AL GINO B.

BORINAGA
COMPUTER VIRUS
Malware, short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer
operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems.
[1]
Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the
computer user, and does not include software that causes unintentional harm due
to some deficiency. The term badware is sometimes used, and applied to both true
(malicious) malware and unintentionally harmful software. [2]
Malware may be stealthy, intended to steal information or spy on computer users
for an extended period without their knowledge, as for example Regin, or it may be
designed to cause harm, often as sabotage (e.g., Stuxnet), or to extort payment
(CryptoLocker). 'Malware' is an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of
hostile
or
intrusive
software,[3] including computer
viruses,worms, trojan
horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, scareware, and other malicious programs. It can take
the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software.[4] Malware is
often disguised as, or embedded in, non-malicious files. As of 2011the majority of
active malware threats were worms or trojans rather than viruses. [5]
In law, malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant, as in the legal
codes of several U.S. states.[6][7]
Spyware or other malware is sometimes found embedded in programs supplied
officially by companies, e.g., downloadable from websites, that appear useful or
attractive, but may have, for example, additional hidden tracking functionality that
gathers marketing statistics. An example of such software, which was described as
illegitimate, is theSony rootkit, a Trojan embedded into CDs sold by Sony, which silently
installed and concealed itself on purchasers' computers with the intention of
preventing illicit copying; it also reported on users' listening habits, and
unintentionally created vulnerabilities that were exploited by unrelated malware. [8]
Software such as anti-virus, anti-malware, and firewalls are used to protect against
activity identified as malicious, and to recover from attacks. [9]
Spyware is software that aims to gather information about a person or organization
without their knowledge and that may send such information to another entity
without the consumer's consent, or that asserts control over a computer without the
consumer's knowledge.[1]
"Spyware" is mostly classified into four types: system monitors, trojans, adware, and
tracking cookies.[2] Spyware is mostly used for the purposes of tracking and storing
Internet users' movements on the Web and serving up pop-up ads to Internet users.
Whenever spyware is used for malicious purposes, its presence is typically hidden
from the user and can be difficult to detect. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may
be installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer intentionally in
order to monitor users.
While the term spyware suggests software that monitors a user's computing, the
functions of spyware can extend beyond simple monitoring. Spyware can collect
almost any type of data, including personal information like Internet surfing habits, user
logins, and bank or credit account information. Spyware can also interfere with user
control of a computer by installing additional software or redirecting Web browsers.
Some spyware can change computer settings, which can result in slow Internet

connection speeds, un-authorized changes in browser settings, or changes to

software settings.
Sometimes, spyware is included along with genuine software, and may come from a
malicious website. In response to the emergence of spyware, a small industry has
sprung up dealing in anti-spyware software. Running anti-spyware software has
become a widely recognized element of computer security practices, especially for
computers running Microsoft Windows. A number of jurisdictions have passed antispyware laws, which usually target any software that is surreptitiously installed to
control a user's computer.
In German-speaking countries, spyware used or made by the government is
sometimes called govware. Govware is typically a trojan horse software used to
intercept communications from the target computer. Some countries like
Switzerland and Germany have a legal framework governing the use of such
software.[3][4] In the US, the term policeware has been used for similar purposes.
"Zombie virus" redirects here. For the use of the term in science fiction,
see Zombie apocalypse.
In computer science, a zombie is a computer connected to the Internet that has
been compromised by a hacker, computer virus or trojan horse and can be used to
perform malicious tasks of one sort or another under remote direction. Botnets of
zombie computers are often used to spread e-mail spam and launch denial-ofservice attacks. Most owners of zombie computers are unaware that their system is
being used in this way. Because the owner tends to be unaware, these computers
are metaphorically compared to zombies
Zombies have been used extensively to send e-mail spam; as of 2005, an estimated
5080% of all spam worldwide was sent by zombie computers. [1] This
allows spammers to avoid detection and presumably reduces their bandwidth costs,
since the owners of zombies pay for their own bandwidth. This spam also greatly
furthers the spread of Trojan horses, as Trojans are not self-replicating. They rely on
the movement of e-mails or spam to grow, whereas worms can spread by other
means.[2]
For similar reasons zombies are also used to commit click fraud against sites
displaying pay per click advertising. Others can host phishing or money mule recruiting
websites.
Zombies can be used to conduct distributed denial-of-service attacks, a term which refers
to the orchestrated flooding of target websites by large numbers of computers at
once. The large number of Internet users making simultaneous requests of a
website's server are intended to result in crashing and the prevention of legitimate
users from accessing the site.[3] A variant of this type of flooding is known as
distributed degradation-of-service. Committed by "pulsing" zombies, distributed
degradation-of-service is the moderated and periodical flooding of websites, done
with the intent of slowing down rather than crashing a victim site. The effectiveness
of this tactic springs from the fact that intense flooding can be quickly detected and
remedied, but pulsing zombie attacks and the resulting slow-down in website access
can go unnoticed for months and even years. [4]
Notable incidents of distributed denial- and degradation-of-service attacks in past
include the attack upon the SPEWS service in 2003, and the one against Blue
Frogservice in 2006. In 2000, several prominent Web sites ( Yahoo, eBay, etc.) were
clogged to a standstill by a distributed denial of service attack mounted by
MafiaBoy, a Canadian teenager. An attack on grc.com is discussed at length, and the

