UNIT-II (Internet &Internet Application)

Q-20.

Discuss the OSI Model in Computer Network. Write down the benefits of the OSI Model.

Ans.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has been an essential element of
computer network design since its ratification in 1984. The OSI is an abstract model of
how network protocols and equipment should communicate and work together
(interoperate).
The OSI model is a technology standard maintained by the International Standards
Organization (ISO). Although today's technologies do not fully conform to the standard, it
remains a useful introduction to the study of network architecture.
The OSI Model Stack
The OSI model divides the complex task of computer-to-computer communications,
traditionally called internetworking, into a series of stages known as layers. Layers in the
OSI model are ordered from lowest level to highest. Together, these layers comprise the
OSI stack. The stack contains seven layers in two groups:
(a)

Upper Layers :7.

Application
6.
Presentation
5.
Session

(b)

Lower Layers :4.

Transport
3.
Network
2.
Data Link
1.
Physical
The OSI Model of Computer Networks

(a)

Upper Layers of the OSI Model

OSI designates the application, presentation, and session stages of the stack as the
upper layers. Generally speaking, software in these layers performs applicationspecific functions like data formatting, encryption, and connection management.
Examples of upper layer technologies in the OSI model are HTTP, SSL and NFS.
The layers belong to this group are :-

(b)

(i)

Application Layer (Layer 7)

This layer supports application and end-user processes.
Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified,
user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on
data syntax are identified.
Everything at this layer is application-specific.
This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services.
Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application
level.
Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

(ii)

Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

This layer provides independence from differences in data
representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to
network format, and vice versa.
The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept.
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network,
providing freedom from compatibility problems.
It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

(iii)

Session Layer (Layer 5)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
applications.
The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end.
It deals with session and connection coordination.

Lower Layers of the OSI Model

The remaining lower layers of the OSI model provide more primitive networkspecific functions like routing, addressing, and flow control. Examples of lower
layer technologies in the OSI model are TCP, IP, and Ethernet.
The layers belong to this group are :(i)

Transport Layer (Layer 4)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or
hosts.
It is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
It ensures complete data transfer.

(ii)

Network Layer (Layer 3)

This layer provides switching and routing technologies.
It is creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting
data from node to node.
Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,
internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.

(iii)

Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits.
It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and
handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization.
The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: (a) The Media Access
Control (MAC) layer and the (b) Logical Link Control (LLC) layer.
The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access
to the data and permission to transmit it.
The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error
checking.

(iv)

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio
signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level.
It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects.
Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer
components.

Benefits of the OSI Model

(a)
By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the OSI
model simplifies how network protocols are designed.
(b)
The OSI model was designed to ensure different types of equipment (such as
network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be compatible even if built by
different manufacturers.
(c)
A product from one network equipment vendor that implements OSI Layer 2
functionality, for example, will be much more likely to interoperate with another
vendor's OSI Layer 3 product because both vendors are following the same model.
(d)
The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new protocols and
other network services are generally easier to add to a layered architecture than to
a monolithic one.

Q-21.

Explain the use of the following Internet components.

(a)

Ans.

(a)

HUB

(c)

Bridge

(d) Router

(e)

Gateway

HUB :(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

(v)
(vi)

(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(b)

(b) Switch

A hub is a network device.

Basically it is device which works at the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
The star network topology uses hub as its main interconnecting device, which
connects computers in a LAN
HUB
An eight port hub which is shown in the figure to which
Ports of
the hub
all computers of the network are connected through
hub ports.
Hub receives a packet of data from one computer at
one port and makes copies of the data
A
B
C
D
The port to which the data belongs will receive it by
COMPUTERS
matching the sender and receiver port address, and
whose address is not matched the ports simply discard it.
Since data packets are available to all connected ports thereby sharing of data
between all connected device is possible.
Basically two types of hubs are available, (i) Active hub and (ii) Passive hub. Active
hub amplifies the received signal whre as passive hub doesn't.
Hub is a networking device which is outdated and it is replaced by new devices like
Switch.

