MODULE 12 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

Module 12 – Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

“There are children playing in the street who could solve

some of my top problems in physics, because they have modes
of sensory perception that I lost long ago.”
- J. Robert Oppenheimer

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

 identify the cognitive development that takes place among preschoolers.

 reflect on how you can use this module in your classroom in the future

INTRODUCTION
Someone once wrote in his journal: "Childhood is a world of miracle and wonder; as if
creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of
childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems familiar, when one has got
used to existence, one has become an adult."

 Below are behaviors or remarks from children. Your early childhood experiences may
help you arrive at the correct answer. Put T on the item that is TRUE of preschoolers and F on
the item that does NOT apply to preschoolers.

1. "Someone switched on the thunder," a child remarked.

2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father who is on the other side of the
phone inquiring if Mom is around.

3. "That tree pushed the leaf off and it fell down, says a child.
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4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each filled to the same level with liquid.
The child is asked if these beakers have the same amount and she says YES. The liquid
from one beaker is poured into a third beaker, which is taller and thinner than the first
two. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker is equal to that
which remains in one of the original beakers. The child says YES.

5. Child asks a series of "why" questions.

6. Child is strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such as the flashy,
attractive clown.

7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of the task such as directions for
solving a problem and not on the prominent clown, for instance.

8. Jun does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back into the juice box
from which it came.

9. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister. Mike's younger sister
was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger sister got sick.

Answering the items above made you think about your own views or assumptions about the
preschoolers’ cognitive development. You were also on once in that world of bursting curiosity
wanting to know about the world around you. Read through the module and you will surely
understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You will also learn about how as a future
teacher or parent; you can best contribute to the preschoolers’ cognitive development.

ABSTRACT

Preschoolers' Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking

All the behaviors and the remarks above except Items and #7 are true of preschool
children. They are considered immature aspects or limitations of preschool children's
preoperational thought according to Piaget.
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There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, namely, symbolic substage
and intuitive substage.

 In the symbolic stage, preschool children show progress in their cognitive abilities
by being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic increase in
their language and make-believe play.
 In the intuitive substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and
ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates
their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable
cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some
aspects of immaturity or limitations.

Items #1 (Someone switched on the thunder.) and #3 (That tree pushed the leaf off and it
fell down.), for example, indicate limitation on preschool children's symbolic thought process.
The remarks indicate that preschool children, believe that inanimate objects have 'lifelike'
qualities and are capable of action. This is referred to as animism (Santrock, 2002). Preschool
children who use animism fail to distinguish the appropriate occasions for using human and
nonhuman perspectives. However, the fact that they attribute the falling of the leaf and the
thunder to a "cause" proves that preschool children realize that events have causes, although the
perceived causes are not correct.

Item #2, "Child silently nods on the telephone as to answer his Father who is on the other
side of phone inquiring if Mom is around", is another limitation in preschool children's symbolic
thought. Piaget calls this egocentrism, the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective
and someone else's perspective (Santrock, 2002). The child thinks that his father can see him just
as he can see himself.

Item #4, should apply to preschool children had the child answered NO when asked if the
amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker was equal to that which remained in the original beakers.
Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive thought process. The amount of liquid that
was transferred to the third beaker which was taller but thinner than the original beaker remains
unchanged. However, preschool children are drawn to only to the height of the liquid when seen
in the thinner and taller beaker and fail to consider the width of the beaker. This is a clear
evidence of centration, one limitation of the preschool child's preoperational thought, which is
the focusing or on centering of one’s attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of others
(Santrock, 2002). In this case, the focus is only on the height of the beaker to the exclusion of the
width of the beaker which is clearly another factor that should be taken into consideration. This
is also referred to as unidimensional thought. This is also an evidence of preschool children's
lack of conservation, the awareness that the basic property of an object or a substance is
conserved (is not changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed. (Santrock, 2002).
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"Child asks a series of "why" questions (Item #5). Preschool children ask a barrage' of
questions. These signal the emergence of the preschool children's interest in reasoning and in
figuring out why things are the way they are. Their asking questions is a function of their
insatiable curiosity coupled with the dramatic increase in language.

Items #6 and #7 have something to do with preschool children's attention. Between items
#6 and #7, item # 6 (. . . strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such as the
flashy, attractive clown) applies to preschool children. Because the preschool child pays more
attention to the strikingly conspicuous peripherals, they miss the more relevant and more
important features needed in problem solving or in task performance. This is obviously
manifested when between two wrapped gifts, one with a big, colorful ribbon and the other
without, a preschool child chooses the one with a prominent ribbon.