perpetrator, a 13-year old probably from Kenosha, Wisconsin, was identified on the
Gibson Research Web site. Steve Gibson disassembled a 'bot' which was a zombie
used in the attack, and traced it to its distributor. In his account about his research,
he describes the operation of a 'bot'-controlling IRC channel.[5]
Beginning in July 2009, similar botnet capabilities have also emerged for the
growing smartphone market. Examples include the July 2009 in the wild release of the
Sexy Space text message worm, the world's first botnet capable SMS worm, which
targeted the Symbian operating system in Nokia smartphones. Later that month, Charlie
Millerrevealed a proof of concept text message worm for the iPhone at Black Hat. Also in
July, United Arab Emirates consumers were targeted by the Etisalat BlackBerry
spyware program. At the present time, the security community is divided as to the
real world potential of mobile botnets. But in an August 2009 interview with The
New York Times, cyber security consultant Michael Gregg summarized the issue this
way: "We are about at the point with phones that we were with desktops in the '80s.
ILOVEYOU, sometimes referred to as Love Letter, was a computer worm that attacked
tens of millions of Windows personal computers on and after 5 May 2000 [1] local time
in the Philippines when it started spreading as an email message with the subject line
"ILOVEYOU" and the attachment "LOVE-LETTER-FOR-YOU.txt.vbs". The latter file
extension (in this case, 'VBS' - a type of interpreted file) was most often hidden by
default on Windows computers of the time, leading unwitting users to think it was a
normal text file. Opening the attachment activated the Visual Basic script. The worm
did damage on the local machine, overwriting image files, and sent a copy of itself
to all addresses[2] in the Windows Address Book used by Microsoft Outlook. In contrast,
the Melissa virus only sent copies to the first 50 contacts.
n the machine system level, ILOVEYOU relied on the scripting engine system setting
(which runs scripting language files such as .vbs files) being enabled, and took
advantage of a feature in Windows that hid file extensions by default, to which
malware authors would use as an exploit; to do this, it parsed file names from right
to left, stopping at the first period character. The attachment, which had two
periods, could thus display the inner fake "txt" file extension. Text files are
considered
to
be
innocuous,
as
they
are
normally
incapable
of
running executable code. The worm also used social engineering to entice users to open
the attachment (out of actual desire to connect or simple curiosity) to ensure
continued propagation. Systemic weaknesses in the design of Microsoft Outlook and
Microsoft Windows were exploited that allowed malicious code capable of complete
access to the operating system, secondary storage, and system and user data
simply by unwitting users clicking on an icon.
Messages generated in the Philippines began to spread westwards through
corporate email systems. Because the worm used mailing lists as its source of
targets, the messages often appeared to come from acquaintances and were
therefore often regarded as "safe" by their victims, providing further incentive to
open them. Only a few users at each site had to access the attachment to generate
millions more messages that crippled mail systems and overwrote millions of files
on computers in each successive network.
The malware originated in the Pandacan neighborhood of Manila in the Philippines on May
5, 2000, thereafter following daybreak westward across the world, moving first
to Hong Kong, then to Europe, and finally the United States, as employees began their
workday that Friday morning.[3] [4] The outbreak was later estimated to have caused

