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ELECTRICAL GENERATION
We have already stated that nearly every piece of equipment on board
will utilize electrical power in some way or another. This can be in the
form of power to operate the equipment or just to monitor it and give
alarms if needed. It can normally be taken for granted that when the
switch is turned, there will be power delivered to our equipment.
Understanding how this power is generated and controlled will give you
a better understanding of how the electrical distribution system operates
and what factors affect it.
Generator Analysis
A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by way of
magnetic induction. Recall the three requirements to induce a current
via magnetic induction:

conductor
magnetic field
relative motion between the two

For a Linear Generator, a copper bar rests on two wires which form a
loop. What happens if we roll the bar to the left through the magnetic
field? A current is induced which flows as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
To determine which way the current will flow in a generator, the LEFT
HAND RULE can be used: "Motion along the thumb, field (flux) along
the forefinger, current along the middle finger." (Figure 2)

Figure 2
"My Fine Clothes" = Motion, Flux, Current
The current flows down the bar and therefore clockwise around the
loop. What happens when the bar reaches the end of the field? There
is no more induced current since one of the three requirements is not
met.
Although this generator will work, it would be impractical to build
because of size constraints. It does, however, show the principle under
which rotary generators work. For practical purposes, the linear motion
must be changed into rotary motion.

In a Single-Phase Generator, a source of rotation called the prime

mover rotates an electromagnet (or rotor) past a conductor. A prime
mover may be either a steam driven turbine, gas turbine, or diesel
engine. The conductor is a pair of windings on the stator (or stationary
part of the generator). Brushes and slip rings are used to connect the
DC excitation current to the rotor. Note that the rotor field rotates at a
constant speed.

Figure 3
At point A on the curve in Figure 3 there is no relative motion between
the rotor field and the stator windings. This makes the induced voltage
zero. As the rotor field moves down and toward the stator windings, it
"cuts" more and more conductors. The induced voltage gradually
increases and reaches a peak at point B. As the rotor field continues
down to the bottom, it cuts fewer and fewer conductors. The induced
voltage gradually decreases and reaches zero again at point C.
As the rotor field moves up through and back into the stator windings, it
cuts more and more conductors again and the induced voltage
gradually increases and reaches another peak at point D (Figure 3).
The polarity (+,-) of the induced voltage reverses because the rotor field
is passing back into the stator. The potential reaches a negative peak
at point D. As the rotor field continues up past the stator windings, it
cuts fewer and fewer conductors. The induced voltage decreases until it
returns to zero at point A and one cycle has been completed.

When the rotor field passes through one revolution on a two pole
(N,S) generator, one cycle of AC voltage is produced. This relationship
is very important in the design of generators. Output frequency, number
of poles, and RPM are related by the following formula:

Ns = rotor speed (actually magnetic field speed) in RPM

f = frequency, in Hz
p = poles (per phase)
Three-phase machines (both generators and motors) have several
advantages over single-phase machines. Three-phase machines make
more efficient use of materials and therefore are not as expensive as
single-phase equipment of the same rating.
In the top drawing of Figure 4, you see that much of the space within a
single phase generator is wasted. In the case of three-phase motors,
operating cost is less, they are easier to start, and they run with less
vibration. (A three-phase source provides more of a rotational effect
since the each phase peaks sequentially; a single-phase source
provides more of a simple on/off effect.)

Figure 4
The bottom drawing of Figure 4 shows two more phases added and
equally spaced (120o) in the machine. Note the more efficient use of

space within the casing and that the induced voltage is always greater
than zero on at least one phase.

Standard Generator Specifications

450 Volts
The level of RMS voltage present at the output of the generator.
Standard voltage on board; compatible with shore power.
60 Hz

The rate at which the instantaneous value of voltage changes

(frequency or cycles per second).
Compatible with shore power; standard U.S. frequency; most of
Europe uses 50 Hz.
3 Phase
Refers to the three separate output voltages as shown in Figure 4.
Allows for more efficient operation and use of space; compatible
with shore power.
Three Phase AC Generator Components
Stator: The stationary inner circumference of the generator that houses
one or more sets of armature windings.
Rotor: The rotating part of the machinery that houses the field windings.
This is connected to the prime mover via a reduction gear and therefore
rotates with a frequency proportional to the prime mover RPM.
Field windings: Coils of wire on the rotor. Form an electromagnet when
DC current is passed through them. When rotated, a rotating magnetic
field is produced.
Armature: The windings where the generator output voltage is
produced. In most cases, this is located on the stator.
Poles (or pole pieces): The cores around which the armature or field
windings are wound. There are a minimum of two per phase (one North
and one South).

