ANDERSON

JUNIORCOLLEGE
GHEMrsrRy LEcruRE

mfin2oo2solids

SOLIDSTRUCTURE
AssessmentObjectives
1. describe,usingsimpleterms,the latticestructureof a crystalline
solidwhichis:
(i) ionic,as in NaCl,MgO
(ii)simplemolecular,
as in iodine
(iii)giantmolecular,
as in graphite;diamond;silicon(lV)
oxide
(iv) hydrogen-bonded,
as in ice
(v) metallic,as in copper
2. explain.the
strengthhighmeltingpoint,electrical
insulating
and
thermalinsulatingpropertiesof ceramicsin termsof their
iiant
molecularstructure
3. relatethe usesof ceramics,basedon MgO,Al2O3,SiO2,to their
properties(suitable
examplesincludefurnacelinings,electrical
glass;crockery)
insulators;
4. describeand interpretthe usesof the metalsAl, includingits alloys,
and copper,includingbrass,in termsof their physicalpr6perties'
5. recognise
thatmaterials
area finiteresourceandthe importance
of
recyclingprocesses
6. outlinethe importance
of hydrogenbondingto the physical
properties
of substances,
including
iceandwater
7. suggestfromquotedphysicaldatathe type of structureand
bondingpresentin a substance

lntroduction
. Generalproperties
of solids
I
@
@
@
.

definiteshapeandvolume
rigidandincompressible
consistof close-packedparticles
particlesmaybe atoms,molecules
or ions

Solidscan be eithercrystallineor amorphous:

Grystallinesolids
particlesare arrangedin a
regular,3-dimensional
structure i.e.,hasdefinite
crystallattice structure
fixed meltingpoint
examples:NaCl,Cu,
diamond,silica,sugaretc.

Amorphoussolids
random,non-repetitive
anangement
of particles;
i.e.
no orderlystructure
no fixed meltingpoint
examples:rubber,glassetc.

Tvpes of crvstallinesolids
.

Solidsare classifiedbasedon the typesof attractiveforcesbetween

the constituent
oarticles.
Type of solid

Structure

type and nature of

forces between
particles
giantstructure, metallicbond
metallicsolid
- giantlatticeof - strongelectrostatic
closelypacked forces of attraction
metalatoms
betweenlatticeof
metalcationsand sea
of delocalisedelectrons
giantstructure, ionicbond
ionic solid
- giantlatticeof - strongelectrostatic
positiveions
forces of attraction
and negative betweenthe oppositely
ions
chargedions
giantcovalent giantstructure, extensiveand strong
or
- giantnetwork covalentbond
macromolecularof atoms
- strongattraction
solid
betweenbonding
nucleiandsharingpair
of electrons
simplelattice weak forces of
simple
attractionbetween
molecularsolid of atoms(of
raregases)or molecules,covalent
discrete
bondbetweenatomsin
molecules
eachmolecule

Examples
all metallic
elements:
Na,Al, Cu,
Mn,Pt,Ag
eIc.
NaCl,MgO,
Al2o3,
Cu(NOs)2,
BaSOr etc

diamond,
graphite,
silicon,
silica(SiOz)
iodine(s),
ice,solid
COz,solid
Kr, etc

Physicalpropertiesof cry-stailine.sorids
dependon the arrangement
of the particles(i.e.the-structurelanOon tf,e typ-"
bondingor attractiveforcesthat irofOtne parti,i[s "nO strengthof
together.

'

Metals
(a) generallyhavehigh meltingpoint
'

greatamountof energyrequiredto break

the metailicbonds
whichare strongerectrostatic
forcesot attiaaion betweenthe
delocalisedelectronsand the fatticeof melaications.

sodiumhasa relatively m.p.(92.5.C), but most

metals,
foy
especially
transition
meta.ls,..have
veryhighm.p.(m.p.
ot Ci =
1890"C). Strengthof metailicOonOincreisesls
numberof
delocalisedelectronsincreases.
1 .-

-: I ewtvcrtetrrpo

J _.,

(b) generallyhavehighdensity
'

density(mass
perunitvorume)dependson atomic
atomand type of packingin the solidstructure- mass,sizeof
. higheratomicmass )
. smalleratom
F higherdensitv
. closepacking
)

sodiumhas a low density,transitionmetalshaverelatively

higherdensities.

