

Error function is defined as:
z
2
2
erf (z) =
e x dx
far away from the surface,

the temperature is not yet
disturbed by the change in
surface temperature
It has the following properties:

1. erf(0) = 0; erf(
) = 1
This condition is maintained

for t > 0+
condition of the object before the
surface temperature is changed
Solution method:
Combination of variables: The essence of this
method is that the temperature behaves with
respect to x and t in a special way
(MATCHING OF CONDITIONS).
Transport Phenomena
d
2 z2
erf (z ) =
e
dz
2.
x
0
0.01
0.1
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Transport Phenomena
erf(x)
0
0.01128
0.11246
0.52049
0.84270
0.96610
0.99532
at a given time
Ts
heat penetration front
T(x,t)
k
=4 t =4
t
C p
The penetration front is proportional to
1
the square root of time,
2. the square root of k

3. the inverse of the square root of Cp
T0
x
The heat penetration front can be defined
as the front at which the temperature
is such that:
T( , t ) Ts

= erf
= 0.995
4t
T0 Ts
From the table of error function,

erf(2)=0.995; thus
=4 t
Transport Phenomena
Front travels fast

1. high conductivity
2. low volumetric
heat capacity
Front travels slow

1. low conductivity
2. high volumetric
heat capacity
The square root dependence of the heat

front with respect to time is the
characteristics of conduction
(diffusion) type problems.
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux:
Answer:
Obtained from the Fourier law
The infinite flux at t=0 is due to the

sudden exposure of the surface to a
new temperature, that is
q ( x, t ) =
k (Ts T0 )
t
x2
exp
4t
infinite temperature gradient at t=0.
What we can observe from this are:

1.
Heat flux decays rapidly with x for

a given time
2.
Heat flux increases to a maximum

and then decays with respect to
time.
If we are interested in the amount of heat

has entered the object up to time t, we
find:
t
Q ( t ) = A q ( 0, t )dt =
0
Of interest to engineers is the heat flux

entering the object at x=0:
q ( 0, t ) =
k (Ts T0 )
t
This heat flux is infinite at t=0! Is this

acceptable physically?
Transport Phenomena
2 Ak (Ts T0 )
or
Q( t ) =
2 A(Ts T0 )
k C p t
The amount of heat transfer is proportional to the

square root of
1.
The thermal conductivity
2.
The volumetric heat capacity
Transport Phenomena
If there is a film heat transfer resistance at

x=0, the solution for the temperature
distribution is (Levenspiel, 1984):
Case 2: Constant heat flux at x=0
T(x , t ) Ts
x
= erf
+
4t
T0 Ts
the equation describes the pointwise heat

balance within the domain (i.e. object)
and it is not affected by the way how
we impose the system.
x
hx h 2 t
h t
+
+ 2
exp
1 erf
k
k
k
4 t
When heat transfer coefficient h is infinite

(that is no film resistance), the second
term in the RHS is zero, as erf(
)=1.
The heat balance equation is still the same

as before as
How we impose the system is through the

boundary condition.
The boundary condition for this case is:
x = 0;
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T
= qs
x
The solution for the heat flux is:
x
q ( x , t ) = q s 1 erf
4
t
and for the temperature is:
q
T ( x , t ) = T0 + s
k
x2
4 t

exp
4
t
qsx
x
1
erf
k
4 t
finite slab object
center
shell
T1
time
The quantity of interest is the rise in

temperature at the x=0 surface:
T (0, t ) = T0 +
qs
k
4 t
Due to the constant supply of heat flux,

the x=0 temperature increases with
time and follows the square root
dependence.
Transport Phenomena
x=L
x=0
The slab object is symmetrical, so it is

only necessary to consider half of
the object.
The origin is chosen as the center of the
object as shown.
Transport Phenomena
The heat balance will be exactly the

same as before. Why.
Solution method:
Either by
Because the heat balance is a pointwise equation. It is

not affected by the boundary condition as well as
the size of the domain.
1. Separation of variables method

2. Laplace transform
2 T T
2 =
t
x
Temperature distribution:
The Laplace solution is:
assuming a constant thermal diffusivity

T=
The initial and boundary conditions are:

t = 0;
x = 0;
x = L;
T = T0
T
=0
x
T = T1
symmetry at
center
T
= h T x = 0 T1
x
cosh L
The inverse is found by the method of

residues:
no film resistance. If
there is the new BC is
x = L; k
T0 (T1 T0 )
+
s
s
cosh x

sin
( n ) x 2 t
T1 T(x, t )
= 2
cos n exp n 2
n
T1 T0
L
L
n=1
where n is called the eigenvalue and is defined as
n = n
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux into the particle:

q = k
T
x
= 2 k
x=L
(T1 T0 )
L
exp
n =1
2
n
L2
Amount of heat transfer:

The amount of energy up to time t passing
through the surface at x=L
2 t
1
exp
n 2
t
L
Q( t ) = A q ( t ) dt = 2 ALC p (T1 T0 )
2n
n =1
0
The solution of the amount of heat

transfer passing through the x=L
surface valid for very short time is:
Q=A
k(T1 T0 )
s 3 / 2
or the inverse is:
Q=
2 A(T1 T0 )
independent of the size of

the object. Why?
This is basically the amount received by

half of the object up to time t
When time is sufficient large, this
amount is:
) = AL
Cp (T1 - T0)
Q(
This is physically expected as this is the
sensible heat required to bring the
object from T0 to T1.
Transport Phenomena
k C p t
This solution for short time is exactly

the same as the solution we
obtained earlier for a semi-infinite
object.
WHY?
Transport Phenomena
Answer:
Because for short time the heat does
not penetrate far into the object,
and hence the center is not yet felt
by the heat front.
Thus, the object behaves just like a
semi-infinite object.
Heat conduction in a finite

cylindrical or spherical object
1 s T T
x
=
s
x x
x t
with
1. s = 0 for slab
2. s = 1 for cylinder
We have learnt that the solutions for
the semi-inifinite object are simpler
than the finite object. They are
recommended for the description of
the system under study during the
initial stage of transfer.
3. s = 2 for sphere
The same set of initial and boundary
conditions:
t = 0;
x = 0;
x = L;
T = T0
T
=0
x
T = T1
symmetry at
center
no film resistance. If
there is the new BC is
x = L; k
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
T
= h T x = 0 T1
x
The temperature distribution is:
T1 T(x, t )
t
= a n K n ( x) exp 2n 2
T1 T0
L
n =1
1. The parameter an is called

coefficient.
2. The function Kn(x) is called
eigenfunction.
3. The parameter n is called the
eigenvalue.
shape
Slab
Cylinder
Sphere
sin( n )
n
2
n J 1 ( n )
2
Kn(x)
an
cos( n )
n
Transport Phenomena
cos n
x
J0 n
L
sin n
x
L
J 0 () = 0
The heat flux solution is:

q=
2 k (T1 T0 )
L
2 t
exp
n 2
L
n =1
The form is exactly the same for all

shape. The only difference is the
eigenvalue (characteristic of the
system, i.e. shape).
The amount of heat received by the
object is given by:
Q( t ) = 2(1 + s) Vobject C p
)]
1 exp 2n 2
L
(T1 T0 )
2n
n =1
where Vobject is the volume of the object.

For sufficiently large time, the total amount of
heat absorbed by the object
Q(
) = Vobject Cp (T1 - T0)
which is expected physically.
Transport Phenomena
Heat conduction in slab

with asymmetry condition
Solution method:
1. Laplace transform or
2. Separation of variables
Ts
Temperature distribution
time
linear steady state

profile
T0
x=0
x=L
2 T T
2 =
x
t
t = 0;
x = 0;
T = T0
T = Ts
x = L;
T = T0
Transport Phenomena
Ts T ( x, t ) x
= +
Ts T0
L
x
2 1
2 2 t
sin
n
exp
n 2
n =1 n
L
L
transient term, will decay to

zero as time is getting large
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux at x=0 and x=L
Amount of heat entering and leaving the

object
steady state
heat flux
q0 =
qL =
k(Ts T0 )
L
k(Ts T0 )
L
+
+
2 k(Ts T0 )
L
2k(Ts T0 )
L
exp n
n =1
Q0 =
L2
t+
L
(Ts T0 )ALC p
3
n
n=1
6
2
2 2 t
1 exp n L2
and
cos(n) exp n
n =1
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
QL =
Ak(Ts T0 )
L
t+
2 cos(n )
2 2 t
exp
1
n 2
2 2
n
L
n =1
At steady state, the heat flux entering the

surface x=0 must be the same as that
leaving the surface x=L.
(Ts T0 )ALC p
When time is sufficiently large

During the trasient operation, the heat
flux entering the x=0 surface is greater
than that leaving at x=L. The
difference is absorbed by the object as
sensible heat.
Transport Phenomena
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
Q0 =
t +
L
3
Ak(Ts T0 )
L2
QL =
t
L
6
Transport Phenomena
finite environment
Question: Cooling or heating time of a
collection of solid objects in a finite
environment.
QL
L2/6
time
This is called the lag time,
which is the time required
for the heat to penetrate
the medium
This method is known as the time lag

method.
Transport Phenomena
time t <0
Transport Phenomena
time t > 0+
Two sub systems to write down heat

balance equations:
Solution method:
Laplace transform.
1. Heat conduction in a sphere