Brushes and Slip Rings: Provide DC current to the rotor windings

while allowing the rotor to turn.

Brushes: Normally carbon or copper, held in place by brush

rigging, brushes pass current from the DC source to the slip rings.
Brushes are more easily replaced than slip rings so they're made
of softer material than the material they contact.
Slip Rings: Smooth copper based rings pressed onto the rotor.
Slip rings will rotate with the rotor and pick up the DC current off
the brushes.

Output Breaker or Generator Breaker: Circuit breaker that connects

the generator output to the ship's distribution system.
Static Exciter / Rotary amplifier: Both produce a DC field excitation
current. This current flows through brushes and slip rings onto the rotor
windings to produce the rotor's magnetic field.
Voltage Regulator: Controls the output voltage of the generator by
comparing the generator's output voltage to a fixed reference and
sending a differential feedback signal to the static exciter which will
change the field strength (and therefore the generators output.)
Governor: Controls the speed of the prime mover as the load changes.

Generator Operations - Producing a Voltage

First, the prime mover needs to be rotating. This rotates the generator
rotor and produces the relative motion between field and armature
windings.
Second, bring the generator RPM to the value corresponding to 60 Hz
and place the governor in automatic control of frequency.
Third, produce the magnetic field. To do this we need to provide the
excitation DC current to the field windings. The higher the current sent
to the field windings, the stronger the magnetic field, and the higher the
output voltage. The static exciter / rotary amplifier will provide the DC
current for the field windings through the brushes and slip rings. Since
there is no current (and therefore no magnetism) present in the rotor at

startup, the current to "flash" the field is provided to the static exciter
from a permanent magnet alternator (PMA).

Generator Operations - On Line

"Generator output" refers to voltage and frequency; the two
parameters the operator can control and regulate. To describe how
a generator's output is regulated, a load will be placed on the generator
and its response described.
As a load is applied to the ship's electrical distribution system, the
current output of the generator increases. This is because the ship's
loads are essentially arranged as a large parallel circuit. Any added load
causes the overall system resistance to drop and the current to rise.
Example:
Initially, there is a 100 ohm equivalent load across the ship with a 450
volt source; the current is 4.5 A (Figure 5, left drawing).

Figure 5
Recall the relationship of resistors in parallel. If another 100 ohm load is
started in parallel with the first (Figure 5, right drawing), the new
equivalent resistance will be 50 ohms; the new current is 9.0 A.
With an increase in current flowing through the armature (stator)
windings, the magnetic field produced by the current through this coil(s)

increases in strength. This phenomena, called ARMATURE

REACTION has two effects:

The armature (stator) field distorts and weakens the rotor (main)
field (Figure 6) causing a decrease in the induced voltage.
A counter torque is created on the rotor due to a reaction between
the armature (stator) field and the rotor (main) field. This will tend
to slow down the rotor and lower the frequency of the generator
voltage.

Figure 6
In addition to armature reaction, the increase in current with added load
will cause an increase in the voltage drop across the internal
impedance of the generator. This is due to INTERNAL LOSSES in the
generator.

Figure 7
Example:

1. The generator has a load R1 in the distribution system and is

maintaining 450V line voltage. Because of the current flow

through the internal impedance RINT and XL, there is a voltage
drop of 20v across this impedance. This means that the
generator's induced voltage, EIND, must be 470V to compensate
for the internal impedance and still maintain 450V line voltage.
2. Now add another load, R2. The subsequent increase in current
(and increase in internal resistance due to the heating of the
wires) causes a larger voltage drop across the internal
impedance, say 30v versus 20v. If EIND does not change, the line
voltage will drop to 440V; not good for shipboard equipment
designed to run on 450V.
3. The voltage regulator will sense the drop in line voltage through

its voltage transformers. This will be compared to a reference

voltage in the regulator circuitry and a differential feedback signal
sent to the static exciter. The static exciter will increase the DC
current sent to the field windings, raising the field strength and
restoring the voltage to its original value.

Three-Phase Connections
The winding for each phase has two output leads (for a total of six in a
three-phase system). If you examine an actual three phase machine,
you will see only three leads coming out. This is because they are
connected inside the generator. The two possible configurations are
delta and wye.
DELTA
WYE

Figure 8
Note: The RMS voltage between any pair of output leads is designed to be
450 volts.