(c) goodconductorsof etectricityand heat

Lvo'+
' 'av^!
due to presenceof derocarised
"t""trInl
. when.anelectricpotentialis
appliedacrossthe enctsof a piece
of metal,the delocalisedelectionswill movetowarOs
tne
positiveend. Metalscan conductelectricity
inloth the solid
stateand moltenstate.

'

when heatis suppriedto one end of a pieceof metar,

the
energyof the electronsis increased.The delocalised kinetic
electrons
transmitthe energyto otherpartsof the metal.

(d) malleable
andductile
.

metallicbondsare nondirectional,thus layersof metalatoms

can slideovereachotherwithoutbreakingthe metallicbond.

this movementof layersdue to an appliedforcein the metal

lattice,is called'slip'

'

after'slipping',the atomssetilein new positionsand the crystal

structureis restored.

thus,a metalcan be hammeredintodifferentshapes(malleable)

or drawnintowires(ductile)

push --...*

Metalsarematleablebecausethe layersof aromscan slide ovci qch

other withoutbreakingthe menllic bonds
rl\t sh.t1
- d?o

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&
- thc t*".a ct ak drqt
hltah eiJrr 41
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erd4

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urr

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|hr*

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-rcq

Allovs
Sometimesit is desirableto makemetalsless malleable,to prevent
layersof atomsfrom 'slipping',for examplewhenmetalsare used in
machinesand constructionstructures.
Metalscan be strengthened
or makeharderby alloying,i.e.mixing
with anothermetal.
Example: Brassis an alloyof Cu andZn.
It is strongerthanpureCu or pureZn.
Alloyingcan be easilydonesincemetallicbondsare non-specific
or
non-directional.
Metalatomsof the addedmetalusuallyhavedifferentsizefromthe
mainmetalatoms.
Theseaddedmetalatomsthus disruptthe orderlyanangementof
the latticeand the layersof atomscan no longerslideover each
othereasily.
Some Cornmon Alloys
Name of Alloy

Properties

Uses

Wood's metal

5O7oB.i,25%Pb,12.57.Sn,
12.58aCd

Iow melting point (70'C)

Copper

Yellow brass

677"Cu, 33V.Zn

Ductile,takespolish

Iron

Stainlesssteel

Fe,O.47"C, 187oCr,
8O.6V"

Resistscorrosion

Fuseplugs,
automatic
sprinklers
Hardware
rtems
Tableware

| "/o Ni

Lead

Plumber'ssolder

67EoPb,33okS^

Low melting poirt (275"C)

Silver

Sterlingsilver
Dental amalgam

92.5voA9,,7.57o
Cu,
70okAF,,'18'kSr\,1O1"Cu,
2k HE

Bright surface
Easilyworked

Allovs of Aluminium
. Al readilyformsalloyswith othermetals.
. MetalsincludeCu, Mg,Ni andZn.
. Cu, Ni and Zn hardenand increasestrengthof Al.
. Mg improvesthe conosionresistanceof Al.
. Siliconis sometimesaddedto castalloysto improvefluidityand
castability.
. Two commonAl alloys:
. Duraalumin
Al, 4o/oCu,1%o
: 95o/o
Mg,Fe,Si
. Magnafium
: 83%Al, 15o/oMg,2YoCa

Soldering
iornts
Tableware
Dentalfillings

Properties and some uses of Al and Gu

PhysicalProperties

Uses
Aluminium,Al

tsxce[entconductorof heat

heatexchangersin
chemical,oil and other
industries.
cookingutensils.

It is lignt yet strong. Strength-to-weightratios of

Al and alloysof Al are higherthanany other
commercialmetals.
Highlyworkable.Malleableand ductile.C-nTe
rolled,pressedor extrudedto any shape.
Resistsconosion.
Whenexposedto air,Al and its alloysforma thin
film of Al2os,on the surface.Thefilm is strong
and does notflake.Thusit sealsoff the metal
from orygenand preventsfurtheroxidation.
Highlyreflective.
Al is an excellentreflectorof radiantheat.

planeparts.
kitchenfoil
windowframes

roofingto insulatebuildings
Al foil to iam radars

Gopper,Cu
Highthermalconductivity
hrgnelectncalconductivity
resistanceto conosion
weamersto acquirecoatingof greenbasic
coppercarbonate,CuCO3.Cu(OH)2.nH2O,
thus
givinga colourfultouch

cookingwares
copperwiresfor electrical
circuitsand cables
waterpipes
roofingmaterial