2. Heat transfer from the
environment into the collection of
sphere.
1 2 T T
x
=
x 2 x x t
B=
dTf
3 m
= P
dt
R P
T
k
x
x =R

t = 0;
x = 0;
x = L;
T = T0 ; Tf = T1
T
=0
x
T = Tf
Transport Phenomena
Vf f C pf
mp C p
ratio of the heat

capacities of the
two phases
The eigenvalues are determined from the

following transcendental equation:
Heat balance in the reservoir:
Vf f C pf
Tf T0
B
1
2 t
=
+ 6B
exp
n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
where
Heat balance of a sphere:
Solution for the fluid temperature
B
cot( ) = 1 + 2
3
Solution for the object average temperature
t
T T0
B
1
=
6B2
exp 2n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
Transport Phenomena
Parameter determination
Tf T0
t
B
1
=
+ 6B
exp 2n 2
2 2
T1 T0 1 + B
R
n = 1 9 (1 + B) + B n
Heat convection
So far, we deal with heat conduction
whereby the driving force is the
function of only
heat capacities
experimentally measured
contain dynamic parameters:
thermal conductivity
1. Plot the LHS versus = t/R2

2. From experimental data, obtain the
LHS and then use the above plot to
obtain corresponding to
experimental t.
3. Plot versus t, the slope is /R2.
Transport Phenomena
Now we consider the second mode of

heat transfer
CONVECTION
1. As the name suggests, the heat
transfer in this mode is induced by
some form of fluid movement
around the object.
2. There are two types of heat
convection:
a. Forced Convection
b. Free Convection
Transport Phenomena
Forced convection
velocity
temperature
object
Forced convection by
forced stream of air
Flow pattern: by
external force
object
Free convection by
heated air which rises
Flow pattern: by the

bouyancy effects of
heated fluid
1. Velocity profile, then 1. Velocity and temp.

profiles are connected
2. Temperature profile
Nu = f(Re, Pr)
Nu = f(Gr, Pr)
C p
gD3
hD
uD
; Re =
; Pr =
; Gr =
Nu =
2
kf
kf
Transport Phenomena
Two broad classes of heat convection:

1.
Internal forced convection
2.
External forced convection
Transport Phenomena
Internal forced convection with

constant surface temperature
Out by
conduction
In by convection
and conduction
out by
convection &
conduction
r
r
In by
conduction
z+
z
The thin shell and the direction of

energy transport
Transport Phenomena
The velocity profile distribution for

Newtonian fluids is:
r 2
v z ( r ) = v max 1
R
Step 5: Energy balance equation

heat conduction in
at r-surface
Energy
In
(2rz)q r ( r, z) r +
(2rr)q z ( r, z) z +
=
C p v z ( r )( 2rr ) ( T T0 ) z
sensible heat carried by the fluid

Transport Phenomena
and
(2rz)q r ( r, z) r+ r +
(2rr)q z ( r, z) z+ z +
Energy
=
Out

C p v z ( r )( 2rr ) ( T T0 ) z+ z
Heat balance equation of the finite shell is:
(rq r ) r + r (rq r ) r (rq z ) z + z (rq z ) z
r
z
T z + z T z
+0 =0
r C p v z ( r )
z
no heat production
in the tube
Now taking r and z to zero, we obtain

the following heat balance equation
valid at any point inside the tube
C p v z (r )
T
1
(rq r ) q z
=
z
z
r r
Step 6: Apply the Fourier law
q r = k
T
;
r
T
z
we get
1 T 2 T
T
= k
C p v z (r )
r
+ 2
z
r r r z
Usually
T
2T
C p v z ( r )
>> 2
z
z
Thus, the heat balance equation is:

r 2 T
1 T
C p v max 1
= k
r
R
z
r
r
r
steady state
Transport Phenomena
q z = k
Transport Phenomena

r=R; T = Tw

eigenfunction
coefficient
eigenvalue
r=0
r=0; T/
T( r , z) Tw
=
T0 Tw
kz
A
K
r
exp
(
)
n
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
Step 9: Quantities of interest

z=0; T=T0
1. At the entrance, the fluid temperature

is equal to the inlet temperature.
2. At the center of the tube, we have the
symmetry condition.
3. At the tube surface, the temperature is
equal to the surface temperature, Tw.
Transport Phenomena
Mixing cup temperature is defined:
Enthalpy = R 2 v C p (Tm T0 )
average velocity
mixing cup temperature
How is enthalpy calculated?
Transport Phenomena
Heat flux at tube surface
vz(r)
Apply the Fourier law at the tube surface

q R ( z) = k
dr
T ( r , z )
r
r=R
k ( T0 Tw )
R
kz
'
A
Y
(
)
exp
1
n n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
This is the heat flux at the tube surface

which is a function of downstream
distance.
Enthalpy = 2C p rv z ( r )[T( r , z) T0 ]dr

0
Mixing cup temperature:

Tm ( z) Tw
=
T0 Tw
kz
E n exp n 2
R
C
v
n =1
p max
qR(z)
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
The necessary constants in solutions are:

n
An
En
Yn(1)
1
2
3
4
5
2.70436
6.67903
10.6734
14.6723
18.5149
+1.4764
-0.8061
+0.5888
-0.4764
+0.3591
0.81905
0.09753
0.03250
0.01547
0.00703
-0.10443
+1.3429
-1.5723
+1.7479
-1.6766
Approximate mixing cup temperature

