Transition in Structural Technologies

Masonry structure

Air-inflated membrane
structure

Reinforced concrete
structure

Wooden structure
(glued laminated wood)

Steel structure

Cable structure

Masonry Structures. People have traditionally built their homes with natural materials found
nearby. In ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, it was easy to get stones and bricks. These
materials resist compression but do not resist tension. To make the largest structures possible,
builders used compression to create arches that could form domes. The first dome was the 14th
century BC Treasury of Atreus. Domes progressed through the Roman Pantheon, the Byzantine
Hagia Sophia, and the Florence Cathedral of the Renaissance. The domes in all these structures
use canopies and are religious symbols.
Reinforced Concrete Structures. Reinforced concrete construction is rational because it
matches concrete, which resists compression, with steel, which resist tension. This construction
suits free shape designs. If a curved construction, such as a dome, is fully shaped its surface is
dynamically strong, like an eggshell, which is thin yet strong. The Leipzig Market uses this shelllike quality. The Algeciras Market in Spain was the first structure with a dome larger than the
Pantheon's. The King Dome in the United States uses prestressed concrete for a dome diameter
of 202 meters.
Steel Structures. Steel offers much better compression and tension than concrete and enables
lighter construction. Steel structures use three-dimensional trusses, so they can be larger than
reinforced concrete counterparts. Computerized, high-precision stress analysis and innovative
jointing allow an array of structures and shapes. Steel frame construction now predominates.
Examples include the 200-meter Astro/Dome and Super Dome in the United States and Japan's
Fukuoka and Nagoya domes.
Air-inflated Membrane Structures. Air-supported construction derives from the balloon
principle to shape a building. The air pressure inside the structure exceeds the external air
pressure to support the roof. Sunlight can penetrate roof materials, making interiors brighter than
other constructions. This construction is common in large sports facilities in the United States,
such as the Silver Dome and the Metro Dome. In Japan, this approach started with Tokyo Dome.
Wooden Structures. The Japanese have long used wood for housing and historical structures,
but not for large buildings. This has changed with the development of wood composites-thin,
pressed sheets-combined with joints and steel frames. Wood imparts a natural, human warmth
that steel and concrete lack. This attribute probably hastened wood technology development.
Prominent wood composite structures are Tacoma Dome and North Michigan University Stadium

in the United States and Odate Jukai Dome in Japan. All these domes have diameters of roughly
160 to 180 meters.
Cable Structures. Cables stretch well and are light, so they are useful in large structures.
Cables can be crisscrossed and combined with surface materials to achieve light and large
structures. Examples of this technique are Suncoast Dome and Georgia Dome in the United
States. Japan has no large structures of this type.
Advanced Reinforced Concrete Construction
1. Precast Construction - refers to concrete members formed or molded in a factory or plant,
then delivered and assembled at the jobsite.
Applications: a) structural framework elements such as columns, beams, and girders (usually
prestressed); b) flooring and roofing units; c) wall panels, gutters, mouldings (use of GRC
glass-fiber reinforced concrete)
Advantages: a) mass production of standardized and repetitive units; b) less labor cost due to
mechanized production; c) use of unskilled labor; d) less construction time; e) better quality
control and higher strength of concrete; and f) construction free from effects of weather
conditions.
Types of precast members:
a) wall panels flat, double tee, ribbed, mullion or window-type
b) floor/roof decking flat, single or double tee, hollow-plank
c) beams and girders rectangular, ledger, ell, AASHTO ( American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials) bridge girders
d) Columns usually with corbels or bracket
e) Special shapes like mouldings, gutters, etc.
2. Tilt up Construction components are custom-precast on site and then erected by crane.
Advantages: a) reduction of formwork; b) simplified placement and reinforcement of concrete;
c) permits ground-level installation of components, such as window frames.
3. Lift-slab Construction after erection of precast columns, each floor slab is cast on the
ground, one on top of the other; after curing, the topmost slab is hoisted slowly (1/min.) by
hydraulic jacks located at the top of each column.
4. Prestressing refers to a method of compressing concrete members so that they do not
deflect when in position, and both upper and lower sections of the members remain in
compression.
Tendons high-strength, twisted wire strands (3, 5, 7-wire cables).
Draping cambered tendon position to improve effectiveness (retards creep or slack).
Types:
a) Pre-tensioning steel tendons are placed in empty concrete forms and stretched, before
concrete is placed about the tendons and cured; the tendons are bonded to the concrete
and upon their release, part of the tension is transferred to the concrete as compression.
b) Post-tensioning unbonded tendons in tubing or sheathing embedded in cured concrete
are stretched, or tendons greased to prevent adhesion to the concrete during curing.
Tension is applied to the tendons and anchorage at their ends is installed; cement grout
is finally forced around them for improved bonding and corrosion protection.
Other methods include volumetric expansion and thermal prestressing.
Steel Construction
Steel (refined iron) an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements present in various amounts
depending upon the property desired; steel is graded according to carbon content.
Advantages of steel framing in building construction:

1. More strength and greater degree of durability and capability of supporting more weight; 100
times stronger than concrete in resisting tension and 10 times stronger than concrete in
resisting compression;
2. Framework can be designed to span long distances without intervening support; longer
spans create large unobstructed areas by eliminating the need for columns or bearing
partitions, which provides flexibility in the design and location of interior partitions;
3. Environment-friendly material is manufactured from a recyclable and an undepleted natural
resource and offers a better substitute for wood or timber.
Types of Steel
1. Mild or low steel nearly pure iron having low carbon content, used in the manufacture
of boilers, tanks and enamelware.
2. Billet or rail steel superior compression resistance
3. Stainless steel basically an alloy of iron and about ten percent chromium which imparts
a remarkable resistance of the metal to corrosion and heat.
4. Structural steel steel rolled and extruded in a variety of shapes and fabricated for use
as load-bearing sections
Types of Structural Steel
1. Carbon steel contains carbon and manganese as the main alloys and is the basic
structural steel; the most economical but has the lowest yield point (AISC ASTM
designation A36)
2. High-strength, low-alloy steel (HSLA) offers reduction in weight and has twice corrosion
resistance of A36; not recommended for welding
3. Weathering steel its brown coating (a kind of oxidation) protects it from further
corrosion; has four times resistance of A36
4. Heat-treated steel strength is developed by quenching and tempering; only available in
plate sections
Structural steel section shapes
1. Flanged sections as beams or columns (wide-flanged and I-sections)
W Shapes: sizes W4 through W44
S Shapes: sizes S3 through S24
M Shapes: sizes M5 through M12
2. Channels used as wall studs, rafter beams and purlins
American Standard Channels: sizes C3 through C15
Miscellaneous Channels: sizes MC6 through MC18
3. Angles
Equal Leg Angles: sizes 2"x2" through 8"x8"
Unequal Leg Angles: sizes 2 1/2"x2" through 9"x4"
4. Structural tubing/ tubes
Square: sizes 1 1/2"x1 1/2" through 30"x30"
Rectangular: sizes 2 1/2"x1 1/2" through 30"x24"
.
5. Structural pipe/ Lally columns sometimes concrete-filled for added strength
Standard, extra strong, double extra strong: sizes 3" through 12"
(inside diameters)
.
6. Structural tees
WT Shapes: sizes WT2 through WT22
MT Shapes: sizes MT2.5 through MT6
ST Shapes: sizes ST1.5 through ST12
7. Plates used for cold-formed/ bended sections such as lipped channels
8. Bars flat, square, round (plain/deformed)

Steel Fabrication
Shop and field erection or assembly of steel framework is done with the use of crawler cranes
(which operate from ground level) for low structures, and creeper cranes (which move up every
third floor as the construction progresses) for exceptionally tall structures.

