MODELS OF TEACHING

MEANING AND
DEFINITION

INTRODUCTION
A good model of teaching may remedy the ills in the teaching-learning process.
Education continuously builds ideas and emotions. The flux of human consciousness gives the process of
education its distinctive character and makes teaching and learning such a wonderous, ever-changing
process, as thoughts and feelings are built and rebuilt.
Improvements in the process of teaching have been made from time to time by the teachers. Some
research workers tend to improve the teaching process. In fact, every good teacher in the classroom
always tries to prepare a model of teaching, then he or she wants to follow it for all times. He also goes on
modifying it with the passage of time when he gains more and more experience of classroom teaching.
In this direction, recently something commendable has been done in the western countries. A few models
of teaching have been searched out and are being propagated in different countries in order to derive
maximum benefits. Thus models suggest something really very good for modifying the behavior of the
learners.
MEANING
In a classroom, the teacher is a model for the learners. All the students of the class try to imitate their
teacher. The model, therefore, is an ideal figure in this situation. A model is an exact replica of the
original thing. From a layman point of view, we can say that it is a blueprint. The blue print serves as the
beacon light for the construction of the house. An engineer also gets a model of the dam prepared first and
then he works for the construction of the proposed dam. A model, thus, is the basis for finding out the
correct path in order to attain some desired ends. For a teacher, especially in the present complex type of
teaching-learning situations, a model has an extra-ordinary utility.
Models of teaching are really models of learning. As we help students acquire information, ideas, skills,
values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. In
fact, the most important long-term outcome of instruction may be the students increased capabilities to
learn more easily and effectively in the future, both because of the knowledge and skill they have
acquired and because they have mastered learning processes.
How teaching is conducted has a large impact on students abilities to educate themselves. Successful
teachers are not simply charismatic and persuasive presenters. Rather they engage their students in robust
cognitive and social tasks and teach the students how to use them productively. For example, although
learning to lecture clearly and knowledgeably is highly desirable, it is the learner who does the learning;
successful lectures teach students how to mine the information in the talk and make it their own. Effective
learners draw information, ideas, and wisdom from their teachers and use learning resources effectively.
Thus, a major role in teaching is to create powerful learners.
A teaching model is an instructional design which vividly expresses the interrelation of various teachinglearning conditions. Teaching model to be effective much describes the vital connection between learning
outcomes, environmental conditions, expected pupils performance and relevant procedures. The teaching
models are the basic and first step to instruct theory of teaching in principle. A teaching model is a created
situation which demands interaction of the pupils to bring about changes in the behavior of the pupils

through the achievement of teaching objectives. A teaching model includes everything of a particular
content to be taught to the learner and a detail and precise outline of the teaching content.
DEFINITION
Teaching models have been defined in a number of ways. Some of the important definitions are:Allen and Ryan in 1969 defined, modeling is an individual demonstrating particular pattern which the
trainee learns through imitation.
In the words of Joyce and Weil (1972), Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the
process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which cause the students to
interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior. They again say, Teaching model is a
pattern or plan, which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, to select instructional materials and to
guide teachers actions.
Weil and Joyce in 1978 defined, A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational
activities and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to achieve certain
kinds of goals.
Paul D. Eggen et al in 1979, Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish
particular instructional goals.
N. K Jangira and Ajith Singh in 1983 say, A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components
arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing
instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the
stipulated objectives.
Model of teaching is just a blueprint designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction
to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives.
Paul D. Eggen et al (1979) further clarifies when he writes, An engineer, in considering a project, first
identifies the type of structure to be built, eg. a building, a bridge, or a road. Having done this, he selects
an appropriate design or blue print to follow in building that structure. The specifications of the blueprint
determine the actions the builder takes and the kind of building that will result. The particular type of blue
print or model chosen depends on the type of structure to be built. In a similar manner a teacher
considering the choice of a teaching model first identifies what is to be taught and then selects a model in
accordance with that goal. The model chosen is specifically designed to achieve a particular st of
objectives and will determine in large part of the actions of the teacher.
Educators and psychologists have designed several types of teaching models which provide suitable
guidelines to the teachers for modifying the behavior of the learners. As a matter of fact some sort of
models of teaching has been in existence since times immemorial.
In simple language, a model of teaching may be defined as a blueprint designed in advance for providing
necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives.

A FEW CHARACTERISTICS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The models are the teaching strategies.

