Republic of the Philippnes

Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Sumacab Campus, Cabanatuan City

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

ES 433
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN
RESEARCH WORK

PREPARED BY
Jimwell L. Payra (4C)

SUBMITTED TO
Engr. Isauro Andasan Jr.

November 26, 2021

 STEEL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

STEEL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Steels are essentially which made up of alloys, iron and carbon but they always
contain other elements, either as impurities or alloying elements. Steel is man made
metal containing 95% or more iron and 1 – 2% carbon, smaller amounts (around 1.6%)
of manganese, nickel to improve certain properties. Carbon improves improves
strength/hardness strength/hardness but reduces reduces ductility ductility and
toughness. Low carbon steels are not used as structural materials. Alloying nickel, the
tensile strength can be increased while retaining the desired ductility.
Structural steel is a material used for steel construction, which is formed with a
specific shape following certain standards of chemical composition and strength. They
can also be defined as hot rolled products, with a cross section of special form like angles,
channels and beams/joints. There has been an increasing demand for structural steel for
construction purposes.
Measures are been taken by the structural steel authority for ready availability of
structural steel on time for the various projects. The people at every level are working
hard to realize the purpose of producing steel on time, like, service centers, producers,
fabricators and erectors along with the general contractors, engineers and architects are
all working hand in hand. Steel has always been more preferred to concrete because
steel offers better tension and compression thus resulting in lighter construction. Usually
structural steel uses three dimensional trusses hence making it larger than its concrete
counterpart.
There are different new techniques which enable the production of a wide range
of structures and shapes, the procedures being the following: High-precision stress
analysis, computerized stress analysis and innovative jointing. The structural steel all over
the world pre dominates the construction scenario. This material has been exhaustively
used in various constructions all over the world because of its various specific
characteristics that are very much ideally suited for construction
TYPES OF STEEL
 Medium carbon steel
 High carbon steel (tool steels)
 Cast iron
Alloy Steels
 Stainless steel
 High speed steel
Low Carbon Steel
Also known as mild steel Contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon. It is tough, ductile and malleable.
Can easily joined and welded and poor resistance to corrosion. Often used a general
purpose material such as;
 Nails, screws, and car bodies
 Structural Steel used in the construction industry

Medium Carbon Steel

Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon. Offer more strength and hardness but less ductile and
malleable on structural steel, rails and garden tools.
High Carbon Steel
Also known as ‘tool steel’ contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon. Very hard but offers Higher
strength less ductile and less malleable H d t l ( hi l h ). Which include hand tools and saw
blades.

Cast Iron
Contains 2%-4% of carbon it is very hard and brittle. Strong under compression and
suitable for casting [can be pour at a relatively low temperature] . Which are for engine
block engineer vices machine parts.

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Various types of structural steel sections and their technical specifications are as follows:
• Beams
• Channels
• Angles
• Flats

Steel Beams
Steel Beams is considered to be a structural element which mainly carries load in
flexure meaning bending. Usually beams carry vertical gravitational force but are also
capable of carrying horizontal loads generally in the case of an earthquake. The
mechanism of carrying load in a beam is very unique, like; the load carried by a beam is
transferred to walls, columns or girders which in turn transfer the force to the adjacent
structural compression members. The joists rest on the beam in light frame constructions.

The beams are known by their profile meaning:

 The length of the beam
 The shape of the cross section
 The material used

The most commonly found steel beam is the. I beam or the wide flanged beam
also known by the name of universal beam or stouter sections as the universal column.
Such beams are commonly used in the construction of bridges and steel frame buildings.
The most commonly found types of steel beams are varied and they are mentioned below:
 I beams
 Wide flange beams
 HP shape beams

Steel Channels
Steel channels are used ideally as supports and guide rails. These are roll-formed
products. The main metal used for making channels is steel along with aluminum. There
are
certain variations that are available in the channels category, the categorization is mainly
on the shape of the channel, the varieties are mentioned below:

 J channels: This kind of channel has two legs and a web. One leg is longer. This
channel resembles the letter-J.
 Hat channels: This channel has legs that are folded in the outward direction
resembling an old fashioned man's hat.
 U channels: This most common and basic channel variety. It has a base known as a
web and two equal length legs.
 C channels: In this channel the legs are folded back in the channel and resemble the
letter-C. C channels are known as rests.
 Hemmed channels: In this kind of channel the top of the leg is folded hence forming
double thickness. There are other variations of channels that are available, which are
customized according to the customer's needs.

