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The Human Cell

Definition:
The building (structural) unit of the human body (figure 1).

Figure 1: structure of the human cell

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I. The cell membrane: (figure 2)
 Functions:
1. It forms a boundary to surround the cell and protect it from the external
environment.
2. Selective permeability; it allows certain substances to pass through and
prevents others.
 It is very thin (75 angstrom thick).
 Chemically, the cell membrane is formed of Phospholipids & Proteins.
a. Phospholipids:
i. Each phospholipid molecule in the cell membrane is formed of:
i. Water soluble (hydrophilic) phosphate part.
ii. Fat soluble (hydrophobic) lipid part containing cholesterol.
ii. The plasma membrane is formed of two layers (bilayer) of
phospholipid molecules with their hydrophilic phosphate heads
directed outwards and inwards and their hydrophobic lipid tails
directed to the interior of the membrane (figure 2).
b. Proteins:
i. Proteins of the cell membrane are peptide chains of amino acids.
ii. Chemically, they are either;
i. Pure proteins. or
ii. Conjugated proteins with carbohydrates (glycoproteins) or with
lipids (lipoproteins).
iii. According to their site; Proteins are either;
i. Surface (peripheral) proteins on the outer or inner surfaces.
ii. Through & through proteins (transmembrane or integral
proteins).

Figure 2: Chemical structure of the cell membrane.

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 Functions of cell membrane proteins:
1. Surface proteins act as receptors or surface recognition sites (self-
antigens) ------ very important for immune system to differentiate
between what is self and non-self (foreign) ------ prevent the body
from attacking itself (autoimmune diseases).
2. Act as active Pumps e.g. Na+-K+ pump.
3. Act as Receptors for;
i. Hormones.
ii. Chemical transmitters.
4. Act as Enzymes e.g. adenylate cyclase enzyme ------ which catalyzes
the formation of cyclic AMP (cyclic AMP) from ATP.
5. Act as Carriers; helping transport of substances through the cell
membrane.
Types of carriers: (figure 3)
i. Uniport: transport one substance in one direction.
ii. Symport: cotransport more than one substance at a time in only
one direction.
iii. Antiport: transport one substance in one direction in exchange
for another in opposite direction e.g. Na+-K+ pump carrier --- it
transports 3 Na+ out of the cell in exchange with 2 K+ into the
cell.

Figure 3: Types of cell membrane carrier proteins.

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 6. Act as Channels: through which water soluble substances can pass
through the cell membrane.
Types of cell membrane channels: (figure 4)
i. Non gated channels: they are channels that are open all the time
allowing passage of ions all the time. Sometimes they are called
“leak channels”
ii. Gated channels: these channels are classified into:
a. Voltage gated channels: that open or close in response to
membrane potential changes.
b. Ligand gated channels: that open or close in response to
binding to a chemical substance (ligands). Ligands are either:
- External ligands; binds to the outer surface of the cell
membrane as neurotransmitters and hormones.
- Internal ligands; binds to the inner surface of the cell
membrane as ca+2 and cyclic AMP.
c. Mechanical gated channels: that open or close in response to
mechanical stretch or pressure.

Figure 4: Types of cell membrane channels.

N.B. The cell membrane is dynamic; i.e. molecules are continuously

degraded and resynthesized.

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II. The nucleus: (figure 5)
It is the brain of the cell surrounded by nuclear membrane and contains
chromatin and nucleoli embedded in nuclear fluid.

Figure 5: the cell nucleus.

Functions of the nucleus:

1. Carry the genetic material as specific sequence of nucleotides of
chromosomal DNA (genes) that code for specific proteins characteristic
of everyone.
2. Except for gametes (ovum and sperm), the number of chromosomes in
each human cell is 22 pairs (somatic) + one pair (sex chromosomes:
XX=female or XY=male).
3. DNA does not leave the nucleus, but it forms 3 types of RNA that can
cross the nuclear membrane to the cytoplasm;
a. Messenger (mRNA): carry the genetic code to ribosomes to be
translated into protein.
b. Transfer (tRNA): 20 different types, each is specific to carry
only one specific amino acid.
c. Ribosomal (rRNA): essential for ribosomal function.

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III. The cytoplasm:
It is a colloid solution of proteins containing cell organelles; either
(Membranous or Non-membranous).

A. Membranous Organelles:
1. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER): (figure 6)

Folded membranes forming tubules and vesicles inside the cytoplasm.

Types:

Granular (rough) Smooth

 Ribosomes are attached to  No ribosomes attached.

outer surface.

Function; Functions;
 Synthesis of proteins 1.Synthesis of Phospholipids.
2.Synthesis of cholesterol.
3.Synthesis of carbohydrate part of
glycoproteins.
4.Contains enzymes for glycogen
breakdown (Glycogenolysis).
5.Contains detoxifying enzymes.

Form tubules (channels) for transport of substances inside the cell.

Figure 6: Smooth and Rough endoplasmic reticulum.

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2. Mitochondria: (figure 7)

Just like a factory can’t run without electricity ----- a cell can’t run
without energy ----- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency
of the cell, and ------- it is produced in a process known as cellular
respiration.
Function of mitochondria:
a. They are the site where oxidation of the different food substances
occurs with formation of high energy ATP.
b. They are the only site within the cell that contains DNA outside the
nucleus.
c. So, they are capable of self-replication according to energy
requirements of the cell.
d. They contain the respiratory chain enzymes.

Figure 7: the mitochondria

3. The lysosomes: (figure 8)

They are membranous vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes of 3
types; glycolytic, lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes.

Functions:
a. Digestion of engulfed substances in food vacuoles.
b. Digest and remove remnants of damaged cells during
inflammation to clean the area for repair.
c. When released after death → autolysis.

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 Clinical significance:
 Abnormal release of lysosomal enzymes within the cell →
inflammation (e.g., gout).
 Deficiency of one lytic enzyme → storage diseases with
accumulation of substrate substance within the cell → over growth of
the cells and organs.
 Stabilization of lysosomal membranes by cortisol relieves
inflammation.

Figure 8: The lysosome.

4. The Golgi apparatus: (figure 9)
It is a membranous structure and well developed in secretory cells.
Functions:
a. Substances to be secreted are processed into vesicles inside Golgi
complex before being secreted.
b. Some carbohydrates as chondroitin sulphate and hyaluronic acid are
synthesized in Golgi complex.

Figure 9: Golgi apparatus.

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B. Non-membranous organelles:
1. Ribosomes: (figure 10)
- Formed of large and small protein subunits and rRNA.
- Present everywhere inside the cell either attached to granular
endoplasmic reticulum or free.
Function;
- Protein synthesis by translating mRNA.

Figure 10: the ribosome.

2. The centrosome: (figure 11)

- It is formed of 2 perpendicular cylinders situated at one side of the
nucleus in dividing cells only.
- It plays an important role to form the mitotic spindle during cell
division.
- It is absent in:
a. Muscle cells,
b. Neurons. Both of them can never divide.

Figure 11: The centrosome

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3. The microfilaments and microtubules: (figure 12)
They form the cytoskeleton of the cell.
Functions;
a. Keep the shape of the cell.
b. Help cell movements by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
c. Help transport of substances and organelles through the cell from
site to site.

Figure 12: The microfilaments and microtubules

4. Storage granules and pigments;

They may or may not be present according to nutritional status of the
individual.
e.g.
- Oil droplets in fat cells,
- Glycogen granules in liver cells.
- Melanin pigments in epidermal cells.

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(GOOD LUCK)

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