LVDT: 3

Linear variable differential transformer, used to measure displacement. Consists of a primary

coil winding that is wounded onto a hollow cylindrical rod; the coil is attached to an AC
voltage source which is located in the centre of the rod. It also consists of two secondary coil
windings that have the same number of coil turns at equal distance from either side of the
primary coil. These two secondary coils are connected to each other in series. The hollow tube
contains a ferromagnetic core that is free to move within the tube (can be attached to a
specimen to measure its displacement. This core can induce a voltage in the two secondary
coils, the net EMF of the coils:

Enet =Ecoil 1E coil2

With zero displacement (null position), but secondary coils induce the same magnitude EMF,
therefore 0 overall EMF.
Advantage: linear relation (need to use a PSD and low pass filter), cheap, long life, high
resolution, operates within large temp range (-600 to 600 C), frictionless measurement, no need
for amplification, polarity can be determined
Disadvantage: nearby equipment can also induce EMF within the coils (can experience
residual voltage at null position), difficult to fit within small devices.
Uses: CNC and lathe machines, aircraft jet engines, creep measurements, bridges to measure
the displacement due to temperature change in seasons.

DRAW DIAGRAM WITH EMF INDUCED

Why and HOW output of LVDT into dc
Easier to interpret output (a line on the oscilloscope proportional to displacement). Will
receive a proportional voltage to that of displacement, instead of reading peak to peak voltage
of an AC signal. To convert into DC you need a phase sensitive detector and a low pass filter.

Semiconductor Strain Gauge

Semiconductor is attached to a backing that is attached onto the specimen. This type of strain
gauge is also very common due to its cost efficiency and the repeatability and the achievement
of a wide range of data.
This type of strain gauge uses a semi conductive material such as silicon or germanium, which
usually have very high gauge factors (between 100 and 300). The reason behind the high gauge
factor is due to the Piezo-resistive effect that it experiences. This will in turn have a greater
change in the resistance for a small deflection, achieving a better precision and is able to
measure much smaller strain changes. It is also inexpensive, can be manufactured to be very
small due to its high gauge factor.

Figure 4: Semiconductor strain gauge

Strain gauge factor it is more sensitive to temperature and for high levels of strain the strain
gauge value does not act linearly.

Measurement of torque: 5
Torque measured by measuring the angular displacement or surface strain.

1
T = G r 3
2

Shear sensitivity =

2
=
T G r 3

One strain gauge will measure the strain in the direction it is placed in, so using two strain
gauges 45 degrees to each other.

Operating principles of tachogenerator

A device that measure the rotational speed of a shaft and converts it into a voltage. Without
load resistance it is able to produce a voltage proportional to the rotational speed. Coils are
place in the tachogenerator and as the magnetic material interacts with the coil, an EMF is
produced that is usually proportional to that of rotational speed.

Resistance vs temp for thermistor vs metallic resistance thermometer: 5

Dynamic response of transducer +derive expression: 3

This aint fucking dynamics
Example of angular velocity transducer: 3
Why transducer no susceptible to temp variation
Operation of optical absolute shaft encoder: 4

2 marks each:
Non-linearity
Sensitivity
Resolution
Precision
Bias

Draw Wheatstone bridge to provide temp compensation for strain measurement

Have one as R(1+x) other as R(1+y)(1+x) on same side. Y cancels out.
Non-contact way to measure temperature: 4
Thermometer: mercury expands and displays the temp
Change in pressure: capillary tube up to 60m long, pressure inside increase cause dial to move
Peltier effect: a peltier cooler, the change in temp will cause a voltage to run through circuit.
Temperature sensitive gauges can cause change in voltage to the Wheatstone bridge.

Charge amplifier derive output voltage + sketch: 2

Charge amplifier instead of voltage amplifier: 2

Charge amplifier > voltage amplifier, since capacitance effects are diminished in connecting
leads. Voltage amplifier consumes capacitance and voltage and reduces the output. Therefore a
less effective amplifier.
Low pass filter + derive (Q3 2007)
Derive sensitivity of strain
V0/e or V0/Vs
Operation of piezoelectric accelerometer (Piezoelectric force transducer)
When acceleration is detected using this device, the mass inside the accelerometer causes the
piezoelectric material to either contract or expand. It is know that piezoelectric materials such
as quartz crystals exhibit a phenomenon where it produces an electrical current when it
changes shape. This change in shape and using Newtons second law of motion, will output an
electrical signal that is proportional to the acceleration applied. Using these 2 points, the
output signal can be interpreted to an acceleration value.

How Poisson effect changes sensitivity of strain

Have one as R(1+x) and other as R(1-vx), you find that V0/Vs is (1+v) eG.
Non-contact method to measure displacement: 2
Variable inductance displacement transducer (JJ lab). Ferromagnetic E piece. Coils around
centre E piece. Ferromagnetic plate that displaces. AC source. V=L di/dt, L=N^2 /Rm.
N=number of turns of coil, Rm= reluctance of coil. Can measure the voltage that is
proportional to the displacement.
Ultrasound. Laser. GPS. 3D camera
Load-cell: 2
A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal. This
conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force
being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as an
electrical signal, because the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load
cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The electrical
signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an
instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer can be scaled to
calculate the force applied to the transducer. The various types of load cells that exist include
Hydraulic load cells, Pneumatic load cells and Strain gauge load cells.