Item #8 (Child does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back into the
juice box from which it came.) indicates irreversibility, Piaget's term for a preoperational child's
failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. Once Jun can imagine
restoring the original state of the water by pouring it back into the other glass, he will realize that
the amount of water in both glasses must be the same. Unfortunately, however, in his
developmental stage he is not yet capable of reversible thinking. He is not yet capable of
working backwards.

Item #9 (Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister. Mike's
younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger sister got sick) shows that
preschool children do not use deductive inductive instead they jump from one particular to
another and see cause where none exists. This is transductive reasoning.

While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as you have seen in the
Introduction, they are making significant advancements in their cognitive abilities like the
acquisition of symbolic thought Symbolic thought is shown in preschool children's ability to
mentally represent an object that is not present. They do not need to be in sensorimotor contact
with an object, person, or event in order to think about it. Johann asks his Mom about the giraffe
they saw in the zoo five months ago. Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or
people have properties other than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his one-foot ruler
is a saw while he pretends to saw a piece of wood.

Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing when, for instance,
children pretend that one thing represents another such as a wooden block used as a microphone
in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog Bantay while in a sociodramatic play. In
reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events in a stow and that letters represent
sounds used in language.
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Brain Connections in the Preschool Years

Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young
children has been of great interest to the field of early childhood. Brain research findings point us
to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science lessons you had in high
school or even in elementary, you will remember that our brain is composed of numerous cells
called neurons that connect to each other to function. Cell connections are what we call
synapses, sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections. Did you know that:

 the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth?!

 by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be made
during one's lifetime?

 around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking patterns?

All these facts point to the enormous potential that the preschooler's brain has. The child's
billion cells have the ability to make almost countless connections that prepare the child for
intricate pathways to learn language, acquire logical-mathematical skills, interact with people,
grow in his feelings and emotions, and even express himself in art. As such, a preschool teacher
would often observe how a child now has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and
independent preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy "reading" a book, tell his own
stories among friends, build beautiful block structures and wear his jacket all by himself.

Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment. Experts have
shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to environmental stimulation. Therefore, the
brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are different for each person. The quality of
these connections depends on the quality of stimulation and exposure provided by the
environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and stimulating environment is that which
offers many experiences involving the different senses (multi-sensorial), and that which allows
the child to think, imagine and create is best. This environment can be provided for by a good
combination of a healthy and functional family environment and a quality preschool program.
What did that milk commercial say? Oh yes... expose...explore...experience. May we add, all
these lead to exponential brain development!

Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler's brain development, strong

evidence also show that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and chaos affect the
cognitive development of preschoolers. High levels of stress hormones such as cortisol may lead
to diminished brain growth in areas needed for memory, learning and emotional attachment. It
may also lead to anxiety and hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. It's not only the extreme form
of negative environment that negatively affects the preschooler's brain. An environment that
lacks the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage.
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Preschools who make children work with nothing but work sheets and pictures instead of
real life, hands-on experiences do more harm than good. As future teachers, always be aware of
your defining role in providing a quality environment that will lead to optimum brain
development for preschoolers.

Language Development
Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go
through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology, semantics,
pragmatics).

Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people, and things.
Throughout the preschool years, children's language development becomes increasingly complex
in the four main areas: phonology (speech sounds), semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence
construction), and pragmatics (conversation or social uses of language). As they advance in age
and as, they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning of a new
word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children combine syllables into
words and words into sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner.

It is not uncommon to hear preschool children using "goed" for "went", "foots" for "feet",
"childs" for "children", "runned" for "ran" an overextension of the rules. A thee-year old
laughing with delight as an abrupt summer breeze stirred his hair and tickled his skin,
commented, "It did winding me!" Another child said, ''My father hatches the wood", meaning his
father chops the wood with a hatchet. Many of the oddities of young children's language sound
like mistakes to adult listeners, but from the children's perspective, they are not.

In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word order and so they
form questions not by following the pattern "subject-verb-object" order but by simply saying
with a rising intonation the sentence in the natural order such as "Mother is coming?" Likewise,
preschool children tend to have difficulty with the sentence, in the passive voice. When told,
"The car was pushed by a truck", preschoolers demonstrate a car pushing a truck.

From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammars preschool children learn to use
language successfully in social contexts (pragmatics). With an expanded vocabulary and
improved grammar, preschool children become skilled conversationalists and often initiate
conversation.

Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child's language development in these
four areas to identify where some children may struggle. Children with mild to severe speech
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difficulties can be referred to a specially trained professional called a speech pathologist in order
to work with the child or suggest helpful strategies for caregivers to improve language
proficiency.

Language and Social Interaction

Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and to
plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion called inner speech or private
speech (Santrock, 2002).

