Module 2.

1 The Concept of the Synapse

 SYNAPSE – The point of communication between two neurons. Charles S. Sherrington's
observation of reflexes enabled him to infer the existence of synapses and many properties

Properties of Synapse

 Reflexes
o Automatic muscular responses to stimuli.
o In a leg reflex, a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which in turns excites a motor
neuron, which excites a muscle.
 Reflex Arch
o The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response.
 Sherrington observed several properties of reflexes that suggest special processes at the
junctions between neurons:
o (1) Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon.
o (2) Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places or times produce a stronger reflex
than one stimulus alone does.
o (3) When one set of muscles becomes excited, a different set becomes relaxed.

Speed of a Reflex and Delayed Transmission at the Synapse

 Because transmission through a reflex arc is slower than transmission through an equivalent
length of axon. Sherington concluded that some process at the synapses delays transmission.

TEMPORAL SUMMATION

 Temporal summation – repeated stimuli within a brief time have commulative effect. (ex. a light
pinch of the dog's foot did not evoke a reflex, but a few rapidly repeated pinches did)
 Presynaptic neuron – neuron that delivers transmission Postsynaptic neuron the one that
receives the transmission.
 Postsynaptic neuron – the one that receives neuron transmission.
 Excitatory postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) – a graded depolarization which results from a flow
sodium ions into the neuron.

Spatial summation

 Spatial summation
o summation over space
o Synaptic inputs from separate locations combine their effects on a neuron. This is critical
to brain functioning.in most cases sensory input at a single synapse produces only a
weak effect. If the neuron receives many incoming axons with synchronized input,
spatial summation excites the neuron.
o Temporal summation and spatial summation ordinarily occur together.

INHIBITORY SYNAPSES

 Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is the temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane

 IPSP occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for potassium ions to leave the cell
(carrying a positive charge with them)
  or for chloride ions to enter the cell (carring the negative ions)

RELATIONSHIP AMONG EPSP, IPSP AND ACTION POTENTIAL

 Stimulation at a synapse produces a brief graded potential in the postsynaptic cell. An Excitory
graded potential ( depolarization) is an EPSP : An inhibitory graded potential ( hypolarization) is
an IPSP. An EPSP occurs when gates open to allow sodium to enter the neuron's membrane.An
IPSP occurs when gates open to allow potassium to leave or chloride to enter.
 Spontaneous firing rate – a periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic
input.
 In this case EPSP's increase the frequency of action potentials above the spontaneous rate,
where as EPSP's might increase the rate to 15 or more, where a preponderance of IPSP's might
decrease it to 5 or fewer

MODULE 2.2 CHEMICAL EVENTS AT THE SYNAPSE

THE SEQUENCE OF CHEMICAL EVENTS AT A SYNAPSE

 The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as a neurotransmitters

 Action potentials travel down the axon. At the presynaptic terminal, an action potential enables
calcium to enter the cell. Calcium releases neurotransmitters from the terminals and into the
synaptic cleft, the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
 The released molecules diffuse across the narrow cleft, attach to receptors, and alter the activity
of the postsynaptic neuron.
 The neurotransmitter molecules maybe taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or
they may diffuse away.
 Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control the further release of
neurotransmitter by presynaptic cells.

TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

 At a synapse, a neuron releases chemicals that affect another neuron. That chemicals are known
as “neurotransmitters”
 nitric oxide – a poisonous in large quantities; oddest transmitter; a gas released by many small
local neurons.
 acetylcholine ( the most popular neurotransmitter)
 dopamine
 epinephrine
 norepinephrine
 compounds known as “catecholamines”- contains a catechol group and amine group

SYNTHESIS OF TRANSMITTERS

 Acetylcholine – synthesize from choline ( abundant in milk, eggs and peanuts)

 The amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, present in proteins are precursors of dopamine,
norepinephrine and epinephrine.
 the relationship among epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine—compounds known as
catecholamines, because they contain a catechol group and an amine group.
  amino acid tryptophan, the precursor to serotonin, crosses the blood -brain barrier by a special
transport system that it share with other large amino acids.