US $5.5-8.7 billion in damages worldwide, [5][6] and estimated to cost the US $15
billion to remove the worm.[7] Within ten days, over fifty million infections had been
reported,[8] and it is estimated that 10% of internet-connected computers in the
world had been affected.[6] Damage cited was mostly the time and effort spent
getting rid of the infection and recovering files from backups. To protect
themselves, The Pentagon, CIA, the British Parliament and most large corporations decided
to completely shut down their mail systems. [9] This virus affected over 45 million
computers and was one of the world's most dangerous computer related disasters.
On 5 May 2000, two young Filipino computer programmers named Reonel Ramones
and Onel de Guzman became targets of a criminal investigation by agents of the
Philippines' National Bureau of Investigation (NBI).[12] Local Internet service provider Sky Internet
had reported receiving numerous contacts from European computer users alleging
that malware (in the form of the "ILOVEYOU" worm) had been sent via the ISP's
servers.
After surveillance and investigation by Darwin Bawasanta of Sky Internet, the NBI
traced a frequently appearing telephone number to Ramones' apartment in Manila.
His residence was searched and Ramones was arrested and placed on inquest
investigation before the Department of Justice (DOJ). Onel de Guzman was likewise
arrested in absentia.
At that point, the NBI were unsure what felony or crime would apply. [12] It was
suggested they be charged with violating Republic Act 8484 (the Access Device
Regulation Act), a law designed mainly to penalise credit card fraud, since both used
pre-paid (if not stolen) Internet cards to purchase access to ISPs. Another idea was
that they be charged with malicious mischief, a felony (under the Philippines
Revised Penal Code of 1932) involving damage to property. The drawback here was
that one of its elements, aside from damage to property, was intent to damage, and
de Guzman had claimed during custodial investigations that he may have
unwittingly released the worm. [13]
To show intent, the NBI investigated AMA Computer College, where de Guzman had
dropped out at the very end of his final year. [12] They found that, for his
undergraduate thesis, de Guzman had proposed the implementation of a trojan to
steal Internet login passwords. [14] This way, he proposed, users would finally be able
to afford an Internet connection. The proposal was rejected by the College of
Computer Studies board,[13] prompting de Guzman to cancel his studies the day
before graduation.

MONITORING DEVICES
Blood glucose monitoring is a way of testing the concentration of glucose in the
blood (glycemia). Particularly important in the care of diabetes mellitus, a blood glucose
test is performed by piercing the skin (typically, on the finger) to draw blood, then
applying the blood to a chemically active disposable 'test-strip'. Different
manufacturers use different technology, but most systems measure an electrical
characteristic, and use this to determine the glucose level in the blood. The test is
usually referred to as capillary blood glucose.
Healthcare professionals advise patients with diabetes on the appropriate
monitoring regime for their condition. Most people with Type 2 diabetes test at least
once per day. Diabetics who use insulin (all Type 1 diabetes and many Type 2s) usually
test their blood sugar more often (3 to 10 times per day), both to assess the
effectiveness of their prior insulin dose and to help determine their next insulin
dose.
Improved technology for measuring blood glucose is rapidly changing the standards
of care for all diabetic people.

Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT) is a complete evaluation of the respiratory

system including patient history, physical examinations, chest x-ray examinations,
arterial blood gas analysis, and tests of pulmonary function. The primary purpose of
pulmonary function testing is to identify the severity of pulmonary impairment.
[1]
Pulmonary function testing has diagnostic and therapeutic roles and helps
clinicians answer some general questions about patients with lung disease. PFTs are
normally performed by a respiratory therapist.
Indications
Pulmonary function testing is a diagnostic and management tool used for a variety
of reasons.
Pediatric neuromuscular disorders
Neuromuscular disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy are associated with
gradual loss of muscle function over time. Involvement of respiratory muscles
results in poor ability to cough and decreased ability to breathe well and leads
tocollapse of part or all of the lung leading to impaired gas exchange and an overall
insufficiency in lung strength.[2] A combination of reduced lung compliance caused
by generalized and widespread microatelectasis and chest wall deformity caused by
increased chest wall compliance results in increased work of breathing and chronic
respiratory insufficiency.[3]Musculoskeletal deformities such as kyphoscoliosis
contribute to restrictive lung disease.
Pulmonary function testing in patients with neuromuscular disorders helps to
evaluate the respiratory status of patients at the time of diagnosis, monitor their
progress and course, evaluate them for possible surgery, and gives an overall idea
of the prognosis.[4]
Other indications
Chronic shortness of breath
Asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Restrictive lung disease
Preoperative testing
Impairment or disability

