G.

E TG I 'EERI

101

the first order in this country and on the Continent.

The Grand Central Station of ~ ew York, ~he
Pennsylvania terminus in Jersey. C1ty, t he .Phila
delphia (Broad-street) and 'Vashmgton Sta.ho~s ~f
the same company, the new station of the Ilhn01s
Central in Chicago, and many other~ , are remark-

class station. Our annexed illustrations gi,e. an

THE PENN YL V A IA RAILROAD
excellent idea of the design of this station buildmg,
AT CHICAG 0.
which must be reuarded rather as an example of what
Tni; P ennsyl vania Railroad has made an e~hibit 1 it is intended th; stations on this line shall ?e ~~{ 1
1 of great interest extent and ori uinality at .J ackson what they are at present. The Pennsylv~m~
P :uk. The wh~le of it; collecti;n fall within the road Company ha\e always taken the lead m the

FIG . 1.

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0}' THE PE~N~ YL' ANIA.

R .ULROAJ)

PAVILION.

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THE PJJ~s "YLY.\ ~IA R .\ IL ROAV E\:atniT.

Department of Transportation, Lut only a small l"nited tatesin the matter of station accommodation,
part is installed within the building allotted to that and for the last twenty-fhe years they haYe been
department. This part consists of e"\amplcs of steadily creating and improving in this direction,
freight and passenger car ; but especially of re- until in station work, as in all other details, they own
fri uerator cars, a. class of rolling stock that is of an essentially first-class system. There is a general
sp;cial importance in American railroad traffic. and rapid movement on all the more important
The main part of the company's exhibit is contained American railways to improve the station accommowithin, or grouped around, a very beautiful pavilion dation ; and the terminal buildings and facilities, in
jntended to represent a completely fitted and first- I many large towns, can to-day rank with those of

able in extent, design, and completeness. Local

station buildings remain, however, to a large extent in a somewhat primitive condition, although
the Pennsylvania and son1e other lines are notable
exceptionR. The model station which we illustrate
consists of a main building, with waiting-rooms,
booking-offices, &c., on one side of the line, and
an extended shelter on the other, communication between the platforms being effected by

~~l=o~2~~================~=====E=N==G==IN==E==E=R==I=N=G~==================~[J~u=L=Y=2~8,~I8~9~3==
an over~ead bridge, instead of the p opular mode
of cross10g
the tracks.
There is also a. siCYnal

0
equtpment and water-tank, while a standard track
is laid with rails weighing 100 lb. to the yard (not
much heavier than the sections now being laid)
wi~h examples in place of the standard types of
switches and crossings. The interior of the building is a veritable museum of relics connected with
the early days of the Pennsy1vania Railroad, from
the time before the date of railroads, when in 1815
a charter was granted for the building of a tram
road from Newton to Brunswick. Of course this
collection includes many examples of road-bed,
from that of the stone blocks and rough iron rails
used in 1831 on the old portaCYe road over the
Alleghenies, and the 35-lb. rail ;f a later date on
the Camden and Amboy Road. At that time, and
indeed for l ong after, journeys to Pittsburgh were
made largely by canal boat, working in connection
with the railroad, and several models of this once
famous mode of transport are shown in the pavilion.
Cases running round t h e walls contain a fine collection of objects, largely documents, and under
the central dome are three relief maps illustrating
the changes in the ILethods adopted for cross ing the
Alleghenies since 1832. One of these in particular,
the largest of the three, which is 12 ft. long by 4ft.
wide, and which shows the old portage and the new
portage roads, together with the present line of
the Pennsylvania Railroad, including the Horseshoe
Curve, Allegrippus, and the district of the J ohnstown flood, is especially valuable as being the fir st
and only relief map ever made of that section. In
striking contrast to the old horse-drawn canal boats,
are models of the most modern ferryboats belonging to the company and plying between Jersey
City and New York. The outside exhibits of the
company are very full of interest. From an historic
point of view the two old passenger coaches, with
the Stephenson engine'' John Bull" at their head,
are one of the most important of the Transportation
exhibits.
The " John Bull " was buil t in this
country in 1830, and we cannot do better than reproduce a summary of its history prepared by the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company :

"The history of the locomotive dates back to a period

when locomotion by steam was in the earliest age of
experimenta.lism. For several years previous to 1830
experiments attended with more or less success had been
made in England with locomotives to be propelled by
steam. In 1830 the ' Planet,' constructed by George
Stephenson, was the best example of a. machine of thi3
character, and after witnessing a trial of its powers in
1830, Mr. Robert L. Stevens, the founder of the Camden
and Amboy Railroad, placed an order with Stephenson
to build an engine on the same lines for shipment to this
country. This engine, christened ' John Bull ' a.f ter its
arrival in America, was completed in May, 1831, and
shipped to Philadelphia, where it arrived in August of
the same year. It was then transshipped to Bordentown. The boiler and cylinders were in place, bu t the
other component parts were packed in boxes, and it was
with the utmost difficulty that they could be put together
and adjusted by mechanics who had never before seen a
piece of mechanism of a similar oharacter.
"The original weight of the engine was about 10 tons.
The boiler was 13 fb. long and 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter.
The cylinders were 9 in. by 20 in. There were four
driving wheels, 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter, made with castiron hubs and wooden spokes and felloes. The tyres
were of wrought iron ! in. thick, and the depth of flange
was 1i in. The original gauge was 5 ft. 'he interior
arrangements were primitive in the extreme, and the
handling of the levers used in starting or reversing involved a considerable amount of hard work on the engineer. When the engine had finally been successfully
articulated and placed upon the track laid for the experiment, the boiler was pumped full of water from a hogshead,
a fire of pine wood was lighted in the furn~ce, and at an
indication of 30 lb. steam pressure the engmeer, nervous
with excitement, opened the throttle and the locomotive
moved over the rails. Several other trials were subsequently made with equal success, and the locomotive
was taken apart agai~, modific.ations mad~ here . and
there a tender improvised, and It was held m readmess
to a.~ait the completion of the railroad.
"Between 1831 and 1836 the 'John Bull ' underwent
considerable modification, as changes suggested themselves to the watchful eyes of the American mechanics,
and in the latter year the engine was in a.cti ve service on
the Camden and Amboy Road, just as she appears today. During the more than hal~-?e~tury of life the
sturdy old machine suffered m~ny VlCtssttudcs of fort~u~e.
After years of admirable serVIce, the mod~rn machtmst
succeeded in produci11~ improvemen~s wh10h relegated
the old engine to the side track, and 1t was stored. away
in Bordentown for a number of years. In .187? 1_t was
rescued from the oblivion wh~c~ was envelopm~ 1t m t~e
quiet Jersey town, and exhibited at the. Phtladelphia
Centennial, where it attracted much_ attent10n. ~t.s next
public appearance ~as at the C~tcago ~xposit10n of
Railway Appli81nces m 1883, and, tben bemg present~d
fio tbe Uniterl States Government by the P ennsylvAn!a.

Railroad Company, it has since been a. notable feature of

the world of curiosities collected in the N ational Museum
at Washington. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company,
through Mr. Theo. N. Ely, Uhief of Motive Power, who
~as charge of the company 'd exhibit, borrowed it from
Its present owners to place it on exhibition at the company's building at the W orld's Columbian Exposition.
" One of the most notable features of the 'John
Bull ' is the pilot, commonly known as the cow-catcher.
As originally constructed in England there was no pilot
attached, bub when the engine was placed in service on
th e Camden and Amboy Road, it was found ab~olutely
necessary to provide a pilot in order to assist the machine
in taking curves.
" Mr. Stevens set himself the task of planning one,
and although it was a orude and awkward affair, it served
the purpose. The first pilot was a frame made of oak,
8ft. by 4ft., pinned together at the corners. Under the
forward end were a pair of wheels 26 in. in diameter,
while the other end was fastened to an extension of the
a.xle outside of the forwatd driving wheels, as it was

Ft.g J

.... - - :

holstery, with the exception of the band at the top to

support the shoulders. The aisles are very narrow, as
are the double doors, and it seems a problem how the
crinoline of our grandmothers could accommodate itself
to the narrow confines accorded to it. There are no
toilet rooms nor any provision for drinking water.
"This latter luxury was not introduced until 1840,
when it was supplied from wooden kegs with a brass
spigot, from which the water esca.ped into a tin cup.
There was little travel by night in the olden days, so the
only m uminating agents were a tallow candle encased in
a glass holder. one at the rear and the other at the front
of the c~r. The window lights resemble the panes of
glass in a child's playhouse, and as the windows could not
be raised, a movable slat, capable of being lifted up or
down on the principle of the blinds of a stage-coach, is
inserted between each light for the purpose of admitting
the air. A sloping projection, a few inches in width,
above the windows, and another at their centre, protected
the interior to some ex tent from the beating in of the rain
when the slides were open.

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PLAN OF THE PENNSYLV .A.NIA. R AILROAD PAVILION.

found that a play of about 1 in. on each side of the

pedestal of the front wheels was necessary in order to
get around the curves. At first it required a. considerable
pile of stones to hold the pilot down to its work, and even
then it is a. matter of tradition that it had a pernicious
habit of getting off the track on very slight provocation.
When the engine was to be turned the pilot had to be
removed, as the turntables of that day were too short to
accommodate it. The pilot which now adorns the front
of the 'John Bull ' is a somewhat less cumbersome
modification of the one first constructed by Stevens.
"Wood was the original fuel used, but the furnace has
been changed now for coal. The inclosed tender contains
a. storage capacity for about 2200 lb. of coal and a tank
holding 1500 gallons of water. The water is sufficient fer
a run of 30 miles, and the coal will last through 90. The
curious contrivance, resembling a poke bonnet, which
surmounts the tender, was called the 'gig-top.' In it
sat the forward brakesman, who not only kept a. sharp
look-out out . for other trains approached on the same
track, but signalled to the rear brakesmen when occasion
required, and worked the brakes on the locomotive and
tender by a long lever which extended up between his
knees. There was no bell-cord nor gong on the locomotive, so all communication between engineer and brakesmen was by word of mouth. All these original features
are retained in the restored engine ..
"The Old Passenger Coaches. - Hardly less unique than
the locomotive itself are the passenger coaches of this
historic train. Some twenty-five years ago a farmer near
South Amboy bought one of the discarded coaches of the
old Camden and Amboy Railroad. He removed it from
its trucks, and, planting it on posts in the ground, converted it into a. chicken coop. It served in this capacity
until a few months ago, when a. representative of the
Pennsylvania Railroad, looking for relics, happened upon
it, and entered into negotiations for its purchase. The
thrifty farmer, realising that lapse of time had endowed
his bennery with increased value, demanded a. price
which represented compound interest un the original purchase money, but the mattel' was adjusted, and the passenger coach of fifty years ago transformed into a chicken
c0op is once more fixed upon its trucks and will go to
Chicago as a. part of the John Bull ' train. After its
recovery the coach was refitted and reupholstered, so tha,t
it appears now in all the pristine glory of its palmy days.
The history of the other coach is not quite so romantic.
lb was found some years ago in a lumber yard in a. New
Jersey town among a mass of rubbish, and quietly tucked
away in the Meadows shops by afar-sighted official of the
company, who foresaw that just such an occasion as this
would bring it into requisition some day.
"Developmen t of the Stage Coach.-The old coaches
present many reminders of their predecessors of the road
before iron rails were known. They are, indeed, but an
advanced development of the stage coach. No space is
wasted in their construction. They are low in height
and narrow in width, being but 30ft. long 8ft. wide,
and 6 ft. 5 in. high inside. The interior finish is sev~rely
plain. There is an entire absence of any attempt at ornamentation of any kind. The roof has no ridge for ventilating purposes, a.s in the cars of th e present time, but
is ,slightly convexed, the surface being covered with a
figured cloth. Ventilation is secured by adjustable slats
above the windows. The twenty double seats, which are
very narrow, and the four single ones, are made of boards
upholstered with a greyish material, similar to the etuff
,~sed in old stage eo~~hes. The 'ba.~k:J ~re dit oid of \lP

"The cars, like the locomotive, are painted a rich olivegreen, and bear no lettering of any kind. The coaches
weigh 14,250 lb., and are mere pigmies beside the
90,000-lb. Pullmans of the evening of the nineteenth
century. Each coach has its own brakesman, and as the
brake-rods are not fitted with ratchets or ' shoes, ' the
sturdy muscle of the brakesman must hold the brake tighb
until his grip is released by the proper signal from the
man in the crow's nest. "
The venerable engine hauled the almost equally
venerable train to Chicago, and the thousand mile
journey caused intense excitement along the route.
It left Jersey Cit>y about 10 A. M. on Monday, April
17, and reached Chicago at 3 P. M. on the following
Saturday, doing the whole distance under its own
steam, and more than once recording a speed for a
short dis tance of 40 miles an hour. Our illustrations give an admirable idea of the appearance of
the "J ohn Bull " and the coaches as they stand on
the Pennsylvania Company's exhibit. Other obj ects
of great interest are two of the special trucks built
for the transport of the two great Krupp guns to
Chicago ; the larger of these weighs 261,000 lb., or
about 120 tons, and the smaller weighs 62 tons.
The large gun car has a capacity of 285,000 lb., and
is built entirely of boiler steel ; the centre plates
and centre bearings being steel castings. It consists,
as may be seen by referring to the illustration on
page 105, of a major bridge, two minor bridges, and
four eight-wheel cars. The gun rests in the maj or
bridge on two supports, designed to closely fit its
perimeter. In addition to these two s u pports, to
avoid any vibration while in transport, the muzzle
is s ecured by wedge-shaped oak blocks, set in castiron shoes, and drawn up to the muzzle by means
of right and left hand screws. The major bridge
is 50 ft. from centre to cent re of supports, and
rests directly on the side bearings, while, on the
oth~r hand, . the minor bridges are supported by
theu respective centre-plates. The cars have been
designed so as to combine strength with flexibi lity,
and are eq uipped with J anney couplers and draft
rigging specially constructed f or strength.
The
journalR are 4t in. by 9 in. ; 37i -in. wheels, with
wrought-iron centres and steel tyres, are us ed
Each car has a 14-in. \Vestinghouse air-brak .
cylinder, with brake on all wheels, and National
hollow brake beams with Christie brake heads
and shoes. The load on cars is thoroughly equalised
by 32 elliptic springs of 36-in. s_pan, each spring
having 18 leaves, 3~ in. wide and ! in. thick. The
extreme length of car is 90ft. 9 in.; extreme width,
9 ft. 10 in. ; extreme height to top of bridge,
9ft. 9! in.
The large gun is 14,000 millimetres (45ft. 11! in.)
long, and has a bore of 42 centimetres (16t in.). It
is made of steel, and put together in sections of
varying lengths. The diAttleter of l>a1>t1s on hreed'(

JuLY 28, 1893.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

103

is 1930 millimetres (6 ft. 4 in.), and of breech crate at intervals of 164 ft. The r emainder is cylinder is suspended and lifts the load direct,
1710 millim~tres (5 ft. 7! in. ). The muzzle is 655 founded on blocks of masonry 16i ft . long by and a 60-ton boiler can be shipped or landed
millimetres (2 ft. 1:f in.) in diameter. The greatest 19i ft. across, sunk 10 ft. below the bottom of the in twenty minutes. On the quays there are both
widlih of gun is over trunnions, and measures 2405 dock so as t o leave spaces of 23 ft. between them, fixed and movable hydraulic cranes, the method
millimetres (7 H. 10i in.). From centre of trun- span~ed by semicircular ar ches 26! ft. in diameter, of making connection betwen the movable crane
nions t o end of muzzle the gun measures 9360 so as to allow for displacements in the sinking of and the pr essure and r eturn pipe being the wellmillimetres (30 ft. 8~ in.). The weight of gun is the blocks. The filling at the back is kept up known t elescopic and articulated joints. There
under the arches by mounds of rubble stone, r est - are low- type cranes as at t he R oyal Albert Dock
118, 436 kilogrammes (261,152lb.).
The oar designed for carrying the 62-ton Krupp ing upon benches formed in t he slope of th~ excava in L ondon, and the high-type crane, und~r
gun consists of two flat cars of 100,000 lb. olpacity tion . The locks are 72 ft. and 46 ft. wide, and which a railway wagon can pass, but the latt~r IS
each, and a bridge connecting the two cars. Each separated by a wall 33 ft. thick. The locks were more s ubject to acciden t. As to power, experience
flat car has two six-wheel trucks, built on the prin- built within an inclosure formed by wells. A layer showed that for general merchandise, grain~, and
ciple of the standard Pennsylvania Railroad engine about 8t ft. thick of Theillime concrete deposited oil seeds a power of I! tons is suitable, for minerals
trucks, with inside j ournals 5! in. by 10 in. , and on the sand forms the foundations of the bottom 3 tons ; but it was desirable to have a crane to
work either at It or 3 tons. The dimensions which
30-in. cast-iron wheels. The bridge has a capacity of the locks.
The graving dock accommodates a vessel of he considered generally suitable wer e : Range outof 140,000 lb., and supports the gun on two platforms, each 4 ft. 10 in. long, and 5 ft. 2 in. clear 446 ft. length. The side walls r est upon large side of quay wall, 8. 30 m. (27i ft. ) ; height above
space between them. Each platform is composed blocks 3! ft. apart, with inner wells, and these quay to the shaft of the top sheave, 16 m. (52! ft. ) ;
of five 8-in. ! -beams cover ed wilih a ! -in. steel were sunk by aid of a dredger with a vertical rauge of lift, 18 m. (60 ft. ) ; angle of t urning, 270
plate and 3-in. oak flooring. The flat cars are ladder of buckets, whereby the t ime occupied and deg. ; speed of lifting, 1. 30 m. (4~ fr. ) per second ;
equipped with Westinghouse triple brake and cost was reduced, the cost by ordinary process being speed of turning, 1. 5(J m. per second . There is a.
National hollow brake beams with Christie heads 17s. 3d., against4s. 5!d. per cubic yard bydredging hydraulic 1-ton winch mounted on a truck at
and shoes. They will be used in r egular service The masonry counterforts on which the floor is Marseilles, but it has not once been asked for in
for carrying heavy and bulky weights, and have founded are laid against the foot of the blocks to six months. For the grain trade, Poulson's eleeach a capacity of 100,000 1b. The g un car has prevent these slipping forward during the construc- vators are used, in which the grain travels on endbeen so arranged that the bridge can be used, tion. A layer of hydraulic lime concrete was laid less bands. Having dealt with t he conditions to be
toaether with two of the eight- wheel cars composing over t he coun terforts, the subterranean water flow- obser ved in designing sh ed~, the author concluded
th~ large g un car, in t ranspor ting guns weighing ing into sumps, which was allowed t o flow and rise by a reference to railwayP, urging that both switches
120,000 lb. or less. The total length of the 62-ton over the layer of concrete while the side walls were and t urntables had their advantages and proper
gun car is 70 ft . 9 in., total width 8 ft., and total beinu
constructed, and as soon as the foundation applications, and that railways on quays ought to
0
height 7 ft. 2 in. to t op of bridge. Both gun cars of th e floor was considered t o have set sufficiently, be regarded as part of the equipment, and as such
have safely passed round a 29-deg. curve.
the water was removed from the graving dock for be the property of t he harbour authorities.
The gun carried on this car measure3 10,700 executing the paving of the ftoor, which was far
B oth papers were discussed together . Mr. Gil es
millimetres (35 ft. 1! in.) in length, and has a bore advanced before the pumping was stopped. The said as regard s rail ways that, wher ever he had been
of 30.5 centimetres (12 in. ). The greatest diameter floor was completed, and t he water, previously kept able, he had, in planning docks, adopted obtuse
is 1460 millimetres (4 ft. 9! in.), and width over out by an earthen embankment, was let into the angles, so t hat the railway system might not r equire
trunnions is 1845 millimetres (G ft. 0~ in .). The dock, and the side walls completed. It was subse- turntables. As to hydraulic power, there was no
diameter of breech is 1320 millemetres (4ft. 4 in.), quently found that the pressure of the water below more easy way of doing work where it was very
a nd of muzzle 550 millimetres (1 ft. 9~ in .). The had formed fissures in the floor, the stones being regular and constant, and where there was little
l ~ngth from centre of trunnions to end of muzzle split in some cases where the mortar of the joints frost; but where the work was not absolutely
is 6894 millimetres (22 ft. 7i in.). Weight of gun remained unimpaired. The masonry covering was regular, it was better to have movable steam
is 61,235 kilogrammes (135,025 lb. ). Figs. 6 to 11, removed wher e necessary, laying bare the concrete, cranes. At Southampton, where only steam cranes
page 105, illustrate the construction of these trucks. and when it was cleaned all the springs were con- wer e in use, they were able to discharge South
The ma~nificent collection ?f war material sent nected with earthenware channels, and the water African steamers and r eload them in eight working
by the E~sen W orks to ChiCago, was taken to led t o vertical pipes, and the paving relaid. The days, in addition to dry-d ocking them and executing
Sparrow's Point, Maryland, and unloaded at the water was again admitted to the docks, and cement r epairs. This meant the discharge of 6000 bales of
wharf of the Maryland Steel Company, it having grout poured down the vertical pipes to seal up the wool and the loading of 2000 or 3000 tons of coal
b aen decided that this was the only place where springs. Still later there was a similar upheaval in and 2000 t ons of cargo. He did not think they
sheer-5 of sufficient capaci ty existed, and these, as another part, and th~ springs were collected in a would do much better with hydraulic cranes.
exp erience showed, were tested perilously n ear to pipe and diverted to the drainage channels, and
Mr. W. R . Kinipple, referring to the difficulties
their utmost strength. The exact capacity of the the floor repaired. The pumps empty the dock in with the graving dock at B ordeaux, said t hat since
sheers had not been ascertained ; prior to handling 4! hours.
The lock gates, swing bridges, and 1858 he had constructed some twenty-five graving
the gun they were tested with a load of rails paddles of the sluices are worked by hydraulic docks of various sizes, and he had always succeeded,
weighing 130 t ons. The height of the sheers is power, while there is an electric light installation. by the adoption of arterial drains, in getting a botabout 110 ft. , and the hoisting is effected by four Owing to t he deposit of silt, extensive dredging t om of uniform strength and with a very small
hydraulic rams, J8! in. in diameter and 16ft. 3 in. op erations have t o be carl'ied out in the docks.
amount of material. One of the largest was that
str oke ; a water pressure of 1700 lb is employed in
'' The Management of Commercial Ports and at Quebec, of 100ft. in width, which could accomraisina maximum loads. We are indebted to Mr. their Equipment, wit h special reference to the modate two Anchor or two Allan L iners abreast.
Theodore N. Ely, Chief of Motive P ower for the P ort of Marseilles," was the subject of the n ext
Mr. Vernon Harcourt suggested that the necesP ennsylvania Railroad Company, for t he illustra- paper, M. A. Guerard being the author. He de- sity of dredging the dock at Bordeaux, owing to
iions accompanying this notice, and we should add scribed at length the port, with particular reference the lodging of silt from the river, might be obviated
that Mr. Ely devoted much time and attention to to facility of discharge A.nd economical working. by adopting the method obtaining in some ports in
the admirable exhibit at Chicago.
B ehind a long quay parallel to the coast are a t he Bristol Channel and at Hull, of locking out and
number of branch docks of various sizes, with in each vessel, and using freely t he water from the
moles projecting into them , and M. Guerard reservoir. The failure of the graving dock, he conTHE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME
pointed out the desiderata which experience had sidered, must have been due to the concrete being
CONGRESS.
suggested. The widt h of passages traversed by somewhat porous. He agreed t hat, if there was
IN our last issue we gave an account of the pre- vessels under steam should be 50 m. ; the basins sufficient work, hydraulic cranes were desirable
liminary proceedings at the International Maritime should be 1300 m. (4278 ft.) long, to allow a vessel remarking that it was a great advantage to be abl~
Congress, which commenced on Tue~day, July 18, of 150 m. (500ft .) to swing to the wind when at t o store up power until it was required.
and was continued on the four following days. We anchor ; the moles on which warehouses are to be
The usual compliments having been paid the
now take up the proceedings of Wednesday, the built should be 130 m. to 160 m. in width, and Section adjourned until Thursday.
'
second day.
250 m. to 300 m. is a convenient length ; the depth
alongside quays should be 8i m. (28 ft. ); the height
SECTION IIL-SBI PBUJLDING AND M ARINE
SECTION II. --THE CoNSTR UCTION AND EQUIPMENT
from lowe3t water level should be 2.40 m. (8 ft. ).
ENGINEERING .
oF D ocKS.
A separate dock is being made for petr oleum and
The me m hers of Section Ill. met in the Council
Mr. Alfred Giles, President of the Institution of powder-carrying ships, and it is to be surrounded Chamber of the Institution of Civil Engineers on
Civil Engineers, presided over the first meeting of by a wall 8 m. high, while graving docks are also the morning of Y\' ednesday, July 19, when two
Section I I. (ports, docks, &c. ) on W ednesday fore- isolated and gr ouped around a basin 300 m. by
papers were d~wn for rea~ing. ~ord Brassey was
noon, the 19th inst. T he first paper rea~ described 160 m. In France, up to t he present time, the t o have occupted the cha1r, but 1n his absence it
the P ort of Bordeaux, the author bemg M. H. supply of machinery to ports has been consider ed a was tak en by the Assistant Controller and Director
Crahay de Franchimont. The port comprises a separate business from the construction and owner- of N a.val Construction, Dr. W. H. White.
main dock of 25 acres, with quayage of 37 acres ship of the works forming the ports; but M.
for sixteen large steamers with a draught of 25 ft. Guerard considers that the equipment ought to be
S TEAM COMMUNICATION W ITH THE CONTINENT.
This dock communicates with the Garonne through considered one of its constituent elements, as in
The first paper taken was that contributed by
two adjacent locks opening into a tidal entrance, England, and the nature of this equipment de- Mr. A. E. Sea. ton, of Hull, and was entitled ''Steam
and there is a reservoir of 40f acres at present pends on t he nature of the communication with the ~ommunication with the Continent. " This interestsupplying water to t he dock, but with a part so interior. Hamburg is fortunate in this respect, and
mg paper .we commence to print in full on page
constructed as t o allow of the formation of a pas- has prospered ; Marseilles has only one rail way, but 1?8. It will prove a valuable contribution to the
sage 69 ft. wide to connect the reser voir with the insists with energy on the construction of a canal htstory of steam shipping, as it goes b ack to the
dock, when the transformation of the reservoir to the Rhone, 50 kilos. (31 miles) distant.
very early days of cr oss-Channel communication.
into the dock becomes necessary. Lastly, there is
Hydraulic machinery, M. Guerard stated, is geneThe first speaker on Mr. Seaton's paper was
a large masonry graving dock. As to the main rally accepted now as the most suitable for dock
M.
D~ymard,
of
t.he
Compagnie
Generale
Transdock, the walls are built partly upon bearing purposes when the traffic is sufficient to justify the
atlanhque,
who
8a1d
the
section
must
thank
Mr
~Oee with fotlr\dation block~ o{ masency and eAn; oHtlaf.
tn the 1~0- toT! sheerlege ihe hydr~uU4 SeMon for hi~J inter~sting aecqu~t of ~ef.Jti~l;

E N G I N E E R I N G.

104

EXHIBITS OF THE PE

JSYLV
('P,or Description, see Page 101.)

Fro. 4.

TRF: "

Fro. 5.
designed to cross the Channel. He wished to add a.
few words to call attention in a. special manner to
the efforts which had recently been made in France
to participate in the progress in increased speeds.
Mr. Seaton had alluded to vessels which were the
joint property of the Westarn Railway of France,
and the London, Brighton. and South Coast Railway
of England ; he would add that La Seine, built at
Ilavre by the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee,
had surmounted in a. large degree the difficulty of
attaining a high speed with twin screws in a shallow
draught. La eine, running between Newhaven and
Dieppe, has realised in her trial trip a. speed of
21 knots, and she ran 20 knots in her usual work.
Like vessels of her class, she had been subject to
great vibration, and a great amplitude of roll ; but
by strengthening the engines and adding lateral
keels, these two defects had been considerably
ameliorated, and it was expected that the sister
ship La Tami e, in process of construction by the
same firm, and for the same service, would give
entirely satisfactory results. The choice between
paddles and screws was a delicate matter in certain
cases. It depended principal1y on the available
draught of water. \Vith a very shallow depth
paddle wheels were essential; with deeper water twin
screws could be employed, and had the advantage
that the same power could be obtained from lighter
enaines. \Vith deeper draught still, and when
ex~eptional power was not required, as in the
Transatlantic liners, a. single screw did well. In
crossing the Channel the conditions were such that

.J on~

THE

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\'So T R .UN.

L o CO\COTIVE,

Fw. 12

Hor

1830.

TINO THE

120-ToN

KRUPP G~.

105

E N G I N E E R I N G.

OF
THE
PENNSYLVANIA
RAILROAD
CO.;
COLUMBIAN
EXPOSITION.
EXHIBITS
(For Desc1iption, see Page

101.)

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TRucK FOR TRANSI,ORTI NO THE 120-To~ KRt:PP

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paddles gave greater advantages than in seas less

exposed to the wind and t o cross currents. By
reason of these considerations, and of the size required in vessels for the service between Newhaven
and Dieppe, the mean draught that could be
adopted was at the point where there was an exact
balance between the advantages and inconveniences
of paddle-wheels and twin screws; it was evidently
very meritorious to attempt to get 20 knots with
screws on that service. M. Daymard added that
in view of the importance of draught, and of the
necessity of its increase in the different ports to
permit of the improvement of vessels frequenting
them, it would be desirable that the members of
Congress specially interested in the other sections,
and who had charge of the conversion of ports and
docks, should have impressed upon them the
necessity of that increase.
Captain Hodgkinson, R. N., was the next speaker.
He desired to correct a wrong impression that
might arise from a statement Mr. Seaton had made
in his paper. The old Calais-Douvres-the doublehulled ship-was not still on the station, but was

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W.t of 8 rtdge _____ _ _______ 23300 Lb5.

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TRUCK FOR TaANSPORTING THE 62-ToN KRUt>P GuN.

laid up in dock and on the sale list. The vessel

now running under that name was a fast-sailing
steamer of the ordinary type. With regard to the
original Calais-Douvres, although she was not so
fast in good weather as other boats, she made excellent passages when the sea was rough ; comparing very favourably with her more ordinary
sisters. This was doubtless due to the fact that
the paddle-wheel was in the centre and not subject
to so much motion in a beam sea as paddle-wheels
placed at the side, i .e., it always received a favourable draught of water. This vessel was a great
improvement on the Castalia, which was composed,
it will be remembered, of two half-hulls, that is to
say, the inner sides were fiat. This caused her to
steer very badly ; in fact, it was impossible to
guide her in shallow water, a circumstance to which
Calais pier could bear witness.
The present
Calais-Douvres was of the same type as the other
fast ships, and could do a cross-Channel passage in
an hour. As a rule, however, she was not pressed to
her greatest speed, as the scend of the sea. caused
a most unpleasant motion when she steamed fast.

Mr. H. Graham Harris, as a marine engineer,

said he thought Mr. Seaton had not given the
engineering profession sufficient credit in chronicling
the advances made in Channel steamers. He remembered in his 'prentice days that 16lb. was a common pressure for vessels t o run at, and when Messrs.
Ravenhill, Hodgson, and Co. were asked to press
boilers to 32 lb. to the square inch, it was looked
on as a great advance. Another matter in which
progress had been made was the subject of revolution. The old engines made 15 to 20 turns a
minute, and speed was increased by gearing. He
remembered in his earliest days of apprenticeship,
being engaged in making tracings of geared engines
at the Thames Iron Works.
Profess(Jr Biles was glad that Mx. Seaton, in his
paper, had emphasised the advantages of twin
screws over paddle-wheels for cross- Channel
steamers. The Seine had crossed the Channel at
20.4 knots, which might be pronounced an excellent
result. There were at first objections existing in
this vessel as to vibration and rolling, but these
defects had been completely removed. The Brighton

E N G I N E E R I N G.

106

Railway Compl.ny had a project for building a to the same end was the material of which the provessel of great speed to put on the Newhaven and peller blades were made. They were of phosphor
Dieppe route. It wa~ found, however, that the bronze, and with this alloy they had more control
limitations of the Board of Trade were more over the shape of the blades, and were, therefore,
&tringent than those of France, where scantlings able to get them uniform, and the propellers well
could be adopted which would be illegal here. With balanced. Badly pitched screws were a fruitful
regard to the type of boiler selected, too, there source of vibration.
was danger that when the vessel was ready for
Dr. White said that it might be supposed from
service she would be refused her certificate. No some statements made, that the English ports were
doubt it was largely a political question whether superior to those of France. That was open to
shipbuilders in this country should be handicapped question. He believed Boulogne had more depth
in this way, as compared to their French com- than Folkf\stone. Shallow draught rendered it
petitors, especially in not knowing what was before difficult to design such vessels as the Seine, and
them in regard to new departures. The ad vantage secure steadiness. Dr. White, as is well known,
of twin screws over paddle-wheels was that a better was one of the early advocates of twin screws, and
average performance in all weathers could be ob- in his remarks he referred to the advantages to be
tained by their U3a ; the rough weather steaming secured by their use. One of these was the
approaching vary closely to that of smoother superior lightness of the engines as compared to
water- that was, supposing s ufficient draught paddle-wheel engines. Mr. Biles did not appear
were given for the purpose ; but below a to agree with him in this, but the quicker running
certain limit of draught the better results ob- of screw engines tends to this end. The speaker
tained by the paddle- wheel in fair weather, said it was a surprise to him that the Thornycroft
raised the average. In paddle-wheel vessels there turbine propeller had not been tried in the Channel
was n )t so much rolling in a beam sea, but in his service. Very remarkable results were got with it
opinion the action was far more unpleasant when on shallow draught, but it might be t hat the diffidriving into a he3.d sea, owing t o the shocks of the cultyin going astern had stood in the way of its introwaves striking the paddle-boxes. Another good duction. We may point out, however, that by a recent
feature about twin screws was the duplication of modification, which we illustrated and described a
machine Ay, and t he ship designer also was able to short time ago, and which was introduced by Mr.
put his saloon in the best part of the vessel- Thornycroft and Mr. Barnaby, the go-astern diffinamely, amidships. The question of carrying culty has been largely, if not entirely, removed.
cargo hai been raised, and in this respect cross- Dr. White stated that in regS\rd to lightness, trials
Channel practice was following that of the Atlantic, had been made with the stern-wheel steamer in
where some lines had progressed in the direction competition with the turbine propeller vessel, and
of leaving out cargo, but the step had been there was no doubt on which side the advantage of
q,ttended with questionable success. The competi- lightness was to be claimed in regard to the engines.
tion appeared to him to be between building larger As to the matter of Government control, it was not
ships, or constructing vessels solely for pas~enger for him to criticise there the action of another
purposes.
Government department. He would say, however,
Mr. Joy said h e had been acquainted with the that the Admiralty had not been afraid to build
Dieppe and Newhaven r oute for year.i. It used to light scantling steamers; so light, as he was intake seven hours' steaming, but owing to the im- formed, that they would n ot receive the B oard of
provement in the vessels it could now be done in Trade certificate. Such vessels had, however, run
f our hour3. Two twin-screw vessels had been for years in the Navy, and, after long experience,
built, and what had been said by Mr. Biles was he found no reason to regret the method of conperf o ~ly true : they would beat the paddle-boats struction adopted. They did not show any sign of
in r )ugn weather, although the latter werA on weakness after years of running .
trial trip faster craft. These twin-screw boats
O CEAN PASSENGER STEAMSHIPS.
had steamed 16 knots on trial, and had very closely
A paper by Professor J. H. Biles on "Ocean
approximated to that on their four years' regular
Steamships" was next read. The author
runnine1 ; moreover, during that
. time they had Passenger
referred, first of all, to the increase in size of ocean
required scarce1y a touch of repa1ra.
Mr. Theodore D oxford, of Sunderland, said the steamers of to-day, and to the regularity of paspaper wa3 extremely intere ~ting to him. The senger traffic which had followed. To illustrate
advantage of t win screws had been clearly pointed the advantages of size, he compared some of the
out, but it must be remembered that to progress in larger steamships with those of more moderate
this direction it was necessary to have better har- displacement. In one vessel of 13,600 tons and
b ::mrs. That w.1s the key of the situation. If the 17,000 indicated horse-power, the average speed of
civil engineers would give this, the shipbuilders the whole year was 19.54 knots, whilst in a vessel
of 4800 tons and 1067 indicated horse-power the
wo uld rise to the occasion.
Mr. Seaton, speaking on the latter point, said speed was 9.8 knots on an average during the whole
that in this respect the Great Eastern Rail way had year. The increase in power and size makes it
an advantage over the South-E astern Railway. In more difficult to fulfil the conditions required for
the former there was a depth of 14 ft. at low water, safety. These conditions he divided into three
whilst the latter had at their sea terminus but 8 f t. classes, viz , strength, subdivision, and stability.
at low water. The recent dredgings in the Maa~ The former was the fact.or upon which for many
had given an extra 2 ft. on the other side. He yeara the registration societies devoted their almost
thouaht
it would be a great thing if advantage undivided attention, with the result that most ships
0
were taken of this International Congress t o urge are amply strong for the work they have to do.
on Governments to agree as to a depth of water to Subdivision has made progress of late, largely
be maintained on both sides of the Channel. There owing to the action of the Admiralty in making it
were other thinCYS upon which Governments might. one of the conditions of placing a vessel upon their
confer with adv~ntage. He had built some ships list. In the matter of machinery, t oo, subdivision
lately which were to run from England to. the ~on is now more common ; twin screws having become
tinent these could only be put on to the1r sta.twns quite usual. Proposals have been made to adopt
by the 'Government officials shutting the oth.er eye. three screws for high-speed ocean steamers, but up
F 1>r instance, the Germans had a regulat10n by t o the present time have not been carried out. The
which it was illegal to have cocks on water. ga:ug.es, adoption of three screws, the author said, would add
whilst English officials had passed a law ms1st1ng pr11ctically very largely to the safety insured by twin
that they should be there. He did not much mind screws. In regard to stability, the proportions of
himself whether the cocks had t o be fitted or n ot, modern passenger steamers give metacentric heights
so Iona as there was some accordance, although per- satisfactory in regard to the question of safety withsonally h e thouaht
they were better left out. out undue r olling. Water ballast is now frequently
0
R eference had be en made to the twin-screw vessel, used ; not only for increasing the immersion and
the Chelmsford which our readers will remember stability of a ship, but also for keeping h er upright
we described i~ connection with a trial recently in a strong beam wind. Water-ballast tanks are
made. This vessel was built for the new route divided longitudinally, and water can be pumped
from H arwich to the H ook of Holland. One of the from one side of the ship to the other. The use of
most notable features abou~ h e~ is the fa:ct th.at s~e hydraulic power for working winches and capstans,
is singularly free from vtbratwn.. Thts p01nti, . 1t and for the service of the ship, was referred to.
will be remembered we referred to 1n our descrip- Some vessels have hydraulic lifts for the use of firetion. 1\tir. Seaton ~aid that this desirable feature men, and for opening and closing watertight doors,
might be due to the fact that the ship was built of steering the ship, &c. In regard to forced draught,
steel to an iron scantling, and also to her unusu~lly the author p ointed out one advantage : the air
ample engine foundations. Another cause tendmg openings which are neces3ary with natural draught
~

[j ULY 28, I 893.