STORAGE OF TRANSMITTERS

 Presynaptic terminal – stores high concentrations of neurotransmitter molecules in vesicles,

tiny nearly spherical packets ( Nitric oxide is an exception to this rule. Neurons release nitric
oxide as soon as they form it inside of storing it)
 Neurons that release serotonin, dopamine or norepinephrine contain an enzyme, MAO
( Monoamine oxidase)
 MAO are inhibitors; that breaks down these transmitters into inactive chemicals, thereby
preventing the transmitters to accumulate to harmful levels.

RELEASE AND DIFFUSION OF TRANSMITTERS

 At the end of the exon, an action potential itself does not release the neurotransmitter, rather
depolarization opens voltage calcium gates in presynaptic terminal
 EXOCYTOSIS – burst of release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron.

ACTIVATING RECEPTORS OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC CELL

 Effect of a neurotransmitter depends on its receptor on the postsynaptic cell

 When the neurotransmitter attaches to its receptors, the receptor may open a channel –
exerting an ionotropic effect – or may produce a slower but longer effect – a metabotropic effect
 ionotropic effects, corresponding to the brief on/off effects that Sherrington and Eccles studied
 In contrast to the sodium and potassium channels along an
 Axon, which are voltage-gated, the channels controlled by a neurotransmitter are transmitter-
gated or ligand-gated channels. (A ligand is a chemical that binds to something.)

Metabotropic effect and second messenger

 Initiating of metabolic reactions that start slowly than ionotropic effects

 Emerge 30 ms or more after the release of transmitter
 Metabotropic synapses use many neurotransmitters ,ionotropic effect dpend on glutamate or
GABA.
 Second messenger communicates to areas within the cell
 G protein—that is, a protein coupled to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an energy storing
molecule.

NEUROPEPTIDES

 Neurons contains neuropeptide

 Neuropeptides as “neuromodulators”
 Are released mainly by dendrites,and also by the cell body and by the sides of the exon
 Are important for hunger,thirst and other long-term changes in behavior and experience

DRUGS THAT ACT BY BINDING TO RECEPTORS

 Hallucination drugs – drugs that distort perception, such as lysergic acid diethylamide
 Nicotine – a compound present in tobacco, stimulates a family of acetylcholine receptors known
as nicotinic receptors
  Opiate drugs – are derived from, or chemically like those derived from, the opium poppy

INACTIVATION AND REUPTAKE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

 Various neurotransmitters are inactivated in different ways

 Neuropeptides are not inactivated( they simply diffuse away)
 acetylcholinesterase breaks it into fragments: acetate and choline
 serotonin and catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine) do not break down
into inactive fragments but simply detached from the receptors
 The presynaptic neuron takes up much or most of the released neurotransmitters molecules
intact and reuses them. This is called reuptake occurs through special membrane proteins called
transporters stimulant drugs including amphetamine and cocaine inhibit the transporters for
dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine.
 Hormone – Is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body and conveyed by the blood to
influence other cells.

Selective list of hormones

 Hypothalamus – promote and inhibit release of hormones

 Anterior pituitary ( thyroid) – stimulates thyroid gland
 Posterior pituitary (oxytocin and vasopressin) – oxytocin-uterine contractions, milk release,
sexual pleasure
 Vasopressin – raises blood pressure, decreases urine volume refer to

Negative Feedback from the Postsynaptic Cell

 Autoreceptors —receptors that respond to the released transmitter by inhibiting further

synthesis and release.
 Two other reverse transmitters are anandamide
 Cannabinoids, the active chemicals in marijuana, bind to anandamide or 2-AG receptors on
presynaptic neurons, indicating, “The cell got your message. Stop sending it.”

Electrical Synapses

 At an electrical synapse, the membrane of one neuron comes into direct contact with the
membrane of another, as shown in Figure 2.19. This contact is called a gap junction.