Manufacturing Models

Manufacturing can be defined as a series of interrelated activities and

operations involving the design, material selection, planning,
manufacturing process, quality assurance, management and marketing of
the products of the manufacturing industries.

The goal is to produce products that meet customer expectations in terms

of functionality, quality, and reliability BUT at a minimum cost.
The industrial engineer determines how best to utilize the available inputs
of labor, technology, capital, energy, materials and information to achieve
the objectives.

Manufacturing Processes

INPUTS

Material

Manufacturing Processes:
a) consist of physical
Labor
elements interacting
Information
with each other
Capital
b) can be monitored via
performance measures
Energy

Physical Elements
Machinery
Tools
Computerized Equipment
People
Material Handling Equipment

Products

Performance Measures
Production rate
% On-Time Delivery
Defects per Million
Unit cost

Transformation Process at a Food Processor

Inputs:
Raw vegetables
Metal Sheets
Water
Energy
Labor
Building
Equipment
Chemicals
Coloring material

Processes:
Cleaning
Making Cans
Cutting
Cooking
Packing
Labelling

Outputs:
Canned vegetables

Transformation Process at a Hospital

Inputs:
Doctors
Nurses
Other personnel
Building(s)
Equipment
Labs
Medical supplies

Processes:
Examination
Surgery
Monitoring
Medication
Therapy

Outputs:
Treated patients

Products vs Services

Products:
Tangible
Can be stocked
No interaction between customer
and process

Services:
Intangible
Cannot be stocked
Direct interaction between
customer and process

Service industries have been on the rise and constitute most of the economy
in the Western world.

Manufacturing Systems
1. Product Design: blueprints, Computer-Aided Design
2. Process Planning:
Sequence of operations to convert raw material into
finished goods
Machine selection: Right equipment and tools to be able to process
parts according to design specifications
3. Production/Manufacturing Operations:
Fabrication: Drilling a hole, plastic injection molding, bending a flange
Assembly: Combination of separate parts into a more valuable
combined unit
4. Material Flow/Facilities Layout:
Material Handling: Techniques for transporting parts, tools, scrap in
the facility
Facility Layout: Placing production facilities, power supply,
compressed air within the facility
5. Production Planning/Control:
Use market demand, consider production capacity and current inventory
levels, determine planned production levels by product family.
6

Manufacturing Facility Layouts

There are four types of layouts:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Product Layout
Process Layout
Group Technology
Fixed Position (not to be covered)

The types of products in terms of their volume, variety dictate the layout. In
other words, these 4 layouts are not alternatives to one another.

How do We Assess and Characterize the Layout Types?

Throughput Time: The period required for a material, part, or subassembly to
pass through the manufacturing process.
Work in process (WIP): The set of items, parts and material for products not
completed. They are waiting in buffers (areas between workstations) for further
processing.
Skill level of workers
Product variety
Worker and machine utilization
Unit production cost

Fixed position (Project/Unit Production)

Unique products with certain complexity (ships, yachts, aircrafts, trains, )
The production process is managed like a project
Makes a one-of-a-kind product
Uses general purpose equipment
Tools and equipment come around the product since the product is too big
to move.

Product Layout (Mass Production/Flow Lines)

A layout structure designed to make discrete parts. Parts move
through a set of specially designed workstations at a controlled rate.

Characteristics:
1. Makes few products in large volume
2. Uses specialized high-volume equipment
3. Workstations and machines for production are specific for the
product, and cannot be easily adjusted to other products.
4. Short throughput time, low WIP (work-in-process) inventories

10

Process Layout (Batch Production/Job Shop)

75% of manufacturing occurs in batches of less than 50 items.
In this environment, a wide range of products with small volumes have to
be produced.
General purpose equipment is grouped by the same functionality in the
same departments (e.g., milling machines in one department, punch presses
in another department, etc)
Since successive batches may require different tooling and setup, highly
skilled operators are typically required.
Long throughput times, high WIP

11

Group Technology/Cellular Manufacturing

When there is a high variety of low demand products, if similar parts can be
grouped together in sufficient quantity, they are processed in a cell
Different machines are placed in the same cell for similar parts
Thus, scheduling and material handling are streamlined, low WIP and short
throughput time

12

Comparison of Process Layout and Group Technology

13

Measuring Process Performance

Productivity: Ratio of output to input
Utilization: Ratio of the time that a resource is actually activated relative to
the time that it is available for use.

Cycle Time: Average time between the completion of successive units.

Run Time: Time required to produce a batch of parts.

Setup Time: Time required to prepare a machine to make a particular item

Operation Time: Sum of setup and run time.