System nomenclature:
PHASE VOLTAGE (Ephase) - The induced potential across any
single phase; measured inside the machine casing.
PHASE CURRENT (Iphase) - The current passing through any
single phase; measured inside the machine casing.
LINE VOLTAGE (Eline) - The potential across any pair of wires (AB,B-C,C-A); measured outside the machine casing.
LINE CURRENT (Iline) - The current passing through any one of
the three output cables (A,B, or C); measured outside the
machine casing.
Now we will look at the similarities and differences between Delta and
Wye. Assume that we are discussing 3-phase, 60 Hz, 450 volt
generators which have enough load on them to draw 1000 amps as
shown in Figure 9 below.
DELTA
WYE

Figure 9
Delta Connection - Any pair of output cables are connected across a
single-phase of the delta connected generator. This means that the
phase and line voltages must be equal. The current passing through
any output cable is supplied by the two phases connected to the cable.
Since the current is 1000 amps, each phase must be supplying some
portion of the 1000 amps. Each phase will supply 577.3 amps. Recall
that the voltages produced by the phases are 120 degrees out of phase
with each other, so the currents associated with them are also 120
degrees out-of-phase.

For a delta connection

Wye Connection - Any pair of output cables are connected across two
phases of the wye connected generator. Since the line voltage is 450
volts, the two phase voltages must add up to 450 volts. Again recall the
120 degree difference. The phase voltages are each 259.8 volts. The
line current is 1000 amps. All of the current passing through any cable is
being supplied from a single-phase of the generator.
For a wye connection

Power in Three-Phase Systems.

The only difference in calculating power in three-phase systems versus

single-phase systems is the square root of three factor.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Delta and Wye Connections
Delta
The internal voltage of a delta machine is greater than the internal
voltage of a wye machine. Larger voltage requires larger insulation
which causes a slight increase in weight and size of coils.

A delta connected machine has a smaller phase current, and therefore

less I2R losses.
If one phase of a delta winding opens up, there will be no effect on the
output voltage (since the other two windings are connected so that they
can supply the load), but the total current through the system must be
reduced to 57.7% of the rated current to prevent overheating of the
remaining active phases. This allows a selective reduction in system
loads.
Wye
For a given amount of line voltage and line current, the wye generator
has a larger current. This means that more power is lost inside the
generator in the form of heat.
The manufacturing and rewinding of a wye connected machine is easier
due to the less complex connections of the windings.
If one phase of a wye connected machine opens up, two of the three
output voltages will go to zero volts. This occurrence does not allow a
selection of which loads to remove. Two thirds of the loads on that
generator will lose power.
Sample Problem:
A 3 phase generator is supplying a distribution system. You observe the
following switchboard indications:

Power Meter: 800 kw

Voltmeter: 450 v
Ammeter: 1300 A.
Frequency: 60 Hz.

What is the power factor of this ship? (Assume a primarily inductive

load.)

= 0.79 lagging
Transformer
A transformer is a device which transfers AC power from one circuit to
another by means of electromagnetic induction. During the transfer,
voltage and current are "transformed" from one magnitude to another.
The frequency of the AC power is never changed by a transformer. A
transformer has no moving parts. There is no electrical connection
between the two circuits; however, there is a mechanical connection.
Transformer Construction
There are three parts common to any transformer:
The primary winding
The secondary winding
The core
The primary and secondary windings are inductors (coils). The core is
the ferromagnetic material that the inductors are wrapped around. The
core and the windings are not electrically connected in any way.

Figure 10

Ideal Transformer Operation

An ideal transformer is one that has no losses. That is, all of the energy
that goes into the transformer will come out of it in a useable fashion.
A labeled schematic of a typical transformer:

Figure 11

Eg = voltage generated by the source

Ep = voltage that appears across the primary coil
Rg = resistance inside the source
Es = voltage that appears across the secondary coil
Ip = current passing through the primary coil
Is = current passing through the secondary coil
RL = resistance of load on the transformer
Np: Ns = "turns ratio" for the transformer.
The turns ratio indicates the number of primary turns of wire there are
compared to the number of secondary turns. For instance, if a
transformer had a turns ration of 4:3, that would mean that for every 4
turns of primary winding, there would be 3 turns of secondary winding.
That might mean an actual count of 4000 to 3000 or 80 to 60.
The quantities above are related in the following equations:
Voltage:
Current:

Power:

Transformer Applications
Isolation Transformer (Figure 12) - A transformer with a turns ratio of
1:1 is an isolation transformer. Isolation transformers are used when it is
necessary to prevent grounds or other power system problems from
effecting a particular piece of gear. The main purpose of an isolation
transformer is to minimize shock hazard when using portable electrical
tools in the 120 VAC system.