Application
Steel channels are subjected to a wide array of applications. The application fields are:
• Construction
• Appliances
• Transportation
• Used in making Signposts
• Used in wood flooring for athletic purposes
• Used in installing and making windows and doors

A major variant of the channel is the mild steel channel. Such channels are generally
used in
heavy industries. They are used in the heavy machinery industry and automotive industry
too.
How steel is used in buildings and infrastructure

The possibilities for using steel in buildings and infrastructure are limitless. The most
common applications are listed below.

For Buildings:
Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building and make up 25%
of the steel use in buildings.
Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete and make up 44%
of steel use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a similar
thermal expansion coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective. Reinforced
concrete is also used to provide deep foundations and basements and is currently the
world’s primary building material.
Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins, internal walls, ceilings,
cladding, and insulating panels for exterior walls.
Non-structural steel: steel is also found in many non-structural applications in buildings,
such as heating and cooling equipment and interior ducting.
Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel.

For Infrastructure:
Transport networks: steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing
buildings such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About 60% of steel
use in this application is as rebar and the rest is sections, plates and rail track.
Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the steel used for this application is in
underground pipelines to distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas. The
rest is mainly rebar for power stations and pumping houses.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN STEEL, LUMBER AND CONCRETE

STEEL, LUMBER AND CONCRETE

Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of construction materials and

their corresponding properties for us to better predict the behavior of different materials
when applied to the structure. Generally, the three (3) most commonly used materials in
structural engineering are steel, concrete and wood/timber. Knowing the advantages and
disadvantages of every material is important in ensuring a safe and cost-effective
approach to designing structures. So let's take a look at the pros and cons of steel, timber
and concrete.

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Steel is an alloy consisting mainly of iron and carbon. Other elements are also mixed into
the alloy to gain other properties. One example is the addition of chromium and nickel to
create stainless steel. Increasing the carbon in steel has the intended effect of increasing
the tensile strength of the material. Increasing the carbon content makes the steel more
brittle, which is undesirable for structural steel.

Advantages of Structural Steel

 Steel has a high strength/weight ratio. Thus, the dead weight of steel structures is
relatively small. This property makes steel a very attractive structural material for high-
 rise buildings, long-span bridges, structures located on ground with low soil bearing
and in areas with high seismic activity.
 Ductility. Steel can undergo large plastic deformation before failure, thus providing
large reserve strength.
 Predictable material properties. Properties of steel can be predicted with a high
degree of certainty. Steel in fact shows elastic behavior up to a relatively high and
usually well-defined stress level. In contrast to reinforced concrete, steel properties
do not change considerably with time.
 Speed of erection. Steel members are simply installed to the structure, making for a
very short construction time. This normally results in quicker economic payoff in areas
such as labor costs.
 Ease of repair. Steel structures in general can be repaired quickly and easily.
 Adaptation of prefabrication. Steel is highly suitable for prefabrication and mass
production.
 Repetitive use. Steel can be reused after a structure is disassembled.
 Expanding existing structures. Steel buildings can be easily expanded by adding new
bays or wings. Steel bridges may be widened.
 Fatigue strength. Steel structures have relatively good fatigue strength.

Disadvantages of Structural Steel

 General cost. Steel is very energy intensive and naturally more expensive to produce.
Steel structures may be more costly to build than other types of structures.
 Fireproofing. The strength of steel is reduced substantially when heated at
temperatures commonly observed in building fires. Steel also conducts and transmits
heat from a burning portion of the building quite fast. Consequently, steel frames in
buildings must have adequate fireproofing.
 Maintenance. Steel exposed to the environment can damage the material and even
contaminate the structure through corrosion. Steel structures exposed to air and
water, such as bridges and towers, are painted regularly. Application of weathering
and corrosion-resistant steels may eliminate this problem.
 Susceptibility to buckling. Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel compression
members are, in general, more slender and consequently more susceptible to
buckling than, say, reinforced concrete compression members. As a result, more
design considerations are needed to improve the buckling resistance of slender steel
compression members.