For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an important
tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires social interaction
and language. Children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on
their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers
with caregivers for language development.

Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive
development (language development included) on their own and that they can improve their
cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He
introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too difficult for a
child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more
skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short, the ZPD captures the preschool children’s' cognitive
skills that are in the process of maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The
lower limit of the ZPD is "the level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child
independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002)

Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the concept
of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the course of a teaching session,
with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level"
(Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Can you think of ways of scaffolding preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and
language development?

Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

The Information Processing model is another way of examining and understanding how
children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes Children's mental processes through the
metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing, and decoding data.
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The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The child's ability to
pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.

But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused only on
aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to solving a problem to performing
well on a task. Preschool children recognize previously encountered information, recall old
information, and reconstruct it in the present. Try asking a preschooler what she did on
Christmas vacation when she returns to preschool after the holiday. She will be able to.

Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool years are those involving
short-term memory. In short-term memory, (STM) retain information for up to 15-30 seconds,
assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep information in STM for a much longer
period (Santrock, 2002).

Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and b) speed and
efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse items more than younger children.
On this count, preschool children may have shorter memory span than primary and intermediate
pupils. The speed with which a child processes information is an important aspect of the child's
cognitive abilities.

Between the ages of 2 and 5, long-term memory also begins to form, which is why most
people cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.

Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the sequence of events
during familiar situations as "scripts". Scripts help children understand, interpret, and predict
what will happen in future scenarios. For example, children understand that entering the
classroom as a class after the flag ceremony involves a specific sequence of steps: one bell
means put cross your hands right over left on your chest, two bells mean pass quietly and follow
the line until you reach your seat. Children ages 2 through 5 also start to recognize that are often
multiple ways to solve a problem and can brainstorm different (though sometimes primitive)
solutions.

Between the ages of 5 and 7, children Gleam how to focus and use their cognitive
abilities for specific purposes. For example, children can learn to pay attention to and memorize
lists of words or facts. This skill is obviously crucial for children starting school who need to
learn new information, retain it and produce it for tests and other academic activities. Children of
this age have also developed a larger overall capacity to process information. This expanding
information processing capacity allows young children to make connections between old and
new information. For example, children can use their knowledge of the alphabet and letter
sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading words.

During this age, children's knowledge base also continues to grow and become better
organized. (htp://vvww.milestonecentersinc.org)
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In early childhood, as information-processing increases in speed, becomes increasingly

longer. Young children can remember a deal of information if they are given appropriate cues
and prompts. Sometimes, however the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these
inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate prompts and cues. Rehearsal and
organizing information are deliberate mental activities that can be employed to improve the
processing of information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal and
organization.

The Young Children's Theory of Mind

Theory of mind refers to individuals' thoughts about how mental processes work
(Santrock, 2002).

By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs,
emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, "1 forgot my doll", "I want my ice
cream" these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such as know,
remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional terms, but are used by age 3
(Santrock, 2002).

As their representation of the world and ability to remember and solve problems improve,
children start to reflect on their own thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind
or a set of ideas about mental activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This
develops markedly between the ages of three and five. It includes awareness of one's own
thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to
deceive, ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy from
reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).

How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a Young age? Various
speculations and research findings suggest that social experience is very important. Social
experience includes 1) early forms of communication, 2) imitation, 3) make-believe play, 4)
language, and 5) social interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).

Cognitive Development of Preschoolers Milestones

 Does puzzles with three of four pieces
 Draws or copies a circle with crayon
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or pencil
 Plays make-believe with dolls,
3 years animals and people
 Uses imagination to create stories or
play
 Matches and sorts objects by shape
and color
 Works toys with buttons, levers and
moving parts (for example,
mechanical toys works)
 Knows what “two” means
 Turns pages one at a time
 Knows common colors
 Screws and unscrews jar lids, and
turns door handles
 Ask “why” questions to gain
information

4 years  Copies simple shapes

 Understand the concepts of “same”
and “different”
 Follows instructions with two or three
steps
 Understand the concept of counting
and may know numbers
 Draws a person with two to four body
parts
 Begins to understand time
 Knows basic colors
 Uses scissors
 Copies letters
 Plays board games or card games
 Tells what he thinks will happen next
in a story
 Engages in fantasy play

5 years  Counts 10 more objects

 Names at least four colors correctly
 Understands items used every day
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such as food or money

 Draws a person with at least six body
parts
 Copies a triangle and other geometric
shapes
 Understands the concept of time
 Prints some letters and numbers
 Recognizes own printed name and
may be able to write name
Source: https://helpmegrowmn.org/HMG/DevelopMilestone/CognitiveMilestones/index.html

The Role of Caregivers (Parents and Teachers) in the Cognitive

Development of Preschoolers
Learning about how preschoolers think and learn, one will realize that parents and
teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers develop their cognitive skills or impede them.
With the best of intentions, one can do more harm than good if the approach to teaching
preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the role of preschools is to prepare the
children to pass the entrance examinations of elementary schools, and so they "harass" the
preschoolers to master academic skills. This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a
negative disposition about school and about learning.