Methods of connecting structural steel members:

1. Use of fasteners
2. Welding
Fasteners inserted through holes made between steel sections, done by
1. Punching if thickness of section is equal to fastener diameter plus 1/8, and
2. Drilling if thickness is greater than the criterion set in punching
-

Note that holes are usually 1/16 larger than the fastener diameter

Types of fastener:
1. Bolt (threaded) produces a friction-type connection
High-strength or interference bolts
Machine bolts or hex-head bolts
2. Rivet (plain) produces a bearing-type connection
Button head
Flat/chipped head
Pan head
Countersunk head
Fastener terminology:

Bolt a metal pin with a head at one end with a shank or stem threaded at the other end
on which a nut is screwed.
Nut a short metal block having a central hole which is threaded to receive the threaded
end of the stem of a bolt.
Washer a flat, thin metal ring used as a bearing surface under the head and/or nut of a
bolt; used to assure tightness, relieve friction, improve stress distribution, and to span
large clearance holes
Rivet a malleable pin with a head at one end and a plain shank; used to join two metal
sections by inserting it through a hole made between each section, deforming the other
end of the shank to form a second head; holes can also be reamed to create flushed rivet
heads (countersunk)

Fastener Arrangement and Placement

Gage line the line parallel with the length of a member wherein the fasteners are
placed
Gage the normal distance between two gage lines or between a gage line and an
adjacent edge of a member; minimum is 3X plate thickness and 12X maximum but not
more than 15 cms.
Pitch the center to center distance between adjacent fasteners, whether they fall on the
same or different gage lines, and measured parallel to the direction of these lines.
Minimum is 3X fastener diameter but not more than 6X.
Stitched fasteners a number of fasteners placed at intervals between two component
parts to hold them together and provide lateral stiffness; usually employed on truss
members.

Modes of Fastener Failure

1.
2.
3.
4.

Shear Failure
Bearing Failure
Tension Failure
Edge-tearing Failure

Failures by tension in the net sections and by tearing out at the edges are prevented by providing
ample material between the fastener holes (increasing the pitch) and a sufficient edge/gage
distance. Shearing and bearing failures are avoided by providing a sufficient number of fasteners
to keep stresses within allowable limits.
Welding the process of uniting metals by heating them to suitable temperatures usually with or
without the application of filler metal and/or pressure.
Advantages of using welds in building construction:
1. The procedure produces minimal noise;
2. Connections are made fixed, continuous and more rigid resulting to better moment
resistance, such that beams simply deflect 1/5 the amount compared to free-end or
fastened connections; the joints are 50% stronger than the connected members.
3. Its simplicity in design and also its repair one member maybe attached directly to
another without the use of additional materials which is necessary in fastener
connections; holes made through such connections are also not required.
Types of welding processes used in structural fabrication:
1. Gas welding coalescence is produced by a mixture of two or more gases; example is
the combination of oxygen and acetylene to create combustion capable of melting as well
as fusing metal components together.
Acetylene is a gaseous chemical compound of two elements namely, carbon and
hydrogen.
In gas welding, pressure regulator refers a valve that automatically cuts off the flow of
gas at a certain pressure to allow high-pressure cylinder tanks to be reduced to safe
and/or usable pressure levels.
In gas welding the hose is usually a double-hose design, meaning that there are two
hoses joined together.
They are also color-coded; oxygen is green, and the
fuel/acetylene hose is red.
2. Arc welding the one generally used in building construction, wherein an electric arc is
formed between an electrode (welding rod) and the two pieces that are to be joined. The
intense heat partially melts these components resulting to fusion of the connection.
Shielding gas and slag are the two substances in arc welding process that protect the
weld from atmospheric corrosion when the weld is applied.

Weld Joints
When two members are to be joined, the ends may or may not be worked upon in preparation for
welding. In general, there are three weld joint classifications: butt joints, tee joints, and lap joints.
The selection of the type of weld to use depends on the magnitude of the load requirement, the
manner in which it is applied, and the cost of preparation and execution, which allows a number
of variations. Welding may be done from one or both sides of the connection.
Also, one method of connecting overlapping plates uses welds that fill or line the edges of holes
made in one of the two plates, known as plug and/or slot welds. These are weld joints wherein a
hole or slot receives weld metal that penetrates the other component section.
Types of Weld
The weld most commonly used for structural steel in building construction is the fillet weld. It is
approximately triangular in cross-section and is formed between the two intersecting surfaces

and/or edges of the joined members. Other weld profiles include the square or bead weld (for flat
end to end connections with or without a gap otherwise known as a root opening), bevel or vee
welds (for edges that are mitered), and u-groove and j-groove welds (for edges that are gouged
or grooved to receive more weld material).
Welds can also be applied in both shop and field fabrications and can be done continuously on a
joint (full-weld) or intermittently on certain sections or portions of work (spot-weld) especially if the
connection is temporary.

