Mode-locked Lasers

How are ultrashort pulses generated?

Mode-locked lasers are most common
Other (rarer) techniques include E-O modulation, modulation instability and compression

An ultrashort pulse requires large bandwidth, this is obtained by having many longitudinal
modes in the cavity lasing simultaneously

However, multi-mode lasing just generates noise unless there is a fixed phase relationship
among the modes, thus the term mode-locking.

Generic Elements of Modelocked Lasers

D

ML

1) Broadband gain medium

2) Cavity
mirrors, provide feedback
3) Output coupler
partially transmissive mirror, provides output
4) Anomalous dispersive element
Compensate normal dispersion in other elements
5) Modelocker
Active: phase modulator
Passive: saturable absorber
For the basics of lasers see, for example, Verdeyen Laser Fundamentals

Gain Medium
g
Must be supplied with energy the pump
Typical ultrafast lasers are pumped by another laser
Amplifies light by stimulated emission

Requires inversion more atoms/molecules in the excited state so that

stimulated emission overcomes absorption
Two categories:
3-level
Inferior require strong pumping
Example: erbium, ruby

4-level
Preferred
Examples: ti:sapphire, organic dyes

The gain medium always operates in saturation

Gain: Ti:sapphire
(the ultrafast work horse)

Titanium substitutes for an Al atom in the sapphire

(Al2O3) host crystal
There is a single optically active electron, levels are
split by crystal fields.
Effective 4 level system due to Jahn-Teller effect:
Minimum in electronically excited state is shifted from
ground state with respect to a configuration coordinate
Relaxation occurs due to vibronic transitions

Yields very broad emission/gain spectrum

Excited state lifetime ~ 3.9 ms

Sapphire has excellent thermal & hardness properties

Other Gain Media

Material

Gain

Pump

Comments

Dyes

Various

Excimer, Nd: YAG

SH, flashlamp

Messy, limited
lifetime,
toxic/carcinogenic

Diodes

Various (~850
best)

Electrical

Gain dyanmics
limit minimum
duration

Cr:LiSAF,
Cr:LiCAF

820-880

670 nm diode

Poor thermal
properties

Cr:Forsterite

1300-1400

Nd:YAG

Cr:YAG

1500-1600

Nd:YAG

Crystals rare

Erbium

1530-1560

980 or 1480 nm
diode

3 - level

General Saturation
Propagation through an absorbing material with absorption coefficient a [cm-1]:

dI
aI
dz

1.0
0.8

General form for saturation of absorption

a0
dI

I
dz
1 I IS

aa0

(gain is simply a < 0)

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

I/Is

Where Is is the saturation intensity, i.e. the intensity for which the absorption is reduced to
its small signal value.
For absorption, Is depends on number of atoms, cross-section and relaxation rate
For gain, it also depends on pump rate

Output coupling
For a CW laser, the optimum output coupling is a trade off between
1) Extracting the power (increasing transmission); and
2) Decreasing the intracavity power because increased loss means gain less saturated

I out I sTo 0 1
L T0
where To is the output coupler transmission, g0 is
small signal gain and L is other losses in the cavity

The maximum is

Toopt
max
I out

L g0 L
Is

g0 L

Output power relative to Is

In the situation of high cavity Q (low net loss), the output power is approximately
0.05

g0 = 0.1
L = 0.01

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

Output coupler transmission

In the case of a passively mode-locked laser, one must also consider the issue of pulse stability, i.e.
maintaining high enough peak power, this depends on details of the mode-locking mechanism

ABCD (Ray) Matrices

(lightspeed review)

Ray Optics: represent ray by vector:

r
Gaussian beams: describe transformation of beam parameter
Represent propagation through optical elements
system matrix is simply product of matrices for individual elements

1 d
n

0 1

1
1
f

0
1

1 0
2

1
R

Propagation through a distance d in a medium with

index of refraction n. [Take care to not double count n.]

A thin lens with focal length f

Reflection from a spherical mirror with radius R. R > 0 for

center of curvature in positive propagation direction

Propagation of Gaussian beams through optical elements

Characterize a beam by

q z iz0

z
0
1
1
z
1

2 2 i 2 0 2
i
q z iz0 z z 0
z z 0 Rz nw2 z
A B
is
Propagation through an element characterized by matrix
C
D

q2

Aq1 B
Cq1 D

Check for free space

q2

1 L
0 1

q1 L
1

Cavity: Basics of Stability I

Beam in resonator must be self-consistent, i.e., the same after one round trip.