need not be nearly so large with forced draught,
thus economising valuable deck space. The fans
used may, if required, draw their air eupply from
parts of the ship which n eed extra ventilation. The
fans driven by electricity may be used ; in fact, the
application of electricity to lighting and venti1ation
has rendered it possible to place more cabins in the
ship; for state-rooms can now be situated where
they would be inadmissible without artificial lighting and ventilation. Electricity, the author said,
had not been generally applied to power purposes
in a ship, such as driving winches and windlasses,
on account of prd.ctical difficulties not yet overcome. In conclusion, the author said that the increase of speed in ocean passenger steamers had not
been obtained by sacrifice either of safety or comfort, but, on the contrary, it had been accompanied
by a considerable increase in both these qualities.
M . Da.ymard opened the discussion by stating
that the experience of the Compagnie Transa.tlantique confirmed Mr. Biles's remarks as to
the regularity of the voyages of powerful vesse]s.
The steamships Le Champagne, Le Bretagne,
Le Bourgogne, Le Ga.rogne, and also Le Touraine,
have astonished the company by their regularity,
even in winter. As regards the speed to be expected
in the near future, M. Da.ymard would not say that
it would not be increased, but such a result could
only follow some new development in engines,
boilers, or fuel. In view of the scanty draught of
water in the ports, it becamo impossible to
lengthen ships further without adding so much
weight to secure the necessary strength that
t he benefit of the additional length would be
lost. As regards this point H avre was less favourably situated than Liverpool or Southampton for
boats running to New York. The draught of
water at Havre was less by 2 ft. or 3 ft. than that
at Liverpool. It was most desirable that they
should impress on the members sitting in the other
sections the necessity of d eepening those ports
frequented by passenger ships, in order that fresh
progress might be made in the construction of wellproportioned vessels.
As r egarded watertight
compartments, the requirements had been carried
very far in France for passenger vessels, and great
security had been obtained. For example, Le
Champagne, after a collision in the Channel four
years ago, in spite of having several compartments
breached, was able to get into dock, and a short
time afterwards to take up her service, without
injury happening to any one. In r elation to the
use of three screws, the speaker thought that their
time would come, but he believed that twin screws
would fulfil the actual needs for the present.
Among the numerous improvements in large passenger vessels, refrigerating machines would play a
large part in raising the quality of the dietary, and
also in aiding the ventilR.tion. In conclusion, he
spoke in terms of high appreciation of the merits
of Mr. Biles's paper.
M. Plate, the chairman of the North German
Lloyd's, said with regard to the necessity of twin
screws, that some of the best shipbuilders in this
country were averse to their adoption, but the publio
demanded them, and, therefore, he had determined
for his line that they should be adopted. Duplication of machinery gave safety, and was more important from the fact that sails could not now be set.
Mr. Seaton, of Hull, in speaking on the overlapping of twin screws, did not approve of the
plan. One objection was that if t he blades of the
screw became bent- and the toughness of manganese bronze made this possible-- a serious accident
might occur, both propellers being disabled. With
regard to forced draught, the great advantage in
the fitting of fans in passenger ships was that the
openings to the stokehold could be small, but it
was not necessary to close them. With fans there
was always the equivalent of a breeze favourable
for combustion . The author had referred to the
possibility of drawing air for the furnaces from
' tween decks. That was a plan which had been
tried in the case of a large troop-ship, where the
air was taken from the quarters of the men. This
was highly beneficial from a. residential point of
view, but the engineers soon cried out to knock off
those fans. The fact was that the air taken from
between decks, where the men were berthed, was
not good en )Ugh for the furnaces, t he r esult being
that the fires were all going out. Dr. \Vhite stated
that in the P olyphemus, launched in 1880, the air
for forced draught. was taken from the 'tween-deck
spaces, but he had not heard that it put the fires
out. As he saw Mr. Brown, of Edinburgh, in the

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Dr. White asked whether t he engines of the
room, he would ask him as to the relative advantages of hydraulic and electric power for auxiliary overlapping screws in the twin ship r eferred t o
ran at the same speed as the engines of t he other
machinery.
Mr. Brown, in replying, said h e would refer to vessel, to which Mr. Dunlop r eplied in the affirmathe City of Paris, where ther e were forty hydraulic tive, saying the overlapping was 15 in. Another
machines on board. One ad vantage was that they speaker thought that with overlapping screws t he
were able to employ one large compound engine pitch of the after propeller m us~ be incr eased. ~e
which could be designed on economical principles, would obviate the dead-water dtfficulty by carrymg
and they were able to use direct-acting machinery, the pr opellers furt her aft and using a split rudder.
moving at small speed, but, by the use of pulleys, Mr. Blancker, of the Mersey Dock and Harbour
the weight to be lifted in the case of cranes Board, had n oted what had been said about imwas moved at a high speed. A useful application proving docks. but the fact was t hat a ship could be
of hydraulic power was for closing doors in bulk- built so much mor e rapidly than a dock, that the
heads. There was a cataract arrangement by which ships were always ahead. H e hoped in four years'
the application of the power was delayed. If a time that at Liverpool they would give all t he acman , therefore, went through one of these doors it commodation in dock entrances now r equired, but
would close after him automatically, but the time he would n ot say that at the end of t hat time ships
taken would be sufficient to allow him to pass wo uld not have again overtaken them and asked
through with safety. With regard to the applica- for moro. Mr. Dunell asked Mr. Dunlop a q uestion of electric power for winches, &c., it was his tion as to vibration, t o which Mr. Dunlop r epl ied
opinion it would never be carried out. In t he first t hat overlapping screws did n ot produce vibration.
place, a delicate and expensive motor had to be H e added that a wrong system was at present folused, subject to damage by salt water. It was a lowed. Engines were designed and built to drive
necessity of an electric motor that it should run ships. The r everse should be t he case : the ships
faster than the drums of winches, &c., and, there- should be designed to be driven by t he engines.
Mr. Biles, in reply, said t hat with overlapping
fore, worm gearing h ad to be used t o r educe the
speed. H e n eed scarcely point out t he unde- screws t here was less liability to racing. So far as
sirability of this, as the loss of power in worm he could judge by the public performance of the
gearing was well k nown. His firm had gone Teutonic and Paris, he thought the scr ews of t he
thoroughly into the meri ts of the question, and former better than those of the latter. In t he
had come to the conclusion that electricity could not Teutonic there was nothing unsatisfactory in the
compete with hydraulic power for these purposes. matter of vibration. vVith regard to pier cing of
In the case of ventilating fans, however, the matter bulkheads, he would state t hat in the P aris the
stood on another platform. The fans were required engines and boilers were quite cut off from each
to run at a high speed, and that suited the electric other, that is to say, the bulkhead separating them
motor, so there was a fitness in its use in t hese had no opening whatever, and if the engineers
positions, irrespective of the convenience of convey- wanted to go into the stokehold they had to go by
way of the deck; there being a hydraulic hoist
ing power through wires in place of pipes .
Mr. H. Graham Harris said he would only add a fitt ed for the purpose. As had been stated in t he
few words to confirm t he last speaker in what he discussion, t he draught of water was a matter of
At present t he limit was
had said about the great difficulty of the applica- vital impor tan ce.
tion of electric power for the purposes referred to, 26 ft. 6 in. on the Liver pool and :New York line of
on account of the speed at which the motor was r e- communication . If this could be made 30 ft. , it
quired to be run. There was another difficulty, would be equivalent, from a shipbuilder's point of
namely, the starting with full power with load on. view, to adding 100 ft . to t he length of the
In electric cranes there was often a certain amount ship. In the one caee -that of adding to the
of slack, which allowed the motor to start, but this length of the shi p-there would be the ad vantage
difficulty in getting off was largely felt in tram cars. in speed; but taking our longest s teamers as they
Generally, he would say, hydraulic power lent itself now existed, there would be great difficulty in
to the work of the ship much better t han electric getting the r equired strength on the present draught
if they were made 100 ft. longer. At Southampton,
power.
Mr. Dunlop, of P ort-Glasgow, spoke as to t he dredging operations were being carr ied actively
value of twin screws overlapping, a system which forward, and he believed, in t he immediate future,
he had introduced some years ago. H e had had t here was a prospect of getting the 30-ft. draugh t.
experience with smaller vessels, and found the diffi- H e understood that wero t his provided on the
culty was to get the screws far enough apart in an British side of the Atlantic, the Americans would
ath wartship direction. The consequence was t here not be long in giving t he same depth of water at
was a body of dead water between the scre ws which New York, and he therefor e looked for vessels of
was de trimental to the speed of the ship. This led increased size and speed before long. Dr. White,
him to introduce the overlapping screw. I n one sh ip, in summing up the discussion, said there was great
where there was 10ft. between r,he diameters of the difficulty in reaching exact conclusions as to the
circles s wept by the tips of i he screws, they fou nd r elat ive efficiency of twin and single screws. They
this difficulty of dead water. In a sister ship, equal had studied the question in the Government ser in every other r espect, they arranged the screws so vice, and, comparing the closest data they could
that they would overlap, and the r esult was half a obtain , had arrived at the conclusion that twin
knot greater speed. The obj ection Mr. Seaton had screws held their own with t he single screw in t he
raised as to the damage of one propeller by another, matter of efficiency. The efficiency of t he propellers
supposing it got bent, was one which h e did not t hink of t he Blake was excellent., the propulsive coneed be considered. The blades must be far enough efficient being the highest with twin screws. The
apart to clear each other's water, and thai distance matter was, however , one of t heoretical r ather t han
would be sufficient t o prevent them from being practical interest, for moden1 conditions demanded
bent over far enough to strike each other. In twin screws and subdivision of machinery in large
broad ships it was n ot n ecessary that the scr ews vessels. As to t he electric transmission of power,
should overlap, but in fi ne-ended shi ps the advan- he had seen a French war vessel in which electricity
tage was present. The overlapping prop~llers in was used for all purposes of working the armat he Maj estic and Teutonic were well designed. ment, but h e n oticed that in many positions
The speaker did not see t he necessity for three for ordinary working of t he vessel electricity
propellers. Mr. Dunlop next r eferred to a ques- was n ot applied. What Mr. Brown had said
tion of great importance, and one which is likely to was worthy of all consideration, for he was
come prominently for ward in the immediate future. equally interested in bot h means of trans mission
H e said that though shipowners had been doing of power. The draugh t of water was, indeed, a
their best for years, the people on shore at the ends vital question, and he almost felt inclined t o suggest
of the ocean r outes did not second their efforts as that t hey should move a resolution calling on Secthey might do. ' hat the ship designer wanted t ions I. and I I. to give greater depth of water in
now was more draught of water, and that could not docks and harbours. It was perfectly true what
be got unless harbour bars were dredged and dock the chairman of t he M ersey Dock and Harbour
sills lowered. He had experienced this in some Board had said : ahips were built more quickly than
petroleum vessels he had been lately building. He docks ; but the engineer should exer cise that most
had been confined to 23 ft. draught. I t was the n ecessary virtue of all engineers, and look ahead.
shipowners who supported the ports and made their On the opposite side of the Mersey there was an
trade possible, and h e thought harbour and dock example of this wise prescience. The Birkenhead
authorities should wake up and give command of Docks were planned and executed nearly a quarter
greater draught of water, otherwise h e feared that of a century ago, and it was the foresight of those
something like a limit had been reached in ship who designed them that enabled them to hold the
construction.
position they did at the present day.

SECTION I. - H ARBOURs, BREAKWATERS, &c.

The meeting in Section I. on \Yedn esday aftern oon was presided over by Mr. C. M . Kennedy,
C.B., when t hree papers were down for reading.
The firs t of t hese was by Mr. A. G. Lyster, and
was on
D REDGING THE MERSEY B.AR.

This paper we shall pub1i h in full sh~rtly. In

the discussion which followed its readwg, Mr.
Shelford exhibited a model which he had prepared
from t he Admiralty charts, sh owing the sand-banks
and ob~tructions at the mout h of the M ersey. He
had studied t his question in connection with his
work on t he Manchester Ship Canal , and h e was
in a position to appreciate what Mr. Lyster had
done in improving t he Mersey Bar, and he congratulated him on his success. There was, as was
well known, a good channel at the mouth of the
Mer sey, some distance seaward ; the only difficul ty
was at the bar, ther e being deep water in the
approach t o it and for some distance sea ward . The
crest of t he bar was five miles in length , and the
cubical con tent of it was con siderable. The cause
which led to t he formation of t he bar was still a
subject of discussion, there being several theories
advanced by different engineers; but his own
opinion was identical with that of Mr. Lyster.
The model showed the effect of the prevailing
winds conflicting with th e tides on t he bar. The
material of which the bar was formed was a point of
considerable importance, as showing th e cause of
its form ation. The prevailing winds and sea sweep
into t he Channel, and the action of the stream
carries the material in suspense as far as it can
until t he current is exhausted, when the material
is deposited and the bar thus formed. The means
adopted by Mr. L yster were n ovel in practice, if
not in theory, To form t he channel there had
been moved 2,200,000 cu bic y ards~ to give 26 ft. at
low water. The work of dredging would in the
fut ure be carried on much more rapidly, so t hat it
was exl?ected t o move 1,400,000 cubic Jards in a
month. If t hat rate of progress could be maintained,
a chann el would be made in two mon ths, probably
at the cost of 8000l. to 10, OOOl . H e thought Mr.
Lyster might fairly be congratulated on this result.
M. Conrad said i t was a most difficult problem to
improve rivers of the descri ption of t he Mersey,
and it was th e most natural thing t hat the bstr
should form , owing to the prevailing wmds H e
thought that t he sand would always be deposited,
as the natural outcome of the action (.1f t he river.
Doubtless it would be possible to make a channel
in the manner proposed, b ut the question ar ose
whether Mr. L yster would b e able to maintain it in
wint er when the winds wer e strong and the dredging works difficul t to carry out.
Mr. Vernon Harcourt said that as Liverpool was
the most important of our por ts, it was a question
of great moment to know wh ether a state of affairs
could be brought about. which would allow ships to
come in at all tides. In the majority of cttses
wh er e the mouths of rivers were improved ,
dredging operations were had recourse to. but
ther e were also piers and t raining works. A t D unkirk, where important improvemen ts had been
made, jetties had been carried out , and endeavours
wer6 made to create curren t by bUCh means as
sluices. It was found, h owever, that t he obstruction was only moved down, and t he bflach
followed. Of late the engineer s of the port h ad
adopted suction dredgers, and thus increased the
depth of t he channel. By such means access had
been given to larger vessels, and the p ort had th us
become of far greater impor tance. H ere dredgi ng
had been carried on in t h e open sea, and in thi~
way they might s~~ceed in dealing with the M ersey
Bar. N o doubt 1t was true that dredging had
fai1ed in the Mi~sissippi , but there the conditions
were very differ ent to those which were present at
the mouth of t h e M ersey. The American river
was tideless, and brought down everything that
went t o forming obstruction at its mouth. In the
Mersey, on the other hand, the sluicing action of
t he tide was of gr eat importance, and he agreed
with M. Conrad that the har was due to the
opposition of th e tide and winds a.r d the discharge
of fresh water. H e th ough t it WA S due to ' he
sluicing act ion (,f the b a"in t.hat the bR.r was a~ l1 W
as it is, and if that were destr<y ed the bar \\ ould
get nearer and become of greater heigh t . The
great question remaining, however, was whether
the bar could be improved by dredgiiJg. That
was answereq by the {act that it had beell

E N G I N E E R I N G.

108

ELECTRIC

150-TON

TRA YELLING

CRANE

CONSTRUCTED BY MESSRS. SCHNEIDER AND CO.,

C REUS 0"" T.

AT

CREUSOT.

(For .Desc1iption, see Page 109.)

Fig. 5.
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already improved.
Like so many engineering
problems, it was a quee:tion of money and maintenance. The channel could be made deeper, but
when that was effected it might be that it would be
more likely to fill up with sea-sand, for the bar was
composed solely of sea-sand, and not of alluvial
deposits. His own view was that it would be
possible t o maintain the greater depth, but he
would not venture to state at what cost it would be
maintained ; that was a question that could only be
solved by experience.. At Du_nkirk e~ch ~n
crease in depth necessitated an Increase In matntenance but this was made commercially possible
by imp;ovement in the methods of working, which
brought d own the cost from 2s ..per cubic ya.rd, as
it was formerly, to 1s. 2d. per cub1c yard. Thts was
effected by the use of the suction dredger. At the
present time a new dredger was about to be put at
the mouth of the Mersey. It would contain in its
hopper 3000 tons of material, and this large quantity
could be raised in three-quarters of an hour. There
was another side to t he question. With the increased depth of water on the bar, it would be
necessary for the Mersey Dock and Har~our B oar.d
. to increase the depth of water over the sdls of their

docks, and to offer additional accommodation for

bigger ships.
The next speaker was a French engineer, whose
name did not transpire. He stat.ed that the mouth
of the Loire was similar in some respects to that of
the Mersey. In the French river 21000,000 tons of
material had been removed, with the result that
the depth of water over the bar had been increased
from 7 ft. to 13! ft. To maintain this improvement, 400,000 tons had to be removed in a. year.
Last year they were able to work in December,
January, and March, but not in February; they
found no difficulty in keeping the greater depth.
The number of days they had dredged last year was
180, and that was sufficient. A new dredger had
recently been put on the work, which would lift
380 tons in an hour. The general conclusion was,
that having once removed the accumulation, the
maintenance was small.
Mr. Kinipple said that as a general principle he
al ways recommended that training should be done
first, and that what could not be got away by that
method should be dredged. Another French
engineer proposed that Mr. Lyster should do at the
mouth of the Mersey what had been done at Dun

kirk, viz. , to form a hollow in t he bed of t he sea,

~nto which_ sand would be deposited, when dredgmg operations could not be undertaken. Another
French engineer said that the L oire differed from
t~e Mers~y, inasmuch as the former was a large
nver, which the latter was not. He agreed that it
~ould be desirable to dredge a large hole to fill up
1n bad weather.
Mr. Lyster, in replying to the discussion , said that
the amount of sand to be removed was a question only
to be decided by experience. This was so, because
in deepening the bar the area of outlet would be increased, and that naturally would lead t o J1. slacking
of t.h e current. In order to overcome this t hey were
t rymg the water that escaped through some of the
minor channels, and in this effort t hey had already
met with some success; he thought ultimately they
w~uld be able to get the extra. water required in
this way. They had already increased the velocity
of the current over the bar to an appreciable
extent, and there was every hope that t his could
~e maintained. Since he had written his paper
In May last, the work had been carried on
t he depth being increased by means of the old
dredgers; with the new dredger at work also they

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jULY

109

E N G I N E E R I N G.

28, 1893.]

R.AILWAY.

EXPRESS LOCOMOTIVE; LAKE SHORE AND MICHIGAN SOUTHERN

CONSTRUCTED BY THE BROOKS LOCOMOTIVE WORKS,

DUNKIRK,

N.Y., U.S.A.

(For Description see Page 110.)

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looked hopefully to the future. As to the seasons

of the year at which dredging could be carried on,
he would refer members to a diagram placed on the
wall. This showed the amount of sand removed.
It would be seen that the months of October,
November, and December compared well with
July and August. Iu fact, the winter seemed as
favourable for dredging as the summer, according
to this diagram. The longest period during which
they were not able to dredge was six weeks in
December, 1891 ; still there was no considerable
diminution in the depth of the channel. Comparison had been drawn between the Mersey and
the French ports, but he would point out that the
latter were simply ports on sandy shores, with
rivers debouching into them. In the Mersey they
had to deal with large quantities of matter in suspension. When the flow of water was checked at
each turn of the tide, this matter was deposited.
For these reasons the cases were not parallel. He
took exception to Mr. Vernon Harcourt's statement that the position of the bar of the Mersey
depended on the reservoir of the river. His
opinion was that it depended on the position of
the sandbank. As to the lowering of the sills
of the docks, that was now in operation, and
he hoped in two or three years to be able to
dock ships of a draught of 30 ft. at high water of
the lowest neaps. He agreed with Mr. Kinipple
that it was well to do as much work as possible
with training walls, but they were very expensive,
and in the Mersey they proposed to keep to dredging. The suggestion to make a hole for the reception of sand was worth consideration, but up to t he
present they had not got to the depth of water
in the channel which they wanted. When they
had arrived at this it would be time t o think about
the best means for maintenance.
Dr. W. H. White, who was calleu on by the PreRident, stated that in the morning he had presided
in Section Ill., the Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering section, and had been semi-officially charged
with a mission to Section I. The members in the
former section said that unless the dock and harbour engineers would give an increased depth of
water, naval architects and marine engineers would
be brought almost to a standstill in the d esigning
of ships. At present the draught of water was
below the standard required for ships of the largest
dimensions, and navigation must therefore wait on
the civil engineers, unless most undesirable proportions of vessels were had recourse to. He hoped the
members of that section would bear this in mind,
and do their best to meet the just and fair requirements of shipbuilders and shipowners.

::

JI

1133 0

water, Ly cement grouting, was also down for ~hi~

day, having been adjourned from the last sithng.
Mr. Kinniple's method of working, by means of
forcing Portland cement down a pipe, and up
through the interstices of the structure, is w.ell
known to our readers through the excellent ser1es
of articles contributed to our columns by him, and
we may therefore leave his paper for the present.
It may be stated, however, that Mr. Kinipple's
principle has been adopted by Messrs. Coode, Son,
and Mathew at their works at Peterhead.
A paper by M. Feret on
MORTAR IN SEA wORKS

was read in abstract. It will be found on page 130

of this issue.
LIGHTHousEs , Foa SIGNAL. , &c.

Two papers were down for reading in Section IV.

on Wednesday, July 19. The first was an interesting
communication from M. A. Blonde! on flashing
lights, and was entitled, "Feux-Eclairs and Physiological Perception of Instantaneous Flashes."
LIGHTHOUSE APP.A.R.A.TUS.

The second was a paper by M. Bourdelles on

the methods and formuloo for calculating the luminous power of lighthouse apparatus. These we
shall print in full at a future date.

150-TON ELECTRIC TRA YELLING CRANE

AT CREUS6T.
AMONGST some of the most interesting applications of
electricity at the works of Messrs. chneider and Co.,
of Creusot, are a number of powerful travelling cranes
worked by electricity. The first application of this
method of working at Creusot, was the conversion of
a. 45-ton crane, originally worked on the flying rope
system. This was followed by a 60-ton crane, and
finally by t he 150-ton crane, which we illustrate on our
two-page plate and on page 108.
This 150-ton crane is composed of:
1. Two girders each 23.4 m. (76. 75 ft.) long.
2. Two short cross-girders, supporting the main
girders.
3. The wheels carrying the crane.
4. A truck carrying the lifting hook.
5. A three-speed lifting gear.
6. A lowering gear.
7. The traversing gear.
8. The gear for traversing the chain truck.
9. Two electric motors.
10. Two footbridges and a cage for the attendant.
1. The Main Gi1de1s.-These are (see Figs. 1 and 2),
of the box type, and are built of steel plates and angles.
Ea.ch girder is constructed of the following component parts: Two webplates each 15 mm. (. 59 in. )
thick, .800 m. (2.62 ft.) deep at the ends, and
MoNoLITHIC CoNSTRUCTION oF SEA WoRKS.
1. 700 m. (5. 57 ft.) deep at the middle, the lower
A paper by Mr. .. W. R. Kinipple, entitled edges being parabolic. Both upper and lower flanges
'' Monolithic Construction of Sea Works," under have a total thickness of 50 mm. (1. 97 in.), and are

each built up of five 10-mm. (. 39 in.) plates. The

angles between the flanges and webs are 100 mm. by
100 mm. by 15 mm. (3. 94 in. by 3. 94 in. by .59 in. ). The
web-ylates are firmly braced together by internal stiffenera o steel plates and angles, which are spaced about
2 m. (6. 56ft. ) ap"'rt, and insure the transverse rigidity
of the girders. The upper flanges carry the slides on
which the chain truck runs (see Fig. 6). The two
girders are braced together at the ends by cast-iron
stiffeners, in addition to the short cross-girders on
which they rest. At one end of the crane there are
two of these cast-iron cross-girders, of which one
serves as an abutment for the chain used for traversing
the chain truck, and the other is utilised similarly for
the support of the lowering gear and the cranP.
traversing gear. At the other end of the crane
there is only one of these cast-iron cross-girders,
which carries another chain-wheel for the cartraversing chain, and also has attached to it one
end of the lifting chain. The two main girders
are further braced together by stitl'eners built up of
plates and angles, arched so as to give room for the
passage of the chain truck below them (see Fig. 5).
2. The End Suppo1timJ Girders.- The two main
girders rest on and are firmly connected by means of
gussets to two stout cross-girders (Fig. 3) built up
of plates and angles, which thoroughly brace the
main girders together. These cross-girders are carried
by the wheels on which the crane runs.
3. The JJ'lteels Ca1-rying the Crane. -The crane rests
on eight wheels, four at each ~nd. These wheels have
cast-steel centres and wrought steel tyres of u -section.
To insure a. fair distribution of load between the
wheels, they are connect ed together in pairs by balance
levers as shown in Fig. 4.
4. The Chain Truck.-The chain truck is of cast
steel, and supports the shafts on which are mounted two
chain wheels, over which the lifting chain passes. It
rests on four cast-iron shoes, having strips of antifriction metal let into them, and which arc each . 600 m.
(1. 97ft.) long. These shoes have oil cups cast in them,
which insure a thorough lubrication of the slides where
the car may be. These slides are of cast iron, and are
covered for their whole length by cotton belting, which
rests on them and protects them from dust. These
belts ar~ kept taut by a compensating device, and pass
oYer gu1cle pulleys on the chain car, which thus passes
underneath them.
5. The Lifting Gea1.- Th e lifting gear is arranged
with three speeds- viz., a slow speed of 0. 930 m.
(3.05 ft.) per minute, a medium speed of 2.510 m.
(8. 23ft. ) per minute, and a high speed of 3. 610 m.
(11.84 ft.) per minute. These three speeds are obtained
by means of friction clutches on a countershaft driven
by the motors. These clutches are controlled by forked
levers operated by screws. The power is transmitted
fro~ these clutches.by means of gearing to the first
mot10n s!laft (see F1g. 2) of the crab. On this first
motion shaft is a gun-metal pinion gearing with a,
whe~ 1 running loose on the main crab shaft but
which. it can drive by means of a friction ciutch.
On th1s shaft are two gun-metal pinions .390 m.
(15.3 in.) in diameter, driving two wheels 3.01 m.
(9.875 ft. ), which are keyed on the same shaft as the

IIO
chain wheel which op ~rates the lifting chain. A
ba.nd brake is fitted to the first motion shaft, which
supports the lo1d whe'l lift~d . This band brake is
normally in action, beinz provided with a. counter weight to this end, and is sufficiently powerful to
prevent th e crane working until the weight is raised
by means of a foot lever. Thus to raise a lo1.d it is
necessary in the first p~ace to connect the crab with
the motor shaft by means of the friction clutches
already mentioned, and then to free the brake by
means of the foot lever. To stop lifting, the operation
is reversed. As will be seen from our engravings,
helical teeth have been us ed nearly everywhere. The
larger whe ~h ha.ve cast-st~el centres, the teeth being
of cast-iron.
The lifting h ook is fixed on a swivel frame, which
is hung from the pin on which the lower chain wheel
(Fig. 1) is fixed. Great care was taken in the design
and manufacture of this de tail. The total lift is
13! m. (4!.34 ft. ). The lifting chain is constructed of
two rows of links of steel plate 12.5 mm. (~ in.)
thick, there being four of these links on each s ide of
the pins. Gre t.t care has been taken to insure the
perfect flexibility of the chain, a.s the wheels OYer
which it runs are small in diameter, and were the ch~in
at all stiff, the stre Jseson it might be seri~Juslyincreased.
One end of the chain is fixed to one of tbe cast -iron
braces at the end of the girder, and its path will be
best seen from our illustrd.tion, Fig. 1. After passing
over the hook wheel and back over the car wheel it is
led round the driving wheel on the crab, and then
through a. guide back to the ot her end of the crane,
where, after pls3ing through a second curved guide, it
hangs down freely. The guide supporting the chain is
held up by movable supports, which are displaced by
the chain car as it passes by them, and afterwa.rds
return automatically to their places. The chain
weighs 206 kilogrammes per metre run (138 lb. per ft. ),
anl as its total length is 57.34 m. (188. 07 ft.) , its total
weight is 11 ,800 kilogra.mmes (ll.61 tons).
6. .Lowe1ing Gem.- To lower the load a special gear
has bean provided, worked by a friction clutch from
the main c'untershaft. This friction clutch carries a
b :w el wheel of phosphor-bronze, gearing with a similar
wheel k eyed to a ver tical shaft (see Fig. 4), at the
other end of which is a second bevel wheel gearing
wit'l a couple of similar wheels running loose on a horizontal shaft. E ither of these wheels, however, can be
temporarily keyed to this shaft by a clutch, and th e
arrangement accordingly a~ts as a reveraing gear. By
means of this ge~r light lo~ds can be lifted at a hig h
speerl, as the horizontal shaft above mentioned drives by
& worm a whe ~l running loose on the intermediate shaft
of the crab, but wh ich can be k eyed to it by another
clutch engaaiug at will either with this wheel or
with the wh~el controlling the main lifting gear. In
order to lower a load, the clntches are set so th1-t
the wormwheel turns in the proper direction, and the n
this wheel is k eyed to its shaft by its clutch and
the whe 3l driving the m~in gear is released. The worm
shah, we should add, is also provided with a band break
and counterweight, which must be released before it
can turn.
7. Th?. c,ltne T 1cwetaing Gea1. -The tra.ver.sing ge.u
is also controlled by a. fric tion clutch on the main countersha.ft. Thi\1 clutch drives a vertic:1.l shaft by bevel gearing, and at the bottom of this shaft is a bevel reversin~
gear of the u3ua.l typ ~, by means of which a long horizontal shaft extending from end to end of the crane
is driven. 011 this shaft are bevel wheels g aaring
with o thers m ounted on vertical shafts, by means of
which motion is finally communicated to the worm
sha~"t which drives the wormwheels keyed t o the
wheels carrying the crane, a.s ~hown in Fig .. 3. The
speed of traverae is 10.75 m. (3o. 26 ft.) per mtnute.
8. Thz Chain Oar T1aversing Gea-1'. -As b 3fore, a
frictbn clutch on the main counter.shaft is used for
dri ving this gear, the arrangement f_or re vers i~g being
similar in principle ~o that o~ th~ mam traverst~g geJ.r.
In this way motion 1n one dtrect~on or another .s tran ~
mitted to a. vertical shaft carry10g a worm at tt'3 end.
This worm gaan with a worm~heel mounte~ on a ho~:
zontal sha.ft t o which also 1s k eyed a p a.1r of cham
wheels over ~hich p ass the chains, the ends of which
are attached to the chain truck, as shown in Fig. 1.
Throughou t their lengths these chains are su pported
by guides, th ose for the t?-PP e: portion re~tiog on t~e
upper fl a nge of the ma1a tprders, whls t spectal
channel iron guides are prov1ded for the lower ends.
The speed of traverae in this case is 8 m. (23. 8-! ft.) per
minute.
9. The ..lllolo>s. -The two motors are of the_ Ganz
continuous current type, and have bee~ butlt by
M e3sra. Schneider and Co. , \\-hO ar.e sole h censees f~r
the system in .France and its colo01es. Each. motor u
designed to take 45,000 wa.tts. Two uatnsulated
cables, supported on p ore h.m, wheels are used t o
convey the current to the crane. Carbon brushes ar e
used on the crane for picking up the current from th~se
c:Lbles. These brushes are hollow, the ?abies pass~ng
through them, and they raise it from 1ts supportmg
pulleys as the crane pa.ssee over them. Belts are used
to connect the motors with the clutch sha.ft. When

E N G I N E E R I N G.

the load to be lifted does not exceed 75 to 80 tons, the Brooks engine that hauled t he train on ~fay 28
only one of the motors is used. All the fittings required from Buffalo to Chicago ; the company has built five
for the working of the motors are grouped together in of these engines, which have been long enough in work
the attendant's cabin. Amongst these may be noted to test their suitability for the special high -speed sera sulphate of copper rheostat, which enables the motors vice. The illustrations we publish are sufficiently
to be started without shock. To do this the main switch detailed to gi ,.e an idea of the general appearance aud
is closed, and the electrodes of the rheostat brought proportions of these engines, the leading dimensions of
gradually into contact. A second metallic rheostat is which are as follows :

also provided, which enables the strength of the mag- l

General Dimensions.
netic field and the speed of the motors to be varied, 1
17 in.

beside which the work done by the two motors can I

Cylinders, diameter
...
24 ,

be equalised by its means. A special safety device is
Dri~lng wh~~~:dia~;eter ::
72 ,
also provided in case of the attendant allowing the
Rigid dri ving wheel base ...
9ft.

chain t o drop too far. This consists of a switch on the
T otal wheel base of engine
23 ft. 9 in.

armature circuit of the motors, which is opened when
and
"
,
the chain passes a certain point. As the field magnets
45 H. 8 in.
tender
. ..
.. .
.. .
. ..
still remain excited, the load is brought up almost
'Veight of engine in working order
101. 600 lb.
,
on engine truck
immediately by the resistance developed to the motion
39,500 "
,
on drivers
...
65,100 ''
of the armatures. The voltage at which the motors
,
tender, loaded . ..
. ..
70,000 ,
are designed to work is 220 volts. The dynamo providiug the current has an output of 100,000 watts, and
Boiler.
is a four-pole Ga.nz machine.
Both dynamos and
Type . . .
...
...
. .. \Vagon top Belpaire
motors are cotr.pound wound.
Steam pressure
.. .
...
...
180 lb.
10. Tlte Jt'oot Bridyes ctnd Oal.Jin jOI' the a,anr>
Steel
Material
...
...
.. .
..
Diameter at smoke box . ..
...
62 in .
Attendnnt. - Footways are provided on both sides of
,
throat-sheet ...
...
60 .,
the crane, and run from eud to end, giving access to
200 in number, 2 in. in dia
all be:1.rings and other parts requiring attention. They
Tubes ...

{
meter, charcoal iron
are supported by brackets fixed to the ma.in girders.
L ength 12 ft . X o.
The attendant's cabin is built of iron plates and angles,
...
...
{
...
13 B. W. G.
but has a wooden floor. It is fi xed below the main
Firebox
...
...
78 x 34 in. inside ring
girders of the cra.ue, and from it the attendant can
...
. .. 81 in. to 79 in .
,
depth
...
easily follow all motions of the hook. All the handH eating Surface.
wheels, foot levers, &c., are grouped together as close
Firebox and arcb plates . ..
. ..
155 sq. ft.
as possible, so as to be within easy reach of the
1258 ,
Tubes .. .
. ..
. ..
.. .
. ..
attendant.
T otal . . .
.. .
.. .
. ..
.. .
1413 "
Mackineru.
HIGH-SPEED AMERICAN LOOOMOTtVE.
Cylinders
. ..
17 in. x 24 in., 84 in. centres
Steam ports .. .
. ..
...
.. lgin. x 16 in.
UsTIL about two months since, the fastest regular
lHin.
Bridges
...
...
...
...
rail way time between New York and Chicago, a. disExhaust port...
. ..
.. .
. . . 3 in. x 16 in.
ba.nce of about 970 miles, was 24 hours. This excelValves ...
.. .
. ..
. ..
Allen Rich~rdson
lent service was, however, thrown into th e shade by
Valve, lap outside ...
.. .
...
1 in.
the new fast train start ed on Sunday, }./fay 28 las t, to
Valve,
lap
inside
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
:i
\
in.
cover the distance in 20 hours ; since that date trains
V a.l ve travel, maximum . . .
. ..
6k
in.
have been running daily on this schedule. N aturally,
Driving w heelf:l, diameter .. .
...
72 in.
this accelerated service inaugur-ated by theNe w York
D, i ving wheels, centres, diameter
66 in.
Centra.! Rl.ilroad Company caused con::,iderable sensaMid valE'. with
tion, and the firs t arrival in Chicago of the "ExposiMansell reDriving wheel tyres

taining riogs
tion Flyer " was an event that for the moment made
Driving axles, 7~ in. x 9 in. Hammered
everyone forget J ackson Park. But since then the 20

on
rn
als
...
j
..
.
Iron

hours' trip, being an ordinary occurrence, has long

Hammered iron
Connecting rods
...

since ceased to attract attention. The New York

. . . Mid vale steel
Coupling rods
...