Symbols for Welds

In making detailed drawings of welded connections of structural elements, standard symbols are
used. This set of markings is referred to as the bent-arrow weld symbol. In addition to the type of
weld, other information to be conveyed includes size, location, finishes, etc. Take note however,
that these items must read in that order from left to right along the horizontal reference line;
neither line orientation nor location of the pointing arrow alter this rule.
Other things that should be observed include the location of the vertical line of the weld symbols
to be always at left. For any basic weld symbol indicated below the reference line, this means
that such weld is located on the near or visible side; if it is indicated above the line, the weld is
found on the far or opposite side; if the symbol is indicated above as well as below the reference
line, this means that the weld is applied on both sides.
Connections of Structural Members
1. Column base plate spreads the column load over the foundation in various dimensions
in meters and thickness in increment of 12mm. Rolled steel bearing plates are placed in
absolute contact with the foundation for proper distribution of load; the underside maybe
straightened by pressing and planing, or the undersurface contact is achieved by
providing cement grout. Anchorage of column base to the foundation is made by passing
embedded anchor bolts through holes in the base plate, with stiffener plates and angles
fastened or welded to the column flanges.
2. Column splice normally located 60 cm. or more above the proposed floor levels for
better column to column connection. Generally, splices are made by fastening or welding
splice plates 10mm to 12mm thick to column flanges. The splices are not designed to
resist loads but only to hold the column sections in position; where the upper column is
smaller than the lower column, filler plates are used; if the difference in width is so great,
a horizontal plate is used to attain full bearing area.
3. Beam bearing plate provided for any steel beam or girder resting on masonry or
concrete abutment in order to provide ample bearing area and to seat the beam at its
proper elevation. Thus, this affords a uniform beam load distribution to its supports.
Sometimes, the bearing plate may not be mechanically secured nor welded to the beam
flange.
4. Seated connection applies to a connection between a beam or girder to a supporting
column or pier, consisting of a shelf or seat angle attached to the column flange, which
provides support to the beam or girder. A top or clip angle is used only to hold the beam
in position but does not resist nor transfer beam loads to the column.
5. Framed connection refers to a connection between a girder to a smaller beam wherein
the beams are directly placed on top of the girder, or angles are attached to the web of
the beams, which can provide a flush-top connection where the upper surfaces of the
top flanges of the beams are made at the same level, done by cutting a portion of the
upper flange (coping or blocking).
6. Separators/ diaphragms used when two or more structural sections are held to give
lateral support to the compression flanges and provide proper alignment; they are not
counted upon to transfer load from one member to the other in the event of unequal
loading. Four types of separators are used: the pipe separators being the most
commonly for S-sections and channels of shallow depth, angle separators, plate and

angle, and rod separators. The maximum spacing of separators is often limited to
1.50m., and they should also be placed at the ends of the structural sections.
Built-up Sections
When rolled steel sections are inadequate to meet load and span requirements, built-up
sections are used. These are made up of standard rolled shapes and combined so that they
are designed to act as a single structural unit in resisting stresses.
Examples are boxed sections for columns, beams, and girders, using combined assemblies
of plate and angular sections acting as flange and web as well as stiffeners.
Grillage Foundations
Before reinforced concrete was used universally as a building material, it was customary to
employ steel grillage for sizable foundations. Grillage footings consist of one or more tiers of
steel beam sections, where components of each layer are perpendicular with the other layer.
Ample spaces between the components are provided for proper placement of concrete acting as
protective cover and to help load distribution. Furthermore, separators or diaphragms hold the
components in position. For very heavy structural loads, grillage beams may be lighter and more
economical than steel columns with base plates on concrete.
Steel Roof Framing
Components:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Bay a regularly repeated spatial element defined by supports in a building structure.