Cooperallovs
coinagemetal(Cu,Ni)
brass(Cu,Zn)
bronze(Cu,Sn)

Metalsand theiroresare non-renewable

resources,i.e.,not naturally
legeneratedat ratescomparableto their ratesof depletion.
Demandfor mineralresourcesincreaseall the time due to increasing
world populationand increasingdemandfor consumergoods.
Some importantraw materialsare in limitedamounts.
metal

knownworldreserves
(ableto extract)

time beforeexhaustion
at presentrateof consumption

Al
Gold
Fe

1.1x 10 1 k2g
1.0 x 10' ko
1.0x t01 4k i

100years
10years
240years

Measuresto countershortaqe
I

find neweconomicalwaysof extractingmineralsfrom low concentration

ores.
@ new methodfor copperextractioninvolvessolventextractioninsteadof
frothflotation

@ find new sourcesof minerals.

I explorationof sea bedsand nodulesin sea bedsrich in minerals.
@ to recycle
O to reprocessthe materialsin manufactured
itemsto makenew
manufactureditems(egusingglassfromold botflesto makenewones)
@ to extracta usefulraw materialfor use again
Aluminiumrecycling

Al is expensiveto producebecausea largeamountof electricalenergyis

consumedin the electrolysisof bauxite(Al2O3).
High costof extractingAl from its ore makesrecyclingworthwhile.
Usedsoft drinkcansand beercansare collected,meltedand usedto
make new cans.
This processsavesAl and alsoabout95%o
of energy.
(Thereare Al recyclingplantsin Singapore)

lonic Solids
(a)
'

(b)

'
.

(c)

Hiqhmeltinqpointsand boilinqpoints
Largeamountof energyrequiredto overcomevery strongelectrostatic
foroesof attractionbetweenthe closelypackedoppositelychargedions
and to breakup the giantlatticestructure.Thus,ionicsolidshave high
meltingpointsand highmolarheatsof fusion.
Strongionicforcesalsoexistin the moltenliquid.Thus,ionicsolidshave
highboilingpointsand highmolarheatof vaporisation.
Goodconductorsof electricitvwhen moltenor when dissolvedin
aqueoussolutions
Due to presenceof mobileionswhichcarrythe electricalcunentunderthe
influenceof an electricfield.
loniccompoundsin the solidstatecannotconductelectricitybecausethe
ionsare not free to move.
Hardand brittle

In an ionicsolid,eachion is heldin the crystallatticeby strong

electrostaticattractionsfrom oppositelychargedionsaroundit. Thus,ionic
solidsare hardanddifficultto cut.

lonicsolidsarealsobrittle,i.e.theyshattereasilywhengivena firmblow.
It maybe splitcleanly(or
cleaved).
Thisis becauseioniclattieecontains
positiveandiegativeions.
alternating
Whenthe crystalis tappedsharplyalonga particular
plane,it is possible
to displaceone layerof ions relativeto the next.As a resultof this
displacement,
ionsof similarchargeare broughttogether.Repulsion
betweenthe like chargesfracturesthe crystal.

@o@
@@o
@o@

+++++
o@
@o
o@

o@o \9 \f
@ o o o@

@o
o@
@o
o@
@o

/:\ |

Y]

o l +l->o

olEl@

<-l

* L+

O l"rul@
F>

ot t@

--J-

+F.-

l@

L+
(a) Arrangcment of one layer
of ions beforedisplacement

(6) Arrangementof ions

aftcr displacemcnt

Solublein waterandotherpolarsolvents

(d)
.

Mostionicsolidsare solublein waterandotherpolarsolventssuchas

ethanol.
The ionicsoliddissolvesas the crystallafticeis broken,formingions in
solution.The ionsformion-dipole
bondswiththe polarsolventmoleculein
process
a
calledsolvation(orhydration,if the solventis water).The
formationof manyof suchbondsreleasesufficientenergyto causethe
detachment of ions from the solid lattice.

