EXP 11 PITHING THE FROG

Pithing destroying the central nervous system which

consists of the brain and the spinal cord
it renders the frog free from pain
has an anesthetic effect
SINGLE
Brain or spinal cord

DOUBLE
Brain AND spinal cord

Why not use anesthesia?

made specifically for humans
over dosage can kill the frog
can mask physiological effects
Signs of successful pithing
Frog is less active
Head is drooping
Partially closed eyes
Extended limbs
Skin inelasticity
EXP 12 MUSCLE NERVER PREPARTION
Muscle nerve presentation representation of motor unit
Motor unit involves:
Motor nerve sciatic nerve
Muscle: gastrocnemius
Connected by: the neuromuscular junction; they do not
actually touch due to synaptic gap
Muscle is damaged
Nerve is damaged paralysis
Muscle itself is damaged
Dystrophy
Damaged receptors (acetylcholine) butox
Muscle dehydration due to slow isolation should
be soaked in amphibian Ringers solution

EXP 13 APPLICATION OF STIMULUS

Mechanical single
Hot no contraction or single; it must reach threshold
stimulus
Threshold stimulus minimum amount of stimulus
to produce a reaction
Subminimal Stimulus less the threshold and does
not illicit response
Maximal stimulus greater than the threshold and
illicit the maximum reaction; least/minimum
intensity of stimulus which greater response
Supramaximal stimuli greater intensity than
maximal which produces the same greater response
Newton per area
Greater area, lesser pressure
STIMULUS APPLIED
Mechanical
Thermal Hot
Thermal Cold
Electrical Direct
Electrical Indirect
Chemical

Response of Muscle
Single
Single
Single
Single
Series
Series

Example:
5V
6V
7V
8V
9V
10 V
11 V
12 V

Amphibian Ringers Solution

Mimics extracellular fluid that nourishes the muscle
(plasma)
Intact muscle is nourished by blood
To keep integrity of muscle
Muscle oxygen carrier: myoglobin
Oxygen is needed for production of ATP
ATP in muscle contraction
Maintains resting membrane potential through
sodium-potassium ATP pump which pumps out 3
molecules of Na and 2 molecules of K in
Hence you only pumped out 1 positive charge
Polar positive outside, negative inside
Extracellular more sodium
Intracellular more potassium

Extracellular & RMP is positive while inside its

relatively negative
ATP is required for the detachment of cross bridges
(attachment of myosin heads to the myosin binding
site)
Myosin heads carries ADP is more attracted to actin
hence when ADP is replaced by ATP it loses affinity
to actin, thus detaching
No ATP, myosin will not detach from actin causing
cramps

5 cm
5 cm
4 cm
4 cm
3 cm
3 cm
3 cm
3 cm

7V threshold stimulus
5-6V Subminimal stimulus
9V Maximal stimulus
10-12V Supramaximal stimulus
EXP 14 THE SPINAL FROG

Reflex rapid, involuntary, predictable response to a

stimulus
center at the spinal cord

Monosynaptic reflex components

Sensory receptor converts stimulus to neural signal
Sensory nerve (mono) body is located in the dorsal
root ganglion, dendrites coming from receptor,
synapsing into axons towards the motor nerve on
the ventral horn of the spinal cord, exiting the
ventral root, uniting at dorsal root to form spinal
nerve
Motor nerve
Effector muscle
REFLEXES
Reflex
Normal
RIGHTING
uprights the body
Dorsal side
complex reflex
up
center: brain
WITHDRAWAL
withdrawal from painful
present
stimulus
center: spinal cord
CROSS EXTENSOR
After pinching,
present
contralateral leg extends
while ipsilateral leg
flexes
CORNEAL
closed its
center: brain
eyes
VISION, HEARING,
BALANCE &
present
PROPRIOCEPTION

Spinal
Ventral side
up or side up

present

present

EXP 35 TEMPERATURE & HEART RATE

HIGHER HEART RATE
Intact
Warm
Isolated

LOWER HEART RATE

Isolated (room temp)
Cold
Cold

INCREASES HEART RATE

Cardiac contractility is directly proportional to:
> CD CASET
Carbon dioxide
Calcium
Sympathetic response (fight or flight)
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Temperature

DECREASES HEART RATE

Cardiac contractility is indirectly proportional to
> Oxygen
> Acetylcholine
> Potassium

EXP 16 REFLEX IN HUMANS

absent

absent

VISCERAL RELEX
accomplished BENEATH the
level of consciousness

SOMATIC RELFEX
accomplished ABOVE the
level of consciousness

EXP 15 COMPLEX REFLEXES

TYPES OF REFLEX
Monosynaptic one synapse between two neurons
Polysynaptic several neurons communication with
each other

Before strychnine: Withdrawal; stimulates flexor and inhibits

extensor by varying the neurotransmitter used
Flexor acetylcholine is used
Extensor glycine, inhibitory
Strychnine inhibits the inhibitor, acetylcholine would
increase in the synapse; hence flexor and extensor
are stimulated
After strychnine: increase in tone muscles, contraction but
no movement because antagonistic muscles contract at the
same time

COMPONENTS OF A REFLEX
A monosynaptic reflex would have:
a. Sensory receptor present where the stimulus is received,
it converts stimulus to a neural signal
b. Sensory nerve 1 connection between 2 neurons
c. Motor nerve conveys signal from sensory nerve to muscle
d. Effector muscle muscle which moves
*All components must be present to illicit reflex