Lumber
Wood is an organic, hygroscopic and anisotropic material. Its thermal, acoustic,
electrical, mechanical, aesthetic, working, etc. properties are very suitable to use it is
possible to build a comfortable house using only wooden products. With other materials,
it is almost impossible. Wood is obviously both a common and a historical choice as a
structural engineering material. However, in the past few decades, there has been a move
away from wood in favor of engineered products or metals like aluminum.

Advantages of Lumber
 Tensile strength. For being a relatively lightweight building material, wood
outperforms even steel when it comes to breaking length (or self-support length).
Simply put, it can support its own weight better, which allows for larger spaces and
fewer necessary supports in some building designs.
 Electrical and heat resistance. It has a natural resistance to electrical conduction
when dried to standard moisture content (MC) levels, usually between 7%-12% for
most wood species. Its strength and dimensions are also not significantly affected by
heat, providing stability to the finished building and even safety implications for certain
fire situations.
 Sound absorption. Its acoustic properties make it ideal for minimizing echo in living
or office spaces. Wood absorbs sound, rather than reflecting or amplifying it, and can
help significantly reduce noise levels for additional comfort.
 Locally sourced. Wood is a building material that can be grown and re-grown through
natural processes and also through replanting and forestry management programs.
Select harvesting and other practices allow growth to continue while larger trees are
harvested.
 Environmentally-friendly. One of the biggest challenges of many building materials,
including concrete, metal, and plastics, is that when they are discarded, they take an
impossibly long time to decompose. When exposed to natural climate conditions,
wood will break down much more quickly and actually replenish the soil in the
process.

Disadvantages of Lumber

Shrinkage and swelling of wood is one its main disadvantage.

Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will absorb surrounding condensable
vapors and loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation point. Another disadvantage
is its deterioration. The agents causing the deterioration and destruction of wood fall into
two categories: Biotic (biological) and abiotic (non-biological). Biotic agents include decay
and mold fungi, bacteria and insects. Abiotic agents include sun, wind, water, certain
chemicals and fire.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of water, cement and aggregates. The proportion of the three main
components is important so as to create a concrete mix of desired compressive strength.
When reinforcing steel bars are added into concrete, the two materials work together with
concrete providing the compressive strength and steel providing the tensile strength.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

 Compressive strength. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength
compared to other building materials.
 Tensile strength. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also
withstand a good amount tensile stress.
 Fire resistance. Concrete has a good ability to protect reinforcing steel bars from fire
for extended periods. This buys time for the reinforcing bars until the fire is
extinguished.
 Locally sourced materials. Most materials required to produce concrete are easily
sourced locally, which makes concrete a popular and cost-effective choice.
 Durability. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other
building system.
 Moldability. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material in the beginning, can be
economically molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
 Low maintenance. Reinforced concrete is designed to be rugged, using low value
materials such as sand and water that do not require extensive maintenance. The
concrete is meant to enclose the rebar entirely such that the rebar is undisturbed.
This makes the cost of maintenance for reinforced concrete structures very low.
 In structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
 Rigidity. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection. A minimal deflection is
good for the serviceability of buildings.
 User-friendliness. Compared to the use of steel in structure, less skilled labor can be
used in the construction of reinforced concrete structures.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete
 Long-term Storage. Concrete cannot be stored once it is mixed as the cement reacts
with water and the mixture hardens. Its main ingredients have to be stored separately.
 Curing time. Concrete has a thirty day curing period. This factor affects greatly in the
construction schedule of the building. This makes the speed of erection of cast-in-
place concrete slower than steel, however, this can be improved greatly with the use
of precast concrete.
 Cost of forms. The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
 Greater cross-section. For a multi-storied building the reinforced concrete column
section (RCC) is larger than steel section as the compressive strength is lower in the
case of RCC.

Types of rolled steel sections

1. Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some angle sections
contains legs with similar dimensions are called as equal angle sections and some
contains different legs are called as unequal angle sections.
Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler joist floors.

Equal angle sections are available from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200mm x

25 mm with their corresponding weights as 9 N and 736 N per meter length respectively.
Unequal angle sections are available from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200mm x 150mm
x 18mm with 11 and 469 N per meter length weight respectively.
2. Rolled Channel Sections
The channel section or C- section consists two equal flanges connected to web at both
ends. Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed structures.