Er

polarsolventmolecule

@
-@
aa.rra/fua.lc.v .

q,- P

S' ,a

.,,:\rn
v+v Q,#.
<JJVA @"(\''g
f'\2
q"-9
%@
-.-r I

-.. I

solvated
negativeion

(e)
.
.
.

ht ,..$.h L'i,

solvated
positive ion

b^ - Ayet,

Notsolublein non-polar
solventssuchas hexane,tetrachloromethane

(CClr)gld-belzele

Non-polar
molecules
havealmostnegligible
attraction
for ions.
Moleculesin non-polar
liquidsare heldby intermolecular
forceswhichare
muchweakerthan the strongelectrostatic
forcesbetweenoppositely
chargedionsin the ioniccrystal.
The ionicattractionsare muchstrongerthan ion-solventand solventsolventattractions.The non-polarsolventmoleculescannotpenetratethe
ioniclattice,andthusionicsolidscannotdissolvein non-polar
solvents.

lonicCompoundsas refractories
.
.

Refractoriesare solidswith very highmeltingpoints.Thesesolidscan

resisthightemperatureconditionswithoutmelting.
Examplesof ioniccompoundswhichare commonlyusedas refractories
are :
.

MgO;meltingpoint2800'C. Usedto lineinsidesof fumaces.

AlzOe;meltingpoint2300'C (AlzOa
is an ionicsolidwith covalent
charactbr).Usedto makeheatresistantcruciblesfor meltingmetals;
andas an insulatorin sparkplugsof cars.

Lo^l]

SIMPLEMOLECULAR
SOLIDS
low meltinqpoints

(a)

The latticeforcesin morecurar

soridsare reak intermolecular
forces.
Theseforcesare brokenwhenionicsolidsmelt(the strongcovalentbonds
withineach moleculeis not broken!).Sincetheseforcesare weak,only a
smallamountof energyis requiredand the meltingpointis usually
low(usually
below200.C)

'

(b)
.

Non-conductors
of electricitv
This is becauseof the absenceof chargecanierssuchas delocalised
electronsor mobileions.

(c)
.

Tvpicallvsoft
Thisis becausethe molecules
can be easilymovedarounddueto the
weak forcesbetweenthem.
Examplesof simple molecularsolids
Solid iodine

Jfo.t
lrit

'rltU

Structureof iodine:latticeof moleculesof 12held by weakvan der Waals,

-attractions.
forcesdue to instantaneous
dipole-induced
dipole
atael
t

v4* der c,)<d,lr '(trct+

("tc^u;

Indicalcsthe centrc
of an l, molecule

lodineis almostinsolublein water

@ The non-polariodinemoleculescn onlyformweak instantaneous
dipoledipoleattractionswith polarwatermolecules.Theseforcesare
weakerlhan the extensiveand strongerhydrogenbondsbetween
water molecules,Thus,iodinemoleculescannotpenetratethe water
structure.

l0

@ The instantaneous
dipole-induced
dipoleattractions(i.d.-i.d.)
between
thesenon-polarsolventmolecules
aresimilarin strehgthtoihe i.O._i.0.
aftractionsbetweenbenzeneand iodineand the i.d._i.d.aftractions
betweeniodineand iodinemolecules.
Thus,the iodinemolecules
can
penetratethe solventstructure.
,,y-\
.,-:-:\
s,.',
.

Solidiodinehasa shinvappearance

'@

'csl:

\#

This is due to the regularanangementof moleculesin the lattice

formingregularsurfaceswhichreflectlight.

lce, Solid HzO

(a)

Structure: latticeof watermoleculesbondedby extensivehydrogen

bonds.EachH2Omoleculeis hydrogenbondedto 4 otherHzO moleculesin a tetrahedral
anangement
thatextendsthroughout
the ice
structure.

q'-Ss--gp
.i Y

\L'oEr D"tr

'l '--

(
ff+.:S+
iii
^-- --A--

9t

Tg-

db

-&

Y'P--- "
66

(to,^l".?J^rr
-ttr

ar a aldtv(r$OPFN

p,ilr.n

tPr.orrs
q^'cc'17'

The extensive,tetrahedralanangementof H2Omoleculesis a rigidbut

ratheropen structure(the moleculesare not closelypacked).
When ice melts,the tetrahedralanangementis parflybrokenup as the
moleculesmovearound.Thusthe moleculesbecom-e
closer.T'hisexplains
why the densityof wateris greaterthan ice,and icefloatson water.
The lowerdensityof ice c,ompared
to its liquidstateis unusualfor solids.
M-ostsolidsare havegreaterdensitythan theirliquidstates.This property
of water is importantfor the survivalof marinebiologicallife in winter'asice formsonlyfrom the top.
The meftinooointandboilinqpointof wateris lowas ontyweak
inte.rmolecular
forces(hydrogen
bonds)are brokenduringmeltingand
boiling.
The meltingpointand boilingpointof waterare higherthan mostother
molecularsolidswithsimilarmolecular
size.Thisii becausehydrogen
bondsin waterare strongerthan pd-pdattractionsor id-idaftractionsin
othermolecularsolids.