Central does not extend beyond Buffalo, but through.
..
Mid
Crankpins
..
.
vale steel
.
..

out the distance of 440 miles this rail way is the famous
Wh~els
.. .
... 33 in. Alien paper

"four-track" line; it has, moreover, the advantage of

Axles, 5 in. x 10 in. journals
Hammered iron
easy gradients, for by running to the north-east it
Tender.
avoids the m'>untain section which the Pennsylvania
. . . 10-in. channel steel
Frame ...
.. .
. ..
Railroad has to overcome. Beyond Buffalo, the
Tank capacity, water
... ... 3100 gallons
New York Central connection with Chicago is
Tank capacity, coal...
.. .
6 tons

made by the Lake Shore and 1lichigan 'outhern

Railway, a line maintained in admirable condition,
and favoured with very easy gradients, none of
THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE
which exceed 16 ft . to the mile. On arriving at
"GREATER BRITAIN. "
Buffalo the "Flyer " left the Ne w York Central
THe. compound locomotive "Greater Britain,"
engine behind : we may mention that this on May 28 which we illustrated and fully described when the
wa-, the now famous 999, which is now an exhibit construction was completed,* has r ecently undergone
in the Transportation Building, and of which we an exhaustive test, the results of which indicate
shall publish full details. From Buffalo to Chicago that the general efficiency is most satisfactory.
the train is taken by an engine of the class we The engine wal:i completed in Ocbober of 1891, and
illustrate on pages 109 and 116, and a type of which in April last was subjected to a. test of power and
is shown by the Brooks Locomotive \Vorks of Dun- capabilities in running continuously for six days atkirk, N. Y., in the Transportation Building. Before tached to some of the quickest and heaviest express and
saying more about this engine, we may add a few mail trains running between London and Carlisle. H er
words about the composition of the twenty hours' daily work consisted in taking a train from Crewe, at
train, and for which we are indebted to our American 12.41 a.m., to Euston, from which she steamed out
contemporary the Rail1oad Gazette. The train consists again to Crewe at 10 a. m., and continued to Carlisle,
of four cars, to which must be added, for about one- leaving the last named station again at 9. 22 p. m. for
fourth the dist.1n ce, a dining car weighing nearly 50 Crewe. In this way, usually 598 miles were covered
tons. The cars are all Wagaer, elaborately fitted up each day, although on one day it was 739 miles, while
for the comfort of the passengers, but of coUlae not for the six days the distance run was 3162 miles, inso magnificent as the train of Wagner cars in the Ex- cluding 24 miles running between the engine sheds
position, which in the future can scarcely be used and the station at the end of each journey. One
except on very special occasions. Besides the vestibule point, which ought to be borne in mind in studying
connections between the cars, a. new device has the results, is that th e engine has not been in the
been introduced with th e object of making the works for g ~neral overhaul since it was constructed
train as rigid as possible ; this consists of a system twenty months ago, and the maintenance in first-class
of hydrau lic buffers, so connected and arranged that running trim testifies to the efficiency of the compound
the working pressure (about 500 lb. ) is equalised type. Locomotins fitted with Mr. 1!'. W. 'Vebb 1s
whether the train is running on a straight line or on arrangement of com pound cylinders ha\e now run
cunes. The running speed is 48.2 miles an hour, something like 25 millions of miles, and in all cases
which does not mu ch exceed that of the "Empire the coal consumption is favourable. Locomoti" es of
State" express, but the stops are fewer and shorter. the same class are now running the new corridor
At the same time it is claimed that in running over the trains to Scotland. The stock of these trains weighs
New York Central part of the line, one mile in 32 254 tons, the engine and tender 77 t ons, giving
seconds has been recor<led, but this appears to be some- a total of 331 tons without passengers, luggage,
what doubtful. A run of 25 mtles was made on lVIay or parcels, and with the exception of taking the
28 in 21 minutes and 26 seconds, or at the rate of 70 bank from Euston to 'Villesden while the main
miles an hour, a performance, by the way, but little line engine is making its fire, these train~ are being
better than that famous one on the Great \Vestern in run with one com pound engine of the "J eanie Deans"
1848, when the run from Paddington to Didcot-53! type from Euston to Crewe, and one compound engine
miles-was covered in 47 minutes, or at the rate of 68 of the same type from Crewe to Carlisle, with assistmiles an hour. We are indebted to onr contemporary
the Railway Master ~fechanic for the sectional view of
* See ENG~iElU$G, vol. lii. , page 065.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
ance only up hap incline. In giving the r esults of
the trials o f the" Greater Britain, " which have b een
supplie d officially, we may also g h e a. short d escription which will assist to an appreciation of the successful char acter of these r esults :
The following are a few of th e l~ading pa~tict~lars _of
the engine: Two h igh-pressu re cyhnders 15 m. m diam eter by 24 in. stro ke, and one low-pr essu re cylinder
30 in. in diameter by 24 in. strok~. T~e en~ine is ca.rri_ed
on four pairs of wheel R, the leadm g patr bemg 4ft. 1~ m .
in die.meter, and fitted with M r . ] 1'. W. W el>b's arr ange
m ent of radial axle-box wi th central controlling s pring.
T he high and low pressure driving wheels are 7 ft. 1 in. in
diameter , and a re placed i n front of the firebox. The
trail ing w heels ar e a.l ~o 4 ft. 1 ~ in in diam~ter, th e .a~le
boxes having ~- in . s ~de play. B oth pa1rs of dr.tvmg
wheels being p laced 10 fro~t of the fi rebox necess_1 tat~s
the adoption of a long botler, . the barrel of wht~h 1s
18 ft. 6 in. long, made o~t t of ! 1':1. steel pl~tes, h_a.vm g a
mean diam e ter of 4ft. ~ m., the firebox ca smg bemg 6ft.
10 in. Ion~. ...\n in termediate combustion chamber (Mr.
F . \V. \V ebb's system) is placed in the bar rel of the boiler,
between the fi rebox and smokebox t ubeplates, so a s to
divide the t ubes into two lengths. Acce3s is obtained to
the chamber by an opening at the bottom, to which is
attac hed a. h opper for getting_ rid of the ashes which ma y
accumulate in the chamber. To the bottom of t h is h opper
is fi xed a. valve which is airtight a nd weighted in such a.
manner t hat in its normal position it will be closed,
but it is also connected to the foot plate with a rod,
so t h at the d r i ver can open it when n ecessary t o let
out th e ashes. Th ere are 156 tubes 2~ in. in outside
diame ter; the lenFtth of those between th e firebox tube
plate and the combustio n o~amber t ubeplate bei_ng
5 ft. 10 in., and those ex tend10g from th~ combust10n
chamber forward to the s moke box tubepla te are 10 ft. 1 in.
long. The total heating s urface of the tube3 is 13! 6
square feet, the combust ion chamber 39 1 square feet.
and fi rebox 120.6 squa re feet, making a. total of 1505.7
square feet. The fi re-grate area is 20.5 square feet. The
weight of the engine in working order is 5t ton s 2 cwt., of
which 15~ tons is carried by el.ch p air of dri ving wheels.
The tender , which is fitted with t h e water " pic k-up''
appara.tu , weigh<J 25 t ons in working o rd er, and has a
tank capac ity of 1870 gallons, and carri es 4 tons of coal.
The t otal wh eel base of the en~ine is 23ft. 8 in., and of
engine a nd t ender 43 f t. 11! 1n., and total length of
engine and tender over buffers is 5 1 ft. The height from
rail level to centre of boiler is 7 ft . 10~ in. ; steam pres
sure, 175 lb. per squar e inch.
Subjoined a re some particulars as to weight of t rai n ,
con sumption of coal, and sp eed, compiled from th e result
of the week's running.

Weight, Speed, ani F uel Consurnption.

tons cwt. qr.
W eight 0f engine an d t ender in
working order . . .
. ..
. ..
Average weight of train, incl uding
p a. sengers, luggage, and mails,
but excluding engi ne and tender
Average weight of train, including
passengers, l uggage, and mai ls,
and in<.:luding engine and tender
T ime-t able time, deducting sto ps
D educt also, for time made up by
locomotive . . .
. ..
. ..
. ..
Actual running tim e
T otal distance travelled
t o trains . . .
. ..
T otal distance travelled

. ..
.
a ttached
...
. ..
l ight ...

77

1GO

237 10 0
hrs. min.
76 7

0 50

V5 17
mi leP.
3588
24
3612

~588

miles
47.66 m . per hour
75 hrs. 17 min.
Total weigh t of coal co nsumed,
excluding lighting up ...
. .. 47 tons 17 c wt.
A ctual consum ption of coal per
mile, excluding ligh ting up . ..
29.87 lb.
Consumption of coal per mile, in
cludin g 1. 2 l b. for l1 ghting- up ...
31.07 ,,
T otal number of ton-miles, m cl uding p assengers, l uggage, and
m ails, but excluding engine and
tender
...
...
. ..
575,557
T otal number of ton-miles, including p assengers, luggage, and
nails, a nd includin g engin e a nd
tender
. ..
...
. ..
...
852,224
Consumption of coal p er mile per
t on of train, including passengers, luggage, and mails, but
excluding engine and t ender, at
29.87 l b. p er m ile ...
...
.. .
2 97!) or..
Consumption of coal p er mile per
ton of trai n. including passengPrA, luggage, and mails, and includ ing engine and tender, at
29.87 lb. p er mile...
. ..
...
2. 012 oz.
Average r,peed

MISCELLANEA.

T HE works at the new n aval port at Libau are b~ i n s,r

I I I
described the method of sewage purificatio~ arl o~ed at
tbe L unaticARylum Dnndrum, County D ublm, by essrs.
Adenfly and Parry: A r eport on thi s J>laD;t. has. r ecently
been furnished to the O xygen Sewage P~rt ncatJOn Corn
any, L imited, of 1, Suffolk-street, Dubhn, _by Mr. J . C .
Krelliss wbo states that the raw sewage 1s of a very
foul de~cription, and thus afford s a se,e re test _of the
capabilities of the process. The sewage, on r eachmg ~be
works, passes through three t a nkfl, in tb.e first of ~h1Ch
nearly t he whol e of the sus pendd sohd matter ts d e
posited. In tbe second tank man~a~at~ of soda and sul phate of al umin a a re a.dd ~d, pre~1p1tat_m g ab_out 50 J?er
cent. of the organic matter m sol ut10n . F m al1 y, tn the t~trd
tank th e sewage is furth er p~rified by a process of oxtdati on effect ed by the add 1t1on of mtra t e of sod a. The
effluent obtain ed is, Mr. Melliss s tates, of good character,
and is discharged directly into a very small stre~ m of
water, less than hal f the volume of t,he ~ ffiuent 1tself.
This stream flo wfl through a gentlem.an s_pr1 vate grounde,
a nd shows no indication of con tamma.t10n. The slu~~e
is about f cwt. per twenty-fou r ho urs. T~ e wo rks, whtch
a r e for 250 people, cost about 500t. , exclus1 ve_. of land purchase and the working expen ses amount to :!~d . p er b ead
per d ~y most of the operations r equired being p erformed
by auto~atic machinery .

~loscow, which foundered there during the l ast cen

tury.
The Incorporated A ssociatio n of Mu!licipal. a!ld
C ounty Engineers will hold th eir metropohtan du~tnct
meeting on :1\-l ond a.y, J uly 31, at the T own H all, W ~st
m inste r, at 11. 15 a. m. I n the a fternoon the follo~mg
visits will be p aid : 1. Th e Westminst~r E l~ctric L1~h t
Station, 11, Mill bank-st reet; 2. Th e Hyd ra.ul1c P11mpmg
Station 51 Millbank street; 3. The W estern L ow L evel
Pumpi~g Station ; 4. The W estmin s ter E lectric L ighting
Central Station, Eccleston-place, Buckingham Palaceroad .
T he works in c:mne<.:tion with the North ~ea-Baltic
Canal are progressi ng in accord a nce wi th the original
plan. The section H oltenau-Ren zburg has already been
o pened for traffi c for vessels up to 9 ft. d raught, bu t
further exca.va.tion<J have still to be completed. Tb e ne w
locks have a. length of about 230ft. The earthworks a re
so far advan ced that only one-fifth remains of the ori ginal
qu ~mtity which bad to be excavated, a nd it is confidently
antici pated that the canal will be opemed i n 1895. The
entrance lock at the Baltic is completed , and the l ock at
the Nor t h S ea entrance is well advan ced. The Grtintha.l
bridge , consis ting of a. singl e span of 530 ft .. has already
been taken into use, and a similar brid gE:\ will be built at
The U nited States Con sul at Buenos Ayr es, . in the
L evenson. It must be admitted that the whol e under - course of an exhaustive r eport on the Arge ntme Re
t aking has been con ducted in the most able manner.
public, says that the ela borate statistics of f? r ei gn trad e,
T he Corinth Canal, no w completed, was begun in which be gives show two feat u res from wh iCh h op e fo r
April, 1882, an d is but 4 miles in Jength, w hile that of the future may be d erived . O ne is that the im p orts have
S uez is about 100 miles long, th e North Sea. Canal 55.3 come down from the inflated figures caused by the r eek
miles, and tbe proposed P an ama Can al 45.36 miles. The less trading of recent yea rs to m or e normal a nd reaso~
voyag-e between Athens a nd Cephalon ia. will be r~duc~d able ones a nd the second th at th e balan (;e of trade 18
to 165~ milet1 by means of the new waterway. S htps w11l now in f~vour of the R epublic. It was, h e sars, this
thus bE:\ epa.red at th e same time 203 milt sa nd a passage trading beyond the r esources of th e country that m great
of some dan~er roun d the southern h ead lands of Greece. part produced th e general colla.p1:1 e of three year s ago,
Th e sh ortenmg of t h e voyage for steamshipR will be from and therefore it is "by retr~~i ng its s teps back to ~he
16 to 17 hours. This, it is estimated, will result in a p oint of departure, by curta.1hng flxpe~ses for . foretgn
saving of over 30l. per voyage for vessels of abou t 620 gewgaws and gimcracks, a nd by k eepmg th e 1mpor_ts
tons r egister. The com m erce of Austria-Hungary, and down to the lin e of s trict econ omy, that the country v.tll
particularly the trade of the two p or ts of Trieste and in due time find its foreign trade in a safe and _satisfac~ory
}"iume, will be very favourably infl uenced by t he opening condition especially if tbe exports rueanwhile contmue
of the canal, a.s may be seen from the fact that in the year to inor ea;e in the manner in which they n ow appear t o be
1891 over 6t million flor ins' wMth of goods passed through doing. " The decrease in imports has been general. The
Trieste a lon e to Greece, Russi a , and Europ ean a nd g-en eral i mpression amongst business m en in the country
Asiatic Turk ey, while the imp orts from the same 1s that the situation will con tinue t e improv(>. "The
country itself, in Rpite of the fi nancial embarrassm ents of
countries amounted to nearly 39 million florins.
the Government, 1s mo vi ng forward with no u ncertain
On 8aturday last the members of the C ivil and st eps to r egain its former posi tion of prosper ity. Of
M echanical E ngin eers' Society visited, bv the kind per - courEe , in every depar tment of industry and in nearly a.Jl
m ission of Mr. A lex. R. Binnie, M . I. C. E., the chi ef branches of trade it is still h a ndicapped by a. d epreciated,
engineer of the L on don County CounciJ, th e works of the flu ctuating ourrency a nd a general want of faith in the
n ew t unnel at Blackwall, now in course of construc ti0n , administration of public affairs, t o say n othing of th e
and were courteously cond ucted o ver th em by !vir. JYI. lo w ebb which y et continues in commercial cr edit; but
Fitzmaurice, B.E., A.M. I.C.E . , t he resident engineer. the p eople have made gr eat progress during the last y ear
The total length of the tunnel will be 6200 ft., 1212 ft. of in extricating them sel ves from th e con sequences o f the
whioh is b eneath the Ri ver Thames. It is bein ~ con - crisis, in accommodating th eir affairs to the de preciation
struct ed by m eans of an iron sh ield d iv ided i nto com - of values, and in the organisation of business upon a gold
partments at its worki ng face, whic h <:ompa.rtments will
be under a su fficie nt ai r pressure t o k eep back the water basis."

a s soon as it is m et w ith in sufficient quanti ty to n eed

th is. That it will be n eeded there is not theleas t doubt,
as the top {of the tunnel will be within 8 f t. of the b~d
of the ri ver, when midway across. Th e sides of the excavation a re lined with ca st iron , a nd will be fi ll ed in with
concrete a nd faced e ither with gl Azed b ri cks or t iles.
Th e oth er portion of the tunnel wi ll be construc ted by
th e " cu t -and-cover " m eth od. The finish ed diameter of
the tunnel will be 2:! f t . 3 in.
T he question of providing fresh water for feed and
drinkin~ purposes on board ~ er Maj esty 's sh ips has always
been an 1mportan t one, but tn torpedo-boats it was g reatly
acc~ntuated by the difficulty of find ing space and the
necessity of being able t o adjust the weights r equired by
an effi.c:ient plant. A new and improved type of evap ora~i ng and disti11ing cond enser, m a nu factured by the
Kt rkaldy Company, of London, has, h o wever, just passed
\ery successfull y throug h a series of trials by the engin eering staff at Portsm outh. When in workin g order
with a ll its pumps, fittings , and water complete, th~
apparatu s weighs just und er 1000 l b., and it is capable of
producin g upwards of five tons of pur E> vapour pert wentyfour hours, a vailable either for feed, or for b~ing con \"erted
into water for d omesti c use. This result is eminently
satisfactory, as the evaporator itself only weighs abou t
400 lb. of the total. A good featu re in the appar a tus is
its self-cleanin g property , sio cA it was found a fter twelve
days' working to evaporate its f ull maximum quantity
under compa.rati vely l o w steam p ressures, without any
apparent s1gns of scale remaining.
L ocom oti ve buildE:\rs are amongst those whose trad e
~as su~ered m ost from the genera l depresRion. and the
1mmed1ate prospects are unfavourable. Durin ~ r ecent
years the g rowing traffic r~turns of the railways oceasioned la rge order s fr om Briti ~h companies. The cessation of these d emands, with the occurren ce at the sam e
time of financial troubles in S outh Ameri ca India and
Austra lia, have b een th e main causes of less'en ed t~ade.
Tbe ex pectation of a revival is confirm ed by the orders
and inquiri es of the last few weeks. There a re few
n ovelti es ; in Great Britain as in the U n ited States
en gine~ are made h e11.v ier and s tronger than fo rmerly
rendermg necessary corresponding s trengthening o f th~
perma~ ent way a nd bridges.
Railway car riage build ers
Rhare m the sam e slackness of all railway o perations at
hom e and in the same cessation of purchases from abroad.
Th ere are, .howev_er,_indication ~ that ch eapened materials
a nd lo w pnces wJJltnduce cons1dera.ble purchases dur ing
~he nex_t few m onths, espeoia11y as t h e traffi c returns are
tmprovmg.

pushed ahead with con siderable energy. Night-work by

electr ic light has already been proceeding for several
weeks, and there are sev~ra l very heavy dredgers at work,
one of them having a capacity of 1000 horse-p ower. The
pla.nt also comprises a. suction dred~er. A very long
breakwater is also well in band. D urtng the submarin e
In an a rticle on " The P urification of Sewasce by
works remains have been found of a.n old warship, the ~1icrobee, " publish ed in our i~sue of October 7, 1892, we

In a lecture recently d~livered to the College of

Civil E ngineeri ng, Cornell U niversity, Mr. }""'. W.
Skinner deals with American methods of bridge erection.
The simples t struc tures to er ec t, he states, are usually
gird ers, r oof trusses, and column s. Plate girders up to
120 ft. or m ore in length , and l attice girders u p to 150 f t.
in length. are now sh ipped in one piece from th e builders'
yard to the bridge site, from three t o fi ,.e flat oars being
placed under each girder. These girders are supported at
each end o n a t r ansver se b eam, having a n iro n bar or old rail
on t op, on which th e girder rests, allowing it t o slip when
rounding cur ves. These tranverse beam s are supported
on lon g i ~udina.l ones, r esting on four transver se girders
placed dtrectly above the axles of tbe car. Where there
is sufficient head r oom the girders are loaded edgeways,
but in other cases and more frequently on the flat. Where
practicable they are n ot unloaded until brought a c ross
the openings they are intended to span, into such ~ posi tion that they are parallel t o, and, a s n early a s circumstances allow, are in their fi nal s ituation s. They are then
raised slig htly by hydraulic jacks an d supported whils t
the oa.rs are r un out from beneath them, when they are
j acked d own and skidded into their sea.t 1, or l ess fre quently lifted into them by gallows framek. These
gallows fram es con sis t of si n gle b ents of, say, 12 in.
by 12 in. timber h aving caps j ust s panning on e or
two tra.~ks, and are guyed both ways. ' V hen n o
old ~r t emporary track ex ists ac ross the open ing,
t h e g 1rders are unload ed at o ne end and pla ced in
p ositiOn by protru ion, a. pilot exten sion, a r ear counter weight, oYerhead guys o r intermediate rollers be-ing used
to k eep up the front end of the girder wh en its centre of
g ra vity has passed th e abutment over which it is push ed.
Th e pilot extension is usually a lon g b eam lash ed to the
gird er , and paesing over a r oller on the furth er abutment.
Roo~ trusses are usuall_
y lifted into place i n one pi ece, and
requu e careful h andhn g, as they h ave often Lut little
lateral stability before the r oof i3 comple ted, and hence
must b e firmly guy ed until pe rmanently braced by th e
completion of the roof. Two gin poles are often u sed for
lifting r oof trusses, (>ach gripping the truss at about on efourth or one-fifth of its l ength from the cen t rE>, and of
couree klwa.ys above its centre cf g r avity. A gin p ol e is
s imply a timber mast with four g uys a nd a sh eave at the
top, over which the hoist line lead s to a crab bolted 3 ft.
or. 4 ft. fro~ the bottom. In. use it sbouJd always b e inolmed a. httle fr om the vert1cal, so that 1t overhangs its
load , and gives a. p ositive strain on the back guys and o n
t hem only, th e front guys coming i nto use when the p ole
is moved. By taking up or slack ing th e guys tbe trusB
may be very quickly swung backward s~ forwar d ~, or
t ransversely, and for heavy w ork the guys should be
provided with tackles.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

112

125-TON

STEAM HAMMER; BETHLEHEM IRON COMPANY, PENNSYLVANIA.

(j][j]

}Uj..Z.

Ag.1.

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j8J':. A

\V.!!' recently called attention to the most monu- 1

ment~l exhibit iu the Transportation Building of the

BOILER .EXP.LO~ION AT YARMOUTH.
Columbian Exposition- the full-sized model of the 1 T wo fo!l!lalmvesttgatiO~s by_the ~:>ard of Trade under
t
h
r in the works of the Bethlehem Iron the prov1s1ons of the Bo1ler Explos1~ns Act, 1882,, have
1 25
on amme
.
nd this week we ublish been recently held at Yarmouth and Btlston respectively.
Company _of Penn~ylvama, a
.
P Id The following p~rticulars relate to the former. We shall
some deta1ls of th1s the largest hamme.r I~l the ~or deal with the latter in a future issue. The explosion oc'Ye shall, however~ defer our d~scnptlOn untll we curred on Saturday, March 18, on board the fishing-smack
publish further details, merely.addi~g to-day that our FidgetJ, owned by Mr. Sheppard, of Yarmouth, the vessel
illustrations show a front and side VIeW of the hammer at the time being at sea. The skipper was blown overand separate views of the piston entablature at the board, and was severely injured. The boiler was a. small
to of the side frames, and the valve motion. The one. of the vertical type, so .commo~ly used on board
ha.~mer which has been in operation for several years l fi~bmg-smac~s, and from . which, ~u~mg recent years, so
h B thl h m w orks will be shortly supple- many . explosions have a~1s~n, pomtm~ strongly to. the
at t ed e d e e
te~t superseded by a 14 000- great Importance of submittmg such bo1lers to a. rehable
mente , a.n . to so~e ex
h' h .
{v nearl ~om- system of inspection.
ton hydrauhc forgmg press w lC I S no
Y
The Commtasioners were Mr. Howard Smith, barrister,
pleted.
and Mr. J. H. Hallet, C. E. Mr. Gough appeared for
the Board of Trade, while the various parties to the
NovA ScoTIA~ CoAL AND IaoN.- In the course. of last inquiry were represented by counsel. Several witnesses
"r ,
,
tons of co.al and 75,000 tons of uon ore were ~lle~, and after. a very interesting a.n~ exha~stive
942
782
1
Ye..
investigatiOn, occupymg two da.ys, Mr. Sm1th dehvered
wera mined in Nova Scotu.

judgment. In the first place he reviewed in detail the

history of the boiler as follows: A boiler previously supplied to Mr. Sheppard by a Mr. Coombes, an engineer,
had been condemned on account of the defective con
dition of the uptake, and Mr. ShE1ppard then agreed to
purchase th e present boiler from a Mr. Johnson. It was
at the time lying in Mr. Coombes' yard, and the price
paid for it was 13l. , being 2l. more than the price
of a new uptake. Mr. Coombes was instructed to take
off the safety valve and pressure gauge from the condamned boiler, and fit them on to the one just purchased,
which was to be fixed on board the Fidget. Mr. Coombes,
although putting on a new syphon pipe, did not test the
gauge by a standard gauge or the mercurial column.
Before placing the boiler in position, he looked round the
firebox. and tapped the plates for a. distance of 3 in.,
which wa.s as far as he could get down. He also ta.p{>_ed
the plates of the shell, and was satisfied that the holler
was in good condition when it left his yard. He found a
small quantity of rust, which he removed by ha.nd. The
Com~nss~oners were of ?Pinion tha.t this was not a proper
exa.mma.tion, but, havmg regard to the faot that Mr

llj

E N G I N E E R I N G.

JuLY 28, 1893.]

iii

PENNSYLVANIA.
COMPANY,
IRON
BETHLEHEM
125-TON STEAM HAMMER;
(F01 N otice, see opposite Page. )

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Coombes had already repaired the boiler, and that since

the rep~irs it was not likely to have deteriorated to any
apprecia?le e~tent,, they thought,, on the. whole,_that he
was justified m bemg content w1th the mspect10n then
made. When th e boiler was fixed steam was got up,
and Mr. Coombes screwed down the spring balance of
the safety valve to 70 lb., but did not wait until the
pressure gauge showed that amount in order to ascertain
whether the valve would blow off. 'l'he crew were in a
hurry to leave the port in order to save a tide, and on the
assuranceoftheskipperthat he would see whether th e valve
would blow off at 70lb., he allowed the vessel to leave,
the steam gauge at the time recording 56 lb. The ~J>indle
was not fitted with a ferrule to prevent over-screwme-, it
not being, according to Mr. Coombes, the custom at Yarmouth to adopt these ferrules, beside which, he did not
think of it at the time. On the other hand, the
skipper of the Fidget deposed in his evidence, which
was taken at the hospital, that he had not recei ved instructions from :Mr. Coombes not to screw
the spring balance down too far, and he therefore
screwed it down until it stood at 80 lb. On this point
there was a direct conflict of evidence, and the Commissioners could not say whom they were to believe, but as
they bad formed the opinion that the explosion occurred
when there was a pressure on the boiler of not much more
than 50 lb. on the square inch, the matter might be
passed over without comment. The :Fidge~ left Yarmouth the same day that the boiler was fitted, viz.,
January 23last, for the purpose of fishing in the North
S ea.. The boiler was used for the purpose of working the

geRr, the pressure employed varying from 50 lb. to 60 lb.

At midnight on March 17 water was pumped in as usual.
At a little before seven o'clock the n&xtmorning the mate
noticed that the water-gauge glass was three-quarters
full, the pressure gauge then showing 50 lb. This w~t~s
deposed to by other members of the crew, one of whom,
according to his own statement, saw the gauge only two
minutes before the ex plosion. At seven o'clock the
skipper was on deck, standing j ust over tl;te boiler, when
it burst, and he was blown into the sea, but was rescued
by some of the crew. H e was found to be very seriously
hurt, his thigh being fractured and other injuries
inflicted, so that he was still in the hospital. The boiler
was blown overboard, the vessel was set on fire and
burned to the water's edge, but the crew were fortunately saved, and were safely landed at Yarmouth.
It was impossible, Mr. Smith said, for the Commissioners, seeing that no part of the boiler remained,
to state positively the cause of the ex plosion, but
they bad very little doubt that it was owing to the
plates of the firebox havin~ become wasted by corrosion.
Although Mr. Coombes satd he hammered a portion of
the firebox, and examined all parts of it J;>rior to fixing
the boiler on board the smack, the Commissioners were
of opinion that, having regard to the age of the boiler and
the exceptionally hard usage at sea, the firebox bad become thinned by corrosion. They did not think thab the
boiler, during the time it was standing in Mr. Coombes'
yard, had its thickness materially decreased, but they
were not satisfied that a proper examination had been
made. It had been suggested t hat the explosion was due

to shortness of water, but the evidence as to the height

of the water in ~he gauge glass just before th e explosion
negatived this theory, while the nature of the explosion
was inconsistent with its having arisen from that cause.
The Commissioners considered that Mr. Sheppard. the
owner, was not to blame, as, in their judgment, he took
proper and sufficient measures to insure the boiler's being
m good condition. H e believed that Mr. Coombes was
possessed of knowledge and experience of boilers of this
type, and instructed him to overhaul the safety valve,
pressure gauge, and all parts. H e engaged a competent
skipper and crew, and did not appear to have been n egligent or careless in regard to the management of the boiler.
Further, the Commissioners did nob find Mr. Coombes to
blame for the explosion, inasmuch as they were not able
to say positively what the cause wa.s, and their opinion
was necessarily conjectural. He was certainly to blame
for not having tested the spring balance and the pressure
gauge, especially as he knew that the gauge had been used
on another boiler for a very considerable period. As a cornpatent engineer he should have fitted the spring balance
with a ferrule to prevent its being overrun, and the Cornmissioners could not accept his excuse that he did not think
about it. It was also unwise of him to have allowed the
vessel to go to sea before h& bad definitely ascertained wbab
the pressure of st~am ~a~ as indicated by t.h e gauge, and
before be had not10ed 1f 1t corresponded wtth the weight
on the safety valve. As to the allegation that a collar
was fitted on the safety-valve lever, and that the valve
was lashed do_wn, these po~nts determi~ed nothing, as
they were demed by the sk1 pper, but "1t was admitted

14

on all ha.nds tha.t safety valves on the boilers of fishing

smacks were tampered with habitually." The spring
balances ~f safety ~alves, although originally fitted with
ferrules, 1t was sard were frequently rendered liable to
be overrun by the ferrules being removed, and the Court
h Mi be~n told that "it was not an uncommon occurrence
for men to srrew the spri ng balances down so as to
obtain any pre3sure they might wish." It had also been
proved that on many occas10ns safety va.lYes had been
tampered with by inserting washer.s between the valve
and the lever. It was therefore perfectly clear that these
v&lvas were easily tampered with, even thouah ferrules
might have been applied in the fi rst jnstan~e. M eans
should bs taken to stop this practice, and in the judgment
of the Commissioners the best and only method of doing so
was to apply valv~ of the lock -up de~cription, and they
saw no dtfibulty m the way of the application of such
\alves to boilers on board these boats. It bad h aen sugg fsted that there would not be room for them at the top
of the boiler, owing to the close proximity of th e deck,
but they could be fitted to the side of the boiler by
means of an internal pipe . That look -up valves could
thus be easily substituted for the type at presont
usually adopted was a. m!l.nifest fact, as, only the
day previous, the Commissioners bad seen a spring
balance valve fitted to the side of the boiler on board a.
smack, and a lock-up valve could be quite as r eadily
placed in that position, This arrangement was not a. n aw
one, and h ad received the especial approval of ~Ir.
Ada.mson, Engineer-Surveyor to the Board of Trade. It
had therefore not only the recommendation of the Court,
but also, according to evidence, that of experts. The Commissioners, finding n o one to blame, would make n o order
a'3 to costs, and as it appeared that the crew on board the
Fidget a.t the time of the explosion were nob now in the
owner'd employment, they would recommend the Board
of Trade, if it bad the power, to pay the expsnses incurred
by them in attending the inquiry.

TilE REPORT OF THE ADMIRALl'Y BOILER

COMMITTEE; TORPEDO-BOAT ENGINE
PERFORMANCES.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR1 -S.> much has been written lately in vour columns
about the consumption of my torpedo-boats, that I beg
for leave to take part in tho discussion.
I may state first that" Oonsommation d 'eau p:tr heure
(t la vitesse de l'essai," in the offioial repo . t, translated in
The En,gineer, " Wat er per hour," simply means, los~ of
water through glands, safety valves, &c. ; it amounted to
9.06 kilogrammes, or 20 lb.
The eva.porative duty of the boiler was n ot measured,
but estimated to 12lb. of dry steam p er pound of coal.
This is not to:> high, on ac~ount of the slow combustion
and the reduced area of grate, -g11 of the heating su rface>.
Tha circulation of th e botler (locomotive) was very good,
especially in the firebox, where the thickness of the water
s pa~ w"s divid ed in two by a plate, as shown on Plate I.
of the inolosed copy of my paper. On account of the
great mass of water contained in th e boiler, steam was got
up on the day previous to the trials.
Will you now allow me to say something about the consumption of coal in my new eng-ines, triple-expansion,
instead of compound, as in boat No. 123, the subject of
the r eport?
The boilers are for the mos t p :ut "Du T emple," but
four of the boats ha ve Normand's boilers, a.s de;cribsd in
The Eagineer. From p rogressive trials on shore, the
evapora.ti ve duty of the former, when burning about
double the quantitv of coal necessary for 10 knots,
amounted to from 10~ to 11, and about 7 when burning
the same quantity M in th e full-speed trials, so that jn
the c0nsumption trials at 10 knots, the evaporative duty
was about 12, as in the locomoti va boiler of No. 123.
T he evapora.ti ve duty of the N orma.nd's boiler was rather
higher.
Eigbt first-class single-sorew and three high-sea doublescrew boJ.ts, with tripl~-expansion engines and tubulous
boilers, have already been delivered by my firm to the
French Government.
The form er are 118ft. by 13 ft.l in., and 76 tons, ready
for sea, including coals necessary for steaming 1800
nautical miles at 10 knot s ; t he mean necessary weight of
coah, m easured by two preliminary eight hours trials, was
very nearly 10 tons, that is to say, ratber above the consumption o f the sim~la.r .bo~ts actu~ted by co~pound
engines. The &mall mfer10r1ty of trtple-expa.ns10n, as
compared with compoun~ engines at very lo~ s~eed, is
easily a.cc~un t ed for, but 1s not so grea.~ as to J usttfy t?e
disconneotmg of the lowpres!ure cylinder. By spectal
permission th e consumption trials of two of the boats
were made at 15 knots ; the mean coals burnt per horsepower amounted to llb. 10 oz.
The maximum two hours' speed (mean of the eight
boats) a.t the above displacement was a. little under
24 knots, and in No. 149 a.CJ high as 24.51 knots.
The thrae high-sea twin-screw boats Dragon, Grenadier and Lancier, are 138 ft. by 14 ft. 8 in., and 118 tons,
ready for sea, including coa.b necessary for steaming
2000 nautical miles a.t 10 knots. The mean necessary
weight of coals was found to be, from preliminary trials,
15 t ong. The total weight for armament, torped oes,
artillery, coals, amounted to. 32~ tons, iooluded in the
118 tons displacement, that 1s to say,, n e1rly double the
weight put on board of the Engltsh-bu1lt Coureur.
The speeds attained were 25.05 knots, 25.25 knots, and
25.80 knots.
Are n ot the above speeda quite unequalled, if due
account is taken of the heavy weights carried, and especially of th~ steaming distanc~, th~ best proof of the
high economiCal duty of the engmes !

E N G I N E E R I N G.
This econ omy I attribute now, a.s I did for the compound engines of No. 128. to several causes, and more
especially to the feed heater and the cylinder safety
or relief valves (both patented in England ).
From th e former apparatus, whereby the feed exceeds
240 deg. Fa.hr. at full speed, an economy of 20 per cent.
can be realised, as proved from the compara.ti ve experiments on four boats. This is much more than that deduced from the number of caloric units returned to the
boiler, but is quite consistent with well-known experiments on the transmiasion of heat, whereby the h eat
transmitted varies from one to five according a'3 the
water is stationary or in motion, cold or boiling.
The principle of the improven:ent enunciated for the
first time bv my late brother Benja.min N ormand, so early
as 1856, is a direct application of the first law of thermodynamics. The h eating steam being taken from the lower
valve-chest, all the work done previously by that steam is
absolutely eC'onomical. The \Veir's and MacN ab feed
heater works by injection prior to t he suction of feed
pumps, but mine works by surface bet ween the feed
pumps and the boiler.
The high and mean pressure relief va.l ves are so
arranged that the blow-off returns to the va.l ve chest
when the pressure in the cylinder becomes higher
than in the valve chest. Theoretically, the compression
of steam at t he end of the stroke ought to equal the pressure on the va.l ve chest. Not only a.r e the detrimental
effects of clearance annulled, but, -what is much m ore
imp >rtant, the temperature of the internal surfaces, those
which come into contact with li ve steam, is raised to that of
the live steam itself, so that no initial condensation need
take place. Besides, there exists no other practical
means for heating the piston. Compression is much more
effective than steam jacketing, which heats only the
external surfaces of the cylinder, and n ot at all the
piston.
Now, it is well known that, whatever be the system
of steam distribution, link or radial compression increases rapidly as the steam is out off sooner . For
instance, if compression is complete with an introduction
of, say, 65 per cent. of the stroke, the inside pressure
may be 1aised to a. quite inadmissible amount when the
introduction is reduced to 40 or 30 per cent. The same
thing takes place when the engines are hastily reversed,
and diagrams ta.k ~n in that particular ca.se have shown
the inside pressure to be double that in the vah'e box.
This danger the new relief valves obviate, and at the
same time they greatly reduce the initial condensation in
all the cylinders, except the last.
In practice, at least in war vessels where the pow~r
va.rieR fro'll ona to ten, it is impossible to make compression equal to the pressure in the valve-box at full p ower,
the turning moment at low power would th en be too
irregular; but any increase of cushioning, due to the use
of relief valves, is most advantageous.
Suppose, for instance, that the press ure i n the valve
chest be 170 lb., the com pression may reach 14.0 lb. with
relief val ves, whil~t it could not exceed 115 lb. withoub.
The temperatures corresponding to those three steam
pressures are 363 deg. Fahr., 353 deg. Fa.hr. , and 338 deg.
Fa.hr. respeoti vely. The two last a. re approximately
those of the piston and cylinder inside surfaces, especially
in high-speed engines, and we may admit that the initial
condensation will be proportional to the differences of
temperature between live steam and the surfaces coming
in contact with it. That is to say: 368 deg. -353 deg. =
15 deg. in the first case, and 368 deg. - 338 deg.
30 deg. in the second. The initial condensation will be
as one to two.
The sam e re:1soning applied to the mean cylinder would
give an equal benefit.
Steam cylinders are yet, though in a greatly reduoed
measure than th ey were formerly, condensers and evaporators; and now, as in the days of Watt, the increase of
efficiency of the steam engine is chiefly to be sought by
reducing the condensation and evaporation taking place
in the oylindera. That great improvements are still pos
siule is evident when we hear of good triple-expansion
engines where the initial condensation in the high-pressure
cylinder amounts to 30 or 40 per cent. of the sensible live
steam.
" Incredulous" is n ot the first who has challenged the
recorded consumption of my engines. Even in }"r anee,
engineers, especially land engine builders who esteem
15lb. of steam per indicated horse-po wer an extraordinary result, cannot easily realise such l ow figures at
low and mean power, and 13 lb. at full power; but facts
are facts, and the foreign shipbuilders who have had to
deliver their boats in our dockyards can bear witness to
the extreme care used on the trials.
In hopes that you may find place for this rather long
letter,
I remain, Sir, yours truly,
J. A. NORMAND, M.I. N.A.
Havre, July 21, 1893.
P .S.-I beg t o offer my best thanks to Mr. J ennings
Campbell for having shown that n o contradiction exists
in the report on my compound torpedo-boat No. 128.

THE INTRODUCTION OF BUOYS.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR, -Ma.y I inquire whether the introduction of buoys
can be traced? In his "Notes on the Progress of Lighthouses/' re1d before the Maritime Congress, Mr. D . A.
Steven"on says: "The earlief:t sugges tton, so far as I a.m
a.wc\re, to adopt a buoyage systE::m was that of Mr. Robert
Stevenson in 1828." The paper d eals, however, more
with recent progress. Trimty House originated in 1512
or 1514 ; the date seems to be doubtful. A ccording t o Mr.
Stevenson, Trinity House did not have any lights under

their immediate care till1607. The "Calendar of State

Papers" mentions buoys for the first time, I think, undar
M ay 30, 1594 : "Grant to the Master, Wardens, and
Assistants of Trinity H ouse, on the surrender of L ord
Admiral Howard of the office of lastage and ballast age of
the ships on the Thames between L ondon Bridge and the
sea; also beaconage, buoyage, setting up and maintaining
marks for the ships for passing into or out of rivers
throughout the realm. "
There is a curious passage relating to buoys in an interesti ng book, printed probably lGlO : Miohael Heberer'd
"Aegyptaica S er vitus. " H eberer, a. man of learning, of
Bretter, in the Palatinate, was travelling companion to a.
Burgundian nobleman. 1'hey left Marseilles in 1585 for
V eni ce, called at Toulon, Corsica, Sardinia. Tunis, &c. ,
attacked Turkish ships, and were s hipwrecked afterwards
near A lexandria. H eberer was chained to the galleys,
and after three yeard' servitude released at Constantinople. H e returned via Malta, Italy, Spain, and :F rance,
and must therefore have seen many ~ports. L ater he
sailed from G reifswa.ld to Sweden. Now between the
island of Jassmundt an d R ligen he noticed, on August 2,
1592, during a dead calm, casks floating on the sea, which
appeared very strange to him, as he had never seen anyt hing like it on any sea.. He was infotmed that these
casks were fixed to caution the sailors against sunken
rocks, and that they were removed when pirates and
other enemies were expected, so that the enemy often
had to surrender in such dangerous places.
There is a. mistake here, since J assmundt is one of the
many peninsulre of the island of R ligen. In the days of
the Vikings many a. famous fight took place near this
island, and the people of Rligen always had the reputa.
tion of being skilled sailors.
R espectfnlly yours,
Wimbledon, J uly 24, 1893.
H. Bon~s.