Throughput Rate: Number of parts processed per unit time.

Value Added Time: Time that useful work is actually done
14

Assembly Lines
Assembly operation: joins two or more components to create a
new entity, which is called an assembly, or subassembly.
Assembly line: A production line consisting of a sequence of
workstations where assembly tasks are performed by human
workers or machines as the product moves along the line.
Organized to produce a single product or a limited range of
products
Each product consists of multiple components joined together by
various assembly work elements

15

Assembly Lines

Products are assembled as they move along the line

At each station a portion of the total work content is performed

on each unit

Base parts are launched onto the beginning of the line at

regular intervals (cycle time)
Workers add components to progressively build the product

A mechanized material transport system is typically used to

move the base parts along the line.
16

Assembly Lines
Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:
High or medium demand for product
Identical or similar products
Total work content can be divided into work elements

Why assembly lines are so productive?

Specialization (Division) of labor
A large job is divided into small tasks and each task is assigned to one
worker

Interchangeable parts
Each component is manufactured to sufficiently close tolerances

Work flow principle

The work is moved to the worker

Line pacing
Workers are required to complete their assigned tasks on each unit within a
certain cycle time
A specified production rate is maintained

17

Assembly Lines
Advantages
Assembly lines reduced production cost and increased
production volume
Keeps direct labor or automated machines busy doing
productive work
Minimal setup times since the tasks are repeated
Assembly lines do not require large queues, thus
reduced WIP and lower inventory holding cost
reduced space requirements
shorter throughput time

18

Assembly Lines
Most consumer products are assembled on assembly
lines
Automobiles
Cooking ranges
Dishwashers
Dryers
Furniture
Lamps
Luggage
Microwave ovens

Personal computers
Power tools
Refrigerators
Telephones
Toasters
Trucks
Video DVD players
Washing machines

19

Assembly Line Types

Paced lines vs. Unpaced lines
Paced lines
o Each workstation is given exactly the same amount of time
(C, cycle time) to operate on a unit of product.
o At the end of C time units, the handling system
automatically indexes each unit to the next station.
o Encourages the workers to maintain the proper pace
o Randomness of performance may cause some items not to
be completed
o
o

Extra time may be allowed

Small buffers can be used to prevent starvation.

Unpaced lines do not have such restrictions.

New unit is removed from the handling system when the
previous one is completed
20

Assembly Line Types

Single product vs. Mixed lines
Mixed lines
o Used when single item types do not have sufficient demand
to justify an assembly line
o Several products are produced simultaneously
o Different workstations may process different productions at
the same time.
o Problems
Scheduling the sequence of different products
More complex line balancing problem
Logistics - get the right parts for the models currently
processed in each workstation

21

Fundamentals of Assembly Lines

Assembly workstations
Work Transport Systems
Manual transport systems
Mechanized transport systems

22

Assembly Workstations
Workstation: A designated location along the work flow
path at which one or more work elements are
performed by one or more workers
Typical operations performed at assembly stations
Adhesive application

Electrical connections

Snap fitting

Sealant application

Component insertion

Soldering

Arc welding

Press fitting

Stitching/stapling

Spot welding

Riveting

Threaded fasteners

23

Work Transport Systems

Manual transport methods
Work units are moved between stations by the workers
without the aid of a powered conveyor

Types:
Work units moved in batches
Work units moved one at a time

Problems:
o Starving of stations worker is available for the next unit, but
the unit has not yet arrived

o Blocking of stations worker cannot pass the unit to the next

station since that worker is not ready yet

o No pacing production rates tend to be lower

24

Work Transport Systems

Mechanized transport methods
Work units are moved by powered conveyor or other
types of mechanized material handling equipment
Types
Continuous transport
Conveyor moves at constant speed

Synchronous transport
Work units are moved simultaneously with stop-and-go
(intermittent) motion to next stations

Asynchronous transport
Work units are moved independently between workstations
Queues of work units can form in front of each station

25

Continuous Transport

Continuously moving conveyor operates at constant velocity

Can be implemented in two ways:

(1) work units are fixed to the conveyor
(2) work units are removable from the conveyor
26

Synchronous Transport

All work units are moved simultaneously to their respective next

workstations with quick, discontinuous motion
The task must be completed within a certain time limit
Ideal for automated production lines
27

Asynchronous Transport

Work units move independently, not simultaneously.

A work unit departs a given station when the worker releases it.

Small queues of parts are permitted to form at each station.