Note that all solutions are in the form of
infinite series.
To obtain the mixing cup temperature at
large distance, we see that all the
terms in the series are very small
compared to the first term
Thus
We see that using the first principles, we

can obtain
1. the temperature distribution
2. the cup-mixing temperature
3. the heat flux at tube surface
without resort to any correlations of heat
transfer.
Transport Phenomena
Tm ( z) Tw
kz
= E 1 exp 1 2
lim
z l arg e
T0 Tw
R C p v max
Solving for the length required to achieve

a cup-mixing temperature of Tm:
kL
1 1 Tm ( L ) Tw
= 2 ln
1 E 1 T0 Tw
R 2 C p v max
Transport Phenomena
Thus, if we want (Tm-Tw)/(T0-Tw) = 0.1,

the length of the tube required is:
L = 0.29
R 2 v max C p
k
or written in terms of flow rate F:
FC p
.
L = 0185
k
An amazing simple result.
Heat transfer coefficient & Nu number

Recall the heat flux at the surface and the
cup mixing temperature:
q R ( z) = k
=
T ( r , z )
r
r=R
k ( T0 Tw )
R
kz
'
A
Y
(
)
exp
1
n n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
and
Tm ( z) Tw
=
T0 Tw
kz
E
exp
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
The length of the tube is proportional to:

1. flow rate
2. volumetric heat capacity
There is one quantity that engineers like

to use is the heat transfer coefficient.
It is defined as follows:
and inversely proportional to

1. fluid thermal conductivity
q R ( z ) = h ( z ) (Tm Tw )
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Thus the heat transfer coefficient can be

evaluated as:
This Nusselt number is a function of

distance, and from this we can get the
asymptotic Nusselt number
kz
2 A n Y' n (1) exp n 2
R
C
v
n =1
k
p max
h ( z) =
D
2
kz
E n exp n 2
R
C
v
n =1
p max
Nu ( ) =
If we keep two terms, we will obtain how

Nusselt number would decay along the
axis z.
Making use of the definition of the Nusselt

number, we get:
kz

Nu ( z) = Nu( )1 + 0.583 exp 37.3 2
R
C
v
p max
kz
2 A n Y' n (1) exp 2n 2

R
C
v
n =1
p max
Nu ( z) =
2A 1 Y '1 (1)
= 3.76
E1
kz
exp
E
n
n R 2 C v
n =1
p max
which must be computed numerically.
full solution
two-term
solution
Nu
3.76
z
Transport Phenomena
Transport Phenomena
Before we solve the next problem, we

recall the solution for the cup-mixing
temperature:
Tm ( z) Tw
kz
E 1 exp 21 2
T0 Tw
R
C
v
p max
The LHS is dimensionless, E1 is

dimensionless, 12 is also
dimensionless; so the group
kz
R C p v max
2
is also dimensionless. Rearranging this

group as follows:
kz
z k
=

2
R
v
R
C
R C p v max
max
p
1
z
=
R Re Pr
Heat conduction & convection in

tube with constant wall heat flux
In the previous example, we dealt with
conduction and convection in tube
with constant wall temperature.
Now we deal with constant wall heat flux.
These wall conditions (either constant
temperature or heat flux) only affect
the boundary conditions. So the heat
balance equation obtained earlier will
still be applicable here:
r 2 T
1 T
C p v max 1
= k
r
R
z
r
r
r
This shows that the dimensionless groups Re and

Pr are generally appeared in forced
convection problems.
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@ z = 0;
T = T0
By defining
@ r = 0;
r = 0
T/
@ r = R;
- k
T/
r = q1
Remember, the constant heat flux q1 is an

algebraic quantity. It is negative, if
the fluid is heated, and is positive
when the fluid is cooled.
T T0
;
(q 1 R / k )
x=
r
;
R
kz
C p v max R 2
the heat balance equation and the

boundary conditions will become:
1 x2
1
=
x
x x x
@ = 0;
=0
@ x = 0;
/
x = 0
@ x = 1;
/
x = -1
Exact solution to this problem is possible,

but we are interest in the solution at
distance far away from the entrance.
Entrance solution is not so much of
interest to engineers.
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Because of the constant heat flux, the

temperature is expected to rise
linearly, i.e.
( x , ) = C 0 + ( x)
To find the overall heat balance equation,

we start with
1
=
x
(1 x )
x x x
2
that is, the temperature at any point

across the tube section increases
linearly at the same rate.
multiply by xdx and integrate

wrt x from 0 to 1
This long distance solution must satisfies

the center and wall boundary
conditions, as expected. But it will not
satisfy the entrance condition
@ = 0;
=0
To make up for this, the solution must,

however, satisfy the overall heat
balance equation.
d

2
x
x
dx
1
x
x
d 0
1
apply the BCs in x
d
2
dx = 1
x
1
x
d 0
integrate wrt from 0 to

1
dx =
x
1
x
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x
x
x =1
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x=0
This is the overall heat balance equation.