Figure 12
Power Transmission (Figure 13) - It is more efficient to transmit power
at high voltages. At high voltages, the power required to transmit a given
amount of current will be low, and power losses (I2R) in the transmission
lines will be low. In commercial power distribution, step-up and stepdown transformers are used to reduce the current. Shipboard
generation of 450 volt power requires that the power distribution system
needs only step-down transformers to lower the generated 450 volts to
about 110 volts. Some gear that requires high internal voltages uses
step-up transformers to raise the 450 volt input to several thousand
volts.

Figure 13
Multiwinding (Figure 14) - A transformer with multiple secondary
windings is a multiwinding transformer. These transformers are often a
component in a device such as a radio or radar that requires multiple
levels of AC voltage. A multiwinding transformer's secondaries are
independent of each other. A fault in one secondary winding will not
affect any other winding.

Figure 14
A step-down transformer has an extremely high turns ratio (on the
order of 1,000,000:1). These devices are mostly used in conjunction
with power system installed meters. The voltmeters and ammeters
installed in shipboard distribution systems usually have an instrument
transformer between them and the line voltages and currents to prevent
high currents from damaging the meters.
Voltage Transformer - This is an instrument transformer connected in
parallel with the voltage to be measured. Care should be taken that the
secondary side of the transformer is never shorted out, as this will
produce excessively high currents in both windings and damage the
meter.

Figure 15

Paralleling AC Sources
Paralleling is the procedure of placing two or more generators online to
provide power to a common bus or power panel. This procedure is also
used to transfer the electrical load from one generator to another. It is
one of the most common electric plant configurations on board. If you
have spent most of your time "topside", you probably never realized that
any paralleling was occurring. If performed properly, paralleling allows a
smooth transition of power without any interruption of power to the ship.
When the procedure is not followed properly everyone on the ship is
immediately aware of the problem due to the subsequent loss of power.

Figure 16
Reasons for Paralleling

To provide standby power in the event one machine fails. The

machine in parallel with the failing one will pick up the load.
To increase the plant capacity beyond that of a single unit. In
the event that a large load is started unexpectedly a single
generator will not be able to handle the entire load.
To serve as additional reserve power for expected demands.
This is a common practice before evolutions such as General
Quarters when all of the combat systems loads are energized.
To permit starting a new machine and shutting down the running
machine without interrupting the power supply. This is perhaps

the most common reason for paralleling. Run times can be

equalized and maintenance can be performed.
Reasons for Synchronizing Generators
To avoid severe damage, generators must be synchronized prior
to paralleling them together. Normally, one machine will be
supplying an electrical distribution bus.
The oncoming machine will be synchronized with the running
machine (actually it will be synchronized with the bus). Generators
are in SYNCHRONIZATION when the following FOUR
CONDITIONS are met:
1. Equal terminal voltages. If the machines have different induced
voltages, large currents would be generated due to the different
potentials connected by a low resistance. Voltage is set by adjusting the
generator's field strength.
2. Equal frequency. This prevents generators from being paralleled
out of phase. Actually, the frequency of the oncoming machine should
be slightly higher than the frequency of the online machine. (See Figure
17)

Figure 17
3. Proper phase relationship. The two generators must be "in phase".
Both machines must have the same angular relationship.

Figure 18
a. In the left drawings in Figure 19 when 1A generator's voltage is "on a
peak" or +450v, 1B generator is "in a valley" or -450v. This is a large
difference of potential and will cause a large current between the two
machines and subsequent damage. In reality the unloaded machine will
attempt to instantaneously "catch up" and match phases with the loaded
machine. Generators have been known to lift deck supports to
accomplish this. The two generators on the right are in-phase and will
not generate the high currents and damage.
b. With the oncoming generator at a slightly higher frequency than the
running generator, the two will be alternately running in and out of
phase. The operator's job is to shut the output breaker for the oncoming
machine when the two generators are in phase. The synchroscope is
used to accomplish this task.
4. Proper phase sequence. The "A" phase of the oncoming machine
must be connected to the "A" phase of the running machine. The same
must also be true for the "B" and "C" phases. This is not so much of a
concern when paralleling two shipboard generators since their
connections are hard-wired into the switchboards.
The House Diagram
In the droop mode, when the power demand is increased:

The frequency will drop slightly. The action of the governor

restores the frequency to 60 Hz.
The voltage will drop slightly. The action of the voltage regulator
restores the voltage to 450 volts.

This characteristic can be graphed. Two generators to be operated in

parallel can be graphed sharing the same vertical axis. This graph is
called the house diagram.

Figure 19

The intersection of the two dashed lines is the operating point.

The horizontal dashed line indicates the operating frequency or
voltage.
The vertical dashed line indicates the operating power in KW or
kVAR.