ll

Giant molecular/ macromolecular/covalentsolids

This type of solidsconsistsof lattice of atoms heldby very extensiveand
strongcovalentbonds.
The structureis extremelystrong and a lot of energyis requiredto break
it down.
Properties
include: hard,rigid,insolublein bothpolarand non-polar
solvents,ver highm.p.and b.p.
With the exceptionof graphite,giantmolecularsolidsare electrical
insulatorsdue to absenceof delocalisedelectronsnor mobileions.
Examplesinclude:diamond,graphite,silicon dioxide(SiOz),silicon
carbide(SiC)

Diamond

109.5''

. j- ' A

'A

O.'154nm

-A

'(ry

Structure
Giantmolecularsolidconsistingof lafticeof carbonatomsheldby strong
covalentbonds.EachC atomis heldto 4 otherC atomsin a tetrahedral
arrangement.Thistetrahedralanangementof atomsextendsthroughout
forminga threedimensionalarray.
Bonding
(Eachcarbonatomin diamond
is sp' hybridised
- referto Chemical
lectureson hybridisation).
Physicalproperties
C)
a) veryhighm.p.(3550

Reason
greatamountof energyrequiredto
breakdownthe strongand CgSgIeqJi
covalentbondsin giantnetwork\ t,+,":"'
litv aat

structurg,

b) veryhard(usedas abrasives, strongcovalentbondsholdingthe

atomsin a tightinterlockingstructure.
bladesof sawsfor most
jobs)
This makesthe structurerigidand
demanding
cutting
verystrong.
mechanically
absenceof mobileions and
of
c) non-conductor
insulator)
delocalisedelectronsinthe structure;
electricity(electrical
all 4 valenceelectronsof eachC atom
are localisedin covalentbonding
water
moleculescannotbreakthe
water
d) doesnotdissolvein
strongmvalentbondsin diamond
-

)']'l''t au
rqlet<u
r<r)

,<
?

*'

7o
xlvtl

o*, rs,.

'-akt,l
.

+t*

<4 , afi*t

tt..e.t

L
ovald

d,nl a a-

$'r
\>.4

p.t*12

Silicondioxide.SiOe
Also calledsilica.Mostcommonformof silicais quarE.Sandis an impure
form of quarE (browncolourof sandis dueto impuritiesof iron(lll)
compounds).
The structureof SiOzis similarto diamond.In SiOz,eachSi is covalenflv
bondedto four O atoms,and eachO atomis bondedto two Si atoms.
Thus,eachSi is in the centreof a tetrahedronof O atoms,as shown
below.This structuralanangementertendsthroughouta very large
network.
SiOzhasa veryhighmeltingpoint(1700
C);it is veryhardand is a nonconductorof electricity.(These
propertiescan be explainedby its struciure
and bonding)

structure
of SiOz
Si atom attached
to 40 atoms

O atom attached
to 2 Si atoms

Graphite
.
.

Graphiteis sometimesclassifiedas a layerlatticestructuredsolid.

Althoughbothdiamondandgraphiteconsistof identicalcarbonatoms
only,thereare differencesin their properties.Thesedifferencesare due to
differencesin theirstructure.
0.142nm
(C-C distalcc)

s.335
o. -l

(distarcr
I
bcts,Eo laycrs)
I
.l
V

Rcgiou of
-:
dclocaliscd

I
-

trtcak atU-actioB
bctwlgD l,aycrs

t3

In graphite,the carbonatomsare anangedin layersof interconnected

hexagonalrings.Withinthe layers,the carbonatomsare heldby strong
covalentbonds.Weakintermolecular
van der Waals'forcesholdthe lavers
together.

Eachcarbonatomin the layeruses3 of its valenceelectronto form 3

strongcovalentbondswith 3 othercarbonatoms.Thuseachcarbonis in
the centreof a trigonalplanarstructure,andthis structureextendsin a two
dimensionalarrayto formthe hexagonalrings.