Cross-bracing any system of bracing in which the diagonals intersect (x- bracing)
Eaves the lower edge of a sloping roof, that part which projects beyond the wall.
Purlin a horizontal member spanning from truss to truss where roofing material is
attached.
Ridge the horizontal line at the junction or intersection of the upper edges of two
sloping roof surfaces.
Sag rod steel bar attached or secured to purlins at centers or one-third of purlin span to
provide lateral support.
Span the distance between any two consecutive supports of a structural member.
Strut trussed bracing element located in bays to provide lateral support between
adjacent main roof trusses, rafters, or bents.
Truss a framework of slender structural members formed into triangular patterns.
Turnbuckle a device for connecting and tightening a wire, rod, or stay, consisting of a
right screw and a left screw which are coupled by means of a link.

Steel Truss
Components:
1. Chords principal members (top and bottom)
2. Gusset a plate, usually triangular or trapezoidal in shape, used to connect two or
more truss members, to add strength to a framework.
3. Web members king post, verticals, diagonals, horizontals (occasional)
4. Panel sections between adjacent truss joints along the chords
5. Rise height
6. Span length
7. Truss joints heel jt., center jt., peak jt., and intermediate jts.
Types of trusses:
a. Triangular (pitched top chords)
Fink (standard or cambered)
Pitched Howe
Pitched Pratt
Belgian
Scissors

b. Parallel-chord (rafter/beam/girder trusses)

Warren
Flat Howe
Flat Pratt
c. Curvilinear
Bowstring (continuous or segmental top chord)
Crescent ( concentric or non-concentric chord radii)
Note:

The cambered Fink, Scissors, and Crescent truss designs can accommodate curved or
domed ceiling sections
Open-Web Steel Joists
Applications: a) floor joists; b) decking; c) purlins; d) beams and struts
Small prefabricated steel Warren trusses, called open-web joists, are commonly used to support
floor and roof surfaces. They are economical, strong, lightweight, and easily erected. The open
areas between the webs permit installation of utilities such as electric conduits, piping and
ducting. When used in combination with fire-proofing materials, these joists can carry fire
protection ratings of four hours.
Open-web joists can be obtained with underslung or square ends. Some OWJs used for roof
decking are designed with sloped upper chords (standard pitch of 1/4 per foot) to allow roof
drainage. For anchorage the methods most commonly used are masonry anchors (bolts)
embedded in concrete or masonry, or welding for anchorage to structural steel. Temporary
support to steel can be made by means of a hairpin anchor bent around the supporting flange.
Bents/Rigid Frames
For each type of loading, there is a theoretically ideal structural form a form having only tensile
and compressive stresses without any bending stress. As indicated, the parabolic arch is the
ideal form for the usual uniformly distributed loading. Galileo discovered the catenary as the
shape of a heavy chain or rope suspended between two points, and is inversely, therefore, the
ideal form for a load distributed along the curve itself. The truss can be an ideal solution for
concentrated loads.
Although these forms also require the least amount of material for each given structural condition,
they might not be the most desirable solution for architectural or other reasons. A rigid frame is a
satisfactory answer to the problem since it can offer a good compromise between the ideal
structural shape and the desired enclosed space.
A bent or rigid frame is a framework, usually designed to carry both a lateral and vertical load
which is transverse to the length of a framed structure. When well designed, it appears both
functional and graceful. Such framework can take on almost human form: a combination of
masculine muscle at the knees and crown with feminine slender at the legs and ribs. The knees
and crown of steel rigid frames are strengthened by increasing the section depth and plate or
angular stiffeners are added to prevent buckling especially at the web sections.
Rigid frames can be built in a variety of shapes; they can be made of rolled steel beams of
constant depth, or fabricated from flat steel plates into I-shaped sections of varying depths.
Configurations: rectangular, sloping legs, gabled, arched, mill bent, continuous
Space Frames
By comparison, steel offers much better compression and tension resistance than concrete and
enables lighter construction. Steel structures are then designed into three-dimensional trusses,
so they can be larger than reinforced concrete counterparts. Computerized, high-precision stress
analysis and innovative jointing allow an array of structures and shapes. Although all forms in
nature are three-dimensional, humans often think and design in a two-dimensional manner that
some of these are merely superimposed planar systems. A truly integrated spatial system is the
space frame. These frameworks take many forms but their geometry is often based upon the
spatial tetrahedron (a pyramid with a triangular base) and the octahedron (another form of the
Platonic solids - those convex regular polyhedrons in which their respective sides, edges and