They are a sort of guidelines.
They are of prescriptive type.
They help in the accomplishment of instructional goals.
They help the teacher in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities.
They can be used to shape a curriculum.
They are based on a systematic and scientific procedure.
There is specified environment for the functioning of each model.
They specify the criteria of performance. The behavioural outcomes of the learner are clearly
described.

The basic elements of a teaching model are the Focus, Syntax, Social System, and Support System. By
combining all types of teaching model Bruce R. Joyce has given one title to these models as Modern
Teaching Model. It has four categories.
a)
b)
c)
d)

Models based on social interaction source

Models based on information processing source
Models based on the personal sources.
Models based on behavior modification as source.

In achieving some specific objectives of teaching, teaching model always offers a helping hand.
CONCLUSION
Development of models of teaching is one of the recent innovations in teaching. An important purpose of
discussing models of teaching is to assist the teacher to have a wide range of approaches for creating a
proper interactive environment for learning. An intelligent use of these approaches enables the teacher to
adapt him to the learning needs of the students. By using teaching models, teaching can be made for
effective and purposive. Teaching model helps in developing social efficiency, personal abilities,
cognitive abilities and behavioural aspects of the students.
Thus, we find that teaching models are of great value and then can work wonders in the hands of teachers.
Whatever may be their significance, but they are just like a servant in the hands of an experienced teacher.
They are in no way the masters. Under good control, they can be used for the attainment of various useful
purposes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sachdeva, M, S, Dr. A New Approach to Teaching Learning Process. Ludhiana: Bharat Book Centre,
2001.
Goswami, kumari Meena. Educational Technology. Delhi: Asian Books Private Limited, 2008.
Shaik, Mowla, Dr. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neel Kamal Publications Pvt. Ltd, 2009.

GRAMMAR :TYPES [PRESCRIPTIVE, DESCRIPTIVE,

FORMAL & FUNCTIONAL]
: METHODS [INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE]
: SELECTION & GRADATION OF
STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION

The old English language was based on Latin grammar. The first grammar book for English was written
by William Lily in 1512. It was called Lilys Latin Grammar. It was Ben Jonson, a dramatist and
contemporary of William Shakespeare who wrote the first English grammar book which was published in
1640. Since then a number of grammar books have been written, all framing rules to be followed strictly.
By about the middle of the 19th century the grammarians authoritarianism reached its climax. The follies
they made were in these ways; they (i) followed Latin grammar (ii) considered grammar as a matter of
form, not use (iii) prescribed rules to be learnt and followed unquestionably (iv) analyzing, parsing and
diagramming were ends in themselves in teaching grammar.
Later, as linguistics developed, grammar came to be treated as a coherent part of it, formal grammar came
to a dull, and functional grammar began to take the reins of language. Now the views on grammar have
been changed and diverged and as a result of it, different types of grammar have emerged.
GRAMMAR
According to Langman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, grammar is , A description of the structure of
a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce
sentences in the language. It usually takes into account the meanings and the functions of these sentences
have in the overall system of the language.
Grammar is a system that gives certain rules governing the use of language in general and its constituent
like Phonology, Morphology, Semantics, Syntax ete. in particular. Contemporary Linguistics defines
grammar as the underlying structure of language that any native speaker of that language knows
intuitively.
TYPES OF GRAMMAR
Though grammar is to be conceived in its wholeness, certain types of grammar according to their
distinctive characteristics can be identified. They are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Prescriptive grammar( Formal/ Theoretical/ Normative)

Descriptive grammar ( Functional/ Incidental)
Transformational- Generative grammar
Historical grammar
Comparative grammar
Structural grammar
Notional- Functional grammar

PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
Prescriptive grammar is also known as Formal grammar, Normative grammar and Theoretical grammar.
The names are suggestive of the characteristics of this type of grammar. It prescribes rules for correct use
of language in writing and speech. It promulgates rules and its traditional in nature. The rightness or
wrongness is judged in comparison to the rules of grammar. Its features are:

o
o
o
o
o
o

It is traditional and it dominated the schools where the study of grammar came to be
associated with parsing and sentence diagramming.
Written language is considered as the basis for the formulation of rules, not the spoken
form.
Its rules are considered rigid and not to be desecrated.
Any innovation to or deviation from the set rules is considered ungrammatical and sinful.
Its methodology of teaching is deductive, ie, from general rules to particular instances.
It helps promote the ability to describe language.