It simply states that the heat input
through the wall is equal to the
sensible heat gained by the fluid.
Written in dimensional terms, that
equation is:
r 2
0 v max 1 R (T T0 )2 rdr = (2 Rz) q 1
Summary
Thus, the long distance solution
( x , ) = C 0 + ( x)
must satisfy the differential heat balance
equation
1
=
x
(1 x )
x x x
2
the two boundary conditions in x

@ x = 0;
/
x = 0
@ x = 1;
/
x = -1
and the overall heat balance equation

1
x(1 x )dx =
2
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The solution finally is:
Heat transfer coefficient: It is defined as:
x4
7
( x , ) = 4 +
x2 +
4
24
h TT
)=q
surface temperature
Step 9: Desired quantities
cup-mixing temperature
Surface temperature:
(1, ) = 4
Rearrange:
11
24
[(
) (
h T T0 T R T0
q 1R
Center temperature:
( 0, ) = 4 +
7
24
h 1 =
( ) =
x(1 x
) dx
k
R
Hence
= 4
Nu =
hD 48
=
= 4.36
11
k
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that is:
Cup-mixing temperature:
2
x
(
1
x
) dx
)]
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q1
q 1R
Length required
To determine the length required to heat
the fluid to some desired temperature,
we use the solution:
( ) = 4
Rewrite the equation in dimensional
quantities, we get:
T T )R C v
(
L=
0
max
Free convection
What we have dealt with so far:
1. Various problems of heat
conduction, steady state as well as
un-steady state.
2. Combined heat conduction and
heat convection.
4( q 1 )
Written this in terms of the volumetric

flow rate, F, we have:
T T )C F
(
L = 0.16
0
R ( q 1 )
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Now we will deal with a combined heat

conduction and free convection
problem.
The problem is two parallel plates with
a fluid confined between them. The
fluid region closer to the hot plate
will rise, while the fluid region close
to the cold plate will descend.
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Steps 5 to 7: Heat balance equation &

Momentum balance & physical
constraints
T2
T1
The heat balance equation by conduction

is:
d 2T
=0
k
dy 2
The boundary conditions are:
vz(y)
@ y = -b;
T = T2
@ y = +b;
T = T1
z
y
Two parallel plates
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The movement of fluid due to the

temperature difference is determined
by the momentum balance equation:
d 2 v z ( y)
dp
=
+ g
dy 2
dz
In this equation, we will assume the
viscosity is a constant, and the
density to follow Taylor expansion:
( T) ( T0 ) +
T0
(T T0 )
Put this in the momentum eqn., we get:
d 2 v z ( y ) dp
=
+ g ( T0 )
2
dy
dz
g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
If the pressure gradient is solely due to
the weight of the fluid, then:
dp
= g ( T0 )
dz
The momentum equation is:
where T0 is yet an unspecified temperature.
d 2 v z ( y)
= g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
dy 2
Def. of the coefficient of volume expansion:
The physical meaning: The viscous

forces (LHS) are balanced by the
buoyancy forces.
1
T
=
T0
the above Taylor series will become:
( T) ( T0 ) ( T0 ) (T T0 )
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Summary:
The governing equations are:
d2T
=0
k
2
dy
@ y = -b;
T = T2
@ y = +b;
T = T1
Step 8: Temperature & velocity

distribution
The temperature distribution is:
T ( y ) = Tm
T
2
where
T1 + T2
;
2
Tm =
T = T2 T1
and
The velocity distribution:
d 2 v z ( y)
= g ( T0 ) (T T0 )
dy 2
( T0 ) g b 2 T
v z ( y) =
12
@ y = -b;
vz =0
@ y = +b;
vz =0
3
2
y
y
y
A + A
b
b
b
where
A =
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6 (T m T0 )
T
Now we require that the net volume

flow is zero, that is:
b
( y ) dy = 0
Solving this equation, we get:
Equation of change
You have seen the analysis of a number
of simple heat transfer problems by
using the first principles on shell
elements.
A=0
that is the reference T0 used in the
Taylor series expansion for density
is equal to the mean temperature,
Tm.
The velocity distribution now is:
3
( T0 ) g b 2 T y
y
v z ( y) =
b
b
12
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NOW
You will learn how to generalize the
shel energy balance to obtain the
equation of energy, which describe
energy transport in homogeneous
fluid or solid.
The advantage of using this equation of
energy is that we do not need to set
up shell balance every time we solve
a problem
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This is the first law of thermodynamics.
Equations of energy
z
Kinetic energy: is energy associated with

the fluid motion, i.e. v2 on a per unit
volume basis.
(x,y,z)
x
y
Internal energy: is energy associated with

the random translational and internal
motions of the molecules plus the
energy of interaction between the
molecules.
The internal energy depends on the local
temperature and density of the fluid.
Rate of accummulation Rate of int ernal Rate of int ernal
of int ernal and kinetic = and kinetic energy and kinetic energy +
in by convection out by convection

energy
Net rate of heat Net rate of work
done by system
addition by
on surroundings
conduction
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Transport Phenomena
Now back to the energy equation:

Rate of accummulation Rate of int ernal Rate of int ernal
of int ernal and kinetic = and kinetic energy and kinetic energy +

energy
Net rate of heat Net rate of work
done by system
addition by
on surroundings
conduction
Term 2 & 3: Convection

Rate of int ernal Rate of int ernal
and
kinetic
energy
and
kinetic
energy
(yz) vx U+
1 2
^ 1
v v x U + v 2
x
2
2
x
z
(
) vy U+
(xy) vz U+
1 2
^ 1
v v y U + v 2
y
2
2
+
y + y
1 2
^ 1
v v z U + v 2
z + z
z
2
2
Let do this term-by-term.
Term 4: Conduction
Term 1: Accummulation
Net rate of heat
= (yz) q x
by conduction
Rate of accummulation
^ 1 2
of
int
ernal
and
kinetic
x
y
z
(
)
U+ v
t
2
energy
^
where U is the internal energy per unit

mass.
(xz) q y y q y y + y
qx
] + (xy)[q
z z
x + x
qz
where qx, qy, qz are components of the

heat flux vector
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+
x + x
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]+
z + z
Term 5: Work done on the surrounding.

Recall the following basic formula
The work against the volume forces (gravity)

The rate of doing work against the three
components of the gravity force:
Rate of work against
= (xyz) v x g x + v y g y + v z g z
gravity force
dis tan ce in the direction
of the force
(Work ) = (Force)
the minus sign because

work is done against
gravity
The rate of
velocity in the direction
= (Force)
doing work
of the force
The work against the pressure

Consists of two parts:
a. Work against the volume forces,
e.g. gravity.
b. Work against surface forces, e.g.
pressure & viscous forces
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The rate of doing work against the

static pressure:
= (yz) (pvx ) x (pvx ) x + x +

pressure force
(xz)(pvy ) y (pvy ) y + y + (xy)[(pvz ) z (pvz ) z + z ]
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The work against the viscous forces
^
1
2
U + v =
t
2
The rate of doing work against the

viscous forces is:
=
viscous force
(yz) ( xx vx + xy vy + xz vz ) x ( xx vx + xy vy + xz vz ) x + x
]+
(xz)( yx vx + yy vy + yz vz ) y ( yx vx + yy vy + yz vz ) y + y +
(xy) ( zx vx + zy vy + zz vz ) z ( zx vx + zy vy + zz vz ) z + z
Putting all those terms into the shell
energy balance equation, then
dividing by x
y
z, we get the
following energy balance equation
per unit volume:
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^
vx U+
x
^
v y U +
vz U+
z
q y
q x
+
+
y
x
1

v 2 +
1
2
v +

2
1
2
v

2
q z
convection
conduction
+ v x g x + v y g y + v zg z
gravity
pv y +
(p v x ) +
(p v z ) pressure
y
z
x
+
v
v
v
xx
x
xy
y
xz
z
x
y x v x + y y v y + y z v z +

y
viscous
v + v + v
z
x
x
z
y
y
z
z
z
z
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Such a massive energy equation can be

written in a compact vector-tensor:
BUT we could make use of the continuity

equation to obtain another form:
rate of gain of energy

per unit volume
^ 1 2
U + v =
2
t
^ 1
v U + v 2
rate of energy input per

unit volume by convection
rate of energy input per

unit volume by conduction
( pv)
rate of work done on fluid

per unit volume by
gravitational forces
)
+(v g)
( [ ])

per unit volume by
pressure forces
per unit volume by viscous
forces
The equation obtained so far is fairly general.
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^ 1
^ 1 ^ 1
U + v 2 + v U + v 2 + U + v 2 + ( v) =
2
2
2 t
) (
( [ ])
q + v g ( pv) v
Combine the accummulation term &

the convection term, we get:
Recall the continuity equation:

t + ( v) = 0
the above equation will become:
( [ ])
D ^ 1
U + v 2 = q + v g ( pv) v
2
Dt
) (
in which we have used the definition of

the substantial derivative.
D
= + vx
+ vy
+ vz
x
y
z
Dt t
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Now we recall the mechanical energy

equation:
D 1
v 2 = p( v) ( pv) + v g
Dt 2
( [
Equations written in terms of internal

energy are not directly too useful.
One prefers equations written in terms of
temperature and heat capacities
])
v + (: v)
From thermodynamics:
Substracting this mechanical energy

equation from the energy equation:
rate of gain of internal
energy per unit volume
DU
=
Dt
q
^
^
U
d U = ^ d V+
V T
^
p( v)
( : v)
irreversible rate of
internal energy
increase by viscous
This is called thermal energy equation.
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p
= p + T
rate of internal energy

input by conduction
reversible rate of
internal energy increase
per unit volume by
compression
^
U
T
dT
^
^
^
+
d
V
C
v dT
^
V
The thermal energy equation will become:

^
Cv
DT
p
= q T ^ ( v) (: v)
T V
Dt
If we express q in terms of temperature

gradient and stress tensors in terms of
velocity gradient, the above equation
will be in terms of temperature &
velocity
Transport Phenomena
Special cases:
Special case: Ideal gas
For a Newtonian fluid with constant k:
For ideal gas, the change of pressure

versus temperature at constant volume
Cv
DT
p
= k 2 T T ^ ( v) + v
T V
Dt
where v is the dissipation function, and

it takes the form for rectangular
coordinates:
v 2 v y 2 v 2
z
v = 2 x +
+
+
z
y
x
2
v y v x
v z v y
v x v z
+
+
+
+
+

z
y
z
x
x
y
2 v x v y v z
+
+
y
z
3 x
p
p
^ =
T V T
the thermal energy equation is:

^
Cv
DT
= k 2 T p( v) + v
Dt
Special case: Constant pressure fluid

From thermodynamics:
^
d U = pd V + C p dT
and the thermal energy equation is:

^
Cp
DT
= k 2T
Dt
neglecting viscous dissipation.
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Special case: Constant density fluid

We have for this case:
^
Cp
DT
= k 2T
Dt
Special case: Solids

^
Cp
T
= k 2T
t
Heat transfer coefficient

What we have learnt?
1. Modes of heat transfer
2. Thermal conductivity & thermal
diffusivity
3. Shell heat balance procedure
4. Simple examples
5. Temperature distn heat flux
6. Steady state vs transient
7. Shape and size of objects
8. Similarity between heat and
momentum transfer.
9. Heat transfer coefficient (HTC)of
simple problems can be obtained
from first principles.
Now consider HTC a bit further.
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Transport Phenomena
Definition of heat transfer coefficient

bulk fluid, T0
stagnant film
The heat transfer coefficient, unlike

thermal conductivity, does vary
with the situation.
Two situations where HTC is defined
1. Flow in conduit
2. Flow around submerged objects
hot surface, Tw
HTC:
1. Local heat transfer coefficient: vary
along the direction of flow
2. Overall heat transfer coefficient: a
combination of HTCs of processes
in series
hot object
General definition:
Q=hA(Tw - T0)
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First definition:
Flow in conduits
Tb,1
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) = h 2 (DL)( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Tb,2
This definition is based on information

at one point. In general, h1 is
different from h2.
Second definition:
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) + ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h 1 (DL)
T0,2
T0,1
The second definition is based on the

average of the driving force.
There are three definitions:
The third definition:
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) = h 2 (DL)( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h ln (DL)
ln ( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) / ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) + ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h 1 (DL)
( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
Q = h ln (DL)
ln ( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) / ( T0 , 2 Tb , 2 )
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The third definition is based on the log

mean driving force.
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If the temperature of the fluid changes

appreciably, the local heat transfer
coefficient is preferable:
dQ = hloc (
Ddz) (T0 - Tb )
Flow around an object

T
T0
The heat transfer coefficient obtained

in the analysis of flow in a tube is
local, i.e.
h = h(z)
Definition of the mean HTC
Q = hm (4
R2) (T0 - T )
Definition of the local HTC

dQ = hloc (dA) (T0 - T )
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Transport Phenomena
Warning about the use of HTC

To use the heat transfer coefficient,
make sure that you know exactly:
Order of magnitude of HTC

HTC varies widely depending on the
situation.
1. The def. of temperature driving force

2. The def. of heat transfer area
Heat transfer coefficient is a function of:

1. the fluid properties (k, Cp, , )
2. the systems geometry
3. the flow velocity
4. the driving force
Situation
Free convection
Gases
Liquids
Boiling water
Forced convection
Gases
Viscous liquids
Water
Condensing vapors
5. the surface temperature variation
h = h(k, Cp, , , v, T0, Tb, D, L)
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h (kcal/m2/hr/K)
3 - 20
100 - 600
1000 - 20,000
10 - 100
50 - 500
500 - 10,000
1,000 - 100,000
Correlations for HTC in tube
For a tube of radius R and length L,

the total heat flow into the fluid is:
L 2
As we have seen, HTC is a function of
h = h(k, Cp, , , v, T0, Tb, D, L)

There are many parameters in RHS.
We need a means to reduce the
number of parameters.
NON-DIMENSIONALIZATION
Q=
T ( r , , z )
0 k r
Rddz
r=R
Using the definition of heat transfer

coefficient
Q = h 1 (DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 )
we get
L 2
1
T ( r , , z )
h1 =
k
r
(DL)( T0 ,1 Tb ,1 ) 0 0
Rddz
r=R
For a constant physical properties

system, the thermal energy balance
equation is:
C p
DT
= k 2 T + v
Dt
In principles, by solving this equation

and substitute the result into the
HTC equation we will obtain h1.
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NONDIMENSIONLIZE:
The functional dependence
By defining
Nu1 = Nu1 (Re, Pr, L / D)
t* =
tV
r
z
; r * = ; z* = ;
R
L
D
T* =
T T0 ,1
Tb ,1 T0 ,1
Cp
h1D
DV
V 2
Nu 1 =
; Re =
; Pr =
; Br =
k
k
k( Tb ,1 T0 ,1 )
the HTC and thermal energy eqns become