Forgiving of variations in worker task times.
28

Determination of the Cycle Time

Production rate = 2200 units / week

Number of working days / week = 5 days

Number of shifts = 2 / day

Number of hours / shift = 4 hours

Breaks = 2*10 min / shift

Net minutes per shift = ?

Net minutes per week = ?

C=?
29

Cycle Time

Bottleneck station establishes the cycle time for the entire line
30

Line Balancing Problem

Given:
Total work content consists of many distinct work
activities
The sequence in which the activities can be
performed is restricted
The line must operate at a specified cycle time

Problem:
Assign tasks to the minimum number of stations
such that the workload assigned to each station does
not exceed the cycle time and the idle time is
minimized.
31

Line Balancing Problem - Formulation

C: cycle time
n (possible) workcenters, m tasks
ti : time to perform task i, i = 1,,m
Assume
max{ }

=1

: cost of assigning task i to station j, i=1,,m, j = 1,,n

To minimize the idle time force tasks into lowest numbered stations.
Assume < ,+1 , = 1, , 1
necessary?

Precedence constraints: IP
Zone constraints: ZS and ZD
32

Precedence Constraints
Restrictions on the order in which work elements can be
performed
IP = {(u,v): task u is an immediate predecessor of task v }

Precedence
diagram

IP = ?

33

Zone Constraints
Limitations on the grouping of tasks and/or their
allocation to workstations
ZS: Positive zoning constraints
Tasks should be grouped at same station
Example: spray painting elements
ZS = {(u,v) | u and v must be assigned to the same station}

ZD: Negative zoning constraints

Elements that might interfere with each other
Ex: Separate delicate adjustments from loud noises
ZD = {(u,v) | u and v cannot be assigned to the same station}
34

Problem Formulation

35

(LB - I)
min

Problem Formulation
m

c
i 1 j 1

i, j i, j

Sum of task times of tasks assigned to each station cannot exceed cycle time
m

t x
i 1

i i, j

C , j 1,..., n

Each task must be assigned to exactly one station

n

i,j

j 1

1,

i 1,...,m

If task v is assigned to station h its immediate predecessor(s) u must be assigned to

some station between 1 and h
h

xv,h xu , j , h 1, ,n and (u,v) IP

j 1

u and v must be assigned to the same station

n

x
j 1

u, j

xv , j 1, (u,v) ZS

u and v cannot be assigned to the same station

xu , j xv, j 1, j 1,...,n and (u,v) ZD

xij is a binary variable

xi , j {0,1}, i 1,..., m, and j 1,...,n

36

Assembly Line Balancing Different Objective

Assign tasks to a fixed number of stations n such that the cycle time, C,
is minimized. This also maximizes the output rate.
m

min max ti xi , j
j

s.t.

i 1
n

1, i 1,...,m

i,j

j 1

xv,h xu , j , h 1, ,n and (u,v) IP

j 1

x
j 1

u , j v, j

1, (u,v) ZS

xu , j xv, j 1, j 1,...,n and (u,v) ZD

xi , j {0,1}, i 1,..., m and j 1,...,n

37

Assembly Line Balancing Different Objective

We formulate the problem as follows:

(LB - II)
min
s.t.

C
m

t x
i 1
n

i i, j

x
j 1

i,j

C j 1,..., n

1, i 1,...,m
h

xv,h xu , j , h 1, ,n and (u,v) IP

j 1

x
j 1

u , j v, j

1, (u,v) ZS

xu , j xv , j 1, j 1,...,n and (u,v) ZD

xi , j {0,1}, i 1,..., m and j 1,...,n

38

Line Balancing Algorithms

Three heuristics:
Largest Candidate Rule
Kilbridge and Wester Method

Ranked Positional Weights Method

Assume there is no zone constraints

Assume only one worker will be assigned to

each station
39

Largest Candidate Rule

(0) Arrange tasks in descending order according to their
processing times ti, consider the first workstation
(1) Assign tasks to the workstation by starting at the top of
the list and selecting the first task that

satisfies precedence requirements and

does not cause the total workload of the station to exceed C

When a task is assigned to the station, start from the

top of the list
(2) When no more task can be assigned to the station,
proceed to the next station
(3) Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all tasks have been assigned

40

Largest Candidate Rule

Production rate = 2200 units / week
Number of working days / week = 5 days
Number of shifts = 2 / day
Number of hours / shift = 4 hours
Breaks = 2*10 min / shift