In Prescriptive grammar, words are carefully classified into parts of speech, often based on the form, not
on the function. Merely by making the rules thorough one may not be able to use the language efficiently,
especially in speech. Prescriptive grammarians held that rules should come first, use of language only
next. This trend prevailed in our schools till very recently; and there were separate grammar classes. The
grammar taught in classes was called Formal grammar. In such cases, rules were laid down at the
beginning and the use and practice followed. For example, the rule that when the subject of a sentence is
singular, the verb should be singular and when the subject is plural, the verb also should be plural was
illustrated through examples like:
John is a little child.
John and Mary are little children.
John, George and Mary are little children.
Grammar laid down rules for all times and did not take into account the changing
usage of English. Such grammar was called Prescriptive grammar, as it prescribed
rules for everyone to follow without questioning. In the classrooms, the teaching of
such grammar was called Formal grammar, as they proceeded from rules and
definitions to examples. As we know, even these rules of language were not
universal and there were many exceptions to them.
Eg: 1. Plurals: book books, boy boys
But,

child- children

Eg: 2. Tenses: walk walked

But,

go went, run ran

In teaching Formal grammar, the fact that English language is a living language and
that it is ever changing was neglected, and as a result of it English language began
to neglect Formal grammar. For dead languages, Prescriptive grammar may be
appropriate, but not for a living language like English.
Today, grammar exists as a field within Linguistics. For most people grammar refers
to the body of rules one must know in order to speak or write a language correctly.
DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

Descriptive grammar is also known as Functional grammar or Incidental grammar.

As the name suggests, the rules of grammar collected from the native speakers are
encoded, described and used in functional contexts. The rules are not rigid but are
subject to change as the language changes. In brief, it describes how a language is
actually used by a native speaker.
In descriptive grammar, the learner first uses the language and gradually comes to
the awareness of rules, inductively. It is the grammar that functions spontaneously
in speech. Hence, it should be concern of the curriculum designer as well as the
teacher to give emphasis to functional aspects of grammar. Functional grammar is
learnt incidentally as against Theoretical or Formal grammar, which is taught
through mechanical or artificial practice.
A persons ability in language is not measured in terms of the amount of his
knowledge of grammar but in terms of his spontaneity and appropriacy of
expression.
Some of the important features of Descriptive grammar are enunciated below:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

It favours the ability to use language

It describes grammar more in terms of functions, than forms.
It lays emphasis on the usage of language.
Use of language is promoted irrespective of grammatical correctness of
language.
Correct language will develop naturally and without deliberate efforts.
Its methodology of teaching is inductive.

Contextual presentation of various grammatical categories like nouns and verbs in

sentences fixes the patterns in ones mind. They are strengthened by plenty of oral
work and repetition. Learning becomes automatic, without reference to rules all the
time. From a number of examples, rules may be formulated (deduced) later.

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR AND DESCRIPTIVE

GRAMMAR
PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
1. Prescribes rules of grammar as
they should be
2. Was traditionally followed for long
3. Follows deductive approach in
teaching
4. Suitable for dead languages
5. Considers grammarians words as
the bases of correctness
6. Have inviolable rules.
7. Form is all important
8. Sticks to correctness of expression
9. Built more upon written materials
10.Believes that correct language will
develop through study of rules
11.Is almost an end in itself
12.Is subject centered

DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
1. Describes rules of grammar as
they are actually found in
language
2. Began to receive wide acceptance
recently with the development of
Linguistics
3. Follows inductive approach in
teaching
4. Suitable for ever changing
languages
5. Native speakers use and usage
are the bases
6. Have rules which are flexible
7. Meaning is all important
8. Gives priority to fluency of
expression
9. Built more upon spoken form
10.Believes that correct language will
develop naturally
11.Is a means to an end viz.
communication
12.Is student centred

METHODS
Broadly, there are two methods of teaching grammar Deductive and Inductive.
DEDUCTIVE METHOD
Deductive method starts from a rule and provides to make observations to test the
validity of the rules. A rule of grammar is stated and examples are illustrated.
Traditional grammar is deductive in nature. This method may be used with older
children who have already learnt some language.
The teacher gives the rule or definition of a language form, say the present
continuous tense. This tense is used initially for actions going on at the moment of
speaking. Then he/ she gives a number of examples, from actions or pictures. Later
he makes them apply the rule, by showing some more pictures, or giving some
exercises; care is taken about agreement between the subject and the predicate.
I am running.
You are running.