Switch :(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

(vi)

(vii)

A switch is a networking device which connects different nodes of a network like a

hub.
A device which works at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
It is more intelligent than hub.
A switch is a simple and faster mechanism which knows about the network and
also knows how to determine the network route.
When a switch receives a data packet, it reads the destination address of the data
SWITCH
packet and sends the data packet direct to the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ports of
destination as it knows which port is connected
the switch
to which computer of the network.
Receives
When a data packet is sending from source to
data from A
destination using a switch it creates a
A
B
C
D
temporary connection between source and
destination and when data transmission is
COMPUTERS
completed it terminates this connection.
Sends data
No data
to D
Working of Switch :from A
A switch can function in the following manner.
Get data packet from a computer connecter to a part.
Read the destination address of the data packet.
Determine the port number to which the destination computer is connected.
Establish a temporary connection between the source and destination ports.
Send the data packet in the port of destination computers.
Terminates the connection.

(c)

Bridge :(i)
(ii)
(iii)

A bridge is a connection device which connects a Local Area Network (LAN) to

another using the same network protocol.
Used for big network and also increase the length of the network.
The primary purpose of a bridge is to break or divide large networks into smaller
and more efficient networks. In other word structuring of networks is possible
using a bridge.
A

L
Splitted
into TWO
by a
BRIDGE

[ ANY NETWORK ]

Data Packet
form A to L
is passed through it

BRIDGE

[ NETWORK - 1 ]

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)
(d)

Data Packet
form A to B
is blocked

[ NETWORK - 2 ]

In the figure above we see that the Network-1 is separated from Network-2 by a
bridge. Now if Computer-A wants to send a data packet to Computer-B, the bridge
block the data packet as the bridge knows B belongs to the same network, i.e.
Network-1. Similarly, if data packet is send from Computer-A to Computer-L then
the bridge will allow it through itself as the Computer-L belongs to the other
network i.e. Network-2.
The main job of a bridge are(Functions) : Examine the destination address of the data packet.
Decide whether or not to pass the data packet through it to the other side.
A bridge can connect networks with different topology and cabling, however, the
networks must use the same protocol. In other words a bridge can connect
homogeneous networks with each other.
The bridge works at the Data Link Layer of OSI model.

Router :(i)
(ii)

(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

A Router works just like a bridge with a difference.

It is intelligent than bridge because it is not only selectively passes data packets
through it but also determining the best route or path while travelling from source
to destination.
Working of router :- Since its knows how to direct network traffic it reduces
network traffic, collision thereby speedup the network transmission.
The role of a router is to deliver data packets to the network accurately and quickly.
A router stores information of different network in routing tables.
The routing tables contains information like network address, path to transmit data
and rules of filtering traffic.
Once the router receives a data packet it search its destination address, picks a path
or route from the routing table and sends the data packet to the destination.

(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(e)

Gateway :(i)
(ii)

(iii)
(iv)
(v)

(vi)

Q-22.

A gateway is a point in the network that acts as an entrance to another network.

It is a connecting point that links two dissimilar networks together using different
protocols. In other words heterogeneous networks are connected with each other
through gateway.
The basic job of gateway is to convert one network standard to another so that the
other network can understand the data sent by the source network.
The gateways are using certain type of protocols known as gateway protocols.
These gateway protocols are computers that run protocol conversion software, e.g.
they can convert Windows platform to Unix platform or from Linux to Windows or
from Netware t Unix etc.
Due to the capabilities of these gateway networks across the world having different
environment and platform can communicate with each other using internet.

What is a Network Protocol? Explain the use of following Internet Protocol.

(a) TCP/IP

Ans.

The router works at the Network Layer of the OSI model.

We can use a router to share internet connection among various computers in a
network.
A router is also used to connect homogeneous networks.

(b) FTP

(c) HTTP

(d) Telnet

(e) Gopher (f)

WAIS

Network Protocols are standards or rules that a computer should agree to communicate
over a network or these are standard rules which are governing computer system over a
network.
There are many protocols used in internet. Some of the common protocols are :(a)

TCP/IP :(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)

It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

It works on client server principle.
TCP/IP is not a single protocol but it is a protocol suit.
TC data is transmitted as a stream of data i.e. continuous flow of bits.
The TCP belongs to Transmission Layer of OSI model.
It breaks the data into data packets that can be sent over network.
It establishes a connection with the destination and settles the speed of data
transmission for both source and destination.
The source sends the segment (data packet) over TCP, the segments are
received by the destination.
It checks the sequence number of the received segments.
It checks if the segments are damaged during transmission. If damaged then
a request is sent to the source for retransmission.
It reassembles the segments to form the original data at destination.

Use of IP on the internet

(i)
(ii)

It gets data from TCP.

It is a connectionless best effort delivery protocol, i.e. it doesn't ensure that the
data packet will reach the destination but it gives its best effort to deliver.