TYPEWRITI NG MACH INES.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
S IR - I thoroughly indorse the view of "India'' that a
discussion on the mecha.nic,g of typewriting machines
would be of value, both to the buyer and the designer; as
I feel convinced of the n ecessity for improvements and
progress, and would welcome any impetus being given to
th e development in this country of accurate intercba.ngable work, such as a good typewriter calls for. But ib
would, I t hink, be especially valuable if the discussion be
confined to the mechanical defects of existing types and
suggestions as to improvement, so as to elicit views as to
what is required by the employers of these machines,
and so lay down the lines of a. theoretically perfect
machine.
A perfect method of inking remains yet to be worked
out, and no on e who has a. v"ried experience of existing
systems but knows their defects under th e ordinary conditions of usage in a business office. Doubtless in theory
all inked type that strikes direct on to the paper is the best,
but a. gen eration of typewriters has been brought up on
the ribbou, and it has done good service, and is, on the
whole, cleanly and ~ffioient.
The waste of force, or rather excess of motion, in most
existing machines seems the first p oint that strikes a.
mechanic, and anything which creteris paribus tends to
lessen the nu mber of parts, joints, and bearings in a
ma-chine will economise this wast e, and tend t o drminish
the rattle and wear which necessarily follow.
Many existing machines prove themselves, by their
risults, good tools, but their price, consequent, I suppose, on their complication and necessarily accurate
manufacture, militates against their more general adoption. Noise is, after all, the great factor which prevents
their far wider employment. The points raised in this
connection by "India. " appear t o me possible of being
mechanically overcome, but much remams yet to be done
in this direction by the aboli tion of some at least of the
many hundreds of parts and joints which work gradually
looser in the printing mechanism of all lever maobin~s.
I cannot agree with ' India " that any one maker or user
will be content with a. " practical speed;" so long as time
is money, so long as our mechanil>ms cannot keep pace
with our brains, so long will that typewriter, mechanical
or human, be most in demand by the employer, which
will save him any unn~cessa.ry delay in the <.:on version of

his ideas into mechanical movements.

In my opinion a radical change in the very principles
of these ntachines is necessary, and in an age when elec~rioity a.~d o.ther ~oti ve p owers are being daily applied
m n ew d1rect10ns, 1t does n ot appear too much to expect
that a discussion such as this suggested by "India "
might perchance educe n ew, if not valuable, sugges
~ions. With this ~nd in .view, may I suggest that your
1ssue of the 14th gtves a. hmt a.s to a. possible solution?
I see there pneumatic force described as applied to riveting machines and grain elevators. Why not, in order to
lessen the noise and diminish the parts of these worrying,
though now, alas ! necessary impedimenta of the busy
man, a pply the same force to our relief ? I am aware that
an engmeer of great experi ence in pneumatic work has
been for some time engaged in this direction, and I have
had an opportunity of seeing several of his first models.
They were free, so far as their printing mechanism was
con?erned, of n early every obje?tion that can be alleged
aga.mst lever machmes; the we1ght of the whole machine
was reduced to less than 8 lb., and they appeared capable
of doing any work required of them. '!'he absence of
mechanism was most marked, while all those parts which
are liable to wear and rattle in l ever ma chines, were
en tirely a.csent. Should your columns be open to a. discussion, it would be of great interest if the inventor could
be persuaded to join 1t and give us some of the r esults of
his work.
In America efforts are being made in this and other
1

jULY

E N G I N E E R I N G.

28, 18931

directions and electrical writing machines have been "on

.
the stooks' " for some t1me.
It is in my opinion probable that some new _departure,
as air or electrioity, will give us the ~ypewn t~r of the
future and any asststanoa that you, Str, can gtve .us to
start t'he ball rolling on this side o.f the ~ater 'Yill ~e
surely acceptable to many a mechaniCal engmeer m th1s
~o untry.

Faithfully yours,

M. E.

July 18, 1893.

MARINE ENGINE REPAIRS.

To THE EDITOR oF ENGINEERING.
SIR -It may possibly interest your read ers to have
parti~ulara of a repair executed at Perim I sland, ~ed
Sea. On the 9th ult. the s.s. ~ston Hall put mto
P erim Harbour with broken connectlDgrods, the fraot~re
going through one side of the fork as sho wn. _The r~pa.us
consisted of fitting two kin. steel plates on ~1ther s1de of
the fork, and securing them to th~ rod w1th fi.tte_d tap
Lolts. Cast-iron blocks were then fitted on the ma1de of
the jaw and secur~d by through bolts, the clearance for
tnnately allowing this. As will be seen, the st eel pl~tes
were carried down square at the ends, and ca.st -1ron
blocks carefully fitted in between bearing on the rouuded
part of the rod and firmly secured with through bolts.

Fig .1.

Ft.fJ. 2.

I
---.J---

.) I

. ~
Fracfure..h~ .._l...

1117

The above repairs were succ~ssfully accomplished at the

engineering workshops belongmg to the Per1m Coal Co!D
pany, under th~ able direction of l\Ir. Clennan, the ch1ef
engineer, and h1s staff.
.
The establishment of such works as the ~alvag~ stat10n
on Perim I sland cannot be too well known m the mterests
of the shi powning community, as t~ey are often th~
means of averting disaster and ea:vmg heavy towa~e
bille. The original idea of. ~he P ertm Coal Company m
the establishment of a. repatnng shop was ~or the upkeep
of their own plant, but they h;ave smce l.a.td _do~n hea~y
machine tools for the con vemence of sht ps m d tstress m
the neighbourhood.
Yours truly,
HARYEY A~D BowF..'.
16 Seaton-buildings, 17, \Va.ter-street,
'
Liverpool, July 14, 189::l.

QUALITY v. LOW-PRICED GOOD '.

T o THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sm -Your correspondent who signs himself "British
~Ian~facturer " has raised a. very important que:~tion,
and one which cannot be too fully impressed upon the
users and buyers of machine tools-viz. , the value of
using good in preference to so-ca.Hed cheap tools. The
question of quality 1'. low-priced goods affects most
branches of manufactures, but I, lika your correspondent ,
refer particularly to machine tools, a. subjoot which I
have had some experience in, and upon which I recently
read a. paper before one of the engineeri ng societies here.
The pomt which I raised then, and which I want t o
emphasise now, is that low-priced tools are not cheap
tools and that fact the userts of tools, if not the merchant
buye~s, are now ~eginning to slow!y realise. The very
fact that highpr1ced, but well- des1gned and carefull y
constructed American tools, are now finding a ready
market here, shows concl usively that if only the user has
a. good tool offered him he will Pl:Y for .it. A workman
with a wellmade lathe, good both m destgn and construe
tion can easily gai n ten minutes per hour and more over
another working an inferior tool, particularly if it turns
oval as so many of theRe cheap lathes do ; and it does not
requ'ire much calculation t o show how long it will ta.ke
for the better tool to repay its initial extra cost, apart
from the quality of the work turned out. The merchant
buyer, who, with his ~xperience of th~ market, should be
- and in many oases 1s-0f great a.ss1sta.nce to the user,
especiall y in foreign orders. is sometimes more anxious
to secure the order than in considering what sort of a tool
he can buy a.t the priC'e he gets. This is the case amongst
a certain class of merchants, and it is a pity, as the mer
chant plays an important part in bringing the manufacturer to the user ; and if they would refuse to push cheap
tools, the demand for them would largely fall off.
:Makers themselves are in some degree to blame, but to a
large extent they are obliged to accede to the popular
demand. The last decade has seen a. very large increa,se
in the numbers of manufacturers of tools, with a conse
quent keen competition amonll'st the makers and a larg"er
use of t ools by the public. I am of opinion, however,
that the maker of good tools will sur vive the longest, as
the user is getting to know, if he does not already, that
these a.re the cheapest tools be can buy.
I am, Sir, yours truly, .
RwART C . A~ros.

A WARNING.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR -In spite of the warnings which I have repeatedly
addre~sed to British traders and ma.nufa.oture~s O!l the
subject of the multitude of swindling fi~ms ~h1ch mfest
this city I regret to say that the ev1l contmues a.ppa
rently u~abated, if I am to judge by t~e .corresponde~ce
which continually reaches me from B.nt1sh firms wh10h
either have been victimised, or whic~, wtth more prudence,
write for information before exeoutmg the ordera of these
gentry.
When I say th!l.t I have more than 120 names on l!lY
black list in Amsterdam alone, the ex ten~ and lucrah ve
nature of this nefarious business will be ev 1~ent.
.
The press has hitherto pr~mptly and kmdly lent 1ts
assistance to the work of warmng, and I tru~t that I may
again rely on your p ermission to allow these hnes to appear
in your columns.
I am, Sir, very sincerely yours,
W. C. Rom~soN,
H . B. M. Consul.
British Consulate, Am ~terdam , July 21, 1893.

AN ENGLISH VIEW OF AMERICAN

RAILWAYS.

115

calculation, Mr. Kesselmeyer maint!l.ins th.at we should

have a much better system than the metr10; we should
require two more di~its to represent our presE>nt 10 and
11 and t hen the stgns 10 would represent 12, 100 12
ti~tes 12 or one gross, 1000 twelve ~r?s~, and so on, an~
tha facility of mul~iplying and dt,tdmg by 10 an~
\lnder the Arabic notation, would apply to 12 an
under the new notation.
.
l\1r. Kesselmeyer points out that a gol~ cotn o~ 12s.,
which he proposes to call a. Viptoria., m1ght , eas~l~ ~
bronght into use, and f9r convemence a 24s. go.d p1e.eVictoria. 2.0 (new notat10n ).
Our present foot divided into 12 in. al?pea.rs to me a. more
serviceable unit than a metrA. The me~ could b~ conveniently divided into twelve parts as. tn duode01mals,
which would then be the natural dectmah, and these
again into twelfth~, easily readable on a. draughtsman's
ivory scale, or in spaces of three-twelfths each on a
rougher scale.

t . 'ld
The present inconvenient method of me~surmg a uu1 ing estate by chains and links, a nd selhng th'3 lan~ by
square yards would cease as 72 ft. (60, new n otat10n)
would make 'as handy a s~rvey?r's chain . as 66ft., two
chains making 100ft. (new notat10n ), that 1s, one gross or
144 ft. Arabic notation.
.
Our measurements and our money_ would then be qmte
as symmetrical as under the metrtc system, and very
much more natural and practical.
The day i3 already divided into twenty-fo~r .hour~ or
two twelves but probably twelve hours d1v1ded mto
twelve spa.c~s, and the latter each into twelve s~uller
spaces, which would be five-sixths of our present mmute,
would be better.
I am afraid our system, or rather want. of sy~tem, of
weights and measures (except of length ) 1s s? ~ad th~t
nothing can be made of it except complete rev1s1on; thts
could be based on the dozen instead of the ten.
.
After having t hought the matter over for some t1m~, I
agree with Mr. Kesselmeyer that a system of notat10n
based on the dozen or twelve, with systems of weights,
measures money and time to c>orrespond, would have
great ad ~a.nta.ges ~ver the metric system, which is based
on a. notation that has adopted not the best number
(twelve), nor the next best (eight), but only the third
best, namely, ten.
.
Whether it is practicable to introdt:ce a new notat10n
is a. question that would require grave coneideration, as I
do not see that we could afford to throw thi s generation
into confusion for the benefit of posterity, but before we
commit ourselve to the metric system, I think the idea
is worth discussion. I expect to be told that the idea is
old as the hills, but never having read or heard of it, and
finding others in the same i~norance, I venture to ask for
space in your val ued periodiCal to call attention to it.
If a. new notation is not practicable, I am strongly in
favour of the metric system, and I believe th e people
would get into the way of i~ with littl~ d~fficu~ty. 'I;he
fi rst time my firm made drawmgs for bUtldmgs mclud1ng
constructional ironwork for the Continent, our assistants
worked to the metric syst em, with which they were previously unacqua.inted in practicE>, without t he slightest
di fficulty and without error.
Your~, &o. ,
JESS K A. STOTT.
5, Cross-street, 1\tianchest er, July 17, 1893.

T o THE EDITOR OF ENGINRERING.

Sm - It is satisfactory to note that a. pr?lifio educ9:otor
of popular appreciation ?an so readily. admtt the poss1ble
shortcomings of the admued stock wh1ch, th~ugh nota.?le
enough for the grace of outline and. perfect10n of ?01sh
characteristic of wealthy and exclus1ve monopoly, IS not
wholly suggestive of progressive development when
wanting in due regard for the calls of economy and effi

01ency.
.
1
The prominent part played by Englis~men . m deve .op
ing some of the most suncessful dests-ns m Amertca,
proves that the secondary position ~hJCh ?ur raqwa.ys
seem content to assume is not due t o m sular mcapaetty to
go beyond the safe gui~ance of precedent; that the constitution of the staff ld such as would w_a.rrant the be.st
result is however, seriously open to quest10n ; each ratl
way company of importance having el~cted to beco~e a.
law unto itself in th e regulation of rol.h~g stock des1~n,
should place its lawgi vera beyond RUSplClOD ; an execut1ve
head no matter what h is ability, can scarcelv devote a.
tenth part of the time O?Oupied by _his ~ul_tifarious duties
to the serious considera.t10n of the mtrtcactes of con~truc
ti ve details ; it is imperative, then, that the select1on of
departmental assistants shoul~ ~e governed by rn9re
exacting choic~ than chance ~em9rtty or length of serv1ce
amid surroundmgs of narrowmg mfiuence.
Effort should be made to retain the services of some
among the number of youns: men of a:bility who yea~ly
are indnced t o leave the ra1l way ser VIce by the read1er
recognition of merit elsewhere; wa might then, perhaps,
find it possible to surpass the American model for ~mfort
in travel and win back the laurels for speed w1thout
concern for the strength of bridges, radius of curvature,
or increase in cost of construction.
Mr. Stretton has travelled many hundred miles to
arrive at a conclusion patent enough to the close obser ver,
viz that our railways a.re still ahead of all competitors in
tho~e branches where t he strict regulations of a. maternal
Government have left them no choice ; but when left to
the free exercise of their own devices they prove uneq la.l
MESSRS. DoUI..TON A~D Co.- We have been requested
to the maintenance of a prominent position.
by M essrs. Doulton and Co. t o state that their exhibition
Yours, &c.,
of pottery for electrical purposes, and which includes as
July 18, 1893.
J. D. T.
a. special feature their new conduit for underground con
ductors, will remain open to engineers and others, on preTHE METRIC SYSTEM.
sentation of card, unti l Saturday, August 5.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
I NTERNATIONAL AND S UllllARIKE TRLEPHONES.-The
SIR - The facili ty of multiplying and dividing by 10
wi th 'our present or f\.rabi? not~tion has .invest ed that Swedish Government has sanctioned the agreement about
number with a mystteal v1rtue 1n the mmds of m any the t elephonic connection between that country and
Exper imental telephonic connection has
people. J had that same reverence for 10 until a year Nerway.
or two ago, when, owing to Mr. Kesselmeyer, of A ltrinc recently been established between Sealand and Funen,
ham, ad vocating a. cLange: in the basis of our notation across the Great Belt, a distance of some 20 mile~. A
from the number 10 to the number 12, I began to wire in the submarine telegraph cable was used, and the
think on the subject. It is mE-rely because in the results were quite satisfactory.
Arabic notation the change from numbers represented
by one digit to those represented by two digits occurs
ENGLISH VISITORS IN .A~IERICA.- The American
at 10 that the facility of calculating in that number Society of Civil Enginee:rs have i~e ued a reference map of
happ~ns and if any other number be chosen as the the U nite:d f)ta.tes for the benefit of English engineers
one at ~hich that change is made. it acq uirE."s the visiting the country. In connection with it is a list of
property appertaining to 10 in the Arabic notation . For prominent structures and works which may be inspected,
m stance, let there be only seven digits and a nought, and a subject-matter index of processes a nd constructions.
then the signs 10 would represent not a 10 but an 8, The house of the Society is at 127, East Twenty- third and 100 would represent 8 by 8 or 64 in the Arabic n ota street, New York, where accredited members of English
tion. Now 8 is a. better number than 10, because it can engineering bodies will be welcomed.
be di vided into halves and quarters without going into
fractions, which is more usE>ful th an ha.l ves and fi fths ;
HI TORY OF 'l'HE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE RAIL
multiplying and dividing by merely adding or cutting off WAY SYSTE~r.-We have received from l\1r. Edwatd
a nought .w ill apply to 8 if ib is made. the fir~t doub~e Baker, 14 and 16, John Bright-street, Birmingham, "A
number, JUSt as 1t now does to 10, whtlst 4 wtll obtam Handbook t o various Publication1:1 , Documents, and
the facility at present applying to 5, with the advantage Charts, connect ed with the Rise and Devel opmflnt of the
of being halved without going into fractions. I therefore Railway Syst em, chiefly in Great Britain a nd Ireland,
hold that 8 would be a. better number for the basis of a "'ith the Prices at which they a.re now to be Sold " [ls.J.
notation than our present 10.
Mr. Baker has spent great pains in collecting specimens
1Y1r. Kesselmeyer, however, ba.s the boldness to advo of books written on railway matters. Although railwayP,
cate the change of our notation from a basis of 10 to a except for collieries, are con fined to this century, and it is
basis of 12. Twelve is the first number divisible, without known that a great deal has been written about them,
fractions, by four other nun1bers; n '>ne of the lower yet already the early books conneoted with them are
numbers being divisible by more than two number~, ~etting very scarce, and, sh ould they become objects of
omitting the unit in both oases, a nd ~Ir. Kesselmeyer mterest t o the collector, will very rapidly be absorbed.
maintains that it is the natural basis for calculation. It It is curious to fi nd that there was a '' Historv of Rail
is diviflible without fractions into halves, thirds, quarters, ways" published in 1801, and an ac~ountof tbe.New<:astle
and r,ixths, and this is why we fi nd our f:>Ot of 12 in. colliery lines is to be read in a book issued in 1649.
and our shilling of 12d. so convenient, and why so Very little else, however, is to be found befcra 1820.
many articles are sold not by the ten and hundred, but Nearly every line has some literature of its own, o
by the dozen and the gross. If our system of notation addition t o time-tables and guides. The pamphlet con~
were made to C'orrespond with our natural systems of tains 128 pages, with about five entries on each page.

E N G I N E E R I N G,

116

EXPRESS LOCOMOTIVE; LAKE SHORE AND MICHIGAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

CONSTRUCTED BY TH'E BROOKS LOOO~IOTIVE WORKS, DUNKIRK, N. Y., U.S. A.

(Fo,- Desc,.iption, see Page 110.)

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

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CONTENTS.
PAGB

The Pennsy l vania Raiboad

at Chicago (l Uustrat~~) .. 101
The I nternational Mantune
Congress ....... .. . . .. : .. 103
150-Ton Electric Travelhng
Crane at Creus6t (l llustrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Hi~h -Sp eed American Locomotive ( I llustrated) .... 110
The Compound Locomotive
" G reater Britain " . . . . . . 110
Miscellanea .. . ... ..... 111
125-Ton Steam H a mm e r ;
Bethlehem Iron Company,
Peno i!Yl vania
(Illmtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Boiler Elfplosion at Yar mou th . ........ ..... .. .. 112
Ths Repor~ of t he. Ad
miralty Botler Commtttee;
Torpedo - Boat Eggine
Performances ....... .. .. 114
The Int rod uction of B uoys 114
Ty pe writing ~achines ..... 114
Mar ine
E ngme Repatrs
(l llust1ated) .... .... .... 115
Qualityv. Low-Prioed Goods 115
The Met.ric Sys~em ... ... . . 116
A Warmog . ............ ... 115
An English View of Ame rican Rail ways. . . . . . . . . . . 115

T I!B l NBTITU'JllON OF MECIIANICAt; ENGINBERB.-Annual su~ mer

m eeting at Middlesbrough from Tuesday , Au~ust 1st, to Fr1da~,
Auguet 4t h, Middlesbrough , at 10 a. m. on each day, w h en, 10
addition to visits t o the numerous impor tan t wor ks and ot~er
places of interest in the n eig hbourhood, the followmg
papers will be r ead and discussed : " On Recen t D evelopm ents in the Clevela nd Iron and Steel I nd ustries," by
Mr. Jeremiah Head, Past-President, Chairma n of the R eception Committee.
" On t he Middl es broug h Salt Industry,"
by Mr. Rich a rd Grigg, of Middlesbrough. Communicated th~o ugb
Mr. E. Windsor Richards, Vice-P r esident. " On some Ecgmeeriog Improvements in t he River T ees, " by Mr. George J . qia~ke,
of Stockton, Eng ineer to the Tees C~ n senan cy Commt~aton .
Communicated t hrough Mr. Thomas Wr1ghtson, M.P., Cb3:m~an
of the Works Committee of t he Tees Conservancy Commtsston.
" Desc ription of the Elec trc Rock-Drilling Machiner y a t the
Carlin How Ironstone Mines in Clevela nd," by Mr. A. L . Steaven son of Durham. Communicat ed through Sir Lowth ian Bell,
Ba.r't ., Past-President. " On the Artifl<'ial Lighting of Works~ops,"
by Mr. Benjamin A. Dob~on , of Bol t on. "On ~be Wo.~k tng of
St eam Pumps on t he RusSlan South-Western Ra1lways, by Mr.
Alexande r Borod in, Engin eer -Director.
NOB.!l'H OF ENGLAND I NSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL
ENGINEER.B. - The annual general meeting will be h eld in the
Wood Memorial Hall, Newcastle-up on-Tyn e, a t two o'clock, on
Saturda,y Augu st 5th . The following pape rs will be r ead :
"Corliss:Engined Fan a t Seghill Collier y," by Mr. C. C. Leach.
u Note on the Occurrence of Mer cury at Quindi(t," by Mr. Edward
Halse. The following papers will be open for discussion : "Experiments u pon two Guibal Fans at St. J ohn's Colliery , Normanton " by Mr. Ed ward Brow n . (Tra ns. F ed. I nst., vol. iv., part 3,
page 532. ) "Josepb Moore's Hydraulic Pumping Arrangement,"
by Mr. R. T . Moore. (Tra.ns. Fed. lost ., vol. i v. , part 2, page 331. )

ENGINEERING.
FRIDAY, JULY

~8,

1893.

FACTORY NUISANCES.

SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.

NOTICES OF MEETI NGS.

PAGB

Factory N uisances ..... . ..

Shi_Pping and ~~ipbuil ding
Thud-Class Dmmg Cars ..
Ame rican Uni_versities ~t
I t h e Columb1an Exposttion .......... .... ......
Notes .............. . .. ..
Notes from the United
I States .......... ........
Lighting Estuaries and
I Ri vera (lllust1ated) . . .. .
Notes from t h e North . ..
Notes from Cleveland and
1
the Northern Counties ..
Notes from Sout h York1 shire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes from the South-West
Ta.y lor' s R evol ving Bottom
1
Gas Pr.oducer (l llustrate.d)
Industnal Notes . ... ...
Parsons' Steam
Tuzbine
Dyna m o (nllustrated) . . .
Water T ube Ma rine Boilers
(lUustrated) : .. : . ... : ..
S~eam Commumoat10n wtth
1
t he Continent Past and
1
Presen t ... . ... . ... ... ..
1~or ta~ for :Sea} Vorke .... ..
I Engmeenng Patent Reoord (IU'Uitrated) .

117
118
119
119
120
121
121
123
123
123
124
1?4
124
126
127
128
130
131

W'bth a Two-Page Engravimg of et 150-TON ELECTRIC

TRAVELLING CRANE 4T CREUSOT.

THE issue by the Local Government Board of the

annual report of the Chief Inspector of Factories
under the Alkali Works Act, brings very plainly
forward the good r esults that may follow on
judicious State interference. It is difficult to
overestimate the benefits that have arisen to t he
public during the t hirty years that have elapsed
since t he first Alkali Act was passed. It may be
safely said t hat at the present time a large part of
country would be all but uninhabitable had it not
been for this legislation, or- and this is a most vital
part of the question-had the legislation not been
firmly yet judiciously carried out. It is the duty
of the Chief Inspector every year to compile a
report, and the twenty-ninth issue i" now before
us. We are averse to the multiplication of Blue
Books, but one cannot but regret that other public
departments are not called upon to give account of
their stewardship. Such a course would be to the
advantage both of the officials of the department
and of the public ; to the former because they
would not feel t hat they were working in the dark,
with their best efforts unrecognised, even if they
were not thwarted by t heir political and departmental superiors. There is no higher stimulus t o
a public functionary than to know that he is in
direct touch with the people. Government officials
are rightly debarred from newspaper correspondence or articles, but such scholarly and instructive
documents as are t he reports issued by Mr. Alfred
E. Fletcher, t he Chief Inspector under the Alkali
Act, are a gain both to the department he serves
and t o the public. In fact, they serve to throw
light where light is most wanted. Manufacturers
learn what they should do ; those who have done
well find their efforts appreciated ; whilst their
fellow-manufacturers are able to profit by their
examples. The public sees the ut ility of the work
done, and those who are subjected to inconvenience
more gladly put up with it when they grasp the
general usefulness of the whole scheme. We think
it would be to the public advantage if every department of t he Government had annually to issue
a report to justify its taison d' etTe.
This year, by means of legislation, thirteen
additional classes of works have been brought
within the provisions of the Alkali Act, so as very
much t o widen the scope of its action. This is a
fact upon which the public may be congratulated,

I I

and it would be desirable, we have no hesitation in

saying, that public nuisances shou~d ~e brought
under t he control of such an organlB~twn. as that
we are now dealing with. Much leg1slat)l~n, designed for public befl:e~t, h~s been neutrahsed ~y
the fact that its adm1n1strat10n has been placed 1n
t he hands of local authorities, and has thus become
a dead letter. In the case of the ~lkali Act, the
work is intrusted to a number of lllSpectors, ~p
pointed by the Local Government Board, of '!h1Ch
Mr. Fletcher is the chief. The results achieved
may with advantage be compared to th~ la~entable
want of results in the case of the R1v er~ ~ol!u
tion Prevention Act ; the carrying out of wh1Ch IS lntrusted to local authorities. As a matter of course,
it has become almost a dead letter. The .a mendment of this latter Act is now before P arhament,
having been brought to the H ouse of Lords by
Viscount Cross. The purity of the rivers of the
country is, however, we fea!, t oo insignificant a
matter to occupy t he attentiOn of the H ouse of
Commons at the present time, but if a ~ ebate
could be got up it ~o~ld b.e an advant~ge 1f the
two systems of admm1strat10n adop~ed 1n the t.wo
cases of the Alkali Act and the R1vers PollutiOn
Act could be contrasted. The Bill before P arliament continues the pernicious Local Government
principle, and therefore it is, perhaps, no great
matter whether it is brought forward or not. An
instance of t he difference between central and local
administration may be cited in the case of the
Smoke Act. In London it is administered from
the H ome Office, whilst in the country generally
its carrying out is the work of local authorities.
The difference here is very marked. The black
smok e of factory chimneys in London has been
suppressed, whilst in other parts of the country
whole districts are robbed of what beauty they
might possess by the depressing pall of smoke
t hat hangs over the face of the country. There is
really no reason why this should be, and doubtless,
if the Smoke Act were e:ffecti vely administered,
manufacturers would find a means to meet its provisions, as have t he chemical manufacturers to
meet t}-,e r estrictions laid upon them by t he Alkali
Acts. The alkali inspectors are now sufficiently
hardly worked, and it would be useless to throw
additional burdens upon them, but were their
number increased sufficiently for the work, it would
be of t he greatest ad vantage were the smoke
nuisance brought within the provisions of what is
now known as the Alkali, &c., Acts, the scope of
which is constantly increasing.
Turning to Mr. Fletcher's report, we find much
that is encouraging. Tables are given of the
average amount of acid gases escaping for the
various districts into which the country is divided.
In the first line of one of these tables we find given
the amount of the hydrochloric acid found in the
chimney smoke of alkali works. Formerly all
hydrochloric acid was allowed to pass up the factory chimneys, but now the limit fixed is 0. 2 grain
per cubic foot. Proposals were first made t hat a
statutory limit of this nature should be imposed;
there was, it will be remembered, much outcry,
and many manufacturers stated that the provisions
of the Act would be inoperative, because they could
not be carried out, and much the same thing is now
said r egarding factory chimney smoke. It is, therefore, as Mr. Fletcher state.3, a matter of greS\t
satisfaction that the amount of hydrochloric acid
now found is leas than half the statutory limit,
being only 0. 093 grain per cubic foot. Again, the
limit of hydrochloric acid escaping by the chimney,
in r elation to t he quantity of that acid which is
produced, is set down by the Act as 5 per cent. ;
the amount actually found, we are t old in the
report, as the average of the whole year's testing is
again l ess than half the legal limit, b eing 1. 937 per
cent. Turning to sulphuric acid works, where the
escaping gases are chiefly sulphurous acid with some
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and the lower oxides of
nitrogen, the amount found is t hat which is equivalent to 1.284 grains sulphuric anhydride per cubic
foot ; whilst the Act will allow as much as 4 grains.
These figures are highly gratifying, and r eflect
credit alike on the department presided over by Mr.
Fletcher, and on the manufacturers ; t o the former
because it is only by judicious enforcement of the
provisions of the Act and friendly co-operation
that the hostility at first shown could have been
broken down, and to the latter as showing a higher
appreciation of public duty and intelligent administrat ion.
In regard to the latter point the report has some

118
pregnant passages bearing upon the ad vanta<>'es of
large establishments. In fact, the more fully the
factory system of production is carried out, and
the further we get from the pritnitive if not
barbarous cottage industry, the more fully do we
reap the advantages of civilisation. Since the
union of the principal alkali manufacturers into
one company, considerable changes have been
brought about in the various works. Mr. Fletcher
points. out that a wholesome competition has been
established among the managers. Directors, having
the detailed reports before them, have been able
to make exact comparisons b etween the different
systems of managemenb and working. '' All that
was best in the practical details of manufacture,
thou~h found in practice possibly in one of the
smaller works, has been adopted in all, and those
which were proved, on strict comparison, to be
wasteful, haYe been abandoned. Thus a system
of sel ection has been carried on which has
operated more rapidly, and by a less painful
n1ethod, than nature's process of the survival
of the fittest. The best of the managers have
been promoted to the oversight of districts,
and these receive guidance from the central
office.'' The matter is largely an economical
question, but it also has a legislative bearing,
as Mr. Fletcher has discovered, for he says
that this unity of action affords additional
guarantee for the complete observance of the provisions of the Alkali Act. The first Alkali Act, as
pr~viously stated, was passed in 1863, when 82
works were registered under its provisions. The
number of these increased in a few years to about
150, but the duty of the inspectors went no further
than the control of the hydrochloric acid generated
in manufacture. It is interesting to trace the influence of the Act. The limit fixed, beyond which
any escape of hydrochloric acid rendered the
manufacturer liable to a penalty, was 5 per cent. of
the amount generated, but, previously to the
passing of the Act, a tower for the condensation of
this acid had been erected at Messr3. Cross6eld's
works at St. Helens; that was in the year 1835, or
twenty-sevenyea.rs before the pa$singof the first Act.
Other means were also provid ed for the coll~ction
of the acid, but many factories still allowed the
gases to pass up through the chimneys, which were
m~de extraordinarily high for the purpose. The
tallest of all still stands, "a monument of expensive brickwork, on the hill of St. Rollox, Glasgow. '' The high chimney failed, however, in preventing the torrents of acid gas sent through it
from returning to the earth and bringing destruction to vegetation, so that the large sums
spent on the erection of these enormous stalks
were to a large extent wasted ; excepting that it
prevented the nuisance being so apparent in the
immediate neighbourhood, and therefore somewhat removed the odium from the works implicated. St. R ollox chimney, which is 483 ft.
from foundation to top, and 50 ft. in diameter at bottom, was built in the year 1841 ;
five years after Messrs. Crossfield erected the first
Gossage tower at St. Helens. What the cos t of
the chimney was we are n ot aware, but at any rate
a large sum must have been spent in order to spread
abroad, to the desolation of the neighbourhood, an
acid gas which is now cherished by the manufacturer
as his principal source of profit.
As has been p ointed out, the working of the
Alkali Acts reduced the nuisance from escaping
gases enormously, but the manufacture of alkali
was so greatly developed about that time that though
the escape of gas was kept in check, still the damage
done to lands in the neighbourhooas where they
were established did not cease. This led to a Royal
Commission being appointed to inquire into the
conditions of the trade. In accordance with its
r ecommendations the Act of 1881 was pass~d. This
gave the inspec~ors m?re power in c~ntrolling the
noxious gases with wh10h they had hitherto dealt,
and also brouaht other chemical processes of manufacture underbinspection. In a. short time, however,
the schedule of the 1881 Act was found to be incomplete and new chemical processes arising, the
amen'ded Act of last year was passed, by whi~h. a
group of thirteen fresh processes .are ~rought within
the provisions of the Act ; whilst In some c~se~,
such as salt works in Scotland and Ireland, rehef iS
afforded to manufacturers.
A good instance of the va~ue of legislative. pressure is found in the workmg of the Act m the
matter of recovering sulphur from tho tank waste
of alkali works. By this process, Mr. Fletcher

E N G I N E E R I N G.
tells u~, an enormous quantity of sulphuretted through the air as an impalpable white cloud,
hydrogen is evolved, and dealt with so as to retain ~'often of sufficient volume to shroud the works
the sulphur in solid form. A process introduced and obscure the neighbourhood. It also settles on
by Mr. A. M. Chance was rapidly adopted ; so the neighbouring herbage. To arrest this vapour
rapidly that time was not given for one manu- or cloud of oxide of zinc has for long taxed the
facturer to observe the mistakes of others. There resources of the zinc smelters. " Attempts have
was much difficulty in preventing the escape of been made in some works to r emove the nuisance,
sulphuretted hydrogen, and for some time much but. with only partial success. Legislation ha~
nuisance was occas10ned. This is now, however, apparently roused manufacturers, and experiments
past, the points of danger being well understood are now being made which it is hoped will lead to
eatisfactory results, and that what is now a g reat
and carefully watched.
Works employed in the production of various source of trouble will be turned into a valuable
descriptions of iron oxide used for painting or material for use.
The Alkali Act enjoins ''That the best practicable
polishing purposes are a new feature within the
scope of the Act, material of t his kind being means shall be employed for preventing the dislargely used in plate-glass works. It is manufac- charge into the atmosphere of all noxious and bad
tured by roasting sulphate of iron at a. high tem- offensive gases evolved in such work. " It could be
perature. At first the water of crystallisation is wished, however, that the department, which has
driven off; this is followed by acid gases, one-half worked so well, and proved itself so efficient, could
being sulphurous and the other half sulphuric. have, as we have before stated, its powers extended,
Generally these gases have passed freely away by and that for the expression, '' all noxious and rad
the chimney, though in some cases they have been offensive gases evolved in such work," we could
led to wash-towers where a large proportion of the substitute a. more ancient and less elegant expression,
acid is dissolved in water and condensed. At one ''all stinks and nuisances." It seems little less
works the gases were used in a sulphuric acid than monstrous that a factory-perhaps a small
chamber. A useful field is open to the inspectors, in a.nd insignificant factory -should be allowed to
preventing the discharge of these noxious acid gases deluge a whole neighbourhood with its disgusting
into the atmosphere. The works next mentioned in effiuvium. 'Ve call to mind a. certain glue-works
the schedule of the Act are those for the smelting of in an otherwise pleasant part of Kent. When t he
sulphate of lead, found as a deposit in s ulphuric wind is in a certain direction the whole of the resiacid chambers. Although but a. sm11.ll industry, dential suburb is rendered almost uninhabitable ;
the nuisance arising from it is very great, the indeed, many houses have become vacant through
neighbourhood of the works l::eing deluged with this nuisance. On the western side of London
acid gases. A remedy will now have t o be found there is a notorious soap works which the authorifor this ; as Mr. French says, it is not too much ties appear to have no power to compel to amend
to require that either by wa.shir g the sulpha ~ e of their ways. Chemical manure works abound on
lead the free acid shaH be removed before it is the lower part of the Thames, and with northerly
thrown into the furnace, or that by pa~sing the winds send their foul emanations over a large part
gases through a wash-tower they shall be cleansed of the Kentish border. Lower down the river,
from acid before reaching the chimney. Arsenic again, cement works are numerous, although here
works are old and hardened offenders, which wi1l there is doubtless more excuse, as the choke that
now be brought to book. The cond ensation of comes from cement manufacture is more difficult to
ars enic in the chambers and flues provided for the deal with than the stench before referred to. We
purpose, is never complete, and the r emainder is have mentioned but one or two instances out of
scattered abroad, so as to often injure adjacent her- hundreds that might be adduced. In many cases
bage and poison the cattle that browse on it. It simple precautions and no great outlay would preshould be stated, however, that some of the works vent these nuisances, and it is but reasonable to
have-r oluntarily placed themselves under inspection demand in a thickly populated country like Engbefore the passing of the Act, with a desire to do land that we should have legislation enforcing
what they could to arrest the nuisance.
The proper precaution, and, above all, efficient machinery
amount of arsenic escaping at various works for putting it in effect.
differs greatly ; in one Cllse the grains per cubic
foot of air in chimney being 7.40 ; whilst in ot her
cases it is no more than 0.10. It is satisfactory,
SHIPPING AND SHIPBUILDING.
however, to know that in the former case mentioned
THE prospects for shipowners just now are rethe application of a condenser has reduced the garded as sllghtly better, and there is more employamount to 0. 2 grain per cubic foot of escaping ment for existing vessels. It is stated, for instance,
83Ses. The usual manner of attempting to treat that a large proportion of the 500,000 tons of
a.raenica.l smoke with a view to extracting t he arsenic, steamers lying idle at the beginning of thi year are
has been by w&.ter towers, where a shower of water now. at work, and :eights have improved generally.
washes down the solid particles. This, however, is V ~no us reas_o ns give hope for the expectation of
unsatisfactory from many points of view- firstly, still further Improvement.. The drought in Europe
because the p ower of water to take hold of solid generally and the necessity of exporting more
matter when in a state of extreme subdivision is breadstuffs and fodder than usual, combined with
small; and, secondly, because the streams into the harvest prospects in North America will result
which the effiuent water is carried become poisoned. in much of the idle tonnage being empl~yed. Th e
F ortunately, Mr. French tells us, a dry condenser more stable position in the Argentine R epublic
is more effective 1han a wet one; the former con- mu~t tend ultimately to an expansion of trade,
sists of a chamber 6ft. to 10ft. square by 10ft. wlule the slow but steady return of confid ence in
high, filled with common broom, furze, or other financial c~rcles may tend t o a quickening of cornopen material resting on horizontal bars. The me~c?, which has never r ecovered the vitality so
smoke passes through this dry filter on its way to de_c~sively ch.ecked as a consequence of the Baring
the chimney, and the arsenic is c:1ught. There crisis. Agamst these h opeful indications is the
are holes in the walls of the chamber through depre~ sion in the trade with Australia due to the
which a bar may be introduced for shaking the b~nk failures ; but probably the Yast ~esources of
filtering matter, when the arsenic falls into the col.onies will bring about a recovery, and profit
an empty space below. A somewhat similar be derived by. th~ lesson of the evils of speculation.
arrangement of filter is used for separating the G~ner~lly, shippmg has better prospects, and since
sulphurous acid from the smok e in the manufac- shipb~n.lders have succeeded in attaining a most
ture of arsenic, but here a wa.sh-tcwer is added for surprisi~g degree of ec?nomical efficiency, not prothe final process. In this way the acid in one case babJy without self-sacnfice, the rates for building
has been reduced from 7. 92 t o 2. 98. The nuisances are not much more than half what they were a few
that come from tar-distilling works are well known years ago. Now a 5000-ton s t~amer may be built
to those who live in the neighbourhood of the less for the price charged three or four years ago for a
well-conducted of these establishments, and it is 3000-t on steamship.
satisfactory to learn that they are to be brought
The statistics prepared by Lloyd's afford proof
within legislative control. D oubtless in the larger o~ some sy.mpa.thy on the part of own ers with these
fact ones efforts are made to reduce the nuisance to VIews, wh1le the effect on the trade is indicated by
more reasonable proportions, but in some of the the re~ur~s of unemployed mad e by the leading trade
smaller works public convenience and health are organ1s~t10ns. In the case of the Iron Shipbuilders
ignored. Mr. French's assistance will put a better and B01Iermakers, one of the largest unions, the
aspect on this question. The last industry referred percentage of unemployed has decreased from 18
to in the new Act is that of zinc smelting. The to ~4 _Per cent. since the beginning of the year,
oxidised vapour resulting from the process assumes whtle in the _case of t he Engineers' Society, out of
a condition of extreme division, and floats away a membership of 73,000, f>OOO are idle from all

E N G I N E E R I N G.
causes. At the end of June the tonnage on hand
aggregated 609,120 tons, the measurement of 352
't'essels. This is 12,000 tons less than was the case
three months ago, notwithstanding, too, that the
launches during the quarter are considerably below
the average, totalling but 178 ,000 tons, whereas
t he usual tonnage is nearer a quarter of a mil1ion.
Vessels tmdcr Construction in the Un.ited K ingdom.
July, 1893
..
April, 1893 . .
Januar y, 1893..
Oc t ober, 1S92 .
July, 1892
..
April, 1892 ..
Januarr,1892..
July , 1891
..
" 1b90
..
..
, 1S 9

352 or 609, 120 tons

354, 6t1,668 ,
806 , 670 ,741 ,.
S8!l , 678,780 ,.