1 2
T * ( r * , , z * )
1
Nu 1 =
2(L / D) 0 0
r *
ddz *
r * =1
DT
Br
1
*2 *
*v
=
+
T
*
Re Pr
Re Pr
Dt
was obtained assuming constant

physical properties.
For large temperature difference, the
following functional dependence is
expected to allow for temperature
variation of the viscosity:
Nu1 = Nu1 (Re, Pr, L / D , b / 0 )
THUS, we see that
Nu 1 = Nu 1 (Re, Pr, Br , L / D)
If we neglect the viscous dissipation
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Transport Phenomena
Thus, we see that the process of

nondimensionalization has reduced
h = h(k, Cp, , , v, T0, Tb, D, L)

to

A significant reduction in the number
of parameter dependence.
Some correlations in the literature

Highly turbulent flow:

Nu ln = 0.026 Re 0.8 Pr 1/ 3 b
0
0 .14
All physical properties are evaluated at

(Tb,1 + Tb,2)/2, except 0 which is
evaluated at (T0,1 + T0,2)/2.
Laminar flow
Similarly, we have:
Nu a = Nu a (Re, Pr, L / D )
Nu ln = Nu ln (Re, Pr, L / D )
Nu loc = Nu loc (Re, Pr, z / D)
D
Nu ln = 186
. Re1/ 3 Pr 1/ 3
L
1/ 3
0 .14
Theoretical analysis by Leveque (1928)

gives:
D
Nu ln = 1.62 Re1/ 3 Pr 1/ 3
L
1/ 3
which is remarkable result.
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b

0
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Correlations for HTC around a

submerged object & packed bed
The commonly used correlation for a
sphere in an infinite environment:
Dv f
hmD
= 2.0 + 0.60
kf
f
1/ 2
1/ 3
Cp
k f
where all physical properties are

evaluated at the film temperature.
The correlation for a packed bed is:
Dv f
hmD
= 2.0 + 11
.
kf
f
0 .6
1/ 3
Cp
k f
where all physical properties are

evaluated at the film temperature.
The coefficient of 1.1 (instead of 0.6) and
exponent 0.6 (instead of 0.5) are due to
the density of packing in the fixed bed.
Transport Phenomena

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Transport Phenomena

Section 2: Heat Transfer

Contents of heat transfer

Heat conduction: Fourier law

Thermal conductivity of homogeneous media

Steady state heat conduction in slab and

SS heat conduction in cylinder, sphere

Transient heat conduction in semi-infinite

Transient heat conduction in finite objects

Transient heat conduction of objects in finite

Forced convection & heat conduction

10. Equations of change

Modes of heat transfer

So far we dealt with momentum,

2. Convection (forced & natural)

Conduction: Heat is transferred due to the

Convection: Heat is transferred by the motion

Radiation: only occur at high temperature

Simplest among the three modes of heat

The heat flow is measured as the amount of

Conductive heat flux

Negative sign: Heat is moving

This is the fundamental equation

Heat flux as a vector

For isotropic materials,

Temperature is a scalar, while heat flux

1. Property of material through which

There are three components of the heat flux

4. Insulating materials have low k

Theory of k for monatomic gases

a. Molecules are rigid sphere

Gas: k increases with temperature

b. Exchange of energy upon collision is

Molar heat capacity at constant

c. The mean free path is much shorter

The heat flux qy across any plane of

According to the assumption c:

thus the heat flux qy is:

According to the assumption b:

only for dilute monatomic gases at moderate

2. Chapman-Enskog theory (for gases)

Theory of k for polyatomic gases

For monatomic gases, Cp = 5R/4M; thus

as obtained by the kinetic theory of gases.

Thermal conductivity of mixtures

Of interest to engineers is the heat

These formula equations are very

Hadleys formula (Kaviany, 1991)

Krupiczka (Int. Che.Eng., 7, 122,1967)

Kunni and Smith (AIChEJ, 6, 71, 1960)

where 1 and 2 are monotonic decreasing

0.0827 < < 0.298 log

Zehner and Schlunder (Chem. Ing. Tech.,

Modified version of Zehner-Schlunder

1. Draw a physical diagram as

energy in energy out production

This should give a first-order ODE

6. Apply the Fourier law

Steady state heat

1c. BC of 1st kind vs BC of 3rd kind

3a. The influence of shape

5. Fall of temperature in free droplet

Steps 5 and 6: Energy balance equation

First order ODE with respect to heat flux