Determine the ABCD matrix for one round trip in the resonator
matrix depends on starting point

Solve equation

Aq B
Cq D

which gives 2 solutions (using fact that AD-BC =1 for ABCD matrices)

1 D A 1 A D

1
q
2B
B 2
2

Then construct the proper matrix to propagate to other points inside or outside the cavity

Cavity: Basics of Stability II

Use ABCD matrices, resonator stable if round-trip matrix satisfies

A D 2
Equality conditionally stable
1
4
Flat mirrors, just free space, A = D = 1, gives conditionally stable
0

stable

conditionally stable
requires perfect alignment

unstable

Astigmatism correction
tan

Brewsters angle is used to minimize loss entering the gain medium

n2
n1

At the same time, the beam is focused into the crystal

Net result is astigmatism [focus different for the two transverse directions]

Use an angled mirror to compensate

f
fx
,
cos

f y f cos

For Brewster plate of thickness d and index n between two curved mirrors with RoC R

2d
R

n 1 n 1 sin

4
cos
n
4

Kogelnik, Ippen, Dienes and Shank, J. Quantum Electr. 8, 373 (1972)

For 9 mm Ti:Sapph and R = 10 cm, = 9.5o

For dye lasers, full compensation impossible,

cancellation between two astigmatic focii is used

Dispersion Compensation
D

We have discussed the following dispersion compensation elements that can be used in a bulk optics
laser cavity:

Prisms
Dispersion compensating mirrors
In a fiber laser at 1550 nm, the dispersion of the fiber itself can be engineered

Standard lore: the net cold cavity GVD needs to be slightly anomalous cancels chirp due to
nonlinearity
Not true: stretched pulse designs, works when dispersion is managed

Mode locker

Active
Electooptic or Acoustooptic
Passive Saturable absorption
Real vs. effective
Slow vs. fast

Active Modelocking
Modulation at cavity repetition rate, either
Amplitude
or
Phase

worksamplitude is fairly intuitive, but phase?

Think in frequency domain, modulation at frequency wm puts sidebands on spaced by wm
If wm matches mode spacing
feed energy from initial CW mode into sidebands, with fixed phase

Cavity modes

Limit to minimum pulse duration

2 ln 2 2 g 0
2

1
f m

Where
fm
n

is modulation frequency
is gain bandwidth

is the modulation index

Note bandwidth dependence

Real Saturable Absorption

CW: Atoms relax and can continue to absorb subsequent photons

Pulse: Saturate medium, some photons pass through
Front edge of the pulse preferentially absorbed
Back edge unaffected
Operating intensity depends on saturation of both absorption and gain:
1.0

aa0, 0

Fluctuation required to start lasing

0.8
0.6

Intensity will increase to upper crossing point

0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

I/Is

2.0

2.5

3.0

Modelocking with Real Saturable Absorption

Time window asymmetric
Rise: integral of pulse

Amplitude

Fall: life time of absorber

Loss

The pulse itself modulates the loss

Limited pulse shortening

Use gain depletion in concert with saturable absorption

Time

Gain depletion acts on trailing edge of pulse

1

Gain

Requires gain and absorber recovery short compared to

round-time

Loss

Combination results in short window with net positive gain

Real saturable absorbers are slow

Dynamics slower than pulse

Time

Amplitude

Examples of Real Saturable Absorbers

1) Dyes usually a jet
2) Semiconductors usually incorporated into a mirror
Known as saturable Bragg reflector (SBR) or semiconductor saturable absorber mirror (SESAM)

Effective Saturable Absorption: Kerr lens

Kerr Lens & Aperture gives increased transmission at high intensity
Increased transmission at high intensity = saturable absorption
Requires biasing alignment away from optimum CW

CW

Misalign cavity, Kerr lens realigns it

Output beam become intensity dependent

Low Intensity
Gaussian
Laser Beam

Modelocked
Kerr Medium
n = n0 + n2I

High Intensity
Gaussian
Laser Beam

Gaussian Beam =
Gaussian Index Profile =
Gradient Index Lens

Effective Saturable Absorption: Nonlinear Polarization Rotation

The nonlinear phase shift from the Kerr effect rotates elliptically polarized light
Due to differential phase shift between components with different
amplitude does not occur for linearly or circularly polarized light

Most easily observed in fiber

Can be used as modelocking mechanism: effective saturable absorber

Nonlinear medium (fiber)

Low Intensity
High intensity

-plate

Elliptical
Polarizer

Initiating Modelocking

Both active modelocking and real saturable absorbers are self starting
Effective (fast) saturable absorbers are not in general
Requires starting mechanism perturbation noise spike
builds up
Stronger self-amplitude modulation makes it easier to start
Almost self starting in some cases (any miniscule perturbation is sufficient)

Can be automated

Or add weak real saturable absorber as starter

Prototypical modelocked Ti:sapphire laser

Put all the pieces together.

Prisms
(Dispersion compensation)

Pump

Output
coupler

High reflector
Ti:Sapphire
crystal