447, 778,462 ,
493 , , 813,078 ,.
494, 792,913 .,
630 , 769,300 ,
464 .. 7:39,9\4 "
636 ,. 929,611 ,

15 3 p.o. being sail.

13.9
,
11.2
14
19
23.2

,.
.,
,
,

25

21.4
11
94

,
"
,

'fhe improvement since the beginning of the

year is marked, more especia1ly when it is remembered that by the completion of one of the two
Cunard steamers, a di fl'~rence of over 12,000 tom;
has been made good, for in Lloyd's re turns a vessel
is regarded as under constru<.,-tion until she is
delivered. I t is interesting to note that four years
ago, in July, 1889, the total reached its maximum,
the tonnage being 52 per cent. greater than now,
while the minimum- in September, 1886- was
42 per cent. less t han at present. An interesting
point is the larger proportion of sailing tonnage,
which indicates relatively less work for the marine
engineer. The figures do not include warships, and
it is t o be borne in mind that eighteen months ago
there were a large number under construction in
pri\"a.te yards, \vhile now there are only a few
torpedo boats and destroyers. A satisfactory feature
of the situation, because it indicates the recent improved tone in a. more tangible form than t he large
number of inquiries said to be in the market, is the
large number of vessels for the construction of which
preparations are being made. The number in the
i ni tia.l stages of construction is quite equal to that
of a year ago, notwithstanding that t he total in all
stages is now 170,000 tons less. Indeed, not for
eighteen months have the Yessels being laid dow n
made such a large percentage of t he total in all
stages of construction. There is, too, a very much
larger percentage of steam tonnage, as will be seen
from the appended Table :
Vessels in l ttitial Stages of

Con.~truction.

--

No.

.-

Januarr, 1892
Apr il, 1892
July, 1892
October, 1892
J o.nuary, 1893
April, 1893
July, 1893

T ons.

115

299,616

118

77

223,2i6
12l249

40

75
i5
64

72,716
154.869
126 974
120,768

Pe r centage 1 Percentage
.
to T otal
<. f Sail.
Tonnage.
30.7
22.6
24.5
30.0
19.2
2'3

16

87. 7
2tS.4
l fi.S
10.9

27

20.4

34

The percentage of vessels building for British

owners is rather less than usuaJ, while a much
larger prop or tion of the tonnage is apparently being
constructed for sale. Germany has in British yards
six vessels aggr egating 17,688 tons, Russia six of
11,590 tons, Spain five of 7670 tons, France six of
5690 tons, and Austria three of 5050 tons, but these
are about average r esults. The improvement on
the condition of three months ago ia fairly apportioned amongst t he various districts, although the
Mersey is in an unsatisfactory state aR r egards new
work on hand. When comparison is made with the
statistics for the beginning of the year , it is found
that the Clyde total is one-third greater- -213,502
tons, as compared with 156,929 tons. I t is even
better t han it was a. year ago. On t he Tyne,
however, there is a large decrease on the total of
July last year; but still the aggregate of 113,523
tons is better than in January last. The same may
be said of the Wear, although the Tees has not improved on the state of aff<lirs obtaining in J anuary.
Ireland continues to enjoy a large measure of
activity.

THIRD-CLASS DINING CARS.

THIS year there has been inaugurated what will
undo ubtedly prove one of the impor tant social
chan~es of t he present age. The effect of introducing third-class dining cars, with meals at moderate
price:J, will have a result far more reaching t han
would at firat appear. The rail way has been the
gr eat social leveller, and since third-class travelling
ha.3 become usual, not to say fashionable, amongst
the more educated classes, its effect has been
Increased tenfold. I t is n ot long ago t he thirdclass carriage was looked on as a travelling Alsatia,

to which roughness was natural. Now the British

workman is beginning to feel some shame in getting
into a. rail way carriage where tht::re are ladies in the
dirty condition wbich is often necessary to his
work. In America. a workman engaged, say, in a
foundry , or on bricklaying operations, would be
ashameu to leave his work without first cleansing
himself. He would be scouted by his fellows and
looked on with contempt by those brought into
contact with him. Whether, or how far, t his is the
effect of the democratic system of rail way t ra veiling
in America, where there is only one class, it would
be difficult to say, but we think that it may be concluded that what is practically a similar result is
having a 1ike effect in England. Eappily the
mixing of classes results in a levelling upward. I t
is a. t ruism to say that the good is stronger than the
evil ; otherwise, civilisation would have ceased to
exist centuries ago.
All this, h0wever, is perhaps a little beyond our
present purpose, which is to describe the new
corridor trai n which is being run on the east coast
route, between London and Edinburgh. It is, we
believe, to t he joint east coast companies t hat the
credit of suggesting thi rdclass dining cars is due,
although by greater activity in t he car-building
department the more western route got an actual
start of their competitors in the inauguration.
On Saturday last a preliminary or t rial run was
made of this new service, a trai n leaving IGng's
Cross at 2.35, and arriving at Edinburgh at 11. 5.
The train consisted of the following vehicles, beside
the engine and tender : A guard's van, by Craven,
of Sheffield ; a first-class corridor carriage, by the
Gloucester \ Vagon and Carriage Company; a. firstclass dining-saloon, by the L ancaster Railway
Carriage and V\7agon Company ; the kitchen carriage was in the middle of t he traio, and had been
built by the Birmingham Carriage and vVa.gon
Company. Next came the two special feat ures (.If
the train : the thirdclass dining-saloon , and two
th ird-class corridor carriages, by t he Oldbury Railway Carriage Company ; the brake van was one of
the Great Northern's own vehicles. The whole of
the train is connected by covored gangways, so t hat
attendants are able to walk from end to end. The
kitchen car in the centre serves as a division
between the first and t hird class parts of the train.
On Saturday last the special t rain was timed to
start at 2.35, as stated, which is five minutes later
than the ordinary expr ess. At Newcastle, ho wever, t he express had to wait for a Midland
carriage, so t hat t he special was able to get in
front. Here had been put on one of Mr. Worsdell's
newest bogie engines, N o. 1619, and the driver,
Enoch Shipley, therefore got a chance of showing
of what his engine was capable. The consquence
was t hat the t rai n got into Edinburgh 10 minutes
earlier than the appointed time. The train left
Newcastle at 8.28, and arrived at the \Va.verley
Station at 10. 55. The distance is 124 miles, bui
allowing for the stop at Berwick and other stopping
and starting, the pace may be taken as so mew here
about 60 miles per hour. The weight of th e train
was 138 tons; the weight of the engine used,
No. 1619, was 92 tons with tender loaded with
coal ; of the latter there was 80 cwt.. F our engines
were us~d on the journey : one from King's Cross
to Grantham, 105 miles; one from Gra.ntham to
York, 83 miles ; these were Great vVestern engines.
At York a new North-Eastern engine was put on,
and drew the train to Newcastle, a distance of
80~ miles. At Newcastle a North-Eastern engine,
No. 1619, was put on as stated above, and carried
the train to the end of its j ourney.
On a t rial t rip such as was run on ~aturda.y last,
wit h ~ irectors and high officials on board, naturally
the dmner could not be take n as representative of
the ordinary thi.rd-class fare ; those, however who
have experience of the usual first-claes din~er as
hitherto provided, know that it is certainly as good
as could be got in an average r estaurant at the
price, viz., 3s. 6d. ; in fact, the dinner itself is as
cheap as could be desired. It is only the heavy
tax in the shape of a. first-class ticket that has
prevented people of ordinary means from dining
en 1'0Hte. Now, however, there is no drawback of
this nature, as only ordinary third-class far e is to
he charged in t he dining cars. The accommodation
t hat will be given in the t hird.cla.ss saloon is absolutely t he same as in the first-class. Of course, in
the term '' accommodation " we do n ot include
artistic luxuries, such as gilding and decoration.
Each passenger, however, will have a. seat to himself and a full half of the dining table ; in fact,

19

he will be provided with t he same space as ~f he

took a first-class ticket. The charge for dinner
will be 1~ . less than in the iirst-class saloon- viz. ,
2s. 6d. , and for this soup! fish , joint, ve.getable~,
sweets, and cheese will be 1ncluded. The first days
men'' consists of soup, salmon, roast la.m.b, greenaage tart besides vegetables, and these v1ands are
~f the fi;st q uality. Luncheon will be 2a. , and
consists of soup, joint, and cheese. The ?nl.Y
wonder is how it will be made to pay, when 1t 1s
considered that everything is cooked on board the
train and served hot ; t here being a French chef
and two assistants, besides waiters, scullerymen, &c. In addition to the or dinary m.en.'lt., passenaers can, if they wish, dine a la ca:rie, chops,
cutiets, steaks, cold meats, &c , being carried ; .or,
if the passenger be of a very frugal turn of mmd
he can obtain a pc)t of tea with roll and butter for
6d. The communication between the carriages is on
the American '' vestibuling "system, the passengers
being able to pass from one vehicle to another without exposure to the weather; an ordinaryindiarubber
waterproof material is supplied to form the screen
and flexible joint between the carriageP, which is all
that is needed. The dining saloons are run on
bogies, but tho other coaches are the ordinary
six-wheel stock, and naturally do not give t he ease
in travelling which is characteristic of the more
modern l 1nger carriage. The lighting and cooking
are both done by gas. The carriages are heated by
hot water from the kitchen boiler pipes.

Al'riERICAN UNIVERSITIES AT THE

COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.
!!.- YALE.
NEXT to Harvard in antiquity, comes Yale
U niversity. Like that venerable seat of learning,
it owes its inception to a n um her of public spirited
clergymen, and its name t o a. wealthy and enlight en ed
Englishman. No IJrettier or more suitable ~pot in
the fertile valley watered by the Connecticut River,
could have been found for a. school than the beautiful site chosen at the head of New Ha ven Bay.
There, in full view of t he sparkling waters of the
Sound, the first buildings of the ' ' Collegiate
School of Connecticut " rose in October, l 71G.
Two years later, the infant institution was rechristened in grateful acknowledgment of the
munifi cent gift offered by a L ondon citizen, once
Governor of the East Indi~ Company 's settlement
at Madras. This was Elihu Yale, who loved Conn ecticut because h e was born in its picturesque
valley, and spent his boyish years amid st the r ocky
and leafy scen ery of New Haven. A t the age of
ten, he bade adieu to t he colony, and r eturned with
his family to Europe.
Mindful of his early home in New England,
Yale sent 500l. for the maintenance of the new
academical found ~tion . This gift came so oppertuncly to the a~d of the embatra.Es<.d finances of
the nascent institution, that it was decided to
abandon its chartend title and call it Yale Colleae.
0
This was in Septem her, 1718.
The liberality of Gove1nor Yale found ge nerous
imitators; the exist ence of t he co11ege was assured
an~ i~s prosperity went on eYer incr easing. Ne;
butldmgs were er ected, and new faculties added.
Originally a mere ' Collegiate School " with powers
to confer degrees in Arts, it gra.dual1y extended its
sphere of utility, now adding a. M edical School
(1814), t hen one in L aw (1843), 0ne in Science
(1847), and on ~ in Divinity (1867), until the circle
of human knowledge was complete. Th e system of
colleges that had now grown up in New Haven was
formed int.o on~ corporate ~nion ; and, in J anuary,
1887, received 1ts present btle of Yale University
from the General Assembly of the State of Con necticut.
Scattered here and there r ound the greens or
along. the ~h ady a.ve~ues of the fashionable part of
the.Clty, he the vanousschools of the university.
It IS true their walls do n ot speak of ancient
architecture, n or d o they bear the blackened and
crumbling impress of the storms of centuries as
those in other lands. In strolling through Merton
or Magdalen e at. Oxford, through Trinity or Emma.nuel at Cambridge, one feels the silent majesty
of those austere nurseries of learnin a. There is
nothing to r elieve the sense of oppres:ive wondf r
ment, nothing to please the eye save t he vel vety
sward in the ''quad," or the play fields at the
" backs. " But here in New H aYen the colleges are
modern. structures, some, indeed, plain and un
pretentious, others elegant and commodious, but

ENGINEERING

120

[JULY 28, 1893.

all of them surrounded with rows of magnificent

All t hese eminent men are assisted in the details
In the annals of American science there is no
elms, screened from the wintry winds by a crescent of their various departments by a numerous body more venerable name than that of Benjamin
of high beetling r ocks, and mirrored with playful of instructors and tutors.
Silliman, the author of t he earliest text-books on
accuracy on the placid waters of L ong Island
Practical work r eceives a large share of r ecogni- chemistry, and founder of the well-known .Amuican
Sound. In the course of our many rambles in tion at Yale. There is a physical laboratory, the J m.t?'?tal of ScieHce a11d .A,.t. H e it was that
many lands, we have not seen a prettier or more gift of Henry T. and Thomas C. Sloane, and a fostered, in his chemical class at Yale, the budding
attractive spot for the seat of a university than t he chemical laboratory, t he gift of Albert E. l{ent, inventive genius of Samuel Finley Breese Morso,
city so appropriately called the City of Elms.
both of which are thoroughly equipped with the t he father of electro-magnetism, and t he code-giver
The number of students in all the faculties most modern apparatus.
of electric telegraphy. Morae left Yale in 1810,
during the year 1892-93 was 2000 ; they were disThe Sheffield Scientific School, named after just as a youth was entering the freshman claRs
tributed as follows :
another New Haven benefactor, viz., Joseph E. who was destined to give a vigorous fillip to the
Sheffield, has its own commodious laboratories teaching of science. This was Denison Olmsted,
In Yale College . . .
. ..
...
... 966
".
fitted with machinery, engines, and appliances whose books on physics and astronomy, now
, the Science School .. .
...
... 529

., ,, Graduate ,, .. .
...
.. .
... 125
necessary for instruction and experimental research obsolete, were for nearly half-a-century t he standard
,, ,, Divinity ,, .. .
... ... 109
in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering.
text- books in schools and colleges .
, , Law
, .. .
. ..
...
171
" .
Olmsted
secured,
The
scientific
school
has
also
an
observatory
in
in 1835, the first observations
, , Medical , .. .
.. . ...
76
."
which students are familiarised with the use of the ever made in America on Halley's comet, and he
, , Art
, ...
... 31
.
.
telescope, meridian circle, and other important did so in conjunction wit.h Elias Loomis, another
The number of professors, instructors, and instruments.
Yale man who won fame by his college manuals
lecturers was 155.
There is a second observatory, the Athenreum, and original investigations.
The former have
In Yale, as in Harvard, we find great considera- for the exclusive use of t he academical department, served to popularise his na.me, whilst his contrition paid to the wants of needy scholars. Indeed, whilst on the top of Prospect Hill rises a third butions to astronomy, electricity, and meteorology
Yale seems to treat with even greater tenderness observatory entirely devoted t o astronomical re- have placed him among t he foremost American men
this class of students than her wealthier sister at search. I t is under the direction of Dr. 'Villiam of science.
Cambridge.
She offers annually in scholarships Elkin, and is furnished with an 8-in. equatorial, a
To thia brief catalogue the names of other worand prizes a sum of 6000l. Besides this, a regular 6-in. heliometer, a transit, chronographs, &c. thies might be added- of such divines as Dr.
loan fund is constituted to help impoverished Besides r egular astronomical work, the observatory Whitney, such jurists and judges as David Brewer
exchequers, and a library organised of college maintains two public services : one for the deter- and William Evarts, and such statesmen as Edward
text-books, and works of general reference to be mination and transmission of accurate time, and J. Phelps and Chauncey M. Depew; but sufficient
loaned gratuitously to those whose slender means the second for research and comparison in ther- has been said to show that Yale has contributed
do not allow them to purchase these necessary mometry.
largely to the popularisation and solidly to the
impedimenta.
A university that shows such
The work done on P rospect Hill is published in advancement of mathematical and chemical, as well
solicitude for the welfare of her alumni is to them the Transactions of '' The Yale Observatory ; " as of physical and astronomical science.
not in word only, but in very deed, an alma mater. while the .American Joun ~al of Science, "The Yale
In t he galleries of the Liberal Arts Building,
The benefactors and corporation of Yale, past Review, " "The Transactions of t he Connecticut Yale is, if anything, too modest. In vain do we
and present, show themselves to have been actuated Academy of Arts and Science," r eceive frequent look for an adequate collection of the publications
by the same noble, democratic spirit that animated papers from the various professors and instructors. of her great men, and for the discoveries of her
the men who established our great public schools
The students, likewise, issue t heir own literature. scientists ; in vain do we search for specimens from
and medi~val universities-our Wykehams and They are r esponsible for the Yale Litera1y Magct- her museums and work from her laboratories ; all
\Vaynfletes, our Chicheleys and Flemings. Those zine (monthly), the Y ale L aw Jo urnal , the Y ale that we find is a collection, very extensive and
schools were endowed for the poor scholar, t o help Ne ws (daily !), and the Y ale .Al'ttmni (weekly).
handsome indeed, of photographs of her presidents
him along the rugged road of learning to the
They seem also to be fully alive, in these days of and most distinguished alumni, as well as of the
coveted prize of a university degree, and through independent thought and wordy disputation, to various schools, laboratories, and classes, together
it to success and happiness in life. But unfor- the advantages to be derived from debating with a folio for graduates to enter their names. In
tunately many of them have long forgotten the societies ; for we find the Yale Union open to all looking over t his register, we found these words
intentions of their founders, and widely departed departments of the university, the Yale Kent from the pen of an enthusiastic classic, Ditt florea t
from the purposes of their institution. It is no longer Debating Olub accessible to the lawyers, and the .Almct Mc~ote1 Y ale?Lsis, which sentiment, needless
the poor pilgrim of learning that is found within Freshman Union open only to t he academical fresh- to say, we heartily indorse.
their precincts, but rather the sons of princely mer- man class.
chants, the scions of titled families, the heirs to
The libraries are numerous and well stocked :
NOTES.
broad estates. Happily, it is not so with Yale. The U niversity Library
E LE UTRIC HEATTNG.
Ever mindful of the philanthropic spirit of its
contains ...
...
... 160,000 bound volumes.
IN a recent issue (see page 911 of our last volume)
found ers and benefactors, Yale continues to hold The Linonian and Brothers
we called attention to a new method of heating
Library ...
...
... 32,000.
out a warm and generous hand to the son of toil
metals by electricity. Quite r ecen tly Mr. Jules
unblessed by the smiles of Fortune, and bids him The Dwight Hall Library 1000 (chiefly Biblical).
The
Law Lihrary .. .
.. . 9000.
N eh er has sent to the E lect1ical W orld (New York)
welcome to her academic halls. May Yale long The Sheffield
Hall Library 6000 (largely mathematical). an account of some experiments he has made with
maintain this spirit, and may she hand down the The Trowbridge Reference
the process in the lab01:atories of the W estinghouse
Library ...
traditions of the past and the present whole and
...
... 3000 (theological).
Electric and Manufacturing Company. He found
The Art School Library .. .
500.
unchanged to remote posterity !
it to be important to close the switch before t he
Total number of bound volumes, 211,000.
Yale provides not only a comprehensive arts
We observe with pleasure that the benefits of metal was immersed in the acidified water of the
course, but also extensive instruction in pure and
applied science. The professors are m ~n of re- the university are not restricted to its alumni. lead-lined vessel. If the iron was immersed before
cognised competency, and often of w1despread Lectures are periodically given which are specially t he switch was closed, as much as 200 amperes at
reputation. Among t hese is Prof. Hu bert A. intended for the general public. Last year, for 120 volts could be passed through without any
Newton, who lectures on analytical statics and the instance, a course of forty lectures was given on considerable heating effect, the total energy being
calculus, and who is deservedly considered to be an topics in mental and moral science, as well as in consumed in electrolysis and heating of the water.
authority, co-ordinate with our own ~ockyer! on political and social science; a mechanics course of When the switch is first closed, the hydroaen
meteoritiic phenomena. Professor J. 'VI!lard G1bbs twelve lectures on scientific subjects presented in a separates the liquid from the metal, and an ar~ is
dexterously wields the ponderous concepti?ns of popular form ; and an art course of forty lectures produced. The apparatus used had the following
dimensions : A plain glass jar 8 in. high and 5 in.
vector analysis, and teaches the computatiOn of on the history, criticism, and principles of art.
The influence which t he university exerts in diameter was filled with water containing 25 per
elliptical and parabolic orbits. Profes~or Arth~r
\V. Wright, a veteran teacher and prohfic exper~ through these and similar lectures, as well as cent. of sulphuric acid. The positive pole conmenter presides over the department of experi- through its professors and resident graduates, its sisted of a -in. sheet-lead cylinder, the edges
mental 'physics, in which he is assisted by Professor clubs and societies, its social festivities and standing apart about 2 in ., so as t o allow the
Charles S. Hastings, an investigator of note, and academical exercises, is quite apparent in the air of inside of the cell t o be seen. The iron cathode
by Professor Ed ward S. Dana, one of the chief graceful ease, in the polite attentions and courteous consisted of a ~-in. r ound iron bar, connected to
editors of the American Jou n tal of Science. In hospitality- in a word, in the culture and refine- the dynamo cable, and fasten ed to a wooden stick.
going, some time ago, through the physical labora- ment that strike a stranger as characteristic of the Several tests gave results as follows : With 20
amperes at 150 volts a weight of 15 grammes of
tory we noticed on the bookshelf some of our old people of New Haven.
Many of the sons of Yale have won distinction wr ought iron was brought to a melting point in
English friends, e.g., Glazebrook ,and Sha.w's
"Practical Physics," Stewart and Gee s "Pract10al in the paths of literature, law, science, and art. 15 sec., the iron actually dropping down to the
Physics "Ayr ton's "Electricity," Kempe's "Hand- The late President, Dr. N oah Porter, is remembered bottom of the jar, which was covered with a disc
of
lead
to protect the glass. Mr. N eh er calculated
in
t
he
university
for
his
deep
knowledge
of
mental
book of Electrical Testing, " and Everett's '' Units
philosophy, and his vigorous defence of religion that the energy utilised in heating the metal was
and Physical Constants."
.
The young engineers are under the g utdance of against the attacks of pseudo-science ; and he is approximately 35 per cent. of that expended .
STEAM .AN D ELECTRIC LAU NCH ES I N CHI NA.
Professor Au~Yustus Du Bois, author of standard known all the world over for his lexicographic
The Consul of t he United States at Ningpo, in
works on graphical statics and translator of W eis- services as editor of Webster's Dictionary.
Noah Webster himself graduated in 1778. When China, is making an effort to introduce steam and
bach's ''Mechanics of Engineering " ; and also of
J>rofessor Charles B. Richards, a frequent con- ti{'ed of t he monotonous duties of schoolmaster electric launches, and has sent to his Government
and itinerant lecturer, he devoted some twenty years a report to encourage American manufacturers to
tributor to American engineering periodicals.
The natural science men have the ad vantage of to those philological studios t hat r esulted in his send details to further his end, and which, if
listenina to Professor Othniel C. Marsh, to Pro- monumental work. It is a matter of pride to many accomplished, means an extension of United States
fessor James D. Dana, and Professor Addison E. that Webster lived for years in the Elm City, and trade. It is pointed eut that in the country, exV errill, all three indefatigable explorers and that the preface to the first edition of the dic- tending o 39,500 square miles, with about 30
tionary is dated from New Haven.
million inhabitants, and intersected by t housands
authoritat ive writers.

"

"

121

E N G I N E E R I N G.
of miles of canal which are the great highways of
travel and commerce, there is no inland craft
mechanically propelled, excepting a few launches
between Shanghai and Hankow. Even such a dignitary as the Taotai, who has to undertake frequent j ourneys, uses a rowboat, travelling 33 miles
in a day. The boats sent must be strongly built,
and the propeller arranged so that it can be taken up
or protected from the ropes that are passed around
the stern while the boat is being pulled over the
"haul-over between river and canal, or from a
lower to a higher canal. There are no locks,
the inclines being of masonry or earthwork
covered with slippery clay, and the haulage
is by windlasses, or occasionally by "water buffaloes " or oxen. There is a preference for the
native house- boat with its conveniences for
living for weeks on board, and if motors could be
fitted on board there would be a g reat demand,
especially, as the United States Consul remarks, if
the Taotai set the example. In constructing
launches, Chinese design should be adopted, and
the consul gives some information. The length
might be 38 ft.; breadth, 6 ft. 10 in.; height from
keel to rail, 3 ft. ; and from rail to top of house,
2 ft. 9 in., which does not give much headroom ; the consul suggests that the sides of the
house might be higher and made to telescope,
or to be lowered t o suit the canal bridges. Smokestacks must be short and easily lowered. The
consul adds that he has been discussing the
benefits of small launches with the Taotai for the
past two years, and now he is requested to gain
all information, including cost. If t he Taotai
should adopt the launch for his own use, the
consul is quite confident that it will n ot be long
before many orders will be placed. There is a
splendid opening. An immense t raffic is carried on
in boats, which now depend on the tide and the
endurance of the scullers.
FLu E BoiLERS.
An interesting discussion on the construction
and working of the Cornish boiler recently took
place before the Mining Association and Institute
of Cornwall. Mr. H. N. Harvey, A.M.I.C.E., in
a paper on the subject, raised a number of practical points which were commented on by several
prominent mining engineers. The end plates, Mr.
Harvey stated, should have ample breathing space,
the gussets not being brought nearer to the flue than
10 in. With pressure not exceeding 50 lb., gussets
wer e, h owever, not required in Cornish boilers
of the usual dimensions. S taying with bolts
was objectionable, as the bolts did n ot heat as
quickly as t h e rest of the boiler, and expansion strains resulted. Grooving, Mr. Conatantine said, might also r esult from the use of
too thick end plates, as well as from improper
staying. The longit udinal joints should be kept
near the crown of the boiler, as leakage was then
more easily detected and stopped. The boilers
should be set on firebrick, the edge supporting the
boiler being n ot more t han about 4 in. wide. Where
there are several boilers t he walls between t he
side flues should be at least 24 in. thick, or it would
be difficult to properly inspect one boiler without
laying off its neighbours, as the h eat would be unbearable. The side B. ues should be of am pie size
for inspection. Where clean water could be obtained the gases should pass under the boiler first,
and then t hrough the side B. ues, as the circulation
of water in the boiler would then be improved. With
dirty water, however, the deposit on t he bottom
plates prevented the heat passing through, and it
was then best to arrange for the h ot gases to pass
through the side flues first. The steam gauge
should be placed on the top of the boiler front,
and a little way back, to prevent the glass being
clouded with sm oke when the damper was closed.
The shape of the firebars should vary with the coal
to be used. The bridge should be of cast iron, supported on wrough t-iron lugs riveted to the flue, and
have a damper fitted beneath, worked by a handle
brought to the boiler front. The feed should enter
the boiler through a pipe 15 ft. long, fitted with a
rose at its end. The feed valve should be arranged
to act both as a stop valve and a non-r eturn
valve. In Cornwall, single-flue boilers are not
hard worked, the average rate of combustion
being only 8 lb. to 10 lb. of coal per square foot of
grate area, though economical results are obtained
with a r ate of from 10 lb. to 14 lb. per square foot.
In t he north of Engla nd, with Lancashire boilers,
the r ate of combustion is from 18 lb. to 22lb. per

square foot of grate area, or, accordi?g ~o Mr. Constantine, a fair average for L ancashire 18 25lb. per
square foot, at which rate from 8! lb . to 10 lb. of
water are evaporated per hour, economisers being
used. The latter cost abou t 5s. to 6s. per square
foot of heating surface, as against lOa. to 12s. per
square foot of heating surface in the boiler. ~or
a given diameter Mr. Harvey states the L an cashire
boiler is 20 to 30 per cent. more powerful than t h e
Cornish boiler, though weight for weight the power
is about the same.
S UBMARINE T ELEGRAPll ENTERPRISE.

The Eastern and South African Telegraph Company, Limited, under an a rrangemen t wit h the
Eastern T elegraph Company, Limited, h as entered
into an agreement with t he British Government to
connect the Seychelles and the Mauritius with
Zanzibar and the Eastern Telegraph Company's
system with cables, in consideration of su~sidies
amounting to 28, OOOl. per ann urn for a per10~ of
twenty years. Negotiations have been for some t1me
past in progress with t he P ortuguese Government
to connect t he Azores with Lisbon, and the gen eral
system of the Eastern Telegraph Company.. These
negotiations resulted in an agreement w1th the
Portuguese Government for carrying out t he work.
A company is now being formed to lay a cable and
work it under the conditions of the contract concluded wit h the P ortuguese Government. I t is
anticipated that t he cable will be laid next month.
The amount of capital expended by the Eastern
Telegraph Company, Limited, upon its cables,
land lines, &c., to March 31, 1893, was 5,208,656l.,
reduced to 5,154,578l. by an allocation of
54,078l. from the general r eserve fund. The
company had also invested, at t he same date,
417 ,949l. in n ew and spare cables, &c., and 163,500l.
in maintenance ships. The company had, furt her,
invested at the same date 704, 238l. in shares in
other telegraph companies, viz., Eastern and South
African Telegraph Company, Limited, 590,000l. ;
Direct Spanish T elegraph Company, Limited ,
39,238l. ; and African Direct T elegraph Company,
Limited, 75,000l. The r eturn obtained upon these
investments for the half-year ending March 31,
1893, was 20, 992l. The amount expended in the
repair and renewal of cables in t he half-year ending
March 31, 1893, was 46,297l., r educed to 19,524l.
by amounts charged to other companies, a nd increased t o 32,533l. by 928l. paid for the insurance
of cables on board maintenance ships, and 12,081l.
for t he value of cable used, and sundry expenses
at stations. The company had five maintenance
ships at work during the h alf- year ending
Mar ch 31, 1893, viz., the J ohn Fender, the
Chiltern, the Electra, the Mirror, and the
Amber. The general reserve fund stood at
the close of Septem her, 1892, at 413,636l. In
the course of t he half-year ending March 31, 1893,
a charge of 88, OOOl. was made from revenue t o the
fund, which, with the help of interest received on
investments, &c., was carried March 31, 1893, to
507,320l. The fund had to sustain, h owever, the
following charges in t he half-year en ding March 31,
1893: Applied towards cost of Aden and Bombay
No. 3 cable, 54,077l.; interest paid on loan from
Eastern and South African Telegr aph Company,
Limited, 5600l. The fund stood, accordingly,
March 31, 1893, at 447,643. The Eastern Telegraph Company, Limited, has been chary of unduly increasing its capital, a nd the following
amounts for new cables, land lines, instl'uments,
&c., and cable renewals h ave, from time to time,
been charged against r eserve and r evenue accounts :
Duplicate Red Sea and Indian Ocean cables,
1877, 100,000l. ; partial renewal of Lisbon
a nd G ibraltar cable, 1888, 13, 997l. ; triplicate
and R ed Sea and other cables, 1884, 300,000l. ;
triplicate P orthcurnow and Malta cable, and
extension to Zante, 1888, 315,000l. ; payments
on account of quadruplicate Red Sea cable,
1890-1, 249,479l.; payment on account of triplicate
Aden a nd Bombay cable N o. 1, 134,230l.; sundry
other cables, &c., land lines, in Egypt and India,
144,116l., making an aggregate of 1,256,823l. The
company would not have been enabled to develop
its op erations in this m anner, had not dividends
upon its ordinary shares been restricted to 6! per
cent. per annum. This has been the invariable
rate of distribution for many years past, and great
practical wisdom has been shown in not aiming at
higher returns to the shareholders. Had such
higher returns obtained for a time, the result would
only have been dissatisfaction on the part of the

public, the establiahment of c?mpetit~ve lines, and

a deadweight of further capital which has now
been a voided.
NOTES FROM THE U NITED STATES.
P HILADELPHIA, July 20.
PIG-IRON production may drop to 145,000 tons per
week, and even less, before the reaction sets in. The
present scare is unreasonable, but makers who blow
out t hink they are wise, a nd buyers 'Yho refuse g?od
forge iron at 12.75 dols. to 13 dols .. bde wate.r thJDk
they are doing a most sensible thlDg. It ts true
there has been a. rather general holding back of
orders but the actual consumptive requirements of iron
and st~el have decreased very little, yet within a few
months product ion has been curtailed 35,000 tons per
week. This means that stocks on furnace banks and
in yards will soon be cleaned up. This has been a
bad year for Lake 'uperior ore producers. Two or
three new and rich regions are being opened up, but
combinations of producers among themselves, and
t ransporters among themselves, have kept prices up
for years. In about two weeks all the iro~ and st.eel
mills will be at work. The wages question havmg
been settled, coke has suddenly dropped in price,
and the Connelsville monopoly is in jeopardy. It
looks as though there would be fmough ~usiness t o
keep mills quite busy all the year. The sliver question is responsible for much of the trouble. The repeal
of t he Sherman law does not settle, but only opens
the real contest t hat is to come.
================~

LIGHTING ESTUARIES AND RIVERS.

On the More Efficient Lighting of Est-uar ies and Rivers.*
By W. T. DouoLA,'S, A.K.C., M: ~nst. C.E. , &c., Consulting Engmeer to the Tnmty House, &c.
T HE lighting of our estuaries and riv~rs is, I am afraid,
a subject of scarcely so much attractiveness as that of
the "Coa.stwise Lights," which have reeently been sung
by no less a. person than Mr. Rud yard Kipling. Yet,
important as it ist that our commerce should approach
our shores by nignt and day with the best assurance of
safety, it is scarcely less important that it should be conscious of no fresh source of apprehension when once the
lights, a.t estuary or river mouth, have been sighted. It is,
nevertheless, matter of common observation among those
who take an intelligent interest in the inland waterways
for ocean shipping, that their dangers are most insufficiently provided against. And that is a circumstance
which must militate in some degree a~ainst the comm~r
cial usefulness, and, therefore, prospenty, of any estuar1es
or rivers of which it may be true.
The distin~ished secretary of "Lloyd's " has placed
on record his opinion that England's mercantile supremacy
is largely upheld by the comparative immunity from peril
to life and property, which an elaborate and skilfully devised lighthouse system secures for mariner and merchant.
Our coasts are approached with confidence, and, therefore, with the more frequen<.;y. It is my purpose to show
that what has been done for the Channel and the North
Sea coasts can also be done for the narrow and often
tortuous pass~ges which bring the argosy to the
inland port. Yet the system, or want of system at
pre~ent in vogue in some of our rivers, perplexes and confounds the navigator, while in others, the system of
making winding and tortuous passages as safe by night
as they may be by day, has been neglected. And modern
science, at least, is equal to securing this boon to mercantile mankind, whatever, in other directions, may be
the limits of its beneficent usefulness.
It is important, in the first place, to bear in mind that
a very large passenger traffic is carried on by the fast
mail steamers, which leave English, Scotch, and Irish
ports after sundown, throughout the year. :Many of
them, moreover, are timed to arrive at their destination
before 6 a. m. on the following morning. The departure
and arrival of these steamers, frequently during the
darkest hours of the ni~bt, must excite an oppressive
sense of risk and danger m their commanders, where the
lighting of the approaches of the estuaries and rivers is
not of the highest order, compatible with tbe situation.
Their anxiety will be, perhaps, almost unintelligible to
the lay mind, but it is warranted, and is, moreover, such
that the local authorities should pause and thoroughly
consider, now that means are at hand and available for
placing the navigation of these ports in a state of
efficiency so complete, that the mariner ::;hall feel t hat the
narrow waters may be navigated, during the darkest
night, with the same immunity from accident as under
the most favoura.hle daylight conditions.
I am fully aware that harbour authorities are gradually
becoming alive t o t he fact that to increase the traffic of
their ports, improved lightin~ of the estuaries and
channels is essential. In most Instances, however, obsolete and uncertain lights, with a power of a few candles
only, are allowed to remain, and, after several groundings
have taken place, and valuable lives have been lost, the
local authorities contin ue calmly to discuss the question
of improved lights.
Lest any one may be disposed to think that I am exag
g-erating the importance of excellence and thoroughness
m this matter, I will quote the opinion of Colonel Hozier
on the subject of lights and lighting as regards our own
coasts in particular. "Perhaps, " he writes, ''nothing
has so materially tended to increase our commerce, give
.