Measurements
Spirometry
Main article: Spirometry
Spirometry includes tests of pulmonary mechanics measurements of FVC, FEV 1,
FEF values, forced inspiratory flow rates (FIFs), and MVV. Measuring pulmonary
mechanics assesses the ability of the lungs to move large volumes of air quickly
through the airways to identify airway obstruction.
The measurements taken by the spirometry device are used to generate a
pneumotachograph that can help to assess lung conditions such as: asthma,
pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease. Physicians may also use the test results to diagnose bronchial
hyperresponsiveness to exercise, cold air, or pharmaceutical agents. [5]
Complications of spirometry
Spirometry is a safe procedure; however, there is cause for concern regarding
untoward reactions. The value of the test data should be weighed against potential
hazards. Some complications have been reported, including pneumothorax,
increased
intracranial
pressure, fainting,
chest
pain,
paroxysmal
coughing, nosocomial infections, oxygen desaturation, andbronchospasm.
Lung volumes
Main article: Lung volumes
There are four lung volumes and four lung capacities. A lung capacity consists of
two or more lung volumes. The lung volumes are tidal volume (VT), inspiratory
reserve volume (IRV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), and residual volume (RV).
The
four
lung
capacities
are total
lung
capacity (TLC), inspiratory
capacity (IC), functional residual capacity (FRC) and vital capacity (VC).
Maximal respiratory pressures
Measurement of maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures is indicated
whenever there is an unexplained decrease in vital capacity or respiratory muscle
weakness is suspected clinically. Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) is the maximal
pressure that can be produced by the patient trying to inhale through a blocked
mouthpiece. Maximal expiratory pressure (MEP) is the maximal pressure measured
during forced expiration (with cheeks bulging) through a blocked mouthpiece after a
full inhalation. Repeated measurements of MIP and MEP are useful in following the
course of patients with neuromusculardisorders.
Diffusing capacity
Main article: Diffusing capacity
Measurement of the single-breath diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is
a fast and safe tool in the evaluation of both restrictive and obstructive lung
disease.
Oxygen desaturation during exercise
The six-minute walk test is a good index of physical function and therapeutic
response in patients with chronic lung disease, such as COPD or idiopathic
pulmonary fibrosis.[6][7][8]
Arterial blood gases
Arterial blood gases (ABGs) are a helpful measurement in pulmonary function
testing in selected patients. The primary role of measuring ABGs in individuals that
are healthy and stable is to confirm hypoventilation when it is suspected on the
basis of medical history, such as respiratory muscle weakness or advanced COPD.
ABGs also provide a more detailed assessment of the severity of hypoxemia in
patients who have low normal oxyhemoglobin saturation.

Techniques
Helium Dilution
Main article: Helium dilution technique
The helium dilution technique for measuring lung volumes uses a closed,
rebreathing circuit.[9] This technique is based on the assumptions that a known
volume and concentration of helium in air begin in the closed spirometer, that the
patient has no helium in their lungs, and that an equilibration of helium can occur
between the spirometer and the lungs.
Nitrogen Washout
Main article: Nitrogen washout
The nitrogen washout technique uses a non-rebreathing open circuit. The technique
is based on the assumptions that the nitrogen concentration in the lungs is 78% and
in equilibrium with the atmosphere, that the patient inhales 100% oxygen and that
the oxygen replaces all of the nitrogen in the lungs. [10]
Plethysmography
Main article: Plethysmograph
The plethysmography technique applies Boyle's law and uses measurements of
volume and pressure changes to determine lung volume, assuming temperature is
constant.[11]
Interpretation of tests
Professional societies such as the American Thoracic Society/ European Respiratory
Society have published guidelines regarding conduct and interpretation of
pulmonary function testing to ensure standardization and uniformity in performance
of tests. The interpretation of tests depends on comparing the patients values to
published normals from previous studies. Deviation from guidelines can result in
false-positive or false negative test results. Mohanka MR et al. recently
demonstrated that only a small minority of pulmonary function laboratories followed
published guidelines for spirometry, lung volumes and diffusing capacity in 2012.
Ref. A survey of practices of pulmonary function interpretation in laboratories in
Northeast Ohio Mohanka MR, et al. Chest. 2012;141(4):1040-1046
Significance
Changes in lung volumes and capacities are generally consistent with the pattern of
impairment. TLC, FRC, and RV increase with obstructive lung diseases and decrease
with restrictive impairment.