Nervous System

stimulus and reaction

environment
environment

The Sensory System

Nervous system
stimulus
receptor

Overview
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Functions
4 Stages - Sensation
Special Sense

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Stimulation
Transduction
Transmission
Perception

sensory
neuron

Inter-Inter
neuron

Motor
neuron

reaction
effector

Functions
Monitor the internal and external
environment
Transmits peripheral signals to CNS for
processing
Critical for homeostasis: CNS needs info. to
make adjustments

4 Stages - Sensation
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animal
animal
organism
organism

Stimulation
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Modalities
Types of receptors
Classification of sensory input
Sensory Adaptation
Receptive fields
Dermatomes

Types of Sensory Receptors:

Modality of Sensation
v
v General Sensation, Special Sensation
vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, taste
v
v Exteroception