COORDINATED
Withdrawal reflex
Efferent nerves
respond in an orderly
sequence
Purposeful reflex act

UNCOORDINATED
Stiffening / Spasm
Efferent nerves
respond in an
disorderly sequence
Disorderly movements

Polysynaptic reflex would have:

Several interneurons which can ascend up to the brain and
the response would be modified by several motor neurons
EXP 10 ISOTONIC & ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS

ISOMETRIC pinned leg, same length of

gastrocnemius, increase tone or tension, tension
directly proportional to cross bridges
ISOTONIC free leg, change in length of muscle,
same number of cross bridges
COCENTRIC muscle shortening
ECCENTRIC length increases, tone is same

Results
ISOTONIC (frog)
ISOMETRIC (frog)
ISOMETRIC (human)

ISOTONIC
Shortened
Lesser amount
Greater amount
Lesser amount

Muscle length
Muscle tension
Inertia
Force

EXP 9 SUMMATION

Flexing of leg
Stiffening of leg
No change in length, more tension

ISOMETRIC
No change
Greater amount
Lesser amount
Greater amount

EXP 8 SIMPLE CONTRACTION

A. Lag phase
AP reaches axon terminal and causes reversal of
charges (depolarized),
AP opens voltage gated calcium channels, calcium
will go in. Increase in calcium will cause synaptic
vesicles containing ach will fuse with premembranes.
Ach will be released, diffuses in synaptic cleft,
binding to receptors and ligand gated channels.
Ach then opens sodium channels and sodium goes
and depolarizes.
Calcium in SR, will release calcium and goes out and
binds with troponin C.
Troponin will take myosin out of binding site
B. Contraction phase
starts when myosin binding site is exposed
cross bridge cycling happens
C. Relaxation phase
calcium will be brought back by calsequestrin
calcium will detach and cover troponin binding site

Single Muscle Contraction

A
AB
BC
CD
C

application of stimulus
lag / latent phase
contraction phase
relaxation phase
peak

Stimulate at relative refractory period

Refractory period no action potential can be

generated
Absolute refractory Point 0 to positive, to resting
membrane potential
Relative refractory can be stimulated again,
threshold potential is farther from RMP; need higher
intensity of stimulus
Threshold potential should be reached to open
sodium voltage gated channels, rush of sodium, to
turn to positive
Potassium voltage gate channels remains open
during repolarization

Summation

A
AB
BC
C
CD
DE
E
EF

application of stimulus
lag / latent phase
1st contraction phase
1ST peak
1st relaxation phase
2nd contraction phase
2nd peak
2nd relaxation phase

EYE REFLEXES
Motor nerve
CN 5 Div 1
CN 7
CN 2
CN 7
CN 2
CN 3

Sensory receptor
Mechanoreceptors
Rods & Cones
Rods & Cones

Sensory nerve

Rods & Cones

CN 2

Pain receptors

Accommodation
Far to near
Accommodation
Near to far

Reflexes
Corneal/Conjunctiva
Blink
Photopupillary
Direct
Photopupillary
Consensual
Pupillary Skin

Effector muscle
Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis oculi
Circular muscle of iris

Action
Blinking of eyes
Blinking of eyes
Constricting of pupils

CN 3

Circular muscle of iris

CN 5

CN 3

Radial muscles of iris

Retinal ganglion
cells
Retinal ganglion
cells

CN 2

CN 3

Medial rectus

CN 2

CN 3

Lateral rectus

convergence

Photoreceptors

CN 2

CN 3

Medial rectus muscle

DIVERGENCE

Photoreceptors

CN 2

CN 6

Lateral rectus muscle

Constricting of
contralateral pupil
Dilation sympathetic
response
Dilation of pupils to have
clearer view, lens relaxes
Constriction of pupils
increases amt of light,
increase focus, lens bulge
(Nearer) Medial deviation
of iris
(Farther) Lateral
deviation of iris

Patellar

Golgi tendon receptor

Biceps
Triceps
Ankle
Wrist

Golgi tendon receptor

Stretch Receptors
Golgi tendon receptor
Golgi tendon receptor

DEEP TENDON REFLEXES

L3
L4
Quadriceps femoris,
hamstring
C5
C6
Biceps brachii
C6
C7
Triceps brachii
S1
S2
Gastrocnemius
C6
C7
Extensor digitorium

Extend
Flex
Extend
Dorsiflex
Flex

OTHER REFLEXES
REFLEX
Sneezing
Palmar
Abdominal
Pharyngeal
Plantar
Axon
Babinski
Palatal
Epigastric
Cremasteric
Gluteal

EFFECTOR MUSCLE
Chest muscles
Tendons of fingers
Rectus abdominis
Middle constrictor of pharynx
Gastrocnemius, soleus, flexor digitorium longus
Vessel dilator
Toe extensors
Palatal muscle
Rectus abdominis
Cremaster muscle
Gluteus maximus

ACTION
sneezing
flexes fingers
contraction of abdomen
dilation followed immediately by constriction
plantar flexion of all toes
flexes the fingers
dorsiflexion of big toe and abduction of 4 other toes
uvula deviates to ipsilateral side
contraction of ipsilateral abdominal wall
elevation of ipsilateral testicles
contraction of gluteus maximus