r

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam

Characteristic of steel as building components.
The steel building component.
Types of joint in steel structures.
Cross sectional shapes of steel frames used in construction.
The advantage of steel as a building structure.

Types of non metal materials such as bellow:

Glass
Plastic
Asbestos cement
Bitumen and asphalt
Fibreglass.
Introduction
Metals account for about two thirds of all the
elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet.
Metals have useful properties including strength/
kekuatan, ductility/kemuluran, high melting points,
thermal / suhu lebur yg tinggi and electrical
conductivity,/ pengalir elektrik and toughness/.
From the periodic table, it can be seen that a large
number of the elements are classified as being a
metal. A few of the common metals and their typical
uses are presented below.
Introduction

A steel building is a metal structure fabricated

with steel for the internal support and for exterior
cladding, as opposed to steel framed buildings
which generally use other materials for floors, walls,
and external envelope. Steel buildings are used for a
variety of purposes including storage, work spaces
and living accommodation. They have evolved into
specific types depending on how they are used.
Common Metallic Materials
Iron/Steel / besi- Steel alloys/ besi aloi are used for strength
critical applications
Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they
are easy to form, readily available, inexpensive, and
recyclable.
Copper/kuprum/tembaga - Copper and copper alloys have a
number of properties that make them useful, including high
electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good
corrosion resistance.
Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher
temperature (~1000° F) application, when component weight
is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is required
Nickel/nikel- Nickel alloys are used for still higher
temperatures (~1500-2000° F) applications or when good
corrosion resistance/rintangan kakisan is required.
Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (>
2000° F) applications.
Steel Benefits
The physical properties of steel, such as its
durability/ketahanlasakan, flexibility /kebolehlenturan and
strength/kekuatan offer significant advantages in the
material efficiency of a product application.
Steel is one of the most sustainable building materials with
unique characteristics that famous its use in the construction
industry.

The benefits of steel use and technologies in the

homebuilding industry is gaining momentum and creating
additional customer value. The strength to weight ratio of
steel is the highest of any residential building material and it
can be easily formed and joined. Because steel is strong /kuat
and lightweight/ringan, it is beneficial for builders to work
with and can be engineered to better withstand hurricanes
and earthquakes.
Steel building components are highly specialized to
provide maximum strength and be cost efficient.

Base condition

Secondary Framing
Steel building components are highly specialized to
provide maximum strength and be cost efficient.

Rigid Frame Systems

SysSystemBase condit

Frame opening
Steel building components are highly specialized to
provide maximum strength and be cost efficient.

Panels and Fastenes

Trims and Accessories

There are five main types of structural components that
make up a steel frame :-
• tension members, tegangan -anggota
• compression members, mampatan - anggota
• bending members,lenturan - anggota
• combined force members and their connections.
/Gabungan daya anggota
Tension members are usually found as web and chord
members in trusses and open web steel joists. Ideally
tension members carry tensile forces, or pulling forces,
only and its end connections are assumed to be pinned.
Pin connections prevent any moment(rotation) or shear
forces from being applied to the member.
Compression members are also considered as columns,
struts, or posts. They are vertical members or web and chord
members in trusses and joists that are in compression or
being squished.
Bending members are also known as beams, girders, joists,
spandrels, purlins, lintels, and girts. Each of these members
have their own structural application, but typically bending
members will carry bending moments and shear forces as
primary loads and axial forces and torsion as secondary loads.
Combined force members are commonly known as beam-
columns and are subjected to bending and axial compression.
Connections are what bring the entire building together.
They join these members together and must ensure that they
function together as one unit.[3]
With the propagation of mold and mildew in
residential buildings, using steel minimizes these
infestations. Mold needs moist, porous material to
grow. Steel studs do not have those problems.

Steel is also a ‘green’ product; it is structurally

sound and manufactured to strict specifications
and tolerances. Steel doesn’t warp, buckle, twist or
bend and any excess material is 100% recyclable
Below are 20 of the many benefits of steel and metal
components in your new building:
1.Steel building components are manufactured to
Consistent quality and exacting tolerances.
2. Steel is manufactured to precise and uniform shapes.
3. There is no need for 'culling' or inspecting steel
components for crown or twists.
4. Metal studs start out straight and stay straight without
the warping, bowing, twisting, splitting, shrinking and
popping knots.
5. Steel building components do not rot like wood
construction can.
6. Steel is impermeable to termites, insects and rodents.
7. Steel does not promote mould and mildew.
8. Steel has one of the highest strength to weight ratios of
all building materials.
9. Higher strength means that on-center distances can
be wider in steel buildings reducing the amount of
material and labor required - thus reducing costs.
10. Steel and metal framing can reach greater spans than
other materials creating larger open spaces.
11. Steel strength allows for taller walls.
12. Metal and steel frames are lighter than traditional
concrete and masonry leading to reduced footing and
foundation requirements.
13. Steel and metal building components can be as much

as 50% lighter than wood.