They are available in various sizes ranging from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400mm x 100 mm.
Corresponding unit weights are 58 N and 494 N per meter length respectively.
3. Rolled T- Sections
T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used in steel roof
trusses to form built up sections. Two angle sections can also be joined to get T section.

Rolled T sections size varies from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150mm x 10 mm

with 9 N and 228 N as their corresponding weights per meter length.
4. Rolled I - Sections
I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are extensively used
as beams, lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges and a web connected as shown in
figure.
These are available in various sizes ranges from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N per meter length
to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N per meter length.
5. Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as reinforcement
in concrete and steel grill work etc. Round bars are available in various diameters varies
from 5 mm to 250 mm.

6. Rolled Square Bars

Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for gates,
windows, grill works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges from 5 mm to 250 mm.
7. Rolled Flat Bars

Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are designated
with width of the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm. thickness of flat bars will be
from 3 mm to 40 mm.

8. Corrugated Sheets

Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by pressing
them called corrugations. These sheets are used for roof coverings.
9. Expanded Metal
Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut through
machine and expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is appeared in this type of
sheets.

10. Rolled Steel Plates

Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for connecting
steel beams, tensional member in roof truss etc. They are designated with their thickness
which is varying from 5 mm to 50 mm.
11. Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing but
projections produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled condition. The twist is
made according the standard requirements.

They are available in many sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter. The reason why
these are more famous than any other bars is because of following advantages:
• HYSD bars can be bend up to 180o without any cracks.
• High strength and durable.
• 30 to 40% of cost reduced when compared to other round bars.
• Suitable for any type of concrete work.
• Excellent bonding properties with concrete.
• HYSD bars can be welded using electronic flash butt welding or arc welding.

12. Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike HYSD
ribbed bars but these bars are not recommended by any code and they also have very
less strength compared to HYSD bars.
13. Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars

Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a special

technique in which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched by spraying water on it.
So, surface of bar gets cooled down and inner side or core of the bar still in hot condition.
The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of different
temperature, the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits good elongation at ultimate
failure.
Copper, phosphorus and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing process of TMT bars
which improves its corrosion resistance.

14. Welded Wire Fabrics

Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are arranged
perpendicular to each other and welded at all intersection.

These are used as reinforcement for floor slabs, small canal linings, pavement’s etc.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEEL CROSS SECTIONS
As per IS 800-2007, the classification of the steel cross sections depends on the
load that the section can carry before failing, local buckling, moment redistribution
capacity and the width to thickness ratio of the sections in consideration.
The steel cross sections are mainly classified into four types based on the above criteria
as per IS 800-2007.
1. Plastic section
2. Compact section
3. Semi-compact section
4. Slender section

What Are These Sections?

This can be better understood by the graph shown here. The following can be inferred
from the graph about the sections.

1. Plastic Section
The plastic section is capable of developing plastic moment and plastic hinges with
sufficient rotation capacity without local buckling. These sections can take load until a
failure mechanism, which is beyond the plastic moment, by redistribution of moments.

2. Compact Section
These sections can develop the plastic moment but the plastic hinge rotation capacity is
inadequate because of local buckling. Hence, it fails even before developing a plastic
mechanism. There is no redistribution of moments here. The width to thickness ratio of
plate elements is greater than that of Plastic sections.

3. Semi-Compact Section
The extreme fibre stress attains yield stress but cannot develop plastic moment. The
maximum moment it can attain is Yield Moment. The member fails by local buckling even
before it forms a mechanism. The width to thickness ratio of plate elements is greater
than that of Compact sections.

4. Slender Section
Even the extreme fibre does not reach yield stress in these sections. The width to
thickness ratio is very high that the elements buckle locally even before reaching yield
stress. These sections can not attain the yield moment.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Local buckling is discussed as a phenomenon controlling the strength of compression
and bending members.
2. The cross-sections are classified into plastic, compact, semi-compact and
slender depending upon their moment-rotation characteristics.
3. The limits on the width-thickness ratios of plate elements are provided to classify the
section under a particular class.
4. Only plastic and compact sections can be used if limit state design is followed and only
plastic sections can be used in mechanism-forming indeterminate frames.
5. Slender sections is to be avoided even in elastic design. But they are invariably used
in cold-formed construction for reasons of economy. In this case, caution is required in
predicting their ultimate capacities.