He/ She is running.

Generally Formal grammar was taught by the deductive method. Only rules and
examples were recited by the teacher and pupils and there was no action, no
practice, no linking of word and meaning. Everything appeared easy and timesaving
but the pupils did not learn anything finally because there was no practical
demonstration or practice of the pattern.
INDUCTIVE METHOD
The Inductive approach is considered to be more effective because it is found to be
psychologically sound. Grammar learnt inductively should be tried and practiced
deductively to make the concept or rule well established.
The Inductive approach begins from the simple and moves to the complex and from
particular to general. In teaching grammar inductively, the teacher presents a text
item with examples and illustrations in a systematic order, leading to a general
principle.
In the Inductive method, suppose the teacher starts teaching the use of used to.
The teacher explains the context when used to is used. It is used to refer to an act
or habit started in the past, continued for sometime and probably stopped in the
past itself.
First, the teacher gives a number of examples.
I used to play football at school. (Now I no longer play.)
Mr. Sarma used to take a cold water bath at 4O clock in the morning. (Now he
doesnt do it.)
My father used to hunt when he was in service. (Now he is retired, he doesnt do it.)
The teacher warns the students that many people use this expression for present
habit or practice which is wrong.
Eg: I use to take coffee everyday.
You use to travel by the local train everyday.
Then the teacher helps the students to frame the rule, from all these examples, that
used to expresses a past habit. Then he/ she elicits some more examples from
them.
Exercise: rewrite with used to.
(i)
(ii)

My brother was cycling five km to go to work everyday. Now he uses a

scooter.
His parents were selling vegetables when he was young. Now they dont
do it.

(iii)

My grandfather was telling us stories. Now he is too old to do that.

The Inductive method makes the pupils think for themselves and take part in
language learning. Teaching and learning are made interesting through
contextualized discussion. Children learn grammar incidentally. This is called
Functional grammar. They have plenty of practice in sentence patterns.
But it requires competent teachers to teach by the Inductive method. Their own
usage must be correct. This method produces very good results with beginners.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDUCTIVE METHOD AND DEDUCTIVE METHOD

INDUCTIVE METHOD
1. First a number of examples are
given then generalization is
arrived at.
2. Students can draw conclusions
directing them to a general rule.
They become use conscious.
3. Students are more active in
thinking in the learning process
and will show interest.
4. Interest can be sustained through
examples and activities.
5. Grammar is learnt incidentally.
6. Teacher has to plan well with a lot
of suitable examples leading to
the general rule.
7. Cramming or rote memory is
discouraged.
8. Suitable to the early stage.
9. All rules cannot be taught by this
method.
10.It consumes much time and
labour.
11.Systematized knowledge is not
got.
12.It is student centred.

DEDUCTIVE METHOD
1. First a general rule is given and
then specific examples.
2. Students apply the general rule to
interpret individual examples.
They are made rule conscious.
3. Students show lack of interest to
follow rules without knowing the
purpose.
4. Examples need not be always
interesting as they may not be
natural.
5. Grammar is learnt as if by
compulsion.
6. No synthesis of thought and
expression.
7. Sticking on to the rule is often
adopted.
8. Suitable to the later stage.
9. More rules can be taught if less
examples are taken.
10.More rules can be presented in
less time.
11.Knowledge of grammar will be
more systematized.
12.It is subject centred.