* Pa.3>er read before the International Maritime Con-

gress, London Meeting.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

122

comfort ~nd co~fidence to our seamen, and stability to our single and group fla~hiog lights, up to quadruple flash- productive of misconception and con~equent disaster. It
merca.nttle marme, as the erection of the numerous light- ing, for the main beacons, since these charaoteristics will, is, therefore, admirably adapted for uni versa! adoption,
houses on most of the headlands of Great Britain and without introducing colour, provide twenty distinctions, and might easily become a luminous and most ueeful
Ireland. Before . the present excellent system of light- the whole of which can be redered automatic.
Volapuk for those concerned in a difficult and dangerous
houses was estabhshed, scarcely any vessels of large size
The annexed diagram represents graphically the dis navigation. Cheapness in production, uni vereal ity in
attempted to approach our shores after dark., What is tinctions mentioned above.
usefulness, and simplicity in conception, are surely no
true of the great er is true also of the less, and what has so
Should a necessity arise for the erection of further mean qualifications for success.
materially oonduced to the growth of the commerce of the stations, the quintuple flash may be resorted to, thus
The installation of efficient optical apparatus of the
whole country must help in the de velopment of the trade increasing the available number of distinctions to thtrty, kind indicated is not n eces~arily a matter of great exof a.ny particular part.
which should be considered a safe limit, as a greater pense, since the range, in the majority of case~, is so
Under existing arrangements, where there is a large number of flash characteristics would tend t o a com- short. Flashing apparatus of the fourth, fifth, and sixth
numb_er of beacon lights in tidal waters, each one has at plexity which, in the interests of the mariner, we desire ord ers may with ad vantage be utili~ed, and further they
least 1ts own attendant keeper, an arrangement which t o avoid. The rela.ti ve amount of light t o darknese, may be of the self-contained type (i.e., withou t lanterns),
appears to be extravagant, since there is no difficulty which, in the case of flashing lights, will be found t o give where port funds do not adruit of the illuminating apunder suitable automatic working in securing the proper the most beneficial results, is the arrangement in tb~ p ro- paratus being placed within lanterns of ordinary cona.nd t-fficient service of several beacons by the labour of portion of about one-third li ~ ht and tiWo-third s dark . strnction.
one man, who would be conveyed to them, togethbr with These limits allo w of the bea.rmgs being taken with sufWith improved oil and gas burners of the most recent
t~e store~, eith er by a. boat or a steam launch, as the ficient deliberation, a.nd the periods of eclipse will not be type installed in dioptric apparatus, having a vertical
circumstances of the situation might require.
of such great magnitude as to put the navigator off the angle of 80 deg. and a horizontal angle of 60 deg., the
beam of light a vailable to the mariner is equal to nearly
The system in vogue is to be condemned, therefore, be- track of his guiding star.
cause it adds very considerably t o the ~xpense of mainA light, such a.s I have described as No. 1, would 4800 candles in the fourth order, 1700 candles in the fifth
taining a station, a.nd thus tends t o hinder, owing to con- naturally have more power in the beam than Nos. 2 to 4. order, and 1100 c:1.ndles in the six th order, which would
siderations of cost, the establishment of necessary addi- It is then expediE-nt to place No. 1 at the seaward station, appear t o suffice for the purposes h&re recommended.
The experience gained m this country and abroad,
tional station@. Under the arrangement which I ~m Nos. 2, 3, 4, &c., following on consecutively t o mark the
about to refer to, it will be possible to obtain much larger main points of land or sandbanks and rocks t o be avoided, where small automatic lights have been erected, tends to
results in the direction of thoroughly illuminating the and the turning points in the tortuous channels. R ed show that their introduction so far is attended with a.
na.vi~a.tor's path, and at less outlay. The number of men cuts have frequently been advocated for this purpose, and large degree of success, both on shore and afloat, and
requued to supervise and control will be actually less their installation is to be strongly recommended in certain the number of stations thus illuminated is constantly
than with the less effective system at present prevalent instances. It is found, however, to be absolutely impos- being added to by reason of the low first cost of the inin several localities. All that is required is that obvious sible to arrange these cuts to meet the conditions of a very stallation and its subsequent maintenance.
L et us now turn to the consideration of the illuminant.
principles of common sense and practical science should narrow channel, wh ere navigable water, of a few fa thoms
be applied to the solution of an interesting and not very only in width, constitutes the deep water passage, and is Compressed oil gas undoubtedly holds the foremost position as the source of illumination for estuaries and ri vere,
recondite problem. As it seems to me, a. very brief con- probably bounded by dangerous banks.
sideration of the subject by persons versed in maritime
science is alone necessary to the satisfactory and easy
OCCULTI NG UCHTS
NUMERICAL flASHING & :)CCULTING LIGHTS - FLASHIN
G
LIGHTS
Pig.J.
fi'ig.2 .
solution of the question before us.
What appears to be more particularly wanted by our
7
5
8
9 SEC'.tO
I
2
4
3
I
9 SEC, Io m
NI?
2
4
1
8
3
5
6
sa.ilora is a. definite and clearly intelligible system of
I
I
I
illumination, which will enable them at any time during
2
2
the per iod of darkness, t o identify certain positions in
3
3
4
their courses with svme degree of accuracy. There must
4
rt
he no fear of confusing one beacon light with another,
11
12
12
with the lights of vessels, or with lights on the shore.
13
~
The system should be one that is capable of being esta14
I.
blished a.t a minimum of cost, and so be within the means
11
21
at the disposal of any one of the local authorities con22
22
cerned. It has b een said that many a good ship has been
23
ZJ
24
lost for the want of a ba'porth of tar ; it is equally true
14
31
31
that many a great, beneficent, and life-saving reform has
3l
32
been at least delayed because of the outlay of money
33
33
wh ich i ts inception has seemed to demand.
34
34
I will now point out that fixed white, red, and green
41
-41
ligh ts. exhibited from catoptric or dioptric apparatus,
42
4Z
constitute a. method of illumination utterly unsuited for
!!
!!
our purpose, a.s they are uncertain in point of distinction,
and expensive in point of maintenance, relatively t o the
In the daytime the navigable river isr, apart from the when beacon lights are arrao~ed for automatic working,
power of illumination. Their use has been, to a very
large extent, discontinued where the coast lights are con- beacon lights, usually defined with care b y buoys, This pre-eminence is due to tts handiness in transport.
perches, a.nd beacons. H will therefore be readily its storage capacity und er pressur", its general cleanliness,
cerned, and with good results on the score of efficiency.
Therefore, I have no hesitation in recommending a admitted that these intermediate and accessory buoys, and its cheapness, where manufacturE-d on a compara
similar improvemE-nt in beacon l ights for fstu~ries and perche~ , and beacons, whose positi ons become known by tively large scale.
Again, as an illuminating agent, it occupies a foremost
rivers, and especially in view of the fact, which cannot be daylight, a.re of even greater importance as guides by
too frequently insisted on, that we can thus achieve a night, and consequently that their presence should be place, and when mixed with a proportion of pure oxygen,
greater benefit for a more moderate outlay. At any rate, very clearly defined to obviate the groundiogs which take which is now a commercial custom, its illuminating
power is increased at the sacrifice of a. moderate additional
there can be no question that, what has been found too place.
In order that these intermediate and accessory aids to outlay.
complex for the sea coast, must fail to ful fil its purpose
Oil burners have lately been introduced for burning
amid the intricacies and complexities which puzzle the navigation may have a definite value by night, and be,
at the same time, entirely distinct in point of character continuously with a special preparation of min eral oil.
mariner in ri vera and estuaries.
I would not for a moment be supposed to wish to from the main beacon lights, I propose that they should The economy of this source of light may possibly lead
assume credit to myself as suggesting an entirely new be of the occultiog class, or of a character entirely the to its general adoption in the fu ture, but our experience
system of iJlumination, since so many are in vogue on the reverse of flashing, but arranged in the manner tlescribed cf it in continuous working is too limited to permit us
estuaries, rivers, and canals of the world. H e would be for flashing lights, reserving even numbers for th e port to form a defi nitely faYourable opinion of its efficiency.
The nightly attendance required at li~bts, where
indeed an ambitious person who, in the face of this fact, band lights, and odd numbers for th ose on the starboard
mineral oil is consumed under ordinary cond1tions in the
should pose as a discoverer. I am inclined rather to band.
For marking middle grounds, yet a further distinction burner, will prevent its general application for the purmaintain that it would be, if not impossible, at least difficult tl) suggest any one method that had nob been con- is desirable, and the reqnirements of these situations can pose of illuminating estuaries and ri vera where the lights
templated, or either partially or entirely carri~d out. most readily be met by the introduction of dioptric appa- a.re situated at some distance apart and at inacces ~: ible
Still, I give my preference to a system which has this ad- ratus of " the fixed and fl ashing type, " and thus indi- situations. Its use, however, where a lightkeeper is constantly in attendance, is to be encouraged.
vantage, that it is economical, practical, easily main- cating either the port or starboard hand.
The adaptation of these forms of light, wheth er wholly
Electricity, in the form of incandescent lamps, is a
tained, and, above all, distinctive.
It will be readily understood that it is impossible, in or in part, to the seaward end of our breakwaters and source of illumination which has many advantages, where
the limited space a.t my disposal, to lay down a. scheme harbour piers, to spit and river buoys, has met with much the central station is not too far distant from the beacon
complete in every detail which shall be available for ayproval, and I am persuaded that their further exten- lights, and more particularly where th e central station is
every estuary or river in. the United Kiog~om ~r abroa:d, SIOn and application, combined with the numerical system, in the hands of port authorities. In New York Harbour
the electric light is employed to define Gedoey's Channel ;
since such differences ex1st that each localtty Wlll r 9qmre is likely to produce resnlts of great and obvious utility.
The only task which is imposed by this system upon the here 100 candle-power lamps of the incandescent type,
special and careful consideration with a view to securing
for the mariner the highest possible advantage to be mariner's faculty of quick observation, is the noting of the with three loops in its filament, a re attached to spar buoys
attained consistently with the form of apparatus em- number indicated by the flashes, which I shall presently placed 1000 ft. apart.
In conclusion, let me observe that, when the large porployed. The system, however, which I have, aft~r very show will not be beyond the capacity of any seaman. As
careful consideration of all the circumstances, demded to soon as the number is perceived, the master of the vessel tion of the world's commerce, which is continually moving
place before this conference is one that should, in the which is moving through the lower reaches of the ri ,er, up and down the waters of our rivers and estuaries, is
near future, be adopted by _the river and ot~er loc~l au_t~o or between the submarine mud or sandbanks of the estuary, borne in mind, we cannot help the conclu ~ion that every rities, in view of it~ practical and economical sUitabthty will know exactly where he is. H e will ha ve a. plain indi- thin~ that possibly can be don e, should be done to
cation of the J>recise measure of progress be has made held facihtate its ingress and egress into and from our inland
for their requirements.
The system I here recommend has a numeri cal basis. out to him. The lights thus characterised will play the ports. Systematic, and not piecemeal treatment of so
The number of each beacon is to be read with ease by part of numbered milestones on a country road, which important a. question is imperatively required. If my
the navigator. This result will be attained by a:n auto- suddenly help the wayfarer, puzzled by m azes of wood proposals seem to fail in perspicuity Mld th oroughness, let
matic transmission of the number a.t stated penods on and green field, to fix accurately his position with refer- others take the matter in hand and make their suggesthe part of the optical apparatus by means of _a single ence t o an embarrassing topography. The language of tions. At least, let us not stand idly by and allow great
flash or of groups of flashe'3, all <?f eq!Jal per10d. As numbers is a universal one, and 4 and 14, indicated by interests to be hampered 1\.nd "aluable hves to be lost,
generally indicating a. main feature ID thts system, I may flashes, con veys an identical meaning t o the master of the while we hesitate and weigh the pros and cons of this and
here observe that for a vessel entering a channel with the CbineAe junk, the captain of a French chasse-maree, or that scheme. I have made a.n attempt to meet a. ~reat
flood tide, the port band hea.coos would show even the skipper of a. north oouotry whaler. As everybody and urgent necesRity, and I place my recommendationR
nnmbers, and th e starboard band beacons <?dd numbers. know~, colour-blindness i~ a human infirmity which those at the disposal of the Congress, in the full conYiction
This condition of things would b e reversed m the c~se of who are responsible for the safe ordering of our maritime that they contain in themsel ves at least the germ of a
system which must prove of vast and far-reaching benefit
a ship making her way_out_ <?f a. channt'l. It Will be concerns have to take into account.
It wiJl, moreover, be found of very great advantage to for our mercantile marine.
readily admitted that stmphmty m arrangement must
condnce materially to the chances in favour of the a.<;io{> be able to di spt'nse with the use of colour for distinctive
tion of the system. It is on these grounds tha~ I. hmtt pur,Poses without any reference to the loss of light which
EASTERN OF F.RANOE RaiLWAY. -The Eastern of France
the period of the light to one ~f ten seconds, as 1t 1~ one its mtrorluction entails-viz 40 per cent. with the red
of sufficient frequency, even m the case of the smgle light a.nd 70 per cent. with the green light. Under the Railway Company proposes to add this year to its rolling
numerioa.l system, with its lucid Bash indications, there is stook 12locomotives With tenders, 140 pa~sen~r carriages.
flash.
.
'f
d
In the first instance it will be suffic1ent, 1 we a opt less risk that the imperfections of man's vision will be anq 375 ioocle trucks.
Ul.l~

E N G I N E E RI N G.
NOTES FROM THE NORTH.
GLASGOW, Wednesday.
Gla&gow P ig-Iron M arket.-Business in the p ig iron
market was very quiet last Thursday. At the forenoon
m eeting of tha "ring " only some 3000 tons of S cotch and
500 tons of Cleveland iron were disposed of. Prices
however, were firm, S cotch warrants changing bands at
41s. 10d. per t on cM h prompt, -! ls. 10~d. on Thurs day
41s. 9d. this week, and 4ls. lld. Auguet 4. At th e fore~
n oon close Scotch showed a gain of 2j. per t on from
W ednesday's clo:>e, and Cleveland 3d. p er ton. The
market was quiet but steady in the afternoon. Only
1000 t ons of Scotch changed h ands. Hematite irons were
quoted 2d. per ton dearer. At the close the settlement
pri ces were: S cotch iros, 4 ts. lO~d. per ton ; Cleveland
353. 1~d.; Cumberland and lYiiddle b rough hematite iron'
respectively, 44s. lO~d. and 435. 6d. p er ton. Jfriday'~
market wai.s~rong at the opening, chiefly. in consequence
of the pos1tton taken up by the E nghsh coalminers.
About 6000 tons of S cotch iron were d ealt in up to
4~s. ll~d. per ton cash, being a. g1in of l d. from the previous d ay. One or two lots of Cleveland and lYiiddles
brough hematite iron changed h and s, and while the
former was uncbang~d, the latter dropped 5d. per ton.
The market was steady in the afternoon, but with little
business d oing. S co tch iron, to the extent of 1000 tons
W M d ealt in at 4ls. lO!d. cash t o-day. The closing settle~
m ent prices were- S cotch iron, 41s. l O~d . p er ton
Cleveland, 35s. Hd. ; Cu mberland a10d :M iddlesbrough
hematite iron, 44s. lO~d. and 43s. 3d. per t on respeoti vely. M ond ay 's market was also very firm,' and
for th e same alleged reason. Scotch iron was bought
up to 423. per .ton cash, but operations were on a very
small ~cale, netther sellers nor buyers appee.ring willing t o
comm tt themselves to any extent in the circumstances.
A few lots of Cleveland and Middlesbrough hematite
uon changed hands. The settlement prices at the close
were-Scotch iron, 42s. per ton ; Cleveland, 35s. 4~d.
qumberland and lYiiddlesbrougb hematite iron, respec~
tt vely, 44s. lO~d. and 43s. 3d. per ton. On Tuesday's
fore noon warrant market about 7000 tons of Scotch iron
were dealt in, principallr for ca~h, and the price was very
~rm, 42s. ~!d. per ton b emg paid. Bnsiness was a.lso done
10 S c?t?h uon {500 tons) at 42s. one month fixed, with ls.
forfe1t 10 seller 's option, and 500 tons at 40s. lld. with a
''plant " o~ Friday.
For Cleveland, 35s. Gd. per
t on was pa1d for 500 tons a few days forwa.rd. At
the . finish of the foren oon session prices for all classes
of 1ron were unchanged !rom those of Monday night.
The market was strong 10 the a fternoon, Scotch iron
being .d one at 42s. l ! d. per ton cash, about 5000 t ons
changmg h ands. Cleveland was more active than for
some time back, close on 6000 tons changing hands at
35s. 6d. t o 35s. 6~d. per ton cash, and 35s. 8d. and 35s. 9d.
one m onth. Th e closing settlemen t prices were-Scotch
iron, 423. H~. per ton ; Cle vela~d, 3.5s. 7!d. ; Cumber
land and Mtddlesbrough hemat1te uon, respectively
44s. 10~d . and 43s. 4id. per ton. Th e market was fairly
acti ve this forenoon, when about 10,000 tons of Scotch
warrants were d ealt in, up t o 42s. 3d. per ton cash being
paid. Cumberland hematite iron was quoted 3d. per ton
up. In the afternoon the market was fiat and only
about 3{)00 tons of Sc0tch iron chang~d hand s
the price declini~F; t o 42s. per t on cash. Cleve~
land realise~ 353. otd and 35s. 6d. cash for 1000 ton~.
Th e. followmg a re th e cu rrent quotations for several
spe01al brands of No. 1 makers' iron : Clyde, 47s. per
ton ; Gartsherrie, Summerlee, and Calder, 48s.; Langloan and Coltness, 53s. 6d.-tbe foregoing a ll shipped at
Glasgow; <;ilengarnock .{s hipped at Ardrossan), 48s. 6d.;
Shotts {shtpped at L etth), 51s. ; Carron {shipped a.t
GranF:emout h), 52s. 6d. per ton. Ther e are at present in
blast 10 Scotland 67 furnaces, as com pared with 75 at this
mP last year. L ast week's shipm ents of pig iron from
~11 Scotch ports al!lounted t o 4821 tons, agamst 6944 tons
m the correspond tng week of last year. They included
820 tons for Canada, 207 tons for India, 160 tons for Italy
180 t on@ for Germany, 375 tons for H olland smalle~
quantities for other countrieEI, and 2712 tons doastwise
The stock of pig iron in M essrs. Connal and Co. 's publi~
warrant sto r~s yesterday afternoon s t ood at 335 804 tons
as ~mpared with 336,046 tons y~sterda.y w~ek, thu~
sbowmg for the p1st week a. reductiOn amounting to 242
tons.
F inished I ron and Steel.-Business in finished iron and
steel is for the time just a little slow, but prices remain
firm. Common bars are quoted at 5l. up t o 5l. 7s. 6d. per
t~n, and best bars up to 5l. 17s. 6d. per ton, less the usual
d1scount. Steel is unaltered in price.

engines will be of the triple expans ion type, having

cyli nders 22 in., 35 in. , and 57 in. in diameter by ~0 in.
stroke, and be designed for a h igh rate of speed. Splendid
accommodation will be provided for a large number of
first-clas~ passengera, and altogether the new vessel will
be a decided acquisition to t his already popular line.
Serious A ccident to the Great W esternr oad Br idge,
Glasgow.- A serious mishap has h appened this week to
th e new and very handsome bridge which s pa.ns th e
K elvi n on the line of the Great \Vestern road, Glasgow.
One of the piers has been ruptured, on account,
ap parently, of the foundations having given way,
the SJ?Ot wher e the subsiden ce has taken place being on
the s1ta of some old coal work ings. Th e mishap has
excit ad a g reat amount of anxiety re~arding the safety
of the bridge, which was open ed for public use RO recently
as September, 1891. The City J\.'Ia ter of Works and
other public officials, as also the en gineers, rontractors.
&c., have inspected the injured portion of the brid ge, and
meas ures will forth with be taken to provide for its safety.
It may be menti rned that this bridge was described a nd
illustrated in ENGINEERIXC (see vol. 1., page 2~1).
T he N ew Br oomiclaw Bridge.-Nine wellknown firms
of contr tl ctors have offered for the work of erecting the
n ew bridgA over the Clyde at J amaica-street, Glasgow
and for tak ing down the present bridge (T elford's ) and
re-er ecting it over the Clyde at G lasgow G reen . Their
t enders range from 242,000l. up as high as 316,000l., these
figures being for the entire work in conn ection with the
two bridges. The lowest offerers are Messrs. W att and
W ilson, whose priue is the above-mention ed one of
242,000l., t he contractors next to th em being Messrs.
Morrison and Mason at 247, '>00l., the third place being
occupied by Sir '\Villiam Arrol and C o. These offers, it
is importan t t o n ote, are for Sc1tch granite. In the
event, however, of Italian granite being allowed by the
committee, the contractors have lodged alternative offers.
In this see:tion Messrs. 1\llorrison and Mason a re the
lowes t by mak ing a d ed uction of 17,000l. , thus bringing
them down to 230, OOOl. , while :1\-lessrs. \Va.tt a nd Wil son
r educe their offer by 5000l., down to 237,000l. 'l'he great
difference in price, as between Scotch and Italian granite,
is explained by the very moderate wages paid t o the
workers in I talian quarries, and the low rates for carriage
br. .sea as against carriage by rail. There is just a possibtl!ty that the contract may hE" divided, on e portion being
let for the erection of th e new brid~e and the other for
the taking d own and re-erection of the present bridge.
Ford Blanty?e and the Clyde Trustecs.-On Monday of
th1s week the H ouse of L ords gave judgment in an appeal
by t~e ClJ~e Truste~s from a .decision by the Court of
S esston, Edmburgh, m an act10n raised by L ord Blan
tyre, in which it d eclared that the appellants were bound
to maintain ~nd k eel? in repair the quays at Erskine
Ferry belongmg to htm. The court below d ecid ed in
fa vour of the r espond ent, and the H ouse of L ords Appeal
Court reversed thei r j udgment.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.

.M ~r: Shipbuild in1 CJntracts. - M essrs. Caird and Cc.,

Ltmtted, of Greenock, ha,e just secured a contract to
ouiJd and engine a large . t~el screw steamer of about 4030
t ons for the Stoom vaart Maatchappy N ederland of
Am~terdam, for the company's first-class r oyal :Oail
aer vtce to Java. It should be mentioned in connection
with this contract that M essrs. Elder and Co. built a
b
f
num er o 1arge steamers for tb a NP.therlands Company's
fleet about fifte~n years ag), \Vith contracts r ecently
booked, there will be a large amount of work in Greenock
for the ensui n g winter.-J\.Iessrs. Mackie and Th om son
G
b
,
?':'an, ave contracted with a L iverpool firm to build a
sa1hng vessel to carry 2000 tons of cargo. - M essrs. W. B.
Thomp~on. and Co.. Limited, of Dundee, ha,e Just con t rac ted W1 th t h e G) asgow and Liverpool Royal Steam
Packet Company, the managing owners of which are
J\fessrs. M. L anglands and Sons, G lasgow and L t"verpool
b ild f
,
to u
or .them a steel screw passenger steamer to be
employed m the assenger and cargo trade between

. .
.
SHEFFIELD, W ednesday.
T he Fnctton of L ubncated B earings.-Mr. W. Cleland,
C. E., B.Sc., of ~heSh_effield Testing Works, has delivered
an ~ddress on t h ts subJect before the Sheffield Engineering
Soete~y. Profes.sor. Watkinson presided.
The lecturer
de~cnbed the prmctpal methods of testing the fri ction of
a JOu rnal w?en lubricat.ed in different ways, and gave
result~ s~owmg h;ow by 1mproved methods of lubrication
the fr1ct10nal res1~tance can be enormously diminished.
Results of ~xpertme!lts were ~lso given showing the
et:fect o~ varymg the kmd of lubncant used. An ani mated
d1scusston afterwards t ook place.
Th~ I ron ~arket.-After th e weakness of the past
fortm gh~. the 1ron tr~de appears to be r eturning to the
t one whtch characterised the con cludin~ operations of last
month. From 37s. 6d. per ton forge ptg has advanced to
40s., and foundry pig realises 42s. t o 44s. Stocks of local
make. ar~ n ot heavy, and smelters appear averse t o
antermg m to longer than three m onths ' contracts at ruling
rates. 1\IIerchants, who bad been holding back for a further
fall, are, along _with cons':lmers, buying more freely. In
m~nufactured u on, particularly bar, there is also more
domg. The home market shows some s igne of recovery
and or~ers are r-umerous for India, South Africa and
Austraha, the latter trade giving evidences of exp~nsion
after .the r ecent commercial r elapse. The local sheet
trade 1s d epr es.sed, and prices. ~re cut Yery fine owing to
home and Contm~ntal compet1t10n. Colli ery requirements
~bow a .great falhng off as compared with the corresp0nd
mg penod of last year. :For best qualitit!s of boiler plates
the demand is still satisfactor~, and tube a nd flue makers
are col?sequently b usy. The tron trade generally has a
healtlner look than for some time past.
St l F ll h
k
ce .- o owmg m t e wa. e of the iron trade the steel
branch es appt=>ar to have improved in som e imp~rta.ntJ departm~nts. Within the past fourteen days orders from
the s~ tpyards of the north and east coasts have been more
plent f 1
d
t
b
. u, an agen s report ~tter pros~ects for the
ensumg autumn .months. J\.1arme materlal is moving
?fi much be~ter 10 the shape of propeller blades shaftm g, and fittmgs. generally. This is finding mo;e work
f
th
h
Th
or account
~ m ec ~mcs.
e ca11and
for several
railwaynice
material
for
home
ts ~n the mend,
contracts
for t
d
b
b
. yres an sprmgs ave een secured in this district
durmg the past fortnight. Wh eel ce-ntres a.re also selling
we~l, but the call for tyres is rather below the standard.
Pr1ces are very firm with a
d t d
f
ualities f
,
n. upwar . en ency or best

t e dimensions being 245 it. by 35 ft. by lG ft. The 1

lows: Best engine tyres, 12l. ioa. pe~ t~~~~w::d, :OO:d:

123
ing to saction ; carriage and wagon tyres and springs,
10l. ; axles, 6l. 10s. Agents of Bessemer and 81emens
billets and slabs report the market as very steady on a
home and Continental d emand, with rates _running f?r
Bessemer 5l. 7s. 6d. t o 5l. 12d. 6d. per ton ; S1emens (a01d
process), 5l. 17s. 6d. to Gl. Crucible st eel con verter s are
prosperous, though the outpu t could be ea ily doubled,
if necessary, as orders are comi n g in evenly from the
U nited S tates, supplemented by indentE~, principally
from Brazil, Chili, South A frica, and India. Almost all
the orders are for tool and engineering qualities rolled to
section.
Armour Plate, d:c. , ancl Engineering Trades. -Though
no n ew contracts for armour plates are n otified, ther e ar e
inquiries from the h om e Government which lead to a belief
that ord ers of an extensiYe charact er are about to be
iseued. It is believed that all-steel plates will in future
be alone accepted, and important alterations of plant,
with a view to meeting altered circumstan ces, are being
mode in Sheffield. Russian and Spanish con tracts are
being proceed ed with. Very fair orders for st eel project ils are in course of fulfilment. The engineering trades
of the district, taken generally, show Ml improvement,
particularly in the traction a.nd locomotive engine d epartments. Makers of a~ricultural machinery are busy.
There i~ a diminution m the number of unemployed
mechamcs.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE

NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIDDLEBBROUGH, W ednesda.y.
7!he Clevelanul Iron, Trade.- Yesterday there was only a
thm attendance on Change, but quotations were very
firm, and buyers were rather numerous. Sellers were in
no .great h?rry to do. business, believing that by waiting
a httle while they w1ll be able t o secure higher rates than
tbose !l<?w .quoted, and, indeed. this seem s probable, for
the cn sts m the coal trade looks like consid erably increasing tb.e cost of production, and a.t this season of the
year Contmental buyers are expect ed to come into
the market. Makers will hardly quote at all for
No.. 3 <;Jle' eland pig, pr~ferring t o wait and see how
affatrs 10 the coal trad e turn. Early yesterday a
parcel or. two of No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig iron
was obtam ed at ~5s. l id. for early f. o.b. delivety, but few
sellers could be found at th at figure, and befo: e the close
of the market 35s. 3d. was freely given. The l ower
qualities were quiet and fiat. No. 4 foundry could be
bought at 33s. 6d., grey forge at 32s. 6d ., and white at
32s. , bu t so~e sel.ler~ ask ed 3d. more tban these figur es.
L ocal bemattte p1g 1ron was only in moduate request
a~d makers. regard the state of affairs in the fuel trad~
w1th anythmg but ~avourabl e. feelings, as a strike will
r educe the consumptiOn of theu produce seeing that the
Sheffiel~ works will probably be clo~~d, and to that
quarter IS sent .a good deal of ~as t coast h ematite. Mi xed
numbers rem~med at 4~s. 6d. for early d elivery. The
ad van ced ~reJ .gbts have sent u p th e price of :::ipanish
or~.
Rub1o 1s now quoted at 12s. 9d. ex-sh ip T ees.
Middlesbrough warrants yesterday opened at 35s. 3d., and
closed very fi rm at 35s. 7d. cash buyers. T o- day the
market was Yery strong, but there was not n. great d eal
of business d oing. Inquiries, however were numerous
both for prompt and forward delivery. 'No. 3 was sold at
353. 3d., but several fi rm s wer e inclined to hold out for a
r ather higher price. Mtddlesbr ough warrants clmed at
35s, 6d. cash buyer s.
M anufactured I ron and Steel.-There is really nothing
new to say of ~be manufactured iron and st eel trades.
O.f the former 1ndustry a. m o&t discouraging account is
g1 ven, for alth~ugh pri ces mention ed can barely cover
cost of product10n, orders are most difficult to secure
Steelmake~s gener~ll y k eep fairly busy, and will not
~educe ~he1r quotat10.ns. Common iron bars are 4Z. 17s. 6d.
tr~n ship plates and tron ship angles each 4l. lOa. ; steei
~htp plates, 5l. 2s. 6d. ; and st eel ship angles, 41. 15:1. , all
less the. customary 2! per cent. discount for cash. H eav y
steel ratls are 3l. 15s. t o 3l. 17s. 6d. net at works.
Wages, in _the Manufactured I ron T rade.-The return
of Mr. E~wm. Waterhouse to the Board of Conciliation
and Arb1trat1on for the M anufactured Iron and Steel
Trade shows tb ~t for ~he two months ended J une SO the
net average sellmg prtce has been 4l. 17s. 2d. p er ton a
fall of 2s: 8d. on th e previous r eturn. There will thus 'be
a r eductton of Sd. per ton on puddling and 2~ per cent
on al_l other forge and mill \ ages, to take effect from th~
31~t m st. The output reached 26,503 t ons, 560 tons being
~ails, 11~396 J?lates, 9925 bars, and 4621 angles, and showm~ a shght m crease on the two previous month s but
bemg 16,000 tons below the output in 1801 and an av~rage
of 6s. 9d. per t on less in price.
'

N orth of Englr-fmd Arbitration Board .- Yesterday th e

balf ~~arl_y m eetmg of the North of England Board of
Conethat10n . and Arbi~ration was h eld at Darlington.
~r. W .. Wh1twell pre~ td ed, an~ Mr. Cox occupied the
v1ce-chatr. The s tandmg comm1ttee r eported a deficit of
26l. 12s. ld= The .finan cial ~osition of the B oard had been
un~er cons1derat10n, and 1t had been thought advisable
to .n cr ease the levy ~ntil such time as the B oard had a
satisfact ory balance m hand .
~he ~ue! Trade.-In . the coal trade large stocks arE\
ben~g la1d m! and th~re 1~ a good d emand. One inland
colhery, wh1ch un~1l thts mo~th only a veraged aboub
three d~ys a week, 1s now workmg full time. It is h oped
and beheved t~at the n orthern m in ers will continue t o
work. Quotattons are n ot easily~ fixed, but they are based
upon about 10s. 6d. for best N orthumbrian steam coal
~- o. b, at Newcastle. H ere fuel is m oving up a.nd 12 3 6d
l s tpe lea.st Erice mentioned for good blastfurnace ~ok~
d e1tver ed a.t Clevela.nd works .

E N G I N E E R I N G.

124

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

Cardiff.~~he steam coal trade has been active; the

best descrtpt10ns have made lOa. 6d. to 11s. per ton, while
secondary qualities have brought 9s. 6d. to 10s. per ton.
There has also been a good demand for household coal
No. 3 Rhondda large has made 9s. 6d. to 10s. per ton:
Patent fuel has been in steady request. Foundry coke
has been quoted at 17s. 3d. to 17s. 6d., and furnace ditto
at 16s. to 17s. per ton. The iron ore trade has been
fairly active. The manufactured iron and steel trades
have shown no change.
Bristol a;nd South W ales R ailway Wagon Works Compo;ny ( Limited).-The directors of this company recommend a dividend for the past half-year at the rate of 10
per cent. per annum, together with a bonus of ls. per
share.
Tenby.-An adjourned meeting of the Tenby Pier and
Promenade Company was held at that town on Tuesday,
the :1\'Iayor of Tenby in the chair. Mr. Stokes read a
statement and letters from Mr. St. George Moore, civil
engineer, who had been instructed during a recent visit
to Tenby to prepare plans for a pier, at a less cost than
was originally intended. The capital of the old com
pany was 30, OOOl.; Mr. 1\t!oore now suggested that the
capital should be 15,000l. H e has prepared plans for a
pier at that cost.
The Tel~]Jhone in the West.-The sum paid by the
National Telephone Company, Limited, for the transfer
of the business of theWestern Counties and South Wales
Telephone Company, Limited, was 277,607l. The
National Telephone Company has just had a conference
with the Exeter Chamber of Commerce with reference
to the further d~velopment of the system in the western
district. Mr. G. B. Clay, provincial superintendent,
said the telephone had not advanced so rapidly at Exeter
as in other places, and he was sorry to say a recent reduction in rates had not called forth as much support
as might have been expected. At present the rates in
Exeter were as favoutable as in any other place. They
had only a few call-offices in Exeter, and these were in
a comparatively small radius. It wa.s proposed to make
a uniform charge of one penny both to the public and
subscribers for using a call-office, instead of offering free
facilities to subscribers and charging the public twopence.
Respecting the trunk line, he hoped they would shortly
be able to put the city in communication with Bristol,
and negotiations were now in such a state that they
further hoped to communicate with Liverpool and Manchester.
The "Antelope" and the" H ermione."-The Antelope
has been placed under the sheers in Keyham (South)
Basin, and that portion of her machinery not alr&ady on
board will be fitted in a few days. The H ermione,
second-class cruiser, will be launched in November. The
Hermione is the last of the vessels built at Devonport
under the Naval Defence Act of 1889. She is one of the
improved Apollo class, and is a sister ship to the Bonaventure and the Astrrea.
Barry.-Tenders will be shortly invited for a new
dock at Barry. Soundings have been taken of the prop oposed site, which lies between the existing timber pond
and the foreshore.

TAYLOR'S REVOLVING BOTTOM GAS

PRODUCER.
Taylor revolving bottom gas producer, as
manufactured by R. D. 'Vood and Co., Philadelphia, has created a revolution in gas-making
for industrial purposes. It consists of an outside
circular casing carried to the top, on which is fixed the
usual form of hopper and well, for stoking without
allowing the gas to escape. The bottom casing rests
on a brickwork foundation, in the centre a cast-iron
tube, and brackets carrying the solid cast-iron bottom,
and a ring of ball bearings for it to revolve on ; a castiron circular rack is bolted to the bottom, and a pinion
and shaft carried to the outside; a pinion on the outTHE

f 'ig. 1.
'

---- --- ------- 0

------- --

INDUSTRIAL NOTES.

J;'ig.2.

THR: LAST VoYAG~ OI-' THE "PARIS."- The Paris,

which sailed from Southampton on July 15, arrived at
Fire Island at 4 p.m. on the 21st inst., and landed her
passengers at New York the same evening. Her length
of passage was-6 days 9 hours 37 minutes, thus establishing a new record between Southampton and New
York. Her daily runs were : 452, 491, 492, 498, 502, 495,
and 122. Her passengers left Waterloo Station, London.
at 9.40 a.m., on July 15, and were landed at New York
on the evening of. the 21st, accomp~ishing the feat of
landing passengers m New York the s1xth day after leaving Lond on.
"THR: ATLANTIC F.a:RRY."-A popular edition of Mr.
Arthur J. Maginnis' work, "Th& Atlantic Ferry, " has just
been issued by Messrs. Whittaker and Co., Paternostersquare L ondon, and will be welcomed by the many who
take a~ interest in the development of Atlantic steamships. The early Atlantic steamers and their voyages
make a suitable subject for the introductory chapter~
after which follow short narratives of the evolution ana
history of the various steamship l.ines, whil~ machine.ry
has a special chapter devoted ~o 1t. . Portra1ts and b~o
graphical sketches of the lea.d mg s~npown~rs and sht~
builders are also included, whlle an mterestmg sketch 1s
given as to the working, manning, and cos~ of an Atlantic
vessel. We reviewed the book at constderable length
when the first edition was p~blished (ENGINEER~NG, ~ol.
li v., page 126), but in referrmg the .rea? er to thts ~rt1cle
it is only rig~t to state that.Mr. 1\Iagmms has made m the
popular edit10n the correct10~s needed, and. has adopted
a suggestion made-that, for mstance, of addmg the spe~d
to the record of fast performances, so thab, althous-h th1s
edition does not include the reproduced drawm.g~ of
engines which formed a valuable feature o~ ~he or1g1 nal
publication, it is a valuable a~d en~ertatmns- popu~ar
record of a. long series of success1v~ tnumphs m marme
construction, and most convemently arranged for
reference.

coal crisis is the all-absorbing subject in the

industrial world at the present time. At no period of
our ind ustrial history have greater issues been raised,
or more stupeBdous forces been arrayed one against
the other . For two years the National Federation of
Miners have been able to resist a. general reduction in
the wages of the miners in nearly all the districts
covered by the federation. The principal exception
has been in Cumberland, and in one or two districts
of Somerset shire.
Durham, Northumberland, and
South vVales, which were outside the federation,
have had to succumb to reductions; in South
Wales particularly the reduction has been very
great, under the slidin g scale. I n the two northern
counties it was not so g reat , but it was acceded to
after a great strike in Durham, lasting over three
months. In Scotland the reductions have varied, but
in most instances they have been large. The fact that
the federation districts have been able to resist any
reduction up to the present time has bred a certain
amount of discontent in t he districts that have suffered
the reductions. To such an extent has the discontent
prevailed, that Durham and Northumberland have had
to join the federation by the votes of the members,
and in South Wales a large contingent is in favour of
joining. So strong has the federation been, that the
Forest of Dean miners were able to sta\e off a reduction last year and up to the present juncture, though
now they are on strike against the proposed reduction, under notices issued before the recent action of
the Coalowners' Association. At the conference held at
the Westminster Palace Hotel, the resolution passed
was in favour of 25 per cent. r eduction, not in actual
wages, but 25 pei" cent . off the 40 per cent. rise which
the men had obtained, and which was above the
standard of 1888 generally. The actual reduction is,
therefor e, to a uniform level of 15 per cent. above the
standard of 1879-88, or equivalent to about 18 per cent.
on the tot al wages of the men in all the federation
districts.
Pursuant to the resolution passed by the employers,
notices were given, but these notices did not mention
the amount of r ed uction. The employers also passed
a r esolution in favour of the whole matter being ref~rred to arbitration.
At th e conference held in
Birmingham last week, the men had to consider,
therefore, first of all the proposed reduction in wages
of 25 per cent., as per resolution of the employers;
and, secondly, the offer to refer the whole question
to arbitration. The issues were momentous, and t he
representation was nearly complete in so far as the
entire English coalfields were concerned. The result
of the deliberations was that the conference, by
enormous majorities, declared aga inst any reductions
THE

===============
CoNSETT IRON COMPANY.-Tbe directors of the Consett

Iron Company, Limited, have resolved to recommend to

the ordinary general meeting, on August 5 next, the payment of a dividend of 9s. per share on the ordinary shares,
and of 33. 6d. per share on the 8 per cent. preference
shares.

cast-iron hopper, perforated for the admission of

punching ba.rs, which are inserted through the doors
in the outer casing, for the breaking up of clinker that
is too large to pass down and out without trouble.
Access to the cut-off gate is through these doors, and
the grinding of the ashes can also be observed through
them-quite an important feature.
The points that users of producers have had most to
consider are : t he irreg ular q uality and quantity of
the gas, the frequent s toppages for cleaning, excessive
labour, the great waste of coal in the ash, and it was
to reduce these to a minimum that this producer was
designed. The revolving bottom is of greater diameter
t han the bottom of the combustion chamber, and is
placed at such a distance that when it is revolved the
ash, which forms its own slope at an angle of a.bout
55 deg., is discharged uniformly by gravitation over
the edge and into the sealed ashpit below, which is
worked under back pressure, all without stopping the
work or much interference with making gas.
To start up. the bottom is covered with a bed of
ashes carried some 6 in. above the cap on the central air
pipe, and in regular operation, the fire is never allowed
to come below this point, thus permitting the fire only
to come in contact with the water-cooled casing, or, in
the ordinary construction, with the brick lining. The
grinding out of the ashes is done as fast as they rise
too far above the desired line, say from six to twentyfour hours, according to the rate of working. The
ash being from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. deep, any coal
which may pass the point of air admission without
being consumed, will still have time to burn entirely
out . Tests have shown that in a week's run the loss of
carbon in the ash averaged less than one-half of 1 per
cent.
The blast is preferably provided by a steam jet
blower. If a pan is used, it is necessary to run a small
steam pipe into the vertical air pipe to supply the
steam neces~ary for softening the clinkers and keeping
down the temperature of the producer. The air and
steam a re discharged radially from the central pipe to
prevent too much travel of the gas to the walls, which
is the line of least resistance.
Where practicable, the producers should be elevated,
and a hopper so arranged below that the ashes may be
discharged into a. car under neath.

side gears with a spurwheel, and a second pinion has a

handle fixed to it, thus ena bling the bottom to be
revolved by hand; a t ube carried 10 ft. up on the
inside has a conical cap and holes for the air to pass
into the producer.
Our illustration shows th e producer with an inside
iron casing, the space between the two being arranged
for water cooling, very necessary for preventing clinking where bad coal is used; the ordinary form of producer simply has a firebrick lining . The water is fed
in at the top and out at the bottom, and is used for
heating buildings, and, in fact, for any purpose where
hot water is wanted. Sight or test holes are placed in
the walls, so that the dividing line between the ashes
and incandescent coal can be seen at any time. This
line sometimes becomes higher on one side than the
other; to remedy this, four sets of scrapers are provided,
arranged just above the revol viug table, to be pulled
out on the side on which the ashes come down too
fast. Gates are provided, which can be arranged
around the bottom, to entirely cut off the discharge on
the low side. The lower part of the ash chamber is a

E N G I N E E R I N G.