Balancing the Load

Suppose that the total load on the ship at time of the parallel is 2000
KW and that the system frequency is 60 Hz.
1A TG is on line supplying the load and 1B TG is the oncoming
generator. Consider the distribution system in Figure 20 and the
associated house diagram.

Figure 20
EIND = the potential (voltage) induced by the generator
EINT = the potential drop across the generator's internal impedance
ESUP = the potential supplied to the load (Z) by the generator
Note that the sum of the generators' loads must equal 2000 KW
throughout this evolution.

Figure 21
1B generator's output breaker has just been shut. 1A generator is
carrying most of the ship's load and subsequently has a large current
output. These currents will cause a voltage drop across the generator's
internal resistance, in this case 30 volts. To maintain 450 volts on the

distribution system, 1A generator's voltage regulator will ensure 480

volts is induced to overcome the 30 volts. Since 1B is not yet carrying
any load, it will not have a large output current, little to no internal
voltage loss, and thus will need only 450 volts of induced voltage to
maintain 450 volts on the distribution system. Now balance the real load
between the two machines.
Real Load
The transfer of real power between generators in parallel must be
accomplished by adjustment of the governor controls. The machine
taking the load must have more energy (steam or fuel) and the machine
losing the load must have less energy admitted to its prime mover. In
practice, the switchboard operator will raise up on the oncoming (1B)
generator's governor control adjust rheostat while lowering down on the
running (1A) generator's rheostat. The real load has been balanced.

Figure 22
Since 1B has picked up some of the load, its current output has
increased to the point where there is now a 15 volt internal voltage drop.
On the other hand 1A has given up some load so its current output is
lower and its internal voltage loss drops to 15 volts also. Since the
system voltage is 450 volts, the voltage regulators in the two machines
will change very little (they both adjust their induced voltages on the
basis of what the system voltage is). This means that with an induced
voltage of 480 volts and an internal loss of 15 volts, 1A is supplying 465
volts. 1B supplies 435 volts due to an induced voltage of 450 volts and

an internal loss of 15 volts. Note that the average of the two supplied
voltages is 450 volts, that appears on both generators voltmeters.
Reactive Load
With this large difference between the two generator's potentials, large
currents called "circulating currents" are generated. Since the imbalance
is caused by the difference in the strength of two induced magnetic
fields, we say that circulating currents are caused by an imbalance in
the reactive load.
To correct this problem, the switchboard operator will raise the
oncoming (1B) generator's voltage adjust rheostat and lower the running
(1A) generator's auto voltage adjust rheostat. The reactive load has
been balanced and appears in Figure 23.

Figure 23

Steps to Parallel Two Generators

1. Match voltage.
2. Match frequency.
3. Match phase rotation/phase sequence.
4. Observe the synchroscope rotating slowly in the fast direction
(clockwise).

5. Turn the breaker switch at the "5 'til 12" position on the
synchroscope.
6. Increase the setting on the oncoming generator's governor to
balance the real load.
7. Adjust both governors to regain 60 Hz.
8. Raise the voltage on the oncoming generator to balance the reactive
load.
9. Lower both voltage regulators together to regain a 450 volt bus
voltage.

Load Changes
Consider an addition of 1000 KW of load on the system.
It should be noticed that with the Droop characteristic, the increase in
load is shared equally (as with Isochronous) but that the new operating
frequency has dropped to 59.75 Hz. The switchboard operator will be
required to raise up on both machines' governor controls to restore
frequency. The addition of load will also cause an addition of reactive
load. This will show up on the generator's ammeters. The generators
will share the reactive load equally and in Droop characteristic
governors will require the switchboard operator to raise up on both
voltage regulator controls.

Figure 24

It must be remembered that despite the load on each generator, the

frequency of both machines must remain the same. If the frequencies
were somehow different, large currents would be generated because of
the phase differences. These large currents tend to motorize the slower
machine forcing it to catch up to the faster machine (similar to the action
of a synchro system). So admitting more steam to one generator and
taking it away from the other will not change system frequency, just shift
the load between generators.
Shore Power Parallels
There are two important things to remember about paralleling with shore
power:
1. Shore power is isochronous, and
2. It is impossible for your ship's generators to power Norfolk or San
Diego!
For these reasons it is important to ensure that the ship's generators are
in droop mode and always maintain a load on the shore power
system. Consider the following diagram:

Figure 25
To transfer the load from the ship to shore, lower the ship's governor
control while watching the KW meter. When the load on the ship is
minimal, open the generator output breaker. To transfer from shore to

ship, the opposite procedure applies. Your ship's EOSS should be

followed closely to prevent errors.
This page last modified: October 2, 2003