JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

Local wood and their usage.

• Classify hardwood
• Classify medium hardwood
• Classify light hardwood
• Classify softwood
• Plywood
Types of wood treatment
• Wood drying
• Wood preservation
• Wood defect
Wood defect and their effects on wood/plank.
 Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many trees. It has been
used for hundreds of thousands of years for both fuel and as a
construction material for making houses, tools, weapons,
furniture, packaging, artworks, and paper.

Wood has been an important construction material since

humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all
boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century, and
wood remains in common use today in boat construction.

Engineered wood products are becoming a bigger part of the

construction industry. They may be used in both residential and
commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials.
Hardwood vs. Softwood
Solid woods can be classified as hard or soft.

A hardwood is derived from a broad-leefed tree (without

needles), such as maple, cherry, oak, ash, walnut, or
mahogany. Hardwoods usually offer greater strength and
stability.

Softwood come from needle-bearing (galas jarum/tirus)

evergreen trees, such as pine, spruce, redwood, or cedar,
and are preferred for intricately carved pieces. Softwoods
are more susceptible to marks and dings, but this can often
result in an appealing weathered quality.
Rays- Jari-jari teras,
Ruji

Pith- Empulur

Earlywood-Kayu Muda

Latewood-kayu Tua

Growth ring- gelang

tumbesaran
/tahunan
Heartwood- Kayu Teras

Sapwood-Teras Muda

Vascular Cambium-
lapisan Kambium

Inner Bark-KulitDalam

Outer Bark-Kulit Luar

Wood is secondary xylem produced by the growth of the vascular
cambium tissue.
Sapwood is xylem that conveys water and dissolved minerals from
the roots to the rest of the tree.
The darker heartwood is older xylem that has been infiltrated by
gums and resins and has lost its' ability to conduct water.
Each growth layer is distinguished by earlywood (springwood),
composed of large thin-walled cells produced during the spring
when water is usually abundant, and the denser latewood
(summer wood), composed of small cells and thick walls.
Growth rings very in width as a result of differing climatic
conditions; in temperate climates, a ring is equivalent to one
year's growth.
Certain conducting cells form rays that carry water and dissolved
substances radially across the xylem.
Heartwood- Kayu Teras,
Bahagian ini warnanya lebih gelap dari kayu Teras Muda. Kayu Teras
sebelumnya adalah kayu Teras Muda. Perubahannya menjadi kayu
Teras terjadi secara perlahan-lahan. Dibandingkan kayu Teras Muda,
kayu Teras umumnya lebih tahan terhadap serangan serangga, bubuk
kayu, jamur, dan sebagainya. Dibanding kayu Teras Muda, kayu Teras
inilah yang diambil dan dimanfaatkan sebagai ‘kayu’ untuk
keperluan bangunan, dan lain sebagainya.

Sapwood-Teras Muda,
Biasanya berwarna keputih-putihan. Bagian ini mengangkut air dan
zat makanan dari tanah ke daun.

Vascular Cambium- lapisan Kambium,

Berada di dalam kulit dalam. bahagian ini yang membuat sel-sel kulit
dan sel-sel kayu.
Inner Bark- Kulit Dalam,
Bahagian ini lunak dan basah, untuk mengangkut bahan
makanan dari daun ke bahagian dari tumbuhan.
Inner bark comprises the tissues outside the vascular cambium,
including secondary phloem (which transports food made in the
leaves to the rest of the tree), cork-producing cells (cork
cambium), and cork cells.

Outer Bark-Kulit Luar,

Bahagian ini kering dan bersifat sebagai pelindung.
The outer bark, composed of dead tissue, protects the inner
region from injury, disease, and desiccation
Pith – Empulur,
Bahagian lingkaran kecil yang berada paling tengah dari batang
kayu.