SELECTION AND GRADATION OF STRUCTURES

In teaching of a language, selection and gradation of language items are very

important. Selection may be done by the teacher, in respect of grammatical items,
vocabulary and structures. Selection and gradation may be based on frequency,
teachability, range of applicability, usefulness etc.
SELECTION
The selection of language items should be based on the following principles.
1) Frequency of language item its occurrence
2) Range of applicability ie, in how many contexts it is applicable.
3) Coverage a word conveying a number of meanings. Eg: meals stand for
dinner, breakfast etc.
4) Availability the items which can be conveniently taught. Eg: actual objects
available in the classroom like table, chair, chalk etc.
5) Teachability by teachability of a structure, we mean that it should be easily
demonstrated in a realistic situation. The structures which are easy from
teaching point of view should be given preference.
6) Learnability items which are easy for the students to learn should be taken
up first.
7) Productivity by productivity of a structure, we mean that a number of
structures can be produced out of it. So in the selection of structures, the
productivity of a structure should also be taken into consideration.
Eg: I have to go. (the structure to have to do something)
Boil the water.
The number of sentences that can be made with the first structure is almost
limitless but very little can be done with the help of second structure. The first
structure is more productive as compared to the second one.
8) Simplicity the structures which are quite simple are given preference to the
complicated ones. Here by simplicity, we mean that the form and meaning of
the structure should be simple.
Eg: The structure He is working is simpler as compared to the structure No
sooner did the bell ring than the boys ran away.
GRADATION
Gradation means putting the language items in order of presentation. While
grading, very simple and common type of structures are kept for teaching at the
early stages. Difficult structures are kept for later stages. In short, by gradation we
mean which item after which. Thus by gradation, the structures are put in order and
then they presented to the learners one by one in that serial order. Gradation
involves grouping and sequence. The basic principle of grading according to W. R

Lee is: Teach first those sentence structures the use of which can be made clear by
means of visible actions in the class room.
GROUPING
1. Group according to the sound or Phonetic Grouping
Eg. pay, bat, say, sat etc.
2. Grouping according to words used in the same situation or Lexical Grouping
Eg. Words connected with post office, post master, post man, dak, letters etc.
3. Patterns of sentences which are similar should be taught together or
Grammatical Grouping
Eg. This is, that is my book, your book etc.
4. The words that convey similar meanings are grouped together or Semantic
Grouping
Eg. shelter, hut, house, tent etc.
5. Structure Grouping how the selected items fit with each other sounds into
words, words into phrases, phrases into sentences and sentences into
contexts.
SEQUENCE (what comes after what)
1. Lexical Sequence which words follow which
Eg. sit, stand, come, go.
2. Grammatical Sequence - means which structure follows which S. V. O
Eg. I am throwing a ball.
I am throwing a ball to you.
3. Semantic Sequence- every word has a number of meanings. They are put in
order and are taught at different occasions.
Eg. the word there.
The pen is there. (Place)
There are many pens. (Introduction)
While teaching structures, the teacher should take the pupils through four stages
listening, recognition, imitation and reproduction. Various methods of teaching the
structures are
1) ORAL TEACHING
Aural oral method is the most suitable for teaching the structures. The
teacher may give oral drill to the class in chorus, groups, and then to
individuals. It will involve speaking both by the teacher and the students.
2) SITUATIONAL TEACHING
Situational teaching means teaching by creating situations. Anything taught
or learnt in a situation is more meaningful than otherwise. The best way of
teaching structures is by creating situations. The situation makes the
structure easily understandable. It establishes a closer and more direct
relation between an expression and its meaning.
FOUR CATAGORIES OF SITUATIONS

a) Situations which the child can see, hear, and touch directly in the classroom
and also through the classroom windows.
b) Situations which the pupil knows from his own experiences in his daily life,
family circle etc.
c) Situations which can be recalled to mind through imagination with the help of
pictures, maps, charts, plans, dramatization and other aids.
d) Situations which are brought into the minds of the pupils through the spoken
or printed word alone.
A few structures briefly illustrated through examples are given below.
TEACHING POINTS
1. This is
That is

2. My, Your, His, Her (singular

possessives)

3. And (sentence connectors)

EXAMPLES
Touching a table, a chair, a book, we
may say; This is a table. This is a chair.
This is a book.
Pointing towards a table, a chair, a book,
we may say: That is a table. That is a
chair. That is a book.
By comparison we may say: This is a
book. That is a book.
This is a dog. That is a dog.
This is a clock. That is a clock.
This is my pencil. That is your pencil.
This is my dog. That is your dog.
This is his pen. That is her pen.
This is a boy and that is a girl.
This is a chair and that is a table.
This is a dog and that is a cat.

CONCLUSION
In between the two extremes, ie, Formal grammar and Functional grammar, we
have to take a moderate stance. Teaching and learning of grammar should not be
done away with, because then students will not have a notion of the correctness of
language. If there are no rules to govern the use of language, the uniqueness and
tangibility will be lost. Grammar should not precede language but it should follow
language. That is, grammar should be taken as a means to an end, not as an end in
itself. The English teacher should bear in mind that teaching of grammar is to give
guidelines to the mastery of the various elements of language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sivarajan, K, Dr, T,V Ramakrishnan & K. Mridula. English Language Education. Calicut University:
Premier Printers, 2007.