angles are all congruent). Space frames are usually constructed of steel or aluminum tubing; for
modular purposes, all tubular members have the same outside diameter, but where increased
strength is needed, particularly at points of support, thicker walls are specified for the tubings
located at these portions.
The major feature in this system is the manner of connecting the truss members, with welding as
the most commonly used method of connection. Several mechanical methods are also
applicable, such as the use of clamps, pre-formed plates, and spherical connectors. The
clamping method (Mannesmann system) was first developed for scaffoldings; the use of plate
connector (Unistrut system) uses bolts; the popular spherical connector (Mero system) joins up to
18 members screwed into its threaded holes.
Vaults and Domes
Vaulted and domed structures have been designed in large buildings and built for many
centuries. The Romans, Byzantine, and Gothic civilizations used arches, vaults, and domes
extensively for their public buildings; similar methods are still used today.
A vault is a curved surface supporting an entire roof. An arch is a curved structure, which spans
an opening usually supporting the weight over the opening in a wall. Vaults are constructed of
timber (centering), concrete (shell), or steel. Steel vaults are assembled using high-strength bolts
or welded on site. Lateral supports against buckling are provided by purlins that are of the same
depth as the ribs (plate-rib or trussed rib).
Domes are usually hemispherical in shape and consequently exert outward thrusts continuously
around the perimeter. In steel-framed domes a tension ring often counteracts these thrusts; a
compression ring is also included at the crown. The common patterns for framing a dome are
radial, Schwedler, lamellar, and geodesic. A radial dome contains curved ribs radiating from the
crown to the tension ring; the ribs form curved sections called gores. The Schwedler dome is a
radial dome with diagonals to divide all surface sections into rigid triangles. A lamellar dome is
formed of short members assembled in diamond-shaped patterns. A geodesic dome is formed of
members nearly equal in length that are joined to form basic triangular patterns: the tetrahedron
and the octahedron; the inventor of the dome was Buckminster Fuller.
Cable Roof and Membrane Structures
Builders of suspension bridges have long known that a cable is the most efficient method to span
long distances; recently the steel cable has been used to support roofs of large public structures
such as arenas and stadiums where a column-free space is required. These roofs are also
lightweight and require lighter supporting members and foundation. Steel cables maybe strands
or wire rope; a strand is an arrangement of wires twisted together, while a rope is an arrangement
of strands twisted together.
Fabric or membrane structures nowadays offer inexpensive alternatives to the conventional rigid
construction, offering advantages in terms of lower operating cost and portability. Three types
are available: air-supported, frame-supported, and tensile structures. Air-supported construction
derives from the balloon principle to shape a building. The air pressure inside the structure
exceeds the external air pressure to support the roof. Sunlight can penetrate fabric materials,
making interiors brighter than other constructions. This construction is common in large sports
and recreational facilities in the some countries.
Design of High-rise Structures
As the proposed height of a building increases, the design of its structural system becomes
increasingly specialized and complex. A variety of factors, many of them difficult to describe at
the schematic level, can have a major influence on the selection and design of a structural
system, such as:
a. the vertical loads acting on the structure,
b. the character of wind and seismic forces specific to the building site,
c. the local subsurface conditions,
d. the relative costs of various construction systems available,
e. unusual structural conditions within the building, and
f. the particular expertise of the structural engineer.