'

The fourthvalenceelectronof eachcarbonatomis delocalisedthroughout

the layer.Thus all the delocalisedelectronfromeachcarbonformsthe
delocalisedn bondsthat extendoverthe layers.
(EachC atomin graphiteis spzhybridised)

The C-C bondlengthof 0.142nmwithinthe layeris shorterthanthe C-C

bondlengthin diamond.Thissuggeststhatthe C-Cbondswithinthe layer
are strongerthanthatin diamond.(TheC-Cbondlengthin graphiteis
shorterthana singleC-Cbondbutlongerthandoublebond)
properties
& uses
goodelectricalconductoralongthe
layers
use:graphiteelectrodesin batteries

reason
presenceof delocalised
electronswhich
can movealongthe layersunderthe
influenceof an electricfield
note:the delocalised
electronscannot
movebetweenthe layers.graphite
cannotelectricityat rightanglesto the
rayers.

veryhighmeltingpoint
uses:
cruciblesfor moltenmetals
as a form of heat-resistant
graphite(pyrographite)
usedfor
exhaustconesof rockets
slipperyor greasyfeel
uses:
. lubricants;especiallyin
machinesoperatingat high
temperatures.
Graphitecan
withstandhightemperatures
but
oil lubricantswoulddecomoose.
.

largeamountof energyrequired
to break
verystrongandnumerous
covalent
bondsin thestructure

weakvan derWaals'forcesbetweenthe
layersof carbonatomsin graphiteallows
the layersto slideovereachothereasily.

pencil'lead'

14

CERAMICS
.
.
.
.
.

are inorganic,non-metallic,
solidmaterials.
can be crystallineor non-crystalline.
can consistsof giant covalent or ionic bondlng structures or a
combination of the two strucfures.
have manyadvantageousproperties:highlyresistantto heat,conosion
resistant,wear-resistant,
do notdeformeasilyunderstress,lessdense
than metalsusedfor hightemperatureapplications
disadvantage: briftleness.However,with the multitudeof knowledgein
chemicalprocesses,newceramicssuchas ceramiccompositesare
designed.The propertiesof thesenew materialsfar exceedsthoseof
naturally-occuning
materials.

Conventionalceramicobiects
'
'
.
.

are generallymadeof mud-likematerials

shapedat roomtemperature
and
hardenedby heattreatment.
heatingcauseschemicalreactionsto occur,formingionicand /or covalent
bonds.
madeof silicate-based
claysuchas kaolinite;whichis a hydrated
aluminiumsilicate,Al4(OH)sSirOi0
Examplesof ceramicobjects:refractorybricksfor furnacelinings,pottery,
tiles,sewerpipesandporcelain.
o
A

represenls s;I

chainsilicatesas in asbestos

o/-'io
o

sheetsilicatesas in lalc, mica

and muscovite

Modernceramics
.

involvesatomsbondedtogetherin covalent-bonded
arrays.
Examples:silica,boroncarbide,siliconcarbide,sialonetc

synthesizedas singlematerialsof highpuritywhichare formedand fired

underconditionscarefullychosento maximisedesirableproperties.

usuallybasedon compounds
of Grouplll andGrouplV elements.
Includes:aluminaAl2O3,
magnesia
MgO,carborundum
SiC,siliconnitride,
boronnitride,zirconiumoxideZOz, tungstencarbideWC etc.

l5

Modemceramics Properties
sialon
hardas diamond
(a ceramicalloy) strongas steel
lightas aluniminium
requiresno lubrication
Si02
hard
(quartz)
durable
highmeltingpoint
(1713C )
electricalproperties

uses
wear-resislant
machinery
aerospace
andautomoblie
industries
quarEoscillators
transducers
filters
opticalfibres