14. Steel can work well on its own or in combination with
other materials.
15. Steel is non-combustible and will not add fuel to a
fire.
16. In many cases your insurance premiums will be lower
because of this.
17. Steel framing connections are much stronger than
wood connections.
18. Steel can be engineered to meet the heavy seismic
and wind loads required by building codes.
19. A steel or metal framed building produces much less
waste than wood. An average wood framed home
generates about 50 cubic feet of waste in the landfills
compared to about 1.5 cubic feet for steel or metal.
20. Steel is 100% recyclable. 60 million tons of scrap steel
are recycled every year which is more than paper,
aluminum, glass and plastic combined.
1. The cost of making steel is very high. While the cost of
most steel frame components has become progressively
comparable, the charges of building are another matter.
2. It takes many of time assemble a steel frame building as
it takes longer to use attachments than it does to use
nails.
3. In supplement attachments furthermore cost more.
4. Insulation is a large-scale difficulty with steel buildings.
5. Steel buildings require added insulation as steel on its
own is not a very good insulator, particularly when you
address how good an insulator wood is.
6. Insulating your house to an agreeable benchmark will
furthermore add to your construction costs.
Disadvantages
Heat conductivity/pengalir haba. Calculations show that
the web of an 18-gauge steel stud is about 31 times
thinner than a "two-by" wood stud; however, steel
conducts heat 310 times more efficiently than wood. As a
net result, a "two-by" steel stud will conduct 10 times
more heat than a "two-by" wood stud.
Corrosion/karatan. Faulty design leads to the corrosion
of iron/besi tuang and steel in buildings.
Different types of non metal materials such as:
1.Glass
2.Plastic
3.Asbestos cement
4.Bitumen and asphalt
5.Fibreglass
Glass
Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material.
Glasses are typically brittle and optically transparent.
The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows
and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, composed of about
75% silica (SiO2) plus Na2O, CaO, and several minor additives.
Often, the term glass is used in a restricted sense to refer to
this specific use.
In science, however, the term glass is usually defined in a
much wider sense, including every solid that possesses a non-
crystalline (i.e., amorphous) structure and that exhibits a
glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. In this
wider sense, glasses can be made of quite different classes of
materials: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions,
molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications (
bottles, eyewear) polymer glasses (acrylic glass,
polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter
alternative to traditional silica glasses.
Glass
The use of glass in buildings
is a transparent feature to
allow light to enter into
rooms and floors,
illuminating enclosed spaces
and framing an exterior view
through a window. It is also
a material for internal
partitions and external
cladding.
Uses of glass in construction:
Decorative glass
Glass can be patterned, textured, frosted or screen printed in a
range of colours and designs .

Partition walls
Made from Grade A either toughened or laminated safety glass,
glass partition walls are a modern and stylish alternative to
traditional partitions. Clear glass partitions provide an
innovative way of creating separate living areas in contemporary
homes and maintaining an overall feel of space.

Safety glass
Safety glass is commonly available in two forms; toughened or
laminated, with both available as either clear or toned glass.
Toughened glass is four to five times stronger than ordinary
glass. If broken, the glass will shatter into small fragments
minimising the risk of injury caused by glass splintering.
Uses of glass in construction:
Showerscreens
Glass showerscreens help achieve a sense of
space with a modern clean look. Framed or
frameless, there are plenty of styles to choose
from with a range of fittings available.

Splashbacks
Glass splashbacks are not only functional but
look good too. Typically used in wet areas, such
as kitchens, bathrooms and laundries,
splashbacks protect the wall surface from
water damage and provide an easy to clean, low
maintenance surface. With few or no joins,
glass splashbacks reduce the risk of mould,
providing a hygienic alternative to traditional
tiled surfaces.
Uses of glass in construction:
Storm resistant glass
Storm resistant glass provides protection from the weather
even in the most extreme conditions. Designed to withstand
extreme pressures, the extra thick laminated safety glass resists
penetration from flying debris and is suitable for all buildings
in strong wind coastal areas, and suggested for cyclone prone
regions.

