Structural steel

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Fig. 1 Various structural steel shapes

Fig. 2. A steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood joists in a house.

Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape
or cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and mechanical
properties. Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc., is
regulated in most industrialized countries.

Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which
allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.

Contents

 1 Common structural shapes

 2 Standards
o 2.1 Standard structural steels (Europe)
o 2.2 Standard structural steels (USA)
 2.2.1 Carbon steels
 2.2.2 High strength low alloy steels
 2.2.3 Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels
 2.2.4 Quenched and tempered alloy steels
 3 Steel vs. concrete
 4 Thermal properties
 5 Fireproofing
 6 Manufacturing
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 External links

Common structural shapes

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards,
although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.

 I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams

(UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD
and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)
 Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
 HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow
section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)
 Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
 Channel ( [-shaped cross-section)
 Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
 Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
o Railway rail
o Vignoles rail
o Flanged T rail
o Grooved rail
 Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so
wide so as to be called a sheet.
 Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and
dowel.
 Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in.
 Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding
together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made
from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded).

Standards

Standard structural steels (Europe)

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European
standard EN 10025. However, many national standards also remain in force.

Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'S'

denotes structural rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield strength
in newtons per square millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2 denotes the
materials toughness by reference to Charpy impact test values; and the 'W' denotes
weathering steel. Further letters can be used to designate normalized steel ('N' or
'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and thermomechanically rolled steel
('M' or 'ML').
The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460,
although some grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the UK, almost all
structural steel is grades S275 and S355. Higher grades are available in quenched and
tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and 960 - although grades above 690
receive little if any use in construction at present).

Standard structural steels (USA)

Steels used for building construction in the US use standard alloys identified and
specified by ASTM International. These steels have an alloy identification beginning
with A and then two, three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades
commonly used for mechanical engineering, machines, and vehicles are a completely
different specification series.

The standard commonly used structural steels are:[1]

Carbon steels

 A36 - structural shapes and plate

 A53 - structural pipe and tubing
 A500 - structural pipe and tubing
 A501 - structural pipe and tubing
 A529 - structural shapes and plate

High strength low alloy steels

 A441 - structural shapes and plates

 A572 - structural shapes and plates
 A618 - structural pipe and tubing
 A992 - W shapes beams only
 A270 - structural shapes and plates

Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels

 A242 - structural shapes and plates

 A588 - structural shapes and plates

Quenched and tempered alloy steels

 A514 - structural shapes and plates

 A517 - boilers and pressure vessels
Steel vs. concrete

As raw material prices fluctuate, often so does building design. During times of
lower steel prices, more steel and less concrete is used, and vice versa. Each set of
vendors and users typically maintain national industry associations that advocate the
use of its materials versus the other. However, both materials are typically used
together. Concrete without steel reinforcement (usually ribbed round bars called
rebar) crumbles under tensile loads. Steel on its own, without composite or
reinforced concrete floors, is likewise not a preferred building method.

While rebar is almost always steel, it is not considered a structural steel and is
described separately in the rebar and reinforced concrete articles. While both steel
structures and Reinforced concrete cement(R.C.C)structures have their pros and
cons,the steel structures have better strength to weight ratio than RCC, and can be
easily dismantled(Steel structures,which have bolted connections can also be reused
to some extent after dismantling).

Thermal properties

The properties of steel vary widely, depending on its alloying elements.

The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an austenite

crystal structure, for steel starts at 900°C for pure iron, then, as more carbon is added,
the temperature falls to a minimum 724°C for eutectic steel (steel with only .83% by
weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by mass) is approached, the austenizing
temperature climbs back up, to 1130°C. Similarly, the melting point of steel changes
based on the alloy.

The lowest temperature at which a plain carbon steel can begin to melt, its solidus, is
1130 °C. Steel never turns into a liquid below this temperature. Pure Iron ('Steel' with
0% Carbon) starts to melt at 1492 °C (2720 °F), and is completely liquid upon
reaching 1539 °C (2802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by weight begins melting at
1130 °C (2066 °F), and is completely molten upon reaching 1315 °C (2400 °F).
'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no longer Steel, but is known as Cast iron.

Fireproofing
Fig. 3. Metal deck and open web steel joist (OWSJ), receiving first coat of spray
fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene leavened gypsum.

In order for a fireproofing product to qualify for a certification listing of structural

steel, through a fire test, the critical temperature is set by the national standard, which
governs the test. In Japan, this is below 400°C. In China, Europe and North America,
it is set at 540°C. The time it takes for the steel element that is being tested to reach
the temperature set by the national standard determines the duration of the fire-
resistance rating.

Care must be taken to ensure that thermal expansion of structural elements does not
damage fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies. Penetrants in a firewalls and
ferrous cable trays in organic firestops should be installed in accordance with an
appropriate certification listing that complies with the local building code.

