Basic functions of the synapses and

neurotransmitters (I).

By
Professor Dr.
Selim Mahmoud Abdel-Hakim
Professor Of Physiology
Faculty Of Medicine
Minia University
2020/2021
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture the students should:
• Identify the general design of the CNS and the
reflex arc.
• Know the types of synapses.
• Know the structure of synapse.
• Define EPSP, IPSP, mEPSP and mIPSP.
The central nervous system contains more
than 100 billion neurons. Incoming signals
enter the neuron through synapses located
mostly on the neuronal dendrites, but also
on the cell body. For different types of
neurons, there may be only a few hundred or
as many as 200,000 such synaptic
connections from input fibers. Conversely,
the output signal travels by way of a single
axon leaving the neuron. Then, this axon has
many separate branches to other parts of the
nervous system or peripheral body.
typical neuron
 A special feature of most
synapses is that the signal normally
passes only in the forward
direction, from the axon of a
preceding neuron to dendrites on cell
membranes of subsequent neurons.
This forces the signal to travel in
required directions for performing
specific nervous functions.
 Sensory Part of the Nervous System—
Sensory Receptors
Most activities of the nervous system are initiated
by sensory experiences that excite sensory
receptors, whether visual receptors in the eyes,
auditory receptors in the ears, tactile receptors on
the surface of the body, or other kinds of
receptors. These sensory experiences can either
cause immediate reactions from the brain, or
memories of the experiences can be stored in the
brain for minutes, weeks, or years and determine
bodily reactions at some future date.
 Motor Part of the Nervous System—
Effectors
The most important eventual role of the nervous system is
to control the various bodily activities. This is achieved by
controlling (1) contraction of appropriate skeletal muscles
throughout the body, (2) contraction of smooth muscle in
the internal organs, and (3) secretion of active chemical
substances by both exocrine and endocrine glands in many
parts of the body. These activities are collectively
called motor functions of the nervous system, and the
muscles and glands are called effectors because they are
the actual anatomical structures that perform the functions
dictated by the nerve signals.
General design of the nervous system:

The unit function of the nervous system is the

reflex arc.
The reflex arc:
• A reflex arc is an involuntary response to a stimulus.
• It is composed of:
1. Receptor.
2. Afferent neuron.
3. Center.
4. Efferent neuron.
5. Effector organ.
• A stimulus: is any change in the
environment surrounding a living tissue.
• A receptor: is a specialized structure present
at the peripheral end of the afferent nerve
fiber and can detect a stimulus. The
stimulus acts on the receptor to change the
rate of discharge of impulses along the
afferent fiber.
• The afferent neuron: conducts impulses
from the receptor to the integrating center
in the CNS.
• The center: recognizes the stimulus and
sends a proper order to peripheral tissues
to counteract the environmental changes
and produce adjustments
(HOMEOSTASIS).
• The efferent neuron: conducts the
impulses (orders) from the center to the
effector organs.
• The effector organ: produced the response
that counteracts the original change in the
environment (stimulus).
 Types of reflex arc
1.Monosynaptic: if the impulse is relayed from the
afferent to the efferent neurone directly ( no
interneurons in-between) (i.e. there is only one
synapse).
2.Polysynaptic: if the impulse is relayed from the
afferent to the efferent neuron through ne or more
intercommunicating neurons (i.e. there is more than
one synapse).
3.Autonomic: when the efferent neuron is a
preganglionic nerve fiber that relays in an autonomic
ganglion before reaching the effector organ, the reflex
is called autonomic reflex. It may be mono- or
polysynaptic.
 SYNAPSE
Definition: it is the site of contact and not
continuity between the axon terminal of one
neuron called presynaptic neuron and another
neuron called postsynaptic neuron.
Types of synapses:
• Axodendritc synapse: the least excitable.
• Axosomatic synapse:
• Axoaxonic synapse: the most excitable.
 Types of synapses:
1. Chemical: through the release of chemical
transmitters. This is the most common type.
2. Electrical: through direct propagation of nerve
impulse from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic
neurons without the release of chemical
transmitters. Gap junctions between presynaptic
and postsynaptic neurons allow ion exchange and
impulse propagation. Conduction is very rapid
and is present in certain areas of the brain and
cerebellum.
 Chemical Transmission:
The structure of the synapse:
• The terminal end of the presynaptic neurons breaks into many
nerve terminals (synaptic knobs).
• Each synaptic knob is separated from the membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron by a space called synaptic cleft containing
ECF.
• The synaptic knob contains:
1. Vesicles containing the chemical transmitter.
2. Mitochondria to supply energy for synthesis of the chemical
transmitter.
• The postsynaptic membrane under the knob contains specific
receptors for the chemical transmitter.
• The combination of the chemical transmitter with its receptor
changes the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to ions 
change the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron and
consequently its excitability.
 Mechanism of synaptic transmission:
• The membrane of the synaptic knob as well as the
postsynaptic neuron under resting conditions is in
the polarized state (RMP).
• The presynaptic nerve impulse (1) reaches the
terminal knobs as a wave of reversal polarity  (2)
 the permeability of to Ca 2+  Ca 2+ diffusion
into the terminal knobs  (3) stimulates exocytosis
of knob's vesicles  release of transmitter into the
synaptic cleft. (4) the transmitter crosses the cleft
and binds to its receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron changing the permeability to ions according
to the type of synapse:
• Excitatory synapses (EPSP): (5) the excitatory
transmitter (e.g. A Ch, catecholamines,
serotonin,..etc)  (6)  the permeability of
postsynaptic membrane to Na+ and to K+ but more to
Na+   Na+ influx into postsynaptic neuron  (7)
depolarization, with increased excitability (EPSP).
• Inhibitory synapse (IPSP): (5) the inhibitory
transmitter (e.g. GABA, Glycine, ..etc) binds to its
receptors  (6)  permeability of postsynaptic
membrane to K+ and Cl-   K+ outflux and Cl- influx
into the postsynaptic neurone  (7)
hyperpolarization , with decreased excitability (IPSP).
excitatory synaptic transmission
 Miniature excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (mEPSP and mIPSP):

It is a process of partial postsynaptic

depolarization (mEPSP) or
hyperpolarizatrion (mIPSP) produced by
spontaneous resting flow of Ca 2+ into the
presynaptic terminal knob with the release
of few chemical transmitter molecules
independent of any nerve impulse. The
potential change is not sufficient to
produce any postsynaptic discharge.