Cycle time C = 1 min

Number of workstations

4
1

=4

41

Largest Candidate Rule

Tasks are arranged
Task
(i)

ti

Preceded
by

0.7

0.6

3, 4

11

0.5

9, 10

0.4

10

0.38

5, 8

0.32

0.3

0.27

6, 7, 8

0.2

12

0.12

11

0.11

0.1

1, 2

42

Largest Candidate Rule

Tasks are arranged

Tasks are assigned to stations

Task
(i)

ti

Preceded
by

0.7

Station

Task

ti

0.4

0.6

3, 4

0.3

11

0.5

9, 10

0.2

0.4

0.1

10

0.38

5, 8

0.7

0.32

0.11

0.3

0.6

0.27

6, 7, 8

10

0.38

0.2

0.32

12

0.12

11

0.27

0.11

11

0.5

0.1

1, 2

12

0.12

2
3
4

Station Time

1.0
0.81

0.98
0.59
0.62
43

Largest Candidate Rule

Assignment of tasks to workstations

Physical sequence of stations with assigned tasks

44

Kilbridge and Wester Method

Select tasks for assignment to stations
according to their position in the precedence
diagram
Tasks in the precedence diagram are arranged
into columns
Tasks are listed according to their column and
processing times
If a task can be located in more than one column, all
the columns for that task should be listed

Apply the three-step procedure of the Largest

Candidate Rule to this list
45

Kilbridge and Wester Method

Tasks are listed according to their columns
Task

Column

ti

Preceded
by

0.4

0.2

II

0.7

II,III

0.3

II

0.1

1, 2

III

0.6

3, 4

III

0.32

III

0.11

10

IV

0.38

5, 8

IV

0.27

6, 7, 8

11

0.5

9, 10

12

VI

0.12

11 46

Kilbridge and Wester Method

Station

2
3
4
5

Task

Column

ti

0.4

0.2

II

0.3

II

0.1

II

0.7

III

0.11

III

0.6

III

0.32

10

IV

0.38

IV

0.27

11

0.5

12

VI

0.12

Station
Time

1.0
0.81
0.92
0.65
0.62
47

Ranked Positional Weights Method

Ranked positional weight of task i (RPWi):
=

()

() is the set of all successors of node i (including i) in the

precedence diagram
Compute the ranked positional weight of each task
Order tasks according to their RPW value
Apply the three-step procedure of the largest candidate
rule to this list

48

Ranked Positional Weights Method

Tasks are ordered according to their RPW
Task

RPWi

ti

Preceded
by

3.30

0.2

3.00

0.7

2.67

0.4

1.97

Tasks are assigned to stations

Station Task

ti

0.2

0.7

0.4

0.1

1, 2

0.1

1.87

0.6

3, 4

0.3

1.30

0.3

0.11

1.21

0.32

0.6

1.00

0.11

0.32

10

1.00

0.38

5, 8

10

0.38

0.89

0.27

6, 7, 8

0.27

11

0.62

0.5

9, 10

11

0.5

12

0.12

12

0.12

0.12

11

3
4
5

Station
Time
0.9

0.91
0.92
0.65
0.62

49

Some Practical Issues (I)

When only a small number of tasks are assigned to each station,
the idle time may be very high.
Balance delay is a performance measure that represents the
proportion of idle time
m

n C ti
i 1

nC

Example: C = 100 min, 3 tasks with task times 75, 50, and 70
min
Assign each task to one station (n = 3)
Balance delay is D = 0.35

50

Some Practical Issues (II)

Consider 2 parallel lines (n=2) and assign a cross trained worker to
each station

We can produce a unit within 100 mins with one less workstation
Cycle time is 200 min for each station, but the balance delay is
D = 0.025
In general, with K parallel stations ( or number of workers that can
be grouped) with KxC as the cycle time for each station, excessive
idle time can be shortened
51

Some Practical Issues (III)

If demand is uncertain and there is no idle time in the current line,
then we might need overtime or another shift.
This is not a big problem for labor intensive lines.
If, on the other hand, we have fixed equipment on the line, then a
different approach might be needed.

Random processing times, i.e., s are the mean task times:

Let
be the set of tasks assigned to station j.
be a random variable for the station time, i.e., the sum of task times
of all tasks assigned to station j.

If task times are independent

E sj

iS j

variance of task time i

Var s j

iS j

2
i

52

Some Practical Issues (IV)

If each task time is normally distributed or we can invoke the
Central Limit Theorem, then is also normally distributed.
If we require, e.g., 99% of the time to complete the assigned tasks in
each cycle at station j, then the following should hold:
+ 2.33 [ ]

If all stations are created under this rule, the probability that ALL n
stations complete their tasks within C is 0.99
In the case of random process times, we can assign utility workers
to help assembly workers in case of difficulty or provide for a rework
area where they can complete the unfinished tasks.