(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

It envelops and addresses the data.

It is responsible for sending data packets from one computer to another on
the internet securely.
In enables the network to read the envelope and forward the data to its
destination.
It also defines how much data can fit in a single data packet.

(b)

FTP :-

(c)

Stands for File Transfer Protocol.

It is a protocol which enables files to be transferred from on computer to
another in the network.
(iii)
It is a part of TCP/IP protocol suit.
(iv)
Files which are available for FTP are stored in computer called as FTP
servers.
(v)
The most common use of FTP is to download and upload files from the
internet.
(vi)
An FTP server address look like an website address, e.g. ftp://ftp.hp.com.
(vii) There are two types of FTP connection available on the internet, These are
(a) Anonymous FTP and (b) Non-anonymous FTP.
(viii) Anonymous FTP allows user to access many types of files like shareware,
freeware, upgrades and documents but non-anonymous FTP on the other
hand requires username and password to access file from internet.
HTTP :(i)
(ii)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

(x)
(xi)

(xii)

Stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.

Hypertext is the text that is specially coded using a standard internet
language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)
It is a protocol used to transfer hypertext data from one computer to
another using internet.
It is a connectionless protocol.
It is used to retrieve the inter-linked web pages from the internet.
It works on the client/server principle.
HTTP is very first, hence it is the driving force of WWW and for it WWW is
popular.
A webpage address contains the letter http.
This http is automatically added to the webpage address, if we simply type
the address on the address bar. e.g. www.yahoo.com. If we type then on
pressing Enter key the web address will automatically changes to
http://www.yahoo.com.
The http:// tells that the protocol used is http.
When a browser (e.g. Internet Explorer) receives a webpage address it sends
a request to the server called as "HTTP Request" and in response the server
sends the requested page to the browser called as "HTTP Response".
The name http became the hypertext is transferred using http protocol.

(d)

Telnet :-

(e)

Stands for "Telecommunication Network".

It is a part of the TCP/IP suit.
This protocol is used to remotely login to another remote computer.
For Telnet to work we need to have Telnet client in our computer.
All modern operating system have Telnet client.
We can start a Telnet session and work on a file or webpage by typing
following command. e.g. telnet vijc.com
(vii) Successfully login into the system using telnet, we can use other protocols
like HTTP, FTP etc.
Gopher :-

(f)

Gopher was used to organize text files in hierarchical manner and view the
files in a remote computer.
(ii)
It is an old and outdated protocol.
(iii)
A later development of Gopher was hyper gopher which was capable to
browse simple graph.
(iv)
Due to the development of WWW and HTTP the hyper gopher was never
popular.
(v)
The aim behind development of Gopher was to view text document in
internet and was originally designed as gopher viewer in 1990.
(vi)
Gopher is also capable of sending and receiving e-mails.
(vii) Gopher allows user to search a file on a global basis due to the development
of two systems such as Veronica and Jughead.
(viii) Due to the popularity of http, most of the files that were available in Gopher
is now converted to http format.
(ix)
Gopher is outdated but to feel the Gopher we can type
"gopher://gopher.quix.org" in the address box of gopher compatible web
browser like Mozila Firefox.
(x)
Gopher was the life line of internet before the introduction of WWW.
(xi)
It is a protocol that performs FTP transfers, remote login, searching and so
on, processing everything to the end user in form of menus.
WAIS :-

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

(i)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Stands for Wide Area Information Server.

Works upon client/server technologies.
It is used to search WAIS database, create WAIS database and get documents
from the WAIS database.
It maintains separate indexes for the contents for selected documents.
If we press the name on the keyboard, it provides us a list of documents
available in that index with the similar keywords.
WAIS can able to search documents from the master index only and not from
anywhere else.

Q-23.

Describe how address problem in internet is solved through IP address, Domain

name and URL in order to transfer information from one node to another.

Ans.

Internet addressing is systematic way to identify people, computers and internet

resources. The address problem can be solved through IP addressing, Domain Name
System (DNS) and Uniform Resource Locator (URL), in order to transfer information from
one computer to another. For this first we have to know the computer address which
uniquely identifies computers among millions of computers connected world wide.
IP Addressing :(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

(i)
(j)
(k)

To identify each computer or derive connected to the internet IP address is used.