PARSONS' STEAM TURBINE DYNAMO AND ALTERNATOR.

(For Description, see Page 126.)

Fig. 1.

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in wages whatever, and also against submitting the

question to arbitration. Durham and Northumberland declared against the resolutions, but the repreeentatives of the latter county did not vote on all the
resolutions. South Wales and Scotland were not re-

/00

110

120

130

140

ISO

160

170

180

1~0

federation at this juncture were to be ct~t o~ from ~he

federation. The other was that the d1stncts wh1ch
had suffered reductions should forthwith demand an
advance in wages equivalent, or approximately so, to
the proposed reductions. The object of these resolutions was to cut off the coal supplies, and prevent any
competition by Wales, Durham, Northumberland, and
t he Scottish districts, and also that portion of Staffordshire which is governed by a sliding scale. The
policy involved is, no doubt, an arguable one from the
men's point of view, but it stretches the line of battle
over the entire country, and cuts off not only the coal
supplies to the consumer, but monetary help for the
men.

ZOO

presented officially at the conference. In addition to

the two resolutions mentioned, the conference passed
two others of a rather serious nature, and of a doubtful
character, as bearing upon the disputes. The first
was that those districts which did not act with the

At the meeting of the joint committee of coal

owners and representatives of the Miners, Federation,
the decision of the Birmingham conference was given,
when, after some interchange of conversation, Mr.
Pickard significantly said he "took it for granted
that now they had the stern reality of war before
them." It appears that the total number of persons
affected, in all the federation districts, exclusive of
Durham and Northumbe rland, is 359,909, or nearly
360,000 persons. The total output of coal from those
districts last year was 97,294,681 tons. Durham and
Northumberland number 100,768 workers ; South
Wales, 64,079; Scotland, 78, 564; and Staffordshire,
under the Wages Board, 8000. As appearances go,
therefore, 360,000 will cease work, as compared with
251,410 who will not be affected, unless, indeed,
the resolutions of the Birmingham conference are
seriously adhered to. The total output of the
districts not affected was last year 78,277,000 tons .
Unless some modus vivendi is found, a vast army of
workers will cease work by the end of the present
week, according to the date at which the usual notices
expire, and in all the cases by the end of the present
month. It is un~ertain as to what extent the Sailors
and Firemen's Union and the Coal Porters' Union will
co-operate with the miners, and take part in the
strike. As a matter of fact, it will not be necessary
to call out any of these men until such times as coal is
produced by non-union men or by deserters from the
federation, unless an attempt is made to bring in coal
from the districts working to compete with the men
on strike. The struggle, if entered upon as indicated,
will be the greatest labour struggle on record, and it
will test the principle of federation to the utmost.
All the districts are not equally strong financially, and
if failure sets in it will begin with the weakest link in
the chain, wherever that may be found-probably in
the .Midlands.
The steam coal trade is in a somewhat different

F: N G I N E t R I N G.
position to the house coal trade, and fuel for manufacturing purposes. Wherever there is a large export
trade, the coal will not come into competition seriously
with the home trade. And here it is that Wales exp ects to m9.ke a harvest out of the strike. In parts of
the northern counties also the export trade is in its
full season, and eYery effort will be made to carry it
on as though nothing had happened in the mining
d istricts. In some of the coalfields also the output
has very largely increased since the notices were
issued, so that the supply is being provided for to some
extent. For the present the coalowners not u nder
contract, and the coal merchants, are reaping ad vantages in anticipation of the stoppage, by the higher rates
charged. The worst sufferers for the moment are
the very poor who purchase small quantities, the advance to whom is 3s. 4d. t o Ss. 6d. p er ton, purchased
by the hundredweight. To other consumers the advance has been l s. to ls. 6d. per ton only.
The engineering trades of Lancashire scarcely maint ain the slight improvement recently manifested in
some of the branches. 'Vith the exception of some of
the principal stationary engine builders, most of the
establishments are only moderately employed, and no
fresh orders of any considerable weight are being
placed. Locomotive builders are very quiet. Machine
tool makers are, for the most part, only kept going
from hand to mouth, w hile the boilermakers generally,
although fairly well employed at present, are not
securing any great weight of new orders. The general
r un of engineering establishments r emain in a condition of quietude, with scarcely any prospects of a
reassuring character for the near future. Along the
bl-nks of the Mersey the shipbuilding trades are in a
depressed C)ndition; very few inquiries are stirring,
a.nd little work of any consequence is coming forward.
There are, fortunately, no labour disputes in any of
those branches of a serious character, so that the depression is not complicated by strikes, rumours of
strikes, or threatened reductions in wages. The iron
trade is very quiet all through; very lit tle business
appears to be stirring, so much so that even the miners'
dispute is regarded al most with ind ifference. But
makers and manufacturers are chary just now about
selling, in anticipation of the proba~le de~rness of fuel,
which, of course, would send up pnces; mdeed, there
is a tendency to harden up the price already. Buyers
and consumers, however, show very little anxiety
about the situation, being probably covered for all
present r equirements. In the finished iron trade th ere
is a stiffening of prices. In the st eel trade business
continues very slow, but there is a tendency t o
higher r ates. In the nut and bolt trades business is
fJUiet, but the coal crisis is considerably. interfering
with these trades. On the whole, Lancashtre seems to
be in an expectant and waiting mood, in so far as all
branches of the iron and steel trades are concerned,
until the coal crisis develops.
In t he Sheffield and Rotherham district some improvement had manifested itself in some branches,
but already the coal di.spute is .causing some anxiet1
because of the increase m the pnce of fuel. The mantime branches of trade have been looking up recently,
and there are prospects of continued impro,ement,
unless it be checked by the scarcity of coal. The
rolling mills have been modera.tely we.ll oa: for w~rk, in
anticipation of a probable slackemng munedtately.
The cost of material will have to be increased in proportion t o the enhanced price of fuel, which will
probably decrease production. Great difficulties are
expected to be encountered in this district if the coal
dispute assumes the proportions which are threatened.
The general staple trades of the district, ~b?ugh quiet,
are not quite so depressed as was ant1c1pated, but
some branches are in so critical a condition that the
scarcity and higher p~ice of fuel will aa:ect th.e m .adversely almost immediately. In the vartous dtstncts
of South Yorkshire t he iron and steel t rades have
experienced an improvemel?-t, some o.f the forges a~d
mills ha.ving started workmg full ttme. The chtef
anxiety is now about the supply of fuel, though some
of the principal firms ha.ve large stacks of coal, an.d they
have been increasing them of late. In Yorksh1re the
anxiety is more acute than in other districts, for the
miners are said to have a reserve fund of 150,000l., and
they have not o~ly resol ved to resist the proposed 25
per cent. reduct10n, or any part thereof, but also to call
out the men at all the pits, whet~er notice~ of reduction have been given or not . Tbts resol ve lS probably
aimed at the great companies which are engaged in the
coal trade as well as in the i~on and steel ~rades, .so as
t o cripple the latter in their coal supp~tes until the
miners' dispute is settled. By thus actmg t~e men
think that they will gain an advantage by forcmg the
ha-nds of the employers.

--district

In the Cleveland
there has not been
much change in the s ituation, except that the
price of No. 3 iron has advanced. If, as at present
contemplated, the Du~haHl an4 Northumberland

men continue at work, Cleveland will not suffer

much. If, however, Durham should be drawn into
the strike, matters would instantly change for the
worse, in so far as labour is concerned. 'hip building
prospects are better throughout the district, and the
steel trade shows some improvement; Lut the finished
iron t rade continues quiet.
ingularly enough, the
ironstone miners appear to be blaming the Durham
men for not taking part in the dispute. Last year the
Durham men were severely blamed for striking, being
accused of paralysing the Cleveland trade. But the
t imes are changed : then the Cleveland miners were
not in the federation ; now they are, and so toonominally at least -are the Durham miners; but the
two bodies are not at one on the methods and p olicy
of the federation. The ironstone miners have accepted
the policy of the federation on all points, the eight
hours included; the Durham men have not. Hence
the divergent views as to the present situation.
There have been no new developments over the
notices issued in the northern iron and steel trades t o
terminate the present contracts, with the view of readjusting the sliding scale as to wages. These matters
are usually arranged mutually by the North of England Conciliation and Arbitration Boa,rd in a friendly
way, and t here is no indication of any rupture in this
instance. But when the basis which for so long a
time has regulat ed the wages of the men is proposed
to be changed, there is a danger lest divergences
should arise as to the basis to be substituted, espe
cially as it will involve considerable adjustments to
suit all concerned.

T he strike of ship joiners on the Tyne, after lasting

for six weeks, has terminated in favour of the men,
the employers having withdrawn the notices of reductions in wages of ls. per week. Several grades of
workmen in the shipyards accepted the reduction, but
the ship joiners refused to agree. The settlement of
this dispute, and the decision of the miners in the
Durham and Northumberland districts not to strike,
give hopes of a busier time in the Tyne district, and
also along the whole of the north-east coast. In point
of fact i t appears that provision is being made for t he
transport of seaborne coal from those districts to other
districts requiring coal for various purposes.
As a result of the coal trade dispute, the Salt Union
have given notkes to about 5000 men to the effect t hat
the workmen must consider themsel ves engaged from
day to day only, by reason of the miners' dispute and
the proba ble difficulty in obtaining fuel to carry on the
work of chemical manufacture.

PARSONS' STEAM TURBINE DYNAMO.

o~

page 572 of our fifty-four th volume (November4,

1892), we published a r eport of a test of one of the Hon.
C. A. Parsons' condensing steam turbines, driYen by
superheated steam. This test was made by P rofessor
Ewing, and showed remarkable economy. Quite r ecently another test has been made by P rofessor A. B.
\V. Kennedy, and has given the wonderful result of
20.3 lb. of wat er per electrical horse-power hour. By
this the steam turbine is placed among the best of the
engines used in the direct driving of dynamos. The
machine used in the trial is shown in the engraYing on
In the \Vol verhampton district the iron, steel, and page 125, and the following is the text of the report :
cognate industries have been able to maintain a fairly
REPORT ON TRIALS OF P AllSONS' STEA~! TURBINE
healthy condition, but the advance in the price of MidDYNAMO AND ALTERNATOlL
land coal has tended t o limit business i n those trades,
19, Little Queen-street, Westminster, S. W.
because of the uncert.ainty that hangs over supplies and
1\'Iay 30, 1893.
prices. Furnace coal had gone up by 2s. per too. last
In accordance with the request of :VIessrs. C. A. Parsons
week, as compared with the prices of a month ago, and and Co., I went to Newcastle on the 12th of April last,
this enhanced price will have the effect of crippling the and spent the two following days in making a series of
operations of the puddling furnaces. The quotations trials with one of Mr. Parsons' turbo-motors, driving a.
for pig iron have been in abeyance, but plates and continuous-current dynamo, having an output of 15(J units.
The machine tested was in external dimt\nsions almost
strips found a ready sale at recent rates. Good busi- exactly
the sa,me as that tested in August last by Proness has also been done in bars and billets with outsid ~ fessor Ewing, but by a. rearrangement of the plates and
dealers. 'Yith the exception of the coal dispute, lahour discs its output has been very considerably increased. I ts
questions are quiet.
nominal maximum capacity is 150 units when working
with 120 lb. steam pressure; but it gave this output withThe condition of trade i n the Birmingham district out apparent difficulty at 100 lb. stean1 pressure, as will
has not materially changed. As far as appearances be seen below.
As the motor has been so recently described in Progo, the coal crisis will not affect the district, inasmuch
as the pits at the adjoining coalfields at Bilston, ' Ved- fessor Ewing's report, and elsewhere, it is unnecessary
that I should say anytbin~ as to its mechanical construcnesbury, T ipton, Dudley, Oldbury, and other places, tion.
The particular machme tested bad six high-pressure
employing some 8000 or 10,000 men, will continue at single discs, and one low-pressure double disc, the two
work, as they are under the Wages Board. If, how- sides of the latter being in parallel. lb rt1n at about
ever, the drop in wages, according to the auditor's 4500 revolutions per minute.
report, is insisted upon, those miners may throw in
The tests made were essentially directed to the detertheir lot with the federation. They have not received mination of the quantity of steam used per electrical
any notices, nor do they expect any. " 1 ages haYe not horse-power hour by the motor at different loads. The
been altered since they obtained 4d. p er day rise water measurement was carried out by means of a little
tank holding 370 lb. of \Vater (as checked by direct
three years ago.
weighing). Jfroro this tank water was allowed to run
into a somewhat larger one below it, from which the
Trade in the South Wales district has, if anything, feed-pump drew its supply. The feed-pump itself was
rather improved, and it is expected t hat the coal dis- worked by steam from a second boiler, which also suppute in other districts will be to the ad vantage of plied steam for the air-pumping engine. The boiler used
South 'Vales. The shipowners of Cardiff are trying to for supplying- steam to the motor was a sma1l boiler of
arrange the questions of wages and other matters so as the locomotive type, capable of running only at 100 lb.
to avert a possible dispute over the reduced rates now pressure. The boiler was so small for its work that
paid, as compared with a year or so ago. A conference there was no difficulty in keeping the feed practically conhas been held, and further interviews are to take place tinuous throughout the trials, and in keeping the water
in order to see whether some mutual arrangement can level ,ery steady. When running at full power the feed
measuring tank lasted only eight minutes, so that it was
be made.
easy to ~et a large number of points upon the water line
--in the d1agram, as will be seen on examination (Fig. 2,
The Shipping F ederation, it appears by the test case page 125).
The steam from the boiler passed through a series of
at Liverpool, will have to pay a month's wages to
several hundred men for breach of contract at Hull, superh eating tubes on its way to the engine, these tubes
the men having been discharged in consequence of the being surrounded by the waste gases passing from the
boiler to the chimney. In all the trials made, except
settlement of the Hull strike of the dockers.
where the engine was running light, it will be seen that
there was a very considerable amount of superheating
Last week it looked as though a dispute involv- attained in this manner. It is to be regretted that it bad
ing some 150,000 workers would take place in the not been fotmd possible beforehand to make the boiler
boot and shoe industries of the kingdom, but happily and its connections perfectly steam-tight. There were a.
the terms of a compromise were agreed upon, and the not inconsiderable number of small leaks taking place,
whole subject will be dealt with by arbitration. The the total amount of which may quite well have considermen on strike at Birmingham and Bristol were to re- ably impaired the apparent economy of the motor. It
turn forthwith, unconditionally, but without prejudice was impossible for me to take these leaks, such as they
t o their claims. The dispute was to be referred to were, in any way into account, and the water consumparbi tration, under the joint rules of the trade. Notices tion which I give below therefore includes the whole of
them, whatever they may have been. I need hardly
of the lock-out to be withdrawn. The Boards of Arbi- point
out that all these errors, without exception, were
tration for Birmingham and Bristol respectively are to against
the mot.or and not in favour of it.
appoint a day for the consideration of the matters in
The dynamo which was used in the experiments had a
dispute, and an umpire is to be ready in case of non- continuous current armature, not intended to take more
agreement . If the local boards do not agree to terms, tha.n about 1~0 units. This was the largest power for
a National Conference is t o be called, the party ad- whwh the b01ler could sup{>lY steam for more than a very
judged to be in the wrong to pay th e costs of arbitra- short time, and this fact hmited the maximum power a.tl
tion. Sir Thomas Wright, chairman of the National which any water mea.surementa could be made. The
Convention of the Boot and Shoe Trades, drafted the whole of the electrical measurements were made by zero
terms, and stated that if they were not agreed to he methods, using a Cromptoo. potentio-meter and standard
Clark cells. A standard platinoid resistance of .001 ohm,
would resign as president. The men accepted the which
was sensibly free from temperature error for very
terms offered, and no doubt the conference will settle much larger currents than those which I used, was emthe rest. This is a prudent ending to a threatened ployed in connection with the current measurements. The
great dispute.
work done by the motor was taken up upon an artificial

- - - - - - -

E N G I N E E R I N G.
E XPERIMENTS 0~ PARSONS' S TEAM T t:ROINE DYNA:UO .\ND ALTERNATOR.

Heaton Works, April, 1893.

- - - - - - --

I
c.
- - - - - - - - --- -- - - ---:------ ---

Duration of trial in minutes . .

..
..
Mean boiler pressure . .
lb. per sq . in
Corresponding mean temperature d eg. F.
Actu:~.l mean steam t emperature d ose to
engine . .
..
..
..
d eg. F .
Amount of superheating
..
..
..
Mean vacuum . .
..
l b. per sq. in 1
,
injection temperature ..
d rg-. F.
, hot-well temperature . .
,
,
reYolutions per minute ..
..
.
., cu rrent
..
..
..
am p e r~
, elec'romothe for<'e
..
. . ,olts
, k1lowatts . .
..
..
..
.
., electric:ll h~rsepower . .
..
..
Total water used
..
..
..
l b.
..
,
P.er hou r . .
.
..
,
Water per ktlowatt hour
..
..
electr ical h ? rse-power hour
:: 1
11

A.

B.

35.5
95 8

3 1.0

D.

E.

~35. 2

9 .6
3:i7

72.0
97.0
336

93 .0
94 6
834 .4

122 0
94.5
33:1. 3

330.3

331.3

356

371
36 6
58 IS

401
66.7
13.95
70 7

75.2

so.s

44 75
260.3
264. 3
fl8 .8
92.2 1
3330
2148
31 .2
23 .3

46!\ 5
420 7
263.3
110.8
148. 5
6290
30Q4
27.9
20.8

..

..

14.3

14. 1
63.3

69
GZ 6
426
..
265. L
..
..
370

625
..
..

68.9
43S5

..
267.2

..
..
370
653

..
..

20 0
14.28
6':1.4
72.9
H 80
105.5
26"'. 9
27.94
37.45

14 0
1233
44.1
32.9

14 .28

F.
46 5
97.1
33('1.1
391
54.9
14.11
61.7
bO.G
4625

482 6
254 9
1:23. 0
1 6~ . 9

o.

7.0
97.0
336
380
44
13.8
4592
576.5
264.7
152.6
20! 6

2!!90
3342
9 I- , 2
20.3

1
----~------~----~----~----~-------------------

r esistance of spiul wire di vided into sections t o suit the

different powers r equir ed.
During each trial the s team pre~sure and water level
were noted each time the measuring tank was emptied.
The temperature of the steam, the vacuum, and the
speed of the engine were n oted a.t the same time or more
often. Th e electrical rueasu r~me nts were made a.t regular
intervals of five or ten m in u tes, according t o the duration
of th e trial.
On the diagrams. page 125, a re sh own graphically
th e resu ts of s ix t rials of the m otor and d ynamo, two
r unning light (excited only), one at about 28 k ilowatts,
ona at about 70 kilowatts, one at ab out 110 kilowatts,
and one at about 12:l kilowatts. T hese are letter ed r espectively in the diagram with the letters from A to F.
E xperim ent E, at about 1l0 kilowatts, is the on e wh ich
I looked upon a the mos t important, as it was run at the
largest powe r for which the steam c mld be kl:'pt up for
any length of time. The actual duration of the r un was
just over two hours, in which time 17 tanks of water
were used. It will be seen from the d iagram how very
uniform both the power and the water were during the
whole of the run, and having obtain ed so many points on
what appeared to b s a. s traight line, ib did n ot appear
worth while to prolong the tria l furth er . In this trial
t he m ean output was a.t the rate of 110.8 k ilowatts, or
14 .5 elec trical h orse-power.
The boiler pressure was 94.5lb. above the atmosphere,
and the M ' er age amount of superh eating was 66.7 d eg.
Fabr. The average vacuu m s hown by the gange was
13.95 lu. p er square inch, thE\ pressure of the atmosphere
b eing equivalent t o 30.3 in . o f mercury , or, say, to
14.86 lb. p er squue inch. 1' he t otal water used per hour
was 3094lb., which is equivalent to 27.9 lb. per kilowatt
h our, or 20.8 lb. p er electr ical horse-power hour.
It is unnecessary that I should go over in detail the
figures obtain ed u pon the other test s ; they are given
at full length in the annexed Table. A n examination
of the observed p oints, sho.vn on the diagram, shows
that for all four ex periments-a, D, E, and F - the
water consumption was exceedingly regular throughout
the whole duration o f the test. I regret that it was n ot
p ossible to carry on the highest power tes t (F) for more
than three-quartere of an hour, but at this power the
boiler was very uncomfortably forced, and the armatur e
also was being somewhat hardly t reated. It will be
n oted, however- and this forms by far the best test o f
the accuracy of th e water m ea.surew ents-t.hat the four
p oints in the diagram which rPpresent the total water
used l?er h our follow very exactly \Villans' law- that is,
they he upon one straight lin e.
I n the two trials A and B (which were made on t wo
d ifferent days), when the m otor was r unn ing empty,
circumstances r endered it only pos ible to use one t ank
f ull of water each time. There a re, therefore, in these
cases n o such checks afforded a s in the other tests by the
sraightness of the water-line t h rough out the whole duration of the trial. Th e two tests, however, agree with
each other very well, and the two corresponding poin ts,
a.s will be seen, lie '\' ery nearly in their proper place at
the comm encement of the line which r epresents the t otal
water used per hour (Fig. 3~ .
T he amount of s uperheating appeared to depend to a
consid erable extent, as was natural, upon the work which
was being d on e by the boiler - th at is to say, upon tha
amount and t emperature of the ch imney gases. Running
empty, there was n o superheating, o r r ather, the super
heating h ad fallen to n othiug by the time the st eam
r each ed the engine, close to which its t emperature was
m easured. I have n o doubt that there ma.y have b een,
even then. a ver y consid erable amount of superheatin g
given to the steam a fter it had left the boiler. In trial
C, which was really made immediately after trial D, the
superheatins- commenced a.t the point at whic h it h ad
reached d urmg D, but it will bo seen that a fter h alf-an h our it fell to a. much lower p oint, and r emained ther e
steadily. In trials D and E the amount of superheating
r ose from the beginning un til it attain ed what appeared
t o hA a more or less n ormal amount for the corresponding
power. In trial F the temperature was still rising when
other causes (which I have already m entioned ) compelled
m e t o stop tbe experiment. After all the oth er t rials
were ended , I bad the motor r un up to give an output of
150 kilowatts, in order simply to seo whether it could
actually deal with this load . It was impossible t o k eep
up steam for m ore than a. few minutes under these con
dition s, and, therefore, no water measurement could be
made, but I found that with a steam pressure falling from

100 lb. down to 90 lb. th e m otor could dri ve the armatur e

with a n output of 152.6 kilowatts, apparently without
the slightest trouble. The vacuum at this time was
13.8 lb. p er square inch, and the steam temperature had
only had time to r each 380 d eg. Fa.hr. when the machine
was shut d own. The motor was running about 4600 revolutions Eer min ute, as will be seen fr om th e T able.
The T able above gives the princip al figu res, totals
and ruea.ns, &c. , connected with the seven trial runs.
It is obviously n ot n ecessary for m e to p oint out that
the figures given in th is Table are figures of unusual excellence in economy, for they certainly r ank among the
best results hitherto obtained in the direct drhing of
dynamos by con densing machinery. The construction
of the motors allows the ad vantage of superh eating to be
carried to the fullest ext ent, wi thout any chance of injury
to any parts ot the machin e, and n o d oubt this wise use
of superheating has con t r ibuted, to n o small extent,
to the e. ception a.ll y g ood r esults whi ch have been obtained.
in ce making the trials of which I have n ow summarised the r esults, I ha' e been able to have special
experim ents made, with a view to d et ermining to what
extent the SU{>erheating has contributed t o the result
obtain ed . It lS not necessary that I sh ould gi ,.e details
as t o these experiments, but their leading r esults may be
summed up by saying th at a.t about 35 electr ical h orsepower the s team used without superheating was the same
a-s with s uperheating, but that the difference gradually
increased until at 100 electrical h orse-power it was a bout
8 per cent. The working of the boiler d id n ot a llow the
n on-superheating experiments to be carried farth er than
this, but if the same law of incr ease of econ omy h el d
good up to the full p ower of the machine, its actual
water consumption, as tested, must have been about 10
per cent. less than it would h ave been without super heat ing-a very n otable differ en ce. Of cour se this
figure mus t be taken as only approximate, but it sh ows
that even without superheating the motor would show
very good r esults.
I have only furth er to say th at the engine worked
throughout th e trials without giving the slightest trouble
in any way, either a.t low or at high loads. The throttle
valve was full op en in each case, and the engine r an upon
its governor, which appeared t o control it in a satisfactory
m anner.
ALEX.

B. \V.

KENNEDY.

WATER-TUBE MARINE BOILER '.

On the Present P osition of Water-Tube B oilers as Applied
for Mari ne P urpc,se3.*
By ~Ir. J. T. MILTON, C hief Engineer Surveyor to Lloyd's
Registry of Shipping, M ember of Council.
( CO'Itcluded from page 98. )
I T is to be n oted that in the B elleville b oiler the
jun ctions throughout are made with ei ther bolted or
screwed joints, n o ex panded joints being used. The tubes
are simply scr ewed into the back juncti on boxe~, the joint
being secur ed with a thin checknu t . The front junction
boxes are fitted with screwed nipples, over which and
over the front end of the tube a socketJ or collar is screwed,
the joint being also backed ~p by a. ch ecknut. A t this
end of th e tu bes, ther efor e, a d ouble thickness of metal
is exposed between the fire and the water. Wha t w ill
appear as a. n ovelty to English engineer s is the use of
m alleable cast iron for the junction boxeR, which are exposed to the same pressur e a s the r est of the boiler, and
also to a. considerable amount of h eat .
It h as been s tated that the internal surfaces of the
tubes may be examined from the front ends, and they
may also be cleaned if n ecessary. The external surfaces
are cleaned by n,ea.ns of a s team jet inserted in the spaces
between the junction boxes.
The ease with which r epairs t o these boilers may be
effected is sh own frow the fact that a boiler may be shut
off from the others, emptied, any elem ent disconnect ed
by breaking the upper and lower bolted joints, brouht
0
out ~nto the stokehold, and any one tube taken out by
cuttmg through the screwed socket connecting it t o the
front jun ction b ox and unscrewing it from the back b ox
a. n ew tub(, and socket ca.n then be inserted the element
replace~, the boiler refilled, and s.team ag;in raised in
a.bont s tx h ours, the whole work bemg done by one skilled
engin eer, assisted by fi remen.
*Paper reld before the Institution of Naval Architects.

It will be noticed that the boilers previously described

are composed of .straight .tu~es of compar a.tl'vely large
diamet er, the d estg ns adm1ttmg of more or less. perfect
inspection and cleaning o f the who~e of th~ mterna.l
surfaces. Those remaining to be describe~ are m m~rked
con trast being composed of small tubes ID proportiOn t o
their len'gtb, a nd in only one <;>u t o~ the fo~u are the tu~es
straight, in the oth er thre~ n either 1.nspect10n n or clean mg
of the in ternal surfaces bemg practtcal>le. .
The Thornycroft boiler was fully descr.1bed b.Y ~Ir.
Thornycroft a.b the spri~g meeting of th~s Inetttutt?n
in 18 9. lb consists mamly of t.hre~ hor~zonta.l cyhnd ers, t he u pper on e being the steam ch est.
The upper
is connected to the two lower ch est s by .two m~cu
latin g tubes of large size ox ternal t o tho ~o1ler casmg,
and by a multitude of small tubes bent mto t?rtuous
curves withi n the casing, these small tubes formmg the
heating surfaces. In the external r ows these tubes. a re
placed side by side in contact. in.order to protec~ the cas1~g,
while th e inn er r ows ar e stmtlarly placed side by stde
to form a. contin uous arch over the fire, and to compel the
products of combustion to pass u n iformly aro~nd. the oth ~r
tubes forming the heating surfaces. A pecuhanty of th1 s
boiler is that all the tu bes enter the upper half of the
steam ch est. The tubes are 1 in. a nd 1t in . in diameter.
The working water-level is such as to permit t h e upper
ch est to contain a. con siderable quantity o f ~ate~. 1 'h e
tubes being so small in diamet er, the eva.pora.t10n m them
rend ers the d ensi ty of the mixture of water and ste~m
th ey contain so much less tha~ that of the wat~r, wh.JCh
is without admixture of st eam, m the externa l mr culatmg
pipe as to cause a ra~id circulation e''en through the upper
or highes t tu bes. The water brought over by the tubes
is separated from the st eam by means of the baffle plates.
The products of comb ustion enter the lower parts of
the spaces between the tubes, and traverse n early t he
whole length of the tubes in the .d irection of their length.
It is difficult to see how t h e ou tside of t he tu bes can be
freed from soot and the lower p ar ts of the spaces between
the tubes from an accumulation of ashes a nd d ust. These
points, combin ed with t.h e impossibilit~ ? f examining
them internally and the ddnculty of locah smg any tube
which may become d efective, and of r enewing it when
discovered, will, it is thought, prevent the introduction of
this boiler for use in ocean-going steam er s, but the results
obtained by it, as r egards its evapor ative power in proportion to its weight, comhined with its evaporative
economy in proportion to the fu el consumed, show how
emi nently suitable it is for purposes where enormous
power is o f more consequence tha n very prolonged efficiency. Particulars of these r esul ts may be found in the
references quot ed, and also in Mr. Thornycr oft 's paper
r ead a.t the Institute of Civil Engineers.
A modified form of this b oiler, containing two fire
grates, has b <3en prop osed by Mr. Thornycroft, in which
there are on e upper, or steam chamber, and three lower
water chamber s, the centre and largest of these being
between the two fire grates.
Fig. 6, r eproduced from The Enginee1 of July 15, 1892,
repr esents a. cross-section of the Norma.nd boiler, which
is seen to present some of the features of the Thornycroft
b oiler. There are the same three horizontal cylindri cal
r ecei vera, the upper b eing a. s team ch est and the two lower
being water chamber s, t he main poin t of differenc3 being
that all the beating tubes are connected to the lower ha.lf
of the steam ch est instead 'lf to the upper half. Ther e
are in this boiler ext ernal cir culating tubes placed a.t
both end s instead of at one end only as in the Thorny
croft boiler. A r eference to the sket ch will show that
while the shapes of the h eating tubes are different from
those in the other boilers, considbrable trouble appears to
have been taken t o prevent any of them from being
straight.
F ig. 7 shows a cross-section, &c., of the Du Temple
boiler a.s fitted in torpedo-boats. This also bears some
re~embla.nce to the t wo former boiler s, but there are some
importRrnt d ifferences. Li ke the Normand boiler, there
are two external cir culating tubes a.t each end connecting
the upper with the lower chamber s, and the h eating
tubes a lso enter the upper chamber along the b ottom half.
These heating tubes ar e of small diameter, and of the zigzag shape sh own1 and have the peculiari ty of having
their lower port10ns made of r educed diameter. The
water chambers are made of comp aratively small cr osssection, but they are fi tted through out their len gth with
d oor s, which give acces s to their interiors. The fire grate
is situated between brick sides, so that the whole of the
length of th e h eating tubes is above the level of the fire.
Th e products of combustion rise s traight up from the fire
b etween the tubes, so that the direct ion of ru otion of the
gases is across the length of the tubes instead of along it,
as in the Thornycroft boiler.
The Yarrow boiler is r epresented by Fig. 8, whiC'h
is r el?roduced from ENGINEERING of January 16, 1891.
In this boiler also there are one upper and two lower
horizon tal chambers, connect ed by two cir culating tu bes
external to the casing, and by a number of small beating
tubes which, in this case, are strai ght. In the sma.lle1
b oilers the upper chamber is made in halves, bolted
together, t o enable the upper half to b e removed. The
lower chamber s are each made with a flat side, form in~ a
tubeplate, the lower portions being of semi-cylindncal
form, bolted t o the tu~epla.tes. By rem oving these p arts
the tubes are accessible from both ends, and being
straight, they may be examined and cleaned as ~ell as
their small diameter will permit. ThE\ outside " f all the
t ubes also may be clean ed from soob, &c. , the casing
being made p ortable to p ermit of this. The tire grate
is placed be.tween the lower ch amber s, and the products
of combuat 10n pass between the t ub es on their way
t o the chimney, their direction of motion being across
See ENGINEDING, vol. xlvii., page 402.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
the length of the tubes, as is the case in the Du T emple
boiler.
In both the Y arrow and Thornycroft boilers the heating tubes are made of seamless steel. In some cases they
have been galvanised. Seamless tubes are used, not so
much on account of their strength being greater than that
of lap-welded tubes of the same diameter and thickness,

Total heating surface

..
..
Section of chimney

l OO

very ~eat indeed, and ser ved not only to mark the progress m naval architecture and marine engineering, but to
emphasise the vast strides made in the t rad e during the
course of 40 years. It struck me that it would be both
instructive and interesting if I attempted t o gi ve a sketch
of the history of steam communication with the Continent and the development of the same.

sq. m. = 1076 sq. ft.

.96 "
=
10.2 11

Lagrajel B oiler.
Grate surface
.
Tubular surface . .
Plate heating surface

..
..
..

3.3 sq. m.
96.7 11
3.3 11

36.9 sq. ft.

1040
11
36
11

I
'

0
0

: . II
1

11 I

Ftre

II

I II I

Stont

bnck

11

as to insure freedom from small local defects in the weld,

which, although not materially impairing the strength,
may, by reason of the less thickness of sound metal they
present, permit a small amount of corrosion t o perforate
the tube, in which, of course, even a. minute pinhole,- permitting the escape of steam or water, will necessitate the
removal of the tube.
A combination of water-tube and ordinary smoke-tube
boiler is now being tried by Messrs. Anderson and Lyall,
of Glasgow. In this boiler the water tubes are placed
over the fire, and receive the fullest heat of the products
of combustion, which, after entering a. combustion chamber, pass through the smoke tubes which are surrounded
by water. In this form of boiler the ordinary furnace
fiue is dispensed with, and the casing- of the part of the
boiler containing the tub&~ is of considerably smaller diameter than the shell of an ordinary boiler containing the
same heating surfaces, so that thinner plates and less
weight both of boiler and water are needed. The makers
have at present only made one boiler on this plan, and
they are now engaged in making experimEints with it to
determine the most advantageous proportions for the
various
parts, with the view of adopting the plan for

manne purposes.
The experiences given in the paper as to the time
during which some of the boilers have been in use, and
the fact that their use is extending amongst those most
familiar with them, show that so far as safety is concerned water-tube boilers can be made satisfactory. The
point upon which many will wish for information is that
of their economy as steam raisers on ordinary service.
Unfortunately I am unable to supply this information.
In thA paper to which reference has been made, however1 some information will be found as to the efficiAnoy
of tne Thornycroft boiler, and I am indebted to Mons.
D'Alleet for some information given in the Appendix
aa to the results of trials made upon the Lagrafel and
Lagrafel-D' Allest boilers by Mons. Taton, a F rench
naval engineer.
In each case of these trials the coal used was carefully
weighed, the firing being regulated t o burn oO, 75, 125,
and 150 kilos. per hour per square metre of the grate area.
The feed water was measured, and it was noted that
there was practically no water (priming) carried off with
the escaping steam. The results with the modern form
of the boiler show a very good efficiency, and if such results can be obtained in ordinary working with watertube boilers, the higher pressures they will admit of
should lead to more economical results being obtiained.
APPENDIX.

Bendta of Experimenta Made at Ma/l'seillea witk Lagrajel

and Lagrajel-D'Allest B oilers, under tke D irection of
M on8. T aton, Engin eer of the French Navy. Particular& of B oikr6.
Lagrafel D' A llest B oilers.
Grate surface

0 0

Proportion of grate
to beating surface
Tubular surface . .
Plate beating surface
.

Trials Nos. 1,
8, 5, and 6.
3.3 sq. m .
= 35.9 sq. ft.

Trial No. 2.
2.86 sq. m.
* 30.8 sq. ft.

..J(f

-,'r

96.7 sq. m . = 1040 sq. ft.

3.8

36

11

Trial No. 4.
4 sq. ro.
= 43 sq. ft.

? ,.

Lagrafel Boilen .

LagrafelD' Allest Boilers.

No. 1.
Duration of t rial 6 hours
Weight of Cardiff coal bu rned
during the t rial 1008 kilos.
Weight of Oar.
diti coal burned
per hour
..
168 .,
Wei!(ht of Ca r- =366 lb.
d iti coal burned
per
squar e
metre of g rat e
per hour
. . 60.46 kilos.
Weight of ashes,
&"!.
..
.
80 11
Water
evaporated
during
.. 10,760 litres
t he t rial
Water
evaporated pP.r hour 1,793 , ,
Water
evapo =3952 l b.
rated persquare
metre of beating surface .. 17.93 Litres
Water
evapo
rated per kilo
of coal . .
. . 10.67 ,
Tempera t ur e} 25 deg. C.
of feed . .
= 77 deg. F .
Temperature}
C
of evapora
148 deg. .
tion
..
= 298 deg.F.
Eva por ation
from aod at
212 deg.
..
12.43

No. 2.

No. 8.

N o. 4.

No. 6.

No. 6.

No. 7.

No. 8.

No. 9.

6 br. 45 m in.

6 hours

6 hours

3 hours

3 hours

6 hours.

a hours

3 bOUll

H 30 kilos.

1612 kilos.

1800 kilos.

1224 k ilos.

1612 kilos.

1612 k ilos.

756 kilos.

1008 kilo .

211.8 11
=467 lb.

262 ,
= 555 lb.

300 "
=661 lb.

408 ,
=899 Jb.

504 ,
= lllllb.

262 ,,
= 565 l b.

252 1 1
=556 lb.

336 ,
=740 l b.

76.7 kilos.

75.7 kilos . 100.9 kilos.

74 kilos.
121.5 ,

76.67 kiloP.
233

11

76 kilos.
153

1l):l

11

128.7

11

13,700 litres 13,970 litres 116,160 litres 9820 litres

13,230 lit res 10,170 litres 4110 litres

2,029.6 ..
=4475 lb.

4,410 "
= 9722lb.

2328.3 11
=49lllb.

2,691.6 ,
=5933 lb.

3273.3 11
= 7216 l b.

20.29litres 23.28 litres

26.91litres

32. 73 litres

9.28 ,.
9.58 11
25 deg. C. 21.6 deg. C.
= 77 d eg. F. =70.7 dg. 'F.
148 deg. C. 148 de g. C.
= 298 d egF. = 298 deg. F .

8.97 11
27 deg. C. =
80.6 d eg.F.
148 d eg. C. =
298 d eg. F.

8.02,.
20.5 dg. C. =
68.9 deg.F.
U S deg. C.=
298 deg. F.