Rays – Jari-jari Teras/Ruji,

Bahagian ini yang menghubungkan bahagian-bahagian dari
pohon untuk menyimpan dan peralihan bahan makanan
Kayu lembut (Lampong)
 Ia dari tumbuhan berbentuk kon, daunnya berbentuk tirus
(jarum), mempunyai biji benih tanpa kulit. Di Malaysia kayu
ini diletakkan dalam kumpulan D.
Kayu keras
 Pokoknya berdaun lebar, biji benihnya berkulit, banyak
tumbuh di kawasan tropika dan hawa sederhana. Di
Malaysia ia dipecahkan kepada
 kayu keras berat (kayu kumpulan A berdensiti melebihi 800
kg/m3)
 kayu keras sederhana (kayu kumpulan B berdensiti antara
640-800 kg/m3)
 kayu keras ringan (kayu kumpulan C berdensiti antara 480-
640 kg/m3)
 Kekuatan
Kumpulan Nama Berat Tekanan Kegunaan
(kg/m3) (N/mm2)

Keras Berat Cengal 993 Kapal, rangka dan ukiran.

Balau 1027 9.979 Jambatan, landasan, cerucuk, gelegar,

lantai dan perabot.
Kekatung 847 11.38 Rasuk, rangka pintu dan tingkap,
pemegang alat, lantai pakir dan panel.
Merbau 9.17 Kerja hiasan, pakir, perabot, venir dan
pemegang alat.
Resak 4.9-11.45 Pembinaan berat, tiang rasuk, cerucuk,
lantai jambatan, kapal, rangka pintu
dan tingkap dan landasan.
Tembusu 8.00 Pembinaan berat, lantai pakir dan
perabot.
Keras Kempas 926 7.52 Pembinaan berat, tiang, gelegar,
Sederhana panel,, jambatan, pakir, gerobok,
cerucuk dan pemegang alat.
Keruing 926 4.34 - 9.17 Pembinaan umum, tiang, landasan
dan gerabak lori.
Kapur 791 6.74 Kekuda, rasuk dan tiang.

Tualang 875 8.00 Tiang, rasuk, pakir, lantai dan

perabot.
Keras Nyatoh 758 2.65 Pintu, tingkap, rasuk tiang, lantai,
Ringan siling dan perabot.
Jelutung 707 3.38 Pensil, patung dan bingkai
gambar.
Meranti 657 5.93 Pembinaan ringan, lantai, venir,
perabot, papan lapis, perlapisan
pintu, tingkap dan panel.
Ramin 707 4.69 Hiasan perabot, dinding dalam
dan panel.
Sepetir Gerobok, panel dan perabot.

Getah Perabot, panel, pakir dan susur

tangga.
Lembut Damar Panel hiasan, venir, papan lapis
Minyak dan perabot.
Proses Pembalakan & Kegunaan
 Wood drying
1. Introduction
Wood drying refers to reducing the moisture content of wood
prior to its use. It is the process of removing its moisture contents
to an average equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions of the
locality of use. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture
content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood so that
further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum.

The timber of living trees and freshly felled logs contains a large
amount of water, it’s about 30% - 200% .
 Wood drying
Advantages of wood drying:
• Reduces the weight of timber and lessens the transportation
and handling costs.
• Enhances the strength properties.
• Increases easy impregnation with preservatives.
• Provides appropriate conditions for the chemical modification
of wood and wood products.
• Makes easy and ensures better results in wood working,
machining, finishing and gluing. Paints and finishes last
longer on dry timber.
 Wood drying
Advantages of wood drying:
• Upgrades the electrical and thermal insulation properties of
wood.
• Minimizes the decay, fungal attack, larval attack and such
other damage.
• Minimizes other seasonal defects such as warping, bowing,
cracks etc. after use.
• Ensures more dimensional stability. Enables substantial long-
term economy in utilization by minimizing replacement
• Nails, screws, and glue hold better in seasoned wood.
 Wood drying
The rate of drying of wood is dependent on following aspects:
Temperature: If relative humidity is kept constant, the higher
the temperature the higher is the drying rate. Temperature
influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture holding
capacity of air, as well as by accelerating the rate of diffusion of
moisture through the wood.
Relative Humidity: If temperature is kept constant, lower
relative humidity result in higher and faster drying rates.
Air circulation: With constant temperature and relative
humidity, the rapid air circulation results the higher possible
drying rates.
 Methods of wood drying:
They are as follows:
Air drying (pengeringan udara)is the process of removing
moisture from wood by exposing it to atmospheric conditions. It
is the simplest method of seasoning mainly based on the natural
wind circulation and takes longer time up to 6-12 months. The
temperature, and relative humidity can not be controlled in air
drying process

Kiln seasoning (pengeringan tanur)is drying of timber by keeping

it in closed chamber in controlled temperature, RH and air
circulation environment. In Kiln, the timber is stacked in closed
chambers where the equipments are fitted to manipulate and
control temperature and relative humidity of drying air, its
circulation through the timber stack. The drying is faster, precise
and better than air seasoning. Kiln seasoning enables wood to be
dried to any desired moisture content regardless of weather
conditions. It normally takes 2-5 weeks for wood drying in kiln.
Wood drying
There are two types of kilns in broad classification.

Progressive kiln in which the kilns are long tunnels type and
stacked timbers moves while drying,

Compartment kilns in which the timber remains stationary.

Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber
companies.
Advantages and disadvantages of Air drying and Kiln drying
Air drying does not require a large initial investment for buildings
and equipments, but requires timber to be held in yard storage
for a considerable time before it is ready for market. In contrast,

Kiln drying requires a comparatively large capital investment, but

dries the wood in a short time and can provide dry timber for all
seasons of the year where it is not possible in the case of air
drying.
 Drying defects
Drying defects are the common forms of degrade in timber. They
degenerate the quality, use value and price of the timbers. There
are two broad categories of drying defects (some defects involve
both causes):
defects that arise due to the shrinkage(pengecutan) assimilarity.
For example warping, cupping, bowing, twisting, and spring.
defects that arise due to uneven drying. This leads to the rupture
of the wood tissue: checks, splits, honey-combing and case-
hardening.
These drying defects cannot be eliminated but it could be
controlled by providing appropriate amounts of heat, air
circulation and relative humidity. These can be controlled more
in kiln drying than in air drying hence the defects would occur
less in kiln drying.
Types of warps that commonly occur are:
Cup/patah cawan/menggeleding – is a deviation from edge-to-
edge on the end of the board.
Bow /bebusur/melengkung– is a deviation from end-to-end on
the flat surface of the board.
Crook/ – is a deviation from edge-to-edge along the long
surface of the board.
Twist/terpiuh– is a distortion of the board so that the two end
surfaces do not lie on the same plane.
Kink /punding– is an abrupt deviation from flatness or
straightness due to localized grain distortion (around knot);
deformation caused by misplaced stickers in kiln.
Figure 1: Several defects can
occur due to improper drying,
including
(A) surface checking/pecah
permukaan,
(B) end checks/rekah hujung
and end splitting/pecah
hujung, wood cell collapse,
honeycombing/sarang labah-
labah and
(C) ring shake/rekah gelang.
Types of strength.
•Compressive strength/kekuatan mampat tells you how much
of a load a wood species can withstand parallel to the grain.
How much weight will the legs of a table support before they
buckle?
•Bending strength /kekuatan lentur (also known as the
modulus of rupture) shows the load the wood can withstand
perpendicular to the grain. How much weight can you hang on
a peg?
•The stiffness /kukuh or modulus of elasticity indicates how
much the wood will deflect when a load is applied
perpendicular to the grain.
•The hardness/kekerasan reveals how resistant the surface of
the wood is to scratches, dents, and other abuse.
Bagi melindungi daripada serangga, kulat dan anai-anai yang bertujuan
untuk meningkatkan sifat kelasakan kayu dan ketahanan kayu.
Bahan pengawet yang digunakan perlulah bersifat :

• Menjadi racun kepada serangga dan kulat

• Boleh dimasukkan dengan mudah dan terus kekal di dalam kayu
• Tidak merosak dan melemahkan kayu
• Murah dan mudah perolehi
• Tidak beracun kepada manusia dan binatang
• Tidak menyebabkan karat kepada logam
• Tidak menjadikan kayu mudah terbakar
• Bersifat kalis air, tidak larut dalam air atau hilang dalam keadaan cuaca
biasa
• Berwarna menarik dan tidak merosakkan permukaan kayu
• Bahan pengawet boleh dikelaskan kepada kelas A, B, C dan
pengawetan mekanikal. Jenis bahan pengawet terdiri dari 3 jenis, iaitu
kegunaan umum, pelarut organik dan perintang api.
Terdapat 5 kaedah iaitu :
• Sapuan berus
• Rendaman panas
• Rendaman sejuk
• Rendaman panas sejuk
• Penyerapan tekanan