Other uses of Ceramics

Ceramicshavea wide rangeof applications,
whichincludespottery,bricks,
tiles,cookingware,glass,refractories,magnets,electricaldevices-and
abrasives.
1. Ceramicsautomobile
andaerospace
enginesusinga ceramic(silicon
nitride)gasturbinesimilarto a jet aircraft'spropulsion
system.ihese
enginesare lighterthanthosemadeof metaland can be operatedat
temperaturesof about1370c, temperaturesat whicha metalwouldmelt.
Fuelefficiencyof theseenginesoperatingat suchhightemperatures
wo-uldincreaseand polluting
exhaustemissionsreduced.ieramic engines
will usuallylastfivetimesas longas thoseof metals.
2. Ceramicbiological
implants,
suchas skullcaps,elbowand hipjoints,knee
andtoothimplants.
Ceramics
are suitablematerials
for theseuses
becausetheyare strong,resistantto chemicalattacks,and without
problemsrelatedto tissuerejection.
3. Electricalinsulatorsfor sparkplugsin highcompressionenginesin cars
and airplanes.
Goodinsulation
is essentialbetweenelectrodes
to maintain
a high potentialdifference.AlzOaand MgO,bothionicoxideswith very
highmeltingpointsareused.
4. Refractorymaterialsfor liningfumaces.Clay,Silica,Al2O3and MgOoften
used.Theyare ableto withstandhightemperaturesof moltenmetals.
slagssandhotgasesandas wellas resistant
to corrosion.
5. Siliconnitrideballbearings
are hardandstrong,wear-resistant,
ableto
withstandtemperatures
up to 1300C and requireno lubrication.

l6

('r
Ghnt mctrllic

Girnt molccuhr
(Ghnt covd!nt)

Structrtrc
(i) " Eramplcs

Nr- Fc,tC,,+

Diamond,tSiC;Si01

(ii)

Atoni3

Atoms

su"tfl.L/uY
l.

X,^(t,it<
Constitucnt
particlcs

(iii) Tyfrc of
subctaocc

2. Ilooding
ir thc rolid

./\lt,oction oaoutcr
mobilc clcclrorir
tor pgsitivcnuclci
bindsatoms
loltcthcr bv Jrron,
mctallicbonds

Non.nrctfl clcmcntin
Oroup IV or its
compoirnd

Slmplcmolcculrr

N r' C l -, Car t O r-

lr . s., croHr, llcl,

cl|.y 6t*er1., i. a.t

loru

Molcculcs

.(K');soi:

:
MctrVnon-mctal
compound(A
compouodof clcmcntsnith I
' largc
dillcrcncciu clccrrdncgetiviry)'

Non-mctal clcmcntor
non.mctrl,/non.mrtrl
compound(Elcmanrs
with hi!fi clcctroncgstivitt)

Atomsrrc liDkcd
throughthc wholc '
Itructurc by trcrl,
tlrolt coralcnt bonds
from oncatom to
thc nclt

Atlration of trositiveions fot

ncSativc ion!-flro[,
ionlc
bords

Stronl coralcnt bonds

hold rtoms togcthcl
s,itltin tlt. rcnrrrt.
molcculcs:scprtrtc
molcculcserc hcld
loSclhcr b!. h..dt
Vrn dcr Wrrls' bonds

Non volslilc
High m,pL.hiBh
b.pt".high larcnt
hcrts
Usually solid

Non volatilc
Vcry high m.pt..vcry
hi8h b.pt..vcry high
latcnlhcats
Solid

Non volatilc
I
High m.pt..high b.pt..high
latGnrhcats

Volatilc
Low m.pt..lo$,b.pt..
low latcnthcatr

Solid

Uruallygascsor
vohtilc liquids

Hrrd. ycr mrllcablc

Vcry hard and britrlc

Hard and brittlc

Sott

(iii) Conducriviry Good conductors

whcn iolid or
liquid

Non-conductors
(Graphitcis an
crccption)

Noir-conductorswhcnsolid.
Good conducton whcn
moltcnor,in aqucoussolution
-elccuolytes

Non-conductor3
whcn
solid,liquid endin
aqucous
solution.(A
fctr (e.!.HCI)rlact
with wltcr to torm
elcctrolyrcs.)

(iv) Solubilhy

lnsolublcin all !olvcnrs Solublcin polar solvcnts(eg

ll2OI iosolublcin non.pohr
solvcnr: (cg. CCla) .

3. Propcrtics
(i) volarility

Stateat
foom tcmp,
(ii)

-.t

Metal clcmcntsith
low clcctro
' i cgati vi ry

Girnt lonlc

Hrrdncs/
mrllcebiliry

lnsolublc in polar
and non.poltt
rolvcnrs.brit
solublcin tiquid
mctd,

lnsolubleiri pohr
solvcnts(c.9lflO),
solublcin non.polar
rolvenrs(a& COrl