Two prominent organizations that have position statements about the appropriate
practices in the care and education of preschoolers are the National Association for the Education
of Young Children -NAEYC and the Association for Childhood Education International-ACEI
(www.acei.org) Be sure to check out their websites to learn more about the preschoolers.

Below are some appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of
preschoolers. (adapted from a list of tips for caregivers and teachers by Lesia Oesterreich, M.S.,
Family Life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State
University)

For three-year-old
1. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask questions, and listen.
2. Add new information to your children's sentences. "Yes, that's a flower it's a tall, red
flower and it smells so good."
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3. Teach children to memorize first and last names.

4. Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to them. Read poetry and
nursery rhymes. Encourage a child to repeat a story and discuss the ideas and events.
Read titles and point to important words on pages, packages, and street signs.

5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing a grocery list or note for parents.
Provide paper, small notebooks, and markers for use in dramatic play.

6. Count objects of interest; for example, cookies, cups, napkins, or dolls. It is better to use
objects that you can move one at a time as you and the children count. Measure, and have
children help measure and count as you follow a recipe.

7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of a reference book. Help them do
simple science activities like magnetic attraction, freezing water, planting seeds, making
a terrarium, and flying kites on a windy day.

8. Provide sets - toys and other objects that go together. Discuss similarities and differences.
For example, point out sequences in cooking.

9. Sing simple songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or milk can drum, rattles
of mongo beans in a box, etc. Encourage a variety of body movements and dance to
music of many kinds. Play musical games such as "London Bridge," "Ringaround-the-
Rosie," and "Farmer in the Dell."

For four-year-old
1. Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their own. Provide
alternative reading material with a collection of outdated coupons, junk mail, newspaper
ads, and old cereal boxes.
2. Say nursery rhymes and fingerplays together. Encourage 4-yearolds to tell stories to
younger children.

3. Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and notebooks
for writing. Print letters and numerals on art work, and label toy shelves with pictures and
words. that describe objects.
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4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything in sight, like
silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk about things being in, on, under, behind,
beside, before and after, larger than, too far, etc.

5. Teach children the correct use of the telephone.

6. Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They will love to water plants
daily and will enjoy measuring plant growth.

For five-year-old
1. Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for different
characters. While reading a familiar story, stop before the end and ask children to add
their own end to the story.

2. Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall or refrigerator.
You can also record the child telling the stow and let him listen to himself later,

3. Ask "what if” questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead of 3? What if Little Red
Riding Hood saw a rabbit instead of a wolf?

4. Involve children in writing "thank-you" notes, holiday greeting cards, and letters. If a 5-
year-old enjoys copying letters, let him dictate a short message to you and copy it from
your writing.

5. Give 5-year-olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and sequence with real life
situations such as setting the table, counting the number of turns, sorting out socks, and
matching fabric swatches. Expose them to games' involving matching pairs.
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and why. Give answers
they can understand.

7. Five-year-old will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage them to count

anything of interest - cups, leaves, drums, bells, number of children absent, etc.

8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading humorous stories, riddles,
and nonsense rhymes. Join them in jokes from school, books, and TV.
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9. Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest. Teach children how to move
their bodies to dramatize the opening of a flower, falling leaves, or rain; wiggly worms
and snakes; and laundry blowing in the wind.

Big Ideas about Preschoolers' Cognitive Development

1. Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.

2. Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the environment.

3. Preschoolers' language development occurs in four areas: phonology, semantics, syntax,

and pragmatics

4. Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very important to cognitive
development.

5. Preschoolers improve in their ability in process information.

6. Preschoolers' cognitive development is marked by the emergence of a theory of mind.

ACTIVITY
Fill in the table below. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s:

Animism

Egocentrism

Centration

Lack of conservation

Irreversibility

Transductive reasoning

APPLICATION
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To enhance the preschoolers’ development in his symbolic thinking, language, attention,

memory function, and metacognition, what developmentally appropriate practices would you
recommend? What developmentally inappropriate practices would you not recommend?
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REFLECTION
After reading the module, how can you apply these learnings to your classroom in the
future?

Reference: Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, M.D., Borabo, H.L., & Lucido, P.I., (2015). Child and adolescent development: Looking at learners at different life stages. Lorimar Publishing,
Inc.