An IP address is an identifier for a particular machine on a particular network.
These are also referred as IP numbers or internet address.
The IP address in the current version protocol (IPV4) consists of 32bit number that
identifies a computer throughout the world.
No two devices in the internet can have the same IP address at the same time.
These IP addresses are managed and created by IANA (Internet Assigned Number
Authority).
IANA allocates the network portion of the address given to a machine and ISP
assigns the host portion of the IP address of the machine in the network.
The IP address can be written in two form
(i)
Binary Notation :- In binary notation the IP address is represented in
32bits or 4 bytes, e.g. IP address of Microsoft is (11001111 00101110
11000101 00100000).
To make the IP address more readable space is given between bytes. Again
this 4 bytes address is difficult to read and remember hence, dotted decimal
number system has also been used.
(ii)
Dotted Decimal Notation : To make IP address more readable, dotted decimal notation is used.
To convert IP address to dotted decimal notation take 8bit (or 1 byte)
and convert it to decimal.
In between the bytes put decimal point. The decimal point separates the
bytes e.g. the above Microsoft IP address can be converted to dotted
decimal as follows :
11001111
00101110
11000101
00100000
1st byte = 207
2nd byte = 46 3rd byte = 197 4th byte = 32
Hence, the dotted decimal address of Microsoft is 207.46.197.32 which is
more readable than the binary notation.
Each number in the dotted decimal varies from 0 to 255. Number
more than 255 in dotted decimal is not a valid IP address.
The IP address has two parts these are (a) Net ID and (b) Host ID.
A particular number of bytes are used for Net ID and the rest of the bytes are used
for Host ID.
The Net ID tells us to which network the computer belongs and the Host ID
identifies the computer inside the network.

Domain Name System (DNS) :(a)

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to translate between domain name and IP
addresses.
(b)
A domain name is one's personal internet address. It is in words or in alphabets
which are easy to understand by persons.
(c)
Domain names are attached to DNS servers which are used to translate numeric
addresses (IP address) into words.
(d)
Domain name is a name equivalent to IP address.
(e)
The reason behind conversion of IP address to domain name is due to the easiness
of remembering words than that of number.
(f)
e.g. the IP address of Microsoft is 207.16.197.32, which is difficult to remember
than that of microsoft.com.
(g)
The domain name consists of two or more name separated by dots.
(h)
The domain name system organizes different domain in hierarchical order.
(i)
The DNS is divided into 3 different types.
(i)
Generic domain
(ii)
Country specific domain
(iii)
Inverse domain
(j)
Generic domain defines the host based on generic behaviors. Some of the popular
generic domain are
.com For commercial organisation
.gov For government institution
.edu For educational institution
.mil For military organisation
.net For network support centres
.org For non-profit organisation and etc.
(k)
The country specific domain follows the same principle as generic domain but uses
a two character country code in the 1st level.
(l)
The country specific domain in the 2nd level can correspond to the type of
organisation.
(m) Some of the two character country codes are :.in India
.au Australia
.us United States
.fr France
.uk United Kingdom
(n)
Let us consider some examples.
www.microsoft.com belongs to .com domain which shows us that it is a
commercial organisation.
www.wikipedia.org belongs to .org domain which shows us that it is a nonprofitable organisation.
www.yahoo.co.in where yahoo represents the name of the organisation, .co
represents the type of organisation, in this case it is a commercial organisation
and .in represents the country specific domain which indicates that this
organisation is at India.

(o)

For the convenience of the user IP address are converted to domain names i.e. in
words but in internet everything is identified in terms of IP address. Hence, domain
names must be converted or inversed to form the IP address again which is also
known as "Name Resolution" and is done using inverse domain.

Universal Resource Locator (URL) :(a)

It is the unique address of any document on the internet.
(b)
Generally, we call it as internet address or webpage address, but the technical
correct name is URL.
(c)
With the help of URLs like http URL, gopher URL, ftp URL etc. we can access any file
from the website.
(d)
Consider some examples :gopher://gopher.quux.org/pub is gopher URL.
ftp://ftp.hp.com is a ftp URL
http://www.bput.org is a http URL
(e)
The 1st part of the address is called protocol identifier and it indicates which
protocol to use.
(f)
The 2nd part is known as resource name which specifies the IP address or domain
name.
(g)
The protocol identifies and resource name are separated by a colon (:) and two
slashes (//). e.g. consider the following URL
http:// www.ori.nic.in/ indexes/logo.gif
Protocol Domain Name Filename and path name
The URL above gets the logo of Odisha government from logo.jpg file and it belongs
to www.ori.nic.in domain which uses http protocol to access information.