Noise resistant glass

Whether it’s from traffic, aircraft or neighbours, noise
reduction glass aims to reduce unwanted external noises.
Creating an effective noise reduction solution involves
measuring the nature and intensity of the offending sound and
selecting a glass product which reduces the intensity
sufficiently at all frequencies.
Uses of glass in construction:
Glass Staircases
Imagine opening your door to a stunning glass staircase, or
wowing guests with a glass floored entertainment area.

Bushfire resistant glass

Used in conjunction with an approved framing system,
bushfire resistant glazing is now available for homes in high
risk areas, without the need for bushfire resistant shutters or
metal screens.

Benches & table tops

Glass benches and table tops offer a sleek modern look for any
room of the house. Featuring prominently in the latest
European trends, glass benches and table tops are increasingly
being used in Australian homes, featured in outdoor furniture,
and in dining, coffee and occasional tables.
A plastic material is any of a wide range of
synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids that are
moldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of
high molecular mass, but they often contain other
substances. They are usually synthetic, most
commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many
are partially natural.
There are two types of plastics:
• thermoplastics and
• thermosetting polymers.

Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical

change in their composition when heated and can be molded
again and again.

Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene,

polyvinyl chloride, and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).[4]
Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu,
while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular
weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular
units, known as repeat units, derived from monomers; each
polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units.
There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics
and thermosetting polymers.

Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after

they have solidified, they stay solid. In the
thermosetting process, a chemical reaction
occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of
rubber is a thermosetting process. Before heating
with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly
runny material, but after vulcanization the
product is rigid and non-tacky.
A plastic container using this scheme is marked with
a triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a
number giving the plastic type:
Plastics type marks: the resin identification code[31]
PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate
HDPE, high-density polyethylene
PVC, polyvinyl chloride
LDPE, low-density polyethylene,
PP, polypropylene
PS, polystyrene
Other types of plastics (see list, below)
Plastics type marks: the resin identification code[31]
Common plastics and uses :
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility,
and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous
and expanding range of products, from paper clips to
spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional
materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper,
metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses.
A chair made with a polypropylene seat
Polyester (PES) – Fibers, textiles.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – Carbonated drinks bottles,
peanut butter jars, plastic film, microwavable packaging.
Polyethylene (PE) – Wide range of inexpensive uses including
supermarket bags, plastic bottles.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – Detergent bottles, milk
jugs, and molded plastic cases.
Common plastics and uses :
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – Plumbing pipes and guttering,
shower curtains, window frames, flooring.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) – Food packaging.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – Outdoor furniture, siding,
floor tiles, shower curtains, clamshell packaging.
Polypropylene (PP) – Bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt
containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers),
plastic pressure pipe systems.
Polystyrene (PS) – Packaging foam/"peanuts", food containers,
plastic tableware, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and
cassette boxes.
High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food
packaging, vending cups.
Common plastics and uses :
Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) – Fibers, toothbrush bristles,
fishing line, under-the-hood car engine moldings.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – Electronic equipment
cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers, keyboards), drainage
pipe.
Polycarbonate (PC) – Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields,
security windows, traffic lights, lenses.
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – A
blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic. Used in car
interior and exterior parts, and mobile phone bodies.
Polyurethanes (PU) – Cushioning foams, thermal insulation
foams, surface coatings, printing rollers (Currently 6th or 7th
most commonly used plastic material, for instance the most
commonly used plastic in cars).
Asbestos (pronounced  /æsˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstəs/)
is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals
used commercially for their desirable physical
properties.

Asbestos became increasingly popular among

manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century
because of its sound absorption, average
tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical
and chemical damage, and affordability. It was used
in such applications as electrical insulation for
hotplate wiring and in building insulation. When
asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the
fibers are often mixed with cement (resulting in
fiber cement) or woven into fabric or mats.
Five types of asbestos are found in the amphibole group:
amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite.

Amosite, the second most likely type to be found in buildings,

according to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Guide,
is the "brown" asbestos.
Amosite and crocidolite were formerly used in many products
until the early 1980s. The use of all types of asbestos in the
amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by
the mid-1980s, and by Japan in 1995. These products were
mainly
Low density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or
asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for
water and electrical/telecommunication services;
Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors, limpet
spray, lagging and gaskets).
Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and
materials, including:
Drywall and joint compound
Plaster
Gas mask filters pre 1960s
Mud and texture coats
Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles[32]
"Transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
Fireproofing
Caulk
Gaskets
Packing, a system for sealing a rotating shaft
Brake pads and shoes
Stage curtains
Fire blankets
Interior fire doors
Fireproof clothing for firefighters
Thermal pipe insulation
Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids
and wine
Dental cast linings
HVAC flexible duct connectors
Drilling fluid additives
INTRODUCTION

Bitumen Macadam use for roadbases

Bitumen can be found in nature, as in the Athabasca oil sands
in Canada, for example. However, the asphalts used today for
road surfacing and some industrial applications are made in
refineries from specific grades of crude oil.
Asphalt is a manufactured product. It is produced by refining
crude oil, which is heated to 300°C, partially vaporized and
transferred to an atmospheric distillation column where its
different fractions are separated.
The lightest vaporize, while the heavier, atmospheric residue
remains in the bottom of the
column and enters a second heat exchanger, before being
treated in a vacuum distillation column. Finally, the bitumen
base is recovered from the bottom of the column.
Of the 1,300 crude oils listed in the world, 10% are suitable for
producing asphalts that meet usage specifications. They are
called naphthene-base crudes, and approximately 30 of them
can be used in Europe.
Asphalt i/ˈæsfɔːlt/ or /ˈæʃfɔːlt/ or /ˈæsʃfɛlt/, also known as
bitumen, is the sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-
solid present in most crude petroleums and in some natural
deposits; it is a substance classed as a pitch. Until the 20th
century, the term asphaltum was also used.[1]

Natural bitumen from the Dead Sea

Refined bitumen
Uses of asphalt:
The primary use of asphalt is in road construction, where it is
used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to
create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for
bituminous waterproofing products, including production of
roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.
Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures
around 150°C (300°F). Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are
mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery,
these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This
mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some
dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the
dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers
carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also
commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid
release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to
environmental concerns.
Uses of asphalt:
Bitumen is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known
especially for its use on iron and steel. Bitumen also is used in
paint and marker inks by some graffiti supply companies
(primarily Molotow) to increase the weather resistance and
permanence of the paint and/or ink, and to make the color
much darker.
Environmental protection
Asphalt has one of the lowest environmental impacts of any
material used for infrastructure:
• Because its components are insoluble and non-biodegradable,
they do not seep into waterways or groundwater, even in the
wettest environments.
•Reducing noise pollution
Asphalt helps to contain noise, either through its own qualities
or those of the materials it is used to manufacture.
INTRODUCTION
Fiberglass (or fibreglass) (also called glass-reinforced
plastic, GRP,[1] glass-fiber reinforced plastic, or GFRP[2]), is a
fiber reinforced polymer made of a plastic matrix reinforced by
fine fibers of glass.

Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust

material. Although strength properties are somewhat lower
than carbon fiber and it is less stiff, the material is typically far
less brittle, and the raw materials are much less expensive. Its
bulk strength and weight properties are also very favorable
when compared to metals, and it can be easily formed using
molding processes.
Properties:

An individual structural glass fiber is both stiff and strong in

tension and compression—that is, along its axis. Although it
might be assumed that the fiber is weak in compression, it is
actually only the long aspect ratio of the fiber which makes it
seem so; i.e., because a typical fiber is long and narrow, it
buckles easily. On the other hand, the glass fiber is weak in
shear/ ricih - that is, across its axis. Therefore if a collection of
fibers can be arranged permanently in a preferred direction
within a material, and if the fibers can be prevented from
buckling in compression/ melengkok dalam mampatan, then
that material will become preferentially strong in that direction.
Uses of fibreglass:
1. Storage tanks
Several large fiberglass tanks at an airport
Storage tanks can be made of fiberglass

2. Piping
GRP and GRE pipe systems can be used for a variety of
applications, above and under the ground.
Firewater systems
Cooling water systems
Drinking water systems
Waste water systems/Sewage systems
Gas systems
Uses of fibreglass:
3. House building
Glass reinforced plastics are also used in the house building
market for the production of roofing laminate, door surrounds,
over-door canopies, window canopies and dormers, chimneys,
coping systems, heads with keystones and sills.
The use of fiberglass for these applications provides for a much
faster installation and due to the reduced weight manual
handling issues are reduced.

4. Sub sea installation protection

covers Re-enforcement of
asphalt pavement, as a fabric
or mesh interlayer between lifts.