For these reasons no attempt of designing a high-rise structure should be made without the
participation of a qualified structural engineer, even in the early stages of design; this information
will give the architect an idea of the basic structural systems available for tall buildings and
describing their relationship to the overall building design.
The vertical load resisting systems for high-rise buildings are essentially no different as for those
intended for low-rise structures. But, because of the large gravity loads associated with tall
buildings, special care should be taken that major structural elements are not interrupted
vertically; whenever possible, building cores, columns, and load-bearing walls should not shift
laterally from floor to floor and should be continuous from the roof to the building foundation.
However, configurations may occur in which all loads do not have direct and continuous path to
the foundation. In some cases it is desirable to redistribute vertical loads in a structure outward
toward the corners of the building to increase its resistance to overturning. Distinctive spaces in
the lower portions of tall buildings, such as auditoriums, lobbies, atriums, or other public facilities,
often require longer span systems that must interrupt these vertical loading alignments. Changes
in the building massing and spatial functions at different building levels may also dictate
modifications in the arrangement or spacing of structural elements, ranging from the use of
transfer beams or trusses designed to redistribute vertical loads horizontally to the
reconsideration of the basic structural configuration or programmatic organization of the building.
Increasing the height of a building increases its sensitivity to both wind and seismic forces. The
taller the edifice, the more these lateral loads will dominate its structural design. The following
guidelines are particularly important in the design of high-rise buildings:
a. Tall, narrow buildings are more difficult to stabilize against lateral forces than broader
buildings; more bracing mechanisms may be required, making these elements more
prominent in the final design.
b. Especially in areas of high seismic activity, tall buildings that are nonsymmetrical or
unbalanced in either massing or arrangement of bracing elements should be avoided
whenever possible due to the tendency of experiencing loads that may be difficult to
control. Parts of the building that are apparently independent in massing can be
expected to move differently under the dynamic loads associated with earthquakes - the
leg of an ell-shaped building, the stem of a tee-shaped building, a wide base with a
narrow tower - any other forms composed of discrete masses may be potentially
destructive when subjected to such conditions, and all such shapes should be designed
as separate structures to minimize negative effects.
c. Buildings of inherently unstable massing should be avoided; examples are cantilevered,
leaning, inverted, and highly irregular and unusual forms.
d. Discontinuities in the stiffness of a structure at different levels may lead to excessive
deflections or other unfavorable responses to lateral loads. For instance, an open space
with long horizontal spans at the base of a tall building may produce excessive flexibility
at that level. If such a soft storey cannot be avoided, the addition of special bracing
elements at that level may be required.
e. Tall buildings may interact with winds in unpredictable ways. With buildings of irregular
or unusual form, or on sites where adjacent structures or other features may produce
unusual air movements, specialized studies of the buildings response to local wind
pressures and fluctuations may be required.
High-rise Structural Configurations
The three mechanisms of shear wall, braced frame and rigid frame can be configured in special
ways for use in high-rise structures; the proper arrangement is crucial to their effectiveness in
resisting the loads acting on the building. These may be used either separately or in
combination. The following systems are presented in order of increasing resistance to these
forces:
Grid rigid frame the conventional arrangement of stabilizing building elements may be extended
for use in buildings up to 25 stories in height. These elements should be balanced in layout
either within or at the building perimeter, and must be integrated with the plan or elevation.
Core structures perhaps the system that is most commonly used to stabilize tall buildings up to
40 stories in height. These vertical cores contain the structures circulation and mechanical
system. A single core servicing an entire building should be located at its center; in buildings with
more than one core, these should be located symmetrically in the plan. Cores typically comprise

20% - 25% of the total floor area, formed as closed sections approximately square, rectangular,
or cylindrical, with openings into them kept to a minimum. One advantage of this arrangement is
that interference with the surrounding usable space in the building is minimized. In concrete
construction, the core is designed as a shear wall; in steel construction, core structures are
designed as braced frames, sometimes with the addition of bracing in the form of hat trusses,
which involve the perimeter columns of the building in resisting lateral loads.
Tube structures the tallest edifices currently being constructed are designed as tube structures,
used for buildings approximately 55 stories or greater in height. In this system stabilizing
elements are located at the perimeter of the structure, leaving the interior layout virtually
unrestricted by considerations of lateral stability. Three versions of this system are used rigid
frame tube, braced frame tube, and rigid frame tube with belt trusses. Braced frame tubes are
one of the most structurally efficient configurations; the diagonal braces are integral parts that
often have a significant impact on the appearance of the building faade. The performance of
rigid frame tube structures may be enhanced with the addition of belt trusses located at the
perimeter at various floor intervals, and as with hat trusses, they may influence the location of
mechanical floors and overall faade design. Other variations include tube-in-tube (perimeter
tube with rigid core) or bundled tube (tubes with internal partitions).