53

Unpaced lines
In a paced line, each item spends nC time units in the system.
In an unpaced line, the slowest station is the bottleneck station, which
blocks the preceeding stations and starves the succeeding stations.
Then, flow time of a product in an unpaced line is

nb snb

j nb 1

Positioning the bottleneck closest to the beginning of the line (preferably as

the first station), therefore, decreases the flow time and WIP although
the output rate will be constant as

1
snb
54

Mixed Lines
Several different product types can be assembled simultaneously and
continuously (not in batches).

Stations are sufficiently flexible that they can perform their respective tasks
on different models.
Mixed lines typically used to accomplish final assembly of automobiles,
small and large trucks, major and small appliances.
The amount of work required to assemble the units can vary from model to
model, creating an uneven flow of work along the line.
Problems in designing and operating a mixed assembly line:
Line balancing - same basic problem as in single product assembly line
except differences in work elements among models must be considered
Model launching - determining the sequence in which different models will be
launched onto the line
55

Mixed Line Balancing

There are P different products to be produced.
is the production rate for product product j = 1,,P
is the necessary time for performing task i for product j,
i=1,,m, j = 1,,P
Spread the workload amongst stations as evenly as possible.

Compute the total time to perform each task

= =1 for = 1, ,
Assign the tasks to stations by using one of the line balancing
algorithms (Largest candidate rule, Kilbridge and Wester method,
Ranked positional weights method)

56

Mixed Line Balancing

Two models A and B with hourly production rates 4 units/hr and 6 units/hr,
respectively.
Task

Preceded by

Preceded by

5, 6

Construct the precedence diagram for each model and for both of the models
combined into one diagram.
Suppose that the line is up and operating 94% of the time. Use the Kilbridge
and Wester method to solve the line balancing problem.
57

Mixed Line Balancing

Precedence diagrams
4

for model A

for model B
AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

for both models

58

Mixed Line Balancing

Task

RA tiA

RB tiB

TTi

12

18

30

16

24

40

18

26

24

30

54

12

12

16

12

28

24

24

20

24

44

Compute task durations

II

III

IV

AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

Task

Column

TTi

Proceeded by

30

II

54

II

40

II

26

III

28

III

24

III

12

IV

44

5, 6, 7

Arrange tasks
according to the
columns

59

Mixed Line Balancing

Suppose that the line is up and operating 94% of the
time. Thus, the available time in one hour is
60min x 0.94 = 56.4 min
Station

Task

TTi

30

26

56

54

54

40

12

28

24

52

44

44

Station Time

52

60

Model Launching in Mixed Lines

Determine the sequence of models and the time
difference between successive launches
Two alternatives
Variable-rate launching
Time interval between successive launches is set equal to
the cycle time of that model
The models can be launched in any sequence
Causes logistical problems (supply of the correct
components to individual stations)

Fixed-rate launching
Time interval between two consecutive launches is constant
The time interval depends on the product mix and production
rates of models
Models must be launched in a specific sequence
61

Model Launching in Mixed Lines

Fixed-rate launching time interval is determined as

=1

where
=
=

=1 is the total production rate for all models

=1 is the total time necessary for producing

one unit of model j

is the number of stations (or workers)

Let =

for j = 1,,P

If model j is launched in position r, let =

For each launch position r, select j so as to minimize
2

+
=1

62

Model Launching in Mixed Lines

Two models A and B with = 4 units/hr and = 6 units/hr, respectively.
So, = 10 units/hr
Task

Preceded
by

Preceded
by

Station

Task

TTi

30

26

56

54

54

40

12

28

24

52

5, 6

44

44

27

4
5

Station
Time

52

25

=5
27
=
= 5.4
5
=

25
= 5
5

1
(4 27 + 6 25)
10
=
= 5.16
5
63

Model Launching in Mixed Lines

Select the first launch
For model A, 5.4 1 5.16 2 = 0.0576
For model B, 5 1 5.16 2 = 0.0256

Model B will be launched first

Set 1 = = 5

Select the second launch

For model A, 5 + 5.4 2 5.16 2 = 0.0064
For model B, 5 + 5 2 5.16 2 = 0.1024
Launch
(r)

+
=1

Model A will be launched second

Set 2 = = 5.4
Model

+
=1

0.0576

0.0256

0.0064

0.1024

.1024

0.0064

0.0256

0.0576

0.16

0.0576

0.0256

0.0064

0.1024

0.1024

0.0064

0.0256

0.0576

10

0.16

The sequence is
B-A-B-A-B-B-A-B-A-B

64