11.14

=
-

STEAM COMMUNICATION "\VITH THE

CONTINENT PAST AND PRESENT.*
By A. E. SEATON, O.E.
WHEN first invited t o read a paper before this impor
tantl Congress, my firm was just launching a steamer for
the new passen~er service between Harwich an~ t~eHook
of H olland, whtch was larger, fas ter, and super10rm every
way to anything engaged in the service between this
country and Holland. On that occa-sion I was reminded
by one of our oldest steamship owners in the P ortlof Hull
that the first vessel builo by t he founders of the business
now carried on by Earle's Shipbuilding and Engineering
Company, Limited, Hull, was for ser vice between Hull
and Holland; the difference between the two ships was

9.4

10 4

10.8

Total heating surface .. 100 sq. m.

1076 sq. ft.
Secnon of chimney
..
.95 11
10.2 "
Proportion of grate to
beating surface. .
..
~1tr
Trials Nos. 1, 2, 3, ~nd 4 made wit h t he Lagratel-D' Allest
boilen, and Nos. 7, 8, and 9 with t he La~rafel boilers, were made
with natural draugh t . Nos. 6 a nd 6, with L~rafelD' Allest boilers,
with forced draugh t.

122.5 kilos 151.35 kilos.

..

P~er read before t he International Mant1me Congreas, L ondon ~Ieetipg.

1,695 "
=3736lb.

1870 ,
= 3020 lb.

44.1 litres 16.96 litres 13. ';' litres

6680 litres
2193.3 "
= 4835 l b.
21.91itres

8. 76 .,
21 deg. C. =
69.8 d eg. F .
148 deg. C.=
298 deg. F.

6.72 11
22 deg. C. =
71.6deg. F.
l48 deg. C.=
298 d eg. F.

6.43 11
22.5 d eg. C.
= 72.5 dg. F .
148 d eg. =
298 deg. F.

6.526 11
23 deg. C. ,.
73.4deg. F.
l4Sdeg. C.""
298 deg. F.

10.24

77.8

6.34

7.62

IEarle
The first ship built by M essrs. Charles and William
was the Minister Thorbecke, a scre w steamer of
258 tons register and 60 nominal horse-power. Her
length was 130 ft., breadth 22 ft., and depth 10ft. ; and
her engines were geared and had two cylinders 30 in. in
diameter by 33 in. stroke. She carried only 70 tons of
cargo, and had plain accommodation for eight passengers
in a deck house, m easuring 31 ft. long and 13 ft. wide ;
she was launched on March 15, 1853, a nd was empl<;> yed
in the conveyance of goods and passengers between Hull
and Harlingen, her speed being about S knots per hour.
The vessel we were launching was the Chelmsford, of
1635 t ons register, and 650 nominal horse-power. H er
1
length is 300 ft., breadth 34 ft. 6 in., and depth 16 ft. ;
and her twin-screw engines are of the tripleexpansion
~ypet each set having ?Ylinders 26 in.~ 39~ .in . and 61 in.
m diameter, and 36 m. stroke. This sb1p has accommodation for 230 first-class and 68 second-class p68Sengers,
fitted up in a luxurious manner, and her speed is over 18
knots per hour.
Prior t o the employment of steamships as a means of
communication with the Continent, the trade was carried
on chiefly with brigs from Hull and other north-east
coast ports, with sloops between Harwich and H olland,
and with fast-sa.iling_~loops between Dover and the North
of France. In the W est of England communication wae
generally by schooners.

I
I

}ULY

E N G I N E E R I N G.

28, 1893.)

SW

WATER-TUBE

B 0 I LE R S.

(For n e!KTiption, see Page 127.)

FIG.

G
I I

8.

----

- - --~

,....
----'-I' -'r-----t ----

. -___
- .,.

'

I '

- -I l_ -- __ J "("'

-----=-1 - ~:;~3:1 ~~
-

FLf16.

, ---

Fcg. 7.

I
I

- _J

J I

i.1 'I
'

.- ' -.
,,

''

I
\

\
\

\
\

1----\--~- -

\I

__ ,._

--

oo I

~./~~
0

.:j

In the Hull and Rotterdam trade were several handsome briss, one firm, l\1essrs. W. and 0. L. Ringroseowning etght of these ships, ea~h of which performed on
the average a.bouo 15 or 16 voyages J)f'r annum, so that the
average sailings were about twice a. week. The passenger
a.ccommodation was only small, as that traffic was very
limited. They carri ed, however, from 400 to 500 tons of
cargo, and maintained the service with a fair degree of
rAgnlAritv. Somewhat similar vessels were employed in
the Hamburg trade.
Communication between Hull and Hamburg by sa.iling
brigs was displaced about 1840, and in 1843 we find the
Helen Ma.cGregor, a. paddle steamer of 665 tons gross,
and 218.4 ft. long, 26.2 ft. beam, and 16 ft. depth of bold,
with engines of 230 horse-power, was placed on the station
and kept up the service in company with the Transit, of
203 tons and 140 horse-power (built in 1831), and other
similar steamers for many yearf'. This trade is now
carried on by ecrew steamers, of which the Bruno is an
example; sh~ is 841 tons register, 232 ft. long, 30 ft.
beam, 15 ft. 6 in. depth of hold, and has triple-compound
engines of 170 nominal horse-power, havmg cylinders
23 in., 35~ in., and 57 in. in diameter by 33 in. stroke.
Her speed on service, under favourable conditions, is
about 14 knots.
'J.'he tr~de between the Humber and the Continent is

very ex ten si ve both in passengers and goods, but more

especially the latter. The first steamer to do service
between Hull and Rotterdam was the Seagull, a. paddle
steamer.
She was closely followed by the Camerton and the
Swanland, the latter being a screw steamer, built at
Glasgow by N a.pier and Crichton in 1850 ; she was 120
horse-power, and had geared engines. In her day she was
thought to be a. fine specimen of naval architecture. It is
interesting to note that this ship still continues to run
from Hull to Holland, but in 1860 she was lengthened
30ft., and in 1881 was fitted with direct-acting compound
engines, having cylinders 22 in. and 40 in. in diameter by
24 in. stroke.
The European, a steamer of the same age and in
the same trade, has even a more interesting history. She was originally 435 tons gross register, and
171.3 ft. long, 24.9 ft. beam, and 14.4 fb. depth of hold,
with engines of 140 horse-power. In 1875 she was
lengthened 25 ft. and her original geared engines replaced
with ordinary compounds 23 in. and 44 in. in diameter
by 27 in. stroke, with a working pressure of 70 lb. In
1890 these engines were fitted with new cylinders on the
quadruple system, and are now 14 in., 21 in., 29 in., and
44 in. in diameter by 27 in. stroke, with a working pressure of 180 lb. Her cargocarryin~ ca.pabilities have

129

been increased with each alteration, and now her speed

is rather better than it was originally, and the consumption of fuel in the round voyage is sma~ . The_ lat~st
addition to the Hull and Rotterdam fleet l S the YlCtona.,
a screw steamer of G50 tons, built in 1_892; she IS 230 ft.
long by 26 ft. 6 in. beam by _14 ft. 7 m. dept~ of bold;
she has triple-compound engmes of 170 nommal horsepower, and attains a spe_ed of 15 k~ots, under favourabl e
circumstances ; she carr1es about GOO tons ?f cargo, and
has a fait amount of passenger accommodatiOn.
The chief passenger servic:e from the Humber to the
Continent is vid Grimsby l>y steamers owned by the
Manchester, S heffield, and LincolJ?shire Rail~ay Company
This ser vice commenced m 1855 w1th screw
stea~ers of about 600 tons register; one of these, the
L ord Cardigan. being 170 ft. long, 26.8 ft. beam, and
15 ft. depth of 'bold, and having. engines of 80 nomiJ?al
horse-power. The vessels on th1s route gradually m
creased in size, so tha.t in 1864 the Sheffiel~, a paddle
steamer of 560 tons, was placed on the statiOn. A few
years afterwards, however, the company ~everted to
screw ships and have since used them exclus1vely. The
passenger a'nd goods trades ha ye both increased, and kept
pretty much the same proport10n M a.t the outset; consequently the steamers employed in this traffic can carry
good cargoes have good and extensive accommodation
for passenge~s together with moderate speed. The
Lutterwortb, ~ne of the latest additions, is a ship of
1002 tons, 240ft. long, 32ft. be~m, and 14.8 f~. depth of
hold, with triple-compound ~ngmes_of 165 nomu?a.l _hor~e
power, ha.vin~ cylinders 22 m., 35 m., and 57 m. m dta.meter by 42 m. ~troke H er speed, under fa.vo.u rable
circumstances is 131: knots. She has accommodatiOn for
36 first-class 'passengers, and good accommodation f0r
second class and third class, besides which she can carry
a cargo of 900 tons dead weight. This railway company
has a regular service from Grimsby to Antwerp, to
Rotterd am, and to Hamburg.
Goole likewise has a good service of steamers to the
Continent, chiefly to Hamburg and Rotterdam. They
maintain a speed of from 12 to 14 knots, carry good
car~oes and have a small amount of passenger a.ccommodatJOn.' Their outward cargo is principally coal, but
they take a. large amount of mac~inery and ~en era~ ~oods,
especia1ly to Hamburg, and brmg back, m add1t10n to
heavy goods, verylargequantitiesof fruitand vegetables,
yeast and butter. The steamers running from this port
are all owned by private companies, but they receive
the fostering support of the L ancashire and Yorkshire
Railway Company, and the Aire and Ca.lder Navigation
Company.
Steamers were originally employed in the trades where
the passenger traffic was largest, as the amount of cargo
the ea.rly boats could carry was small, and their ex penses
were so great tha.t they could not compete in the conveyance of goods with the fast sailing vessels. It was
not until the steam engine had commenced to show decreased consumption of coal and weight that steamers
could engage in the carrying of goods as well as passengers. The introduction of iron for shipbuilding purposes soon admitted of great changes in the dimensions
and capabilities of the steamers employed in these short
trades; greater length and finer lines became possible, and
the e:apacity for weightcarrying was incrE'ased very
materially, so tha.t eventually communication between
such ports as Hull and t he Continent, D cver and the.Continent, and Southampton and the Continent, was almost
entirely conducted by steamships. The L ondon trade
with the Continent was also very considerable, both in
passengers and goods, communication between that port
and Antwerp, as well as Rotterdam and Hamburg, being
made by steamers at a very early date.
Taking the period when the steamer packets first began
to monopolise these trades-viz., from about the year
1850-the average vessel was about 270 tons register, and
her length about 180 ft., breadth 22ft., and depth 11ft.,
and her speed on service about 10 knots. On the Dover
and Calais route they were rather longer, and their speed
two to three knots faster.
l'he accommodation for passengers was also very much
improved, and attempts were made to beautify the
saloons by carving and gilding. It was, however, on the
whole, judged by the standard of to-day, very tawdry and
rough. The conveniences for pMsengers, too, were of the
simplest, and not so good in some instances as is now provided for third-class passengers in ocean-going steamers.
The horrors of the Channel passage were not mitigated
by very much to please the eye or to ease the senses. The
fact that the passage was performed regularly and a.t a.
fixed time, and, moreov~r, in itself, was not a long one
was the only saving circumstance.
'
. Th~ speeds, ~hich _to us are less than moderate, were
h1gh m companson wtth the average passa~es of the sailing vessels, although some of the latter w1th a good and
favourable wind could beat the best performances of
their successful rivals, the steamers, but it was in the
average performance that they so signally failed.
J!or Channel communication. the J?addle-wheel was
um versally employed, and to thts da.y 1t holds its own in
the Dover and Calais, the Folkestone and Boulogne
Dover and Ostend, Newhaven and Dieppe, and Queens~
borough and Flushing routes. Even Southampton did
not give up the paddle-wheel as early as it might have
done, but when it did so, and fully appreciated the
advantages of the screw, the companies there were not
slow in improving the speed of their ships and the comfort of their passengers. No doubt the route from Dover to
Calais has been used for passenger traffic ever since there wa.s
communication between these islands and the Continent
and from the time of the Romans downwards there h~
been more or less o~ a. regular service. The proximity of
Dover to the Contment must always make it a favourite
route for vassens-ers. lt w~s not~ howeverl until r~ilwa.ys

E N G I N E E R I N G.
were established t o that porb that the goods traffic was
considerable, consequently the service was performed by
fast-sailing cutter yacbQ1, generally called b oys. The
first steamer placed on this route t o compete with these
9ailing_vessels was the R ob Roy, builb in 1818 by Will ia.m Denny, of Dumbarton, and engined by David
Napier. She was of only 90 tons burden and 30 nominal
horse-power. Her speed was probably only about 7~ or
8 knots p er hour a.t best ; but she was, of course, able t o
perform the passage when the wind was contrary, and
on the average she did the voyages better than her sailing
competitors, although in tine weather and with fa vouring
winds Rhe would very likely be beaten by them.
The service of steamers appears only to have b een
carried on in a half-h earted way, inasmuch as we find
that a s late as 1856 the Dover Mail S t eam Pack et Company were content to purchase from the defunct Star
Ste~m Packet Company th e paddle steam er Jupiter, of
265 tons burden (constructed in 1849), which was 165 ft.
long, 18 ft. beam by 9ft. d eep, and bad engines of 80
nominal horse-p ower and a. speed of 14.3 knots under
favourable circumsta.ncea, she being built for and previously engaged in the trade between L ondon and
G ravesend.
The P . . J ohn Penn, another steamer built for this
service, was but little larger, bei ng 172 ft. lone-, 18 ft. 8 in.
beam, and with a. draught of water of 6 ft. 9 m . ; her displacement was of 280 t ons, and her engines of 150 nominal
horse-p ower, the cylinders being 46 in. in diameter by
50 in. strok e ; her speed on trial trip was 151 knots, and
her service speed under favourable condition s aboub
14 knot s.
(To be continued.)

MORTAR FOR SEA WORKS.

Choice of Sand and Proportions of Cement fo''

Mortars in f:Jea W orks.*
By R. FERET, Direct or of the Laboratory of the Pants
et Chaussees at B oulogne.
I mportance of a Good Proportion of Cement.-A good
proportion of cement in mortars for sea. works is as important as the quality of the cement; and often accidents
have been attributed to the use of bad cements; whereas
thei r real cause was the insufficient proportion of cemen t.
Accordingly, proceecHng- on the assumption that only the
best cem ents are employed, it is n ecessary t o con sider
what are the most suitable proportions of sand and
cement for eea. works. Not only, however, is the same
onortar n ot suitable for various kinds of work, nor even
for different parts of th e same masonry structure, but the
proportion also of a. particular cement, which should be
mixed wi th a given quantity of sand to form a mortar of
a. certain quality, varies within very wide limits, accord ing to the nature, and esp ecially the size, of the sand
used. Experimen ts made by the author at the Boulogne
Laboratory prove that the influence of the size of the
sand is much greater than commonly supposed. +
I nfluence of the Composition of the San d. -The sands
f ound in nature are generally composed of a m ixture of
grains of very graduated sizes, and are wholly dis~imilar
to the uniform sands, of different sizes, obtained by sorting a. mixed sand by a. series of sieves in order of sizes.
To reproduce, a s nearly as possible, various natural sands,
different proportions of three sizes of sifted sands, with
large, medium, and fine grains respecti vely, were mix ed
t ogether. Morta.~s were then formed wi.th the sa.~e proportions of a particular cement and thedtfferent mtxtures
of sand ; and the differences found, by COIJ?parati ve exp erim ents, between these mortars are gtven m the followmg Table:
ProJ>ortionate Volumes of
1 Cement,
1 Cement,
Sand and Cement.=:;
6 Sand.
3 Sand.
Volume of mortar resultin g
from a volume I of sand 0.940 to 1.030 0.970 to 1.180
W eight of cem ent in 1 cubic
yard of mortar ...
. . . 410 to 450 lb. 710 t o 870 lb.
Absolute volume of solid
matters (cement and sand)
contain ed in a. volume I
of mortar . . .
. ..
. . . 0. 570 to 0. 737 0.565 to 0. 728
Volume of spaces remaining
in a volume I of morta r
after it was dried (porosity ) 0.145 to 0. 330 0.093 to 0.210
Resistance to compression
after immersion for a. year
in sea. water, lb. per sq.in. 425 to 1490 1060 t o 3700
Similar divergences a re obser ved in comparing mortars
form ed by a certain weight of cement mixed with the same
weights of different mixtures of sand.
Pro_portions of Weight of
1 Cement,
3 Sand.
Sand a nd Cement.
lb.
Weight of cement contained in
one cubic yard of mortar ...
670 to 850
Absolutevolumeof solidmatters
(cement and sand ) contained
in a volume I of m ortar
...
0.580 , 0. 73!
Volume of spaces remaining in
a volume l of mortar after it
was dried. (Porosity)
...
0.030 , 0.190
Resistance to compression after
exposure for ni?e mon~bs in
air followed by 1mmers10n for
th;ee months ln sea water,
pounds per square inch
. .
1140 , 4400

(JULY 28, I 893.

It is therefore impossible to det ermine beforehand the

proportion, either by volume or wei~ht, corresponding,
for any kind of sand , t o a given quality of mortar; for,
on the contrary, the proportions should be very d ifferent
according to the sand employed. Having made with on e
sample of cem ent and two kmds of sand, on e coarse and
the other fine, two series of m orta.ra with progressively
increasing proportions of cement, the author ascertained
the resista.n<;es t o compression of all these mortars a fter
immersion for five months in sea-wat er, and calculated
from. these results the proportions of cement, for each
class of sand, corresponding to certain intermediate
strengths of mortars, which arA given in th e following
Table:

advantages in the use of a. particular ~and. Lastly, it is

expedient, in these laboratory experiments, always to
weigh the sand and cement, so as t o avoid sources of
error du e to the different a.moun t of settlement of these
materials in the measure when estimated by volume.
Manufacture of lffortars on Works.- A ssuming now
that the best sand, and the best proportions .by weight,
for a given work have been found by expenment, the
combin ation of the sand and cem ent has to be effected.
It would usually be awkward t o weigh the sand on the
works ; but in order to continue its m easurement by
volume, the weights determi ne~ by the preliminar~ exp eriments must be expressed m volumes. The wetght,
however, of a unit of volume of the same sand varies

PROPORTIONS OF S AND AND CEMENT IN MORTAR FOR S EA W ORKP.

I

Resistance to compression after five mont hs

in sea-water, lb. per square inch . .
..
Weight of cement to be mixed coarie sand
with a weight I of sand to
attain the corresponding
strengths
.
.
. . , fine
,
Volume of oement to be mixed coarse sand
with a volume I of sand t o
attain the corresponding
strength s*
..
..
.. ~ ftne
,,

500

1000

1500

j 2000

2500

0.09

0.16

0 20

0 25

0.29

0.35

0. 21

0.34

0.45

0 54

0.63

0.10

0.16

0.22

0 27

0 33

35CO

4000

4500

5000

0. 73

0.86

1.04

1.68

0.39

0.46

-0.66
--

1. 26

0.72

0.84

1.<'2

1 1.24

1.56

3000

-------- - -0 41
0.50
0.62
0.82

0.92

0.69

0.20

0.34

0.44
1

* These volumes ha,e been deduced fr om the

wei~hts

0.5S

0.62
1

by assuming that th e weights of the materials p er bu &bt l were as follows :

Cement, 120 lb. ; coarse sa.nd, 134 lb. ; fine sand, 118 lb.

These figures show that it was n ecessary to use about

twice as much cem ent with the fine sand as with the
coa.rBe, t o obtain the same strength of mortar. It follows
that th e determination of the proportions of mortars by
analogy from those which have been made in other places,
with other sands, mus t be avoided. Each enginee~,
therefore, should specially investi gate the sand ~t his
disposal, in order to find out the best proportiOn of
cement to mix with it, to insure the most economical
manufacture of the mortar satisfyin g the r equirements of
the masonry for which it is destined.
Choice of Proportions.-The plan sometimes adopted of
det ermining the best proportions corresponding t o a.
given sand, by measurin g the interstices in the sand, and
calculating the weight of t he cement, in the form of a.
paste, capable of exactly filling them, is defective, and
even dangerous by affording a. visionary security. The
volume of the interstices of a ny sand is, indeed, variable
according t o the dimensions of the measure employed ,
and the manner in which the sand is put in. Still more
must the t otal volume of the inter vals separating the
grains of sand in a mortar be very differen t from the
volume of the interstices in pure sand, in wha.te.ver mann er this lat t er m ay be measured. Moreover, various experi.ments have proved t o the author that, even with
sands having the same weight p~r unit of volume when
measured under identical conditions, and consequently
having the same volume of intarstices, the mortars obtained by mixing the same quantity of cement with t he
same volume of these sands are far from possessing the
same qualities.
A con venient and more certain method is t o make a.
certain n umber of samples of mortar, with increasing proportions of cement, out of the sand and cement at band,
so as t o test these mortars with reference t o their
special destination. For instance, in the case of very strong
masonry, the trial mortar would be subj ected t o t est s after
a per iod sufficient t o develop its full strength; and the increasing r esistance resulting from the increase in the richness of cement would indicat e the advantageous limit in
the proportions. If it was important to obtain a mortar
through which water could not percola te, the mortars
would be subjected to special tests to measure their permeability; a nd th e choice of the proportion s would be
guided by the results obtained. L astly, if it was specially
desired t o construct masonry capa.ble of resistin g the
chemical ootion of sea water, th e trial block s would be
immersed in sea water, and their behaviour according t o
their richness in cement would be observed. In these experiments it would be well, if time p~rmitted, to use fairsized masses of m ortar, so as t o mix and immerse it
under as nearly as possible the same conditions as in
actual practice. A~, however, the various trials genera lly necessitate a fairly long lapse of time before trustworth y results can be obtained, 1t is always advisable tc1
examine the mortars when fresh, with reference to the
distribution of the different elements of which they are
composed. The author, indeed, in a r ecent paper, showed
that it was easy to d etermine the absolute volumes of the
cement, the sand, the water, and the voids, in the unit
volume of any fresh mortar, and that a compe.rison of
their relati ve ,a.lues often gave useful indications of the
future quality of the mortar.*
Whatever may be the quality investigated in the trial
mortars, whether resistance, permeability, &c., or any
function of t he four element ary volumes enumerated
above, it is con venient to represent th e results graphically
by a. curve indicating the variation in this quality according to the proportion of cement in the mortar. By this
means, the divergencies due to errors in ex periment will
be eliminated, and it will at the same t ime be possible t o
read off t he diagram the qualities of all mortars intermediate between those experimented on. A comparison
of such curves corresponding t o different sands, as well as
the various prices of the mortars investigated, would permit, if th e opportunity occurred, to choose between t he
various sands available, and might even reveal important

greatly according t o the size of the measure used, the

method of putting the sand in, and especially its damp
ness, as shown by the following experiments made with
more or less damp sand from sand dunes :
Weight of Water Wet ti ng
a Weight 100 of Sand.

0.5

---------- 1- -1__ -

1- - 1- - -

10
1- --

lb.
lb. lb. lb. lb. lb.
lb.
Weight of 1 bush el of sa nd 116.8 105.0 99.2 97.2 96.9 96.9 101.4
1
dry sand in 1
I
,
bushel of wet sand
. . 116.8 104.5 98.2 !95.3 94.1 92.8 92.2
'

Consequently, if account is not t aken of th~se cond itions, serious errors may be made in the proportiOns of the
mortar . For similar reasons the cement should be
weighed , and not measured ; and the operation i~ simp~i
fied by its delivery from the makers ready weighed ID
sar.k s or barrels.
The proper course for making mortar on the works is
briefly as follows: (1) T o institute preliminary experiments for selecting the best sand available, and ascertaining the best proportion by weight of ~ment to mix
with this sand. (2) T o calculate from these proportions
the weight of sand corresponding t o one, or several sacks
(or barrels), of cem ent. (3) To measure, under the same
conditions a s on the works, the weight of a. known volume
of eand, and deduce the volume of eand which should be
mi xed with a. suitable number of sacks or barrels of
cement. (4) To repeat frequently this measurement
t hrough the whole p eriod of the works, so as to keep
account of possible changes in the condition of the sand,
and make the necessary corrections in the volume of sand
to be employedl so that the real proportions of the sand
and cement usea may remain constant. If the succeesive
supplies of Eand are suffi<.;iently homogeneous t o render
the moisture the sole cause of variations in weight, the
volumes of sand to be used, according to its varying
degrees of dampness, may be d etermined once for all at
the out set of the works, snd the moisture in th e sand
merely determined fr om time to t ime from its loss of
weight on being dried.

=======

STEAM YACHT R ACR.- On the lOth inst. an interesting

trial of speed t ook place between the st eam yachts H ermi one and M ira.. These two yachts were designed by
Mr. G. L. W atson in 1891, the former being owned by
M essrs. R. G. and J . A . Allan, of Glasgow, and the latter
by the H on . F . G. Wynn, of Carnarvon . According t o
a.rrangem~nt, the yachts star ted abreast of each other
from the Cloch Lighthouse, the course to be steamed
to be round the two Cumbra.es and back t o the
Cloch Lighthouse, a. distance of about 31 nautical
miles. A start was effected at 1.45 p.m., the yachts bei!lg
almost level; this position was ret ained with little va.rta.tion until the Cum brae light was passed at 2.45. At the
sou th end of th e smaller Cumbrae t he M ira. was leading
by a full length, and turned with this advantage in her
favour for the run home. ]f rom this time until the
Cloch Lighthouse was reached the ~lira. gradually
increased her lead, and a.rri ved off the Cloch Lighthouse
a.t 3.45, being 1~ minutes ahead of the H ermione, or
equal to nearly hal f a mile. At the time these yac~ts
were built, in 1891, much interest was taken in yach tm g
circles as to their comparative merits through the speed
they had both attained on their trials, and this interest
was greatly increa-sed amongst yachtsmen who were pre
sent on the Clyde at the closen ess of t he race and at t~e
result, which everyone expected would have been ID
fa vour of the H ermione, as she had been spoken of as the
fastest yacht afloat. The Hermioue was built by Messr~.
F leming a.nd Ferguson, of Paisley, a nd is fitted with the1r
type of quadruple engines, the boiler being supplied by
Messrs. H owden a nd Co., and fitted with their system of
forced draugP,t. The Mira. was built, engined, and completed
by M essrs. David J . Dunlop and Co., of Port Gla.s.gow,
* Paper read before the International Maritime Con the machinery being of thei r ordinary three-cyhnder
gre3s L ondon M eAting.
triple-expansion yscht type, the boiler, which was also
* "Sur la. Compacite des Mortiers Hydrauliques." made by her builders, bein g fitted with their own system
t Anna.les des Pants eb Cha.ussees, September, 1892.
;:: These proportions have. been ca.loula.ted on the as R. F eret. Anna les des Fonts et Obaussees, 1892 (2), of inclosed ashpit fan draught (see F.NGlNR"tRt~w-. vr.~.
page li.
liii., page 351}.
1,:unption th"t the cement wetghed 1~0 lb. per P\lShAl,

E
"ENGI EERING', ILLUSTRATED PATENT
RECORD.
r \V. LL \

\VI.~-

at:m oUJ r, au1

r. Jt a 1 t~\IUII
) ln
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
the other, with each pipe of the second row behind an opening in
the front row. The bottom boxes Car e formed with open-topped
side pockets D for t he r eception of the bottoms of the ver t1cal
pipes, an equal number of t h ese pockets bein~ arranged on each
side. At eacb end they are also pro,rid ed with necks E which are
fl anged at their outer ends, and h ave projecting ribs F oast upon
them. The necks are built into the side walls G, a nd the ri bs
prevent any possible r otation of the boxes. One of the necks E
of each bottom b<>x is connected to t he water supply, and the
other is closed. The b ottoms of the boxes a r a oast with a slight
dip from t he inlet to the outlet side, to facilitate blowing off
sediment. The top boxes B , L a re constr ucted with pockets K
on their undersides for the recE'ption of the t wo rows of pipes,
corre&pooding wit h t he sim ila r pockets formed on the bottom
box, and the upper faces of these boxes are provided with covered
openiDJZS L through which the p;pes are inserted and removed ,
and th rough which access is obtained to t he inte-rior of the pipes
when r eq uir ed . The top box is also provided with the b r anoh M
by which the heated water is led oft' from the economiser through
pipes t o w hich the b r anch is connected . (~ ccepted J une 14,
1893).

has a scarf joint. On each subsequent operation of t he saw a coil

is severed from the rod. These operat ions a re repeated
until the whole length of the mandril h has been filled with the
coiled and severed pieces of t he r od z, the saw, ee.oh time it is
brought into operation, making a soarf cut a nd severing the coil
just fo rmed from the one immediately before it. The pulley b,

order t o convey t he liquid issuing from the circumference of one

part of the wheel into the chamber Kl, without eddyinK or commotion. T he casing G surrounds the wheel ~haft in front of the

Fig.7

rig.3 .

MISCELLANEOUS.
9214. J. Bolgiano, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
Portable Water Motor. [2 F igs. ) May 9, 1893.-This in- which drives the pinion d throug h t he cl utch g , is now made
ven tion relates to a portable wat('r motor fo r running light to drive the wheel e t hrough t he clutch f , and rotation is commach ines, and consists of a thin centra l diso A of sheet metal municated to toothed wheel t' and screw box t, the sor ew h3 and
h aving p eripheral tangs b, each of which has~ quar ter -turn so
as to b ring t he broad face of t h e tang in a. plane at rig ht an~es to
the surface of the disc ; a. circular cup c is seated on t he broad
face of each tang, and secured by solder . At its c entre the disc
is reinforced by small convex discs d, one on each side. A shaft
e passes through the wheel, and has bearings in the two b road
sides of t h e case f. a pulley g being moun ted on t he p rojecting
end of the shaft. This case has a. rouud ed top h, and straight ver-

Fi:g.1.

Fig Z.

mandril h being thereby made to retit'e inwards, a nd th e coiled

and severed pieces of t he rod z stripped off the m a ndril by the
bearing-block y. (A ccepted J ttne 14, 1893).

1ncs

4118. G. C. N. Bryan, East Hoatbly, Sussex. Hay

Rakers. [2 F igs.) February 24, 1893. -This in vention r elates to

bay rakers, and has for its object to prov.ide a machine which auto.
matically and at any d esired inter vals lays the bay in windrows.
The pawls e are fi xed one upon the inner side of each wheel b
whic h take l nto the teet h of the ratchet wheels c, and which
cause them to revolve with and in t he same direction as the
ca rriage wheels when th e maohine is t ra velling in a for ward d ir ec
tlon ; but whioh allow of the carriage wheels turning i n an oppo.
site direction without affecti ng the r atch et wheels. U pon
the inner faces of the r atch et wheels a re pins d, which in each

Ff&

opening of the par t A, and forms a. second space for conveying

the liq uid supplied through the s uction C to t he inlet orifice, and
thus to the pump. (Accepted June 7, 1893).

8231. A. D. Hall and G. B. Sloan, San Francisco,

California, U.S.A.

Screw Propeller.

24 1893.-This in vention r elates to screw prop ellers fo r vessels

h~vmg spiral continuous blades C, of equal diam( ter from
end to end, projecting from opposite sides of the Eame hub B,

Fig.Z.

Fig .1. .-f'

12 F igs. ] April

'

c
I

Rg.Z
tioal t~ides j , i , which ex tend down far enough t o form a spacious
chamber p below t he wh eel ; a t its lower end each of the two
na rrow sides converges towards the ot her, and forms a funnel
to which the waste-pipe k is attached ; in the top of the case is an
inlet nozzle l , wh ich points directly down, a.nd is smaller than t he
d ischarge pipe k, and a.t each narrow side a spring a rm is attach ed,
a nd the fr ee ends of these arms have an ogee cur ve to engage with
the inner end of the slab n on top of the wash-basin, and t hus
support. the eau u pright. A piece of hose o connects the i nlet l
with the cock ol. The lower end of th e disnharge pipe k enters revolution of th e ratchet wheels c take upon the projections/
the waste hole q o f t he wash-basin, t he spring a r ms m and this form ed upon the jiggers f , and depress them. The upper ends of
pipe thus serving to suppOt't the motor upright and h old it t he jiggers far e provided with pins g which work in s lots formed
in the end s of the a rms h. These a rms har e pivoted to the side
steady in the basin. (.A ccepted J une 14, 1893).
frames a of the machine, and at t heir other ends have slo~s in
15,564. R. T. Burton and A. H. Louis, Upper Nor- wh ich wor k the ends of the tine-h older i. As in their revolutions
wood, Surrey. Connecting Lengths ofPlpe. [2 Figs.) the pins d engage with t he proj t ctions ! ', the jiggers f a re d eAugust 30, 1892.-This invention has for its object to enable a pressed, a nd the ends of the a rm3 h, to which they are connected ,
broken length of pipe to be r eplaced by a new length wit~out th e are also lower ed , and their other ends a re in consequence raised ,
n ecessity of displacing any of the other lengths of pipe m ord er th e r ake being li fted from the position in Fig. 1 to that in F ig. 2,
to mak e good t he spigot and socket joint s at its r especthe ends. this rake-holder again falling when the pins d clear the ends of
When a b roken length of pipe is t o be r eplaced, the new l en~th D t he jiggerRj. (.A ccepted June 14, 1893).
(Fig . 2), which is made a few inches shorter than the broken
9,279. J. Good, Far Rockaway Queens, New
leng th, has its lower end fitted into the socket E of t he fixed
York, U.S.A. Spreading, &c., Hemp. (2 Figs.] May
9, 1893. - The object of this in ven t ion is to obtain sliver in one
machine by a continuous operatioo. The two layers of fibre
deposited upon the two f~d boards and carried between t he
feed rollers are placed collectively , one superposed above the
,-----other , u pon the first t rain of gillpins B!, by which t h ey are

carried forward to t he second t ram B2, a s preading operation

taking place upon and between these trains, the single lap of
A
B
Q
'
fibr es t hus produced being delivered b y the rollers e u pon the
I

a nd i n terlocking with each other to form continuous channels

upon opposite sides of the hub, t h ese blades C having flanges E
fixed upon t heir outer edges projecting in each direction in a
plane parallel with the ax is of the propeller. (A ccepted J une 7,
1193).

10,448. E. Stauber, Hamburg, Germany. Moulding

Plastic Substances. [2 F igs. ) June 1, 1892.- This invent ion has for i ts object to r emove all excess of moisture during
the pressing operations, to r eg-ulate the compr ession of the
material during the moulding, and to heat th e mould P. The
material to be preFsed, such as tu rf, passes fr om a hopper a into
a channel b, and is t here pushed forward by a slowly moving
plunger c, the outer end of wh ich is p erforated and cover ed with
jute, so that with each forward movement the material pressed
is fr eed from water, whiob r uns away through the open back of
the piston c. At the front end the channel b is coct racted by the
inclined plate d, and the adjustable inclined plate f pivoted on
the axis e. The plate d is also perforated, and covered with jute.
The water r uns away thro u~ h boles underneath it in t be channel.
On t h e axis e, and outside the channel b, is fitted the lever arm g,
on whioh is adjustably a rranged the weight h , always tending to
press the movable plate / downwards on the p ressed material. By
adjusting the weight t he p r essure can be increased or diminished,

''

'

.,,. -.-- ....Fig 1

'

~-- .

-,

'

'

length of pipe Dl below, and t he socket portion A of the j oiot

piece is slipped over t he lower spigot end of the fixed leng th of
pipe D2 above. The new length of pipe h~v.in g t~en ~een b roug ht
10to line with tbe fixed lengths , the JOlDt p1ece IS allowed to
descend a shor t distan ce so that the spigot por tion C enters
t he upper end of the new lenfrth without t he socket portion
b ecom ing detached from the p1pe abo,e. The eyes B ena.ble t he
joint piece to be fastened to the side of a. house or wall. (.Accepted
J une 14, 1893).

(I

conductors C, abo,e which it passes to the feed -rollers f. In

passing along th e feed board 1 he lap is contrac t ed laterally by
the tapering sid es of the boa rd, and is ther eby t hickened befo re
being r eceived between t he feed r ollers, which give it to t he t hird
t rain BS, by whiob it is carried forward to t he fourth train B4. A
second spreading operation takes place upon and between the
13,836.
Fiddlan,Stourbrldge, Worcester&. Llnk.s third and fourth t rains of the pins, and the lap taken from the
of Metallic Chains, &c. [5 Figs.) July 29, 1892.-':l'hls fou rth t rain by the delivery rollers h passes on to the condenser
invention relates to machinery for the manufac ture of t he h~ks D, in which it is con ver ted into a sliver. (.A ccepted J une 14
of metallic chains, rings, and . hoops. The h eated rod ~ h av10g 1893),
I
been introduced into the h ole 1n the end of t~e mandril h, the
13,725. C. Wenner, Zurich, Switzerland. Centrilatter is r otated t hrough one complete r evolut1on and advanced
outwards to an extent equal to the pitch of the screw h3 ?D its rear fugal Ventilator, &c. [6 Figs. ) J uly 27, 1892.-This invenend. The roo z has thereby m~e one comp~ete c01l on t~e tion r elates to centrifugal \' entilators and p umps. The ventilator
elliptical mandril h. The mandnl h_ now rema~ns at rest wh1le has a vane wheel diYid ed by a solid central disc into two parts
the rotating saw w is advanced by 1ts. me~bamsm toward~ the A, B, and p rovided with two central suction orifices, the wheel
mandril h and then r etires. This act10n . 1s repeate~ unt1l the being mounted to rotate within a case G, divided by a ring G', so
completion of the third coil, when the rotatmg sa~ on 1ts advance that the outer chamber K I serves as a pressu re chamber of the one
m otion comes into a ction and severs one of the cot~s from the rod part A and as the suction chamber of the other part B, while
z. By the non-action of the saw on the format10n of . the fi.rst the inner one acts as a p ressure chamber for the second part of
t hree coils t he necessary g rip of th~ r~d on the mandnl dunng the vane w heel from which the liquid, under d ouble pressu re
the formation of the subsequent co1ls IS secu~ed. The ou~ pro escapes into t he discharge pipe 0 ' or 0. The stationary guide
(Juced by the rotating saw is 1nclined, and the hnk, when fimshed , yanes sl are a rranged a rout:d t he circumference of tbe wheel hl

w.

and in consequence the d egr ee of compressicn of the pn ssed

material regulated. The pressed material meets wil h r esistance
ag ainst the movable sur face!, and can only pa fs throu~ h between
the plates d and f when it is able by its consist n<'Y to raise th~
loaded surface. The material now r eaches a r1UD1 hE'r of tubes t
arra nged closely together across the whole width of the channel,
and situated in a closed chamber k which at the same time serves
as a heating chamber to convert the b ydroscopio water of the
p ressed material into steam. The steam '..lsed for heating enters
t he cham ber k by the pipe l, and the cond ensed watE-r passes out
by the pipe ll. In order to r emove the condensed water which
the pressed material gives up in passing through the heated
mouldin~ tubes, the moulding tubes i are divided by a partition. The latter is throughout its entire length p erforated like a
sieve, and if necessary covered with a porous material, such as
jute. The pressed mater ial passes through the tubes 1' above the
sieve plate, whilst the hydroscopic water driven oft' by t he steam
heating passes off through the sieve plate and away underneath.
(Accepted Jun e 7, 1893).

---

UNITED BTATEB PATENTS AND PATENT PRACTiOB.

Descrip tions with illust rations of inventions patented in the
United States of America. from 1847 to the present time, and
reports of t rials of patent law caaes in t h e United StatE'S, may be
consulted, gratis, at the offices of EN&th'liBBUi&, 35 and 36, r oi1ord
et reet, Strand,