Open web steel joists (OWSJ) require a great deal of spray fireproofing because they
are not very massive and also because they are so open, that a lot of the sprayed
plaster flies right past its constituent parts during the coating process.

Structural steel requires external insulation (fireproofing) in order to prevent the steel
from weakening in the event of a fire. When heated, steel expands and softens,
eventually losing its structural integrity. Given enough energy, it can also melt. Heat
transfer to the steel can be slowed by the use of fireproofing materials. While
concrete structures that comprise buildings are able to achieve fire-resistance ratings
without additional fireproofing, concrete can be subject to severe spalling,
particularly if it has an elevated moisture content. Fireproofing is available for
concrete but this is typically not used in buildings. Instead, it is used in traffic tunnels
and locations where a hydrocarbon fire is likely to break out. Thus, steel and concrete
compete against one another not only on the basis of the price per unit of mass but
also on the basis of the pricing for the fireproofing that must be added in order to
satisfy the passive fire protection requirements that are mandated through building
codes. Common fireproofing methods for structural steel include intumescent,
endothermic and plaster coatings as well as drywall, calcium silicate cladding, and
mineral or high temperature insulation wool in the form of blanket.
Manufacturing

Cutting workpieces to length is usually done with a bandsaw.

A beam drill line (drill line) has long been considered an indispensable way to drill
holes and mill slots into beams, channels and HSS elements. CNC beam drill lines
are typically equipped with feed conveyors and position sensors to move the element
into position for drilling, plus probing capability to determine the precise location
where the hole or slot is to be cut.

For cutting irregular openings or non-uniform ends on dimensional (non-plate)

elements, a cutting torch is typically used. Oxy-fuel torches are the most common
technology and range from simple hand-held torches to automated CNC coping
machines that move the torch head around the structural element in accordance with
cutting instructions programmed into the machine.

Fabricating flat plate is performed on a plate processing center where the plate is laid
flat on a stationary 'table' and different cutting heads traverse the plate from a gantry-
style arm or "bridge." The cutting heads can include a punch, drill or torch.

Structural shape rolling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Structural shape rolling, also known as shape rolling and profile rolling, is a
metal forming process where structural shapes are passed through rollers to bend or
deform the workpiece to a desired shape while maintaining a constant cross-section.
Structural shapes that can be rolled include: I-beams, H-beams, T-beams, U-beams,
angle iron, channels, bar stock, and railroad rails. The most commonly rolled
material is structural steel, however other include metals, plastic, paper, and glass.
Common applications include: railroads, bridges, roller coasters, art, and
architectural applications.

It is a cost effective way of bending this kind of material because the process requires
less set-up time and uses pre-made dies that are changed out according to the shape
and dimension of the workpiece. This process can roll workpieces into full circles.

Contents

[hide]

 1 Process
 2 References
 3 Further reading
 4 External links
Process

Structural shape rolling uses profile rolling techniques where the workpiece is passed
through a series of rollers (of larger magnitude than that of common rolling devices)
that match the workpieces' cross-section. The most common method uses 3 rollers;
the bending is controlled by varying the distance between the rollers.

Structural shapes can be rolled in different ways such as the “easy-way”, the “hard-
way”, heel in/out, ball in/out, leg in/out, stem in/out, and off axis. The hard-way
would be bending the workpiece in the orientation where its moment of inertia is the
greatest. The easy-way is bending the workpiece along the axis with the smallest
moment of inertia. For example, a piece of angle iron rolled the easy-way would be
rolling it along one of its flanges, while the hard-way would be along the angle itself.

References

1. Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, 2nd revised printing, American

Institute of Steel Construction, 1987, ch 1 page 1-5
2. http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/images/FeC.gif
3. Boljanovic, Vukota (2009). Metal Shaping Processes. New York: Industrial
Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780831133801.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bX5_9tUbi6EC&pg=PA140.
4. How We Form Steel to Bend Metal Pipes and Tubing (roll forming)
5. http://www.aasteelfab.com/structural_methods.php
 SkyscraperPage Forum > Discussion Forums > Engineering
Steel vs. Reinforced Concrete

#1 12-21-2006, 01:27 AM USSGahagan Registered User Join Date: Dec 2006

Steel vs. Reinforced Concrete

QUESTION
I work for a real estate developer, but I am not familiar with construction, so I have a
few questions regarding the use of steel vs. reinforced concrete when building high
rises.

I have seen new office buildings in Orange County being built out of Steel and
residential towers being built out of reinforced concrete. Why the difference? Is
reinforced concrete a better product for residential? Is there a big cost difference
between the two skeletons? Given that California shakes, are seismic concerns an
issue for one but not the other after certain heights? Thanks.

ANSWERS

#2 12-21-2006, 01:40 AM Whitehall Shadowdweller

Concrete allows better sound isolation than steel. You may notice that there is a
demand for residential buildings to be made out of concrete than out of wood (three
floor apartment) and steel on the consumer end.

#3 12-21-2006, 03:51 AM Kelvin Senior Slacker Join Date: Mar 2002

The cost difference between steel frame and RC frame is, on average, small.
However, regional differences in labour & material often favour one system over the
other.

Cost aside, we generally see faster construction times in steel frames. While the steel
frame may rise quickly on site, what is not generally known, is that the procurement,
fabrication, and delivery of steel may require 6 to 10 months of lead time. Concrete
structures can go up without that excessive lead time and essentially start work on
"day 1".Design wise, steel is definitely lighter (not always a good thing) and more
flexible. To help counter this inherent flexibilty, designers often couple the frame
with concrete or masonry infill panels and/or "cores". Usually this works out well
because most codes require some fire separation at the stairwell(s) and block or solid
concrete does the job nicely.
Concrete frames really shine in super-slender structures because they can produce a
very stiff system even within a small profile. Carnegie Hall Tower is such an
example where the tower is 50' wide in the upper portion. Designers rejected a steel
frame only because they could not get it to develop sufficient lateral stiffness. The
extra mass of concrete structures also produces better damping, meaning that it
adsorbs energy quicker and produces better (generally speaking) dynamic
performance. This is advantageous when controlling any movements - whether
seismic or wind induced.One should also recognise the newer composite systems
(RC is itself a composite system) whereby conventional structural steel sections are
either filled or encased with concrete. The overall performance of these types of
frames are generally better than either of the constituent parts could offer
individually. To take full advantage of these new hybrids we also ofter use "high
performance" steels, concretes, polymers, composites, etc.

#5 12-26-2006, 09:46 PM natelox Join Date: Sep 2005Location: Vancouver

 Another advantange is the thickness of floors. Steel is hierarchical: Decking rests

on joists, joists on beams, beams on girders. This can make for a very thick floor.
Concrete only requires 8" in which all electrical and mechanical can be run. Over a
whole building, a developer may be able to fit another floor in given the height limit.

#6 12-26-2006, 11:48 PMSteely DanJoin Date: Jul 2001Location: Old Style City
 in addition to the other distinctions already pointed out and speaking from a
chicago persepctive, where almost all of our new residential/hotel highrises are RC
and almost all of our new commercial offcie highrises are steel frame/concrete core,
it is said that steel framing is prefered in office buildings because it is more
economical than RC in super long clear span applications, which is a BIG selling
point for commerical office space. conversely, super long clear spans are not
particularly advantageous in residential/hotel programs as room sizes are typically far
smaller and are thus more easily worked into and around a tighter column grid, which
is said to economically favor RC.

#7 12-27-2006, 12:01 AM LMich Join Date: Jan 2002 Location: On the Middle
Grand River

Yeah, I was going to mention that steel provides for longer spans/bays, which are big
selling points of new office space. Something I found odd, though, is that there is a
new high-rise hospital tower going up here in Lansing. It's only 9 stories (140
something feet, and 180 something overall), and they used concrete for all floors but
the top floor in which they framed in steel. I found it very odd and was told that the
construction company wanted to use steel, but the hospital insisted on concrete and
as a compromise the construction company found out how much concrete they could
use to get a steel floor out of this. It still didn't make any sense to me how this
worked, and it looks odd.
*EDIT* - I just found out why they did the top floor of this hospital tower in steel,
Gusset plate

<Note:- For more Images and videos, in Google, search for “Gusset Plates” and
then click Image Results>

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Gusset plate used on the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, joining two girder beams
with one column. Unfortunately, some of the gusset plates on this bridge were
undersized enough to allow this bridge to collapse on August 1, 2007.

Gusset Plates used to connect members of a steel braced frame

In civil engineering, gusset plates are frequently used to connect any number of
beams or truss members to load-bearing columns. The members can be bolted,
riveted or welded to the gusset plate. Their function is critical to the integrity of the
structure they are supporting.[1]

In 1988, a failure in a gusset plate resulted in the collapse of a 300-foot radio

telescope antenna belonging to the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory.[2]
Similarly, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) indicated that rupture of
the gusset plates of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota,
was the probable cause initiating the bridge's collapse.

[edit] Gussets in mechanical engineering

This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010)

In mechanical engineering, gussets can be any reinforcing member at the intersection

of three or more parts. This joint is designed in such a manner whereby every
intersecting steel members load passes through a particular shared point. A gusset
can be attached by any process used in manufacturing but most commonly by
removable hardware such as bolts, or by permanent connections such as welding or
chemical bonding. This corresponds to the general meaning of gusset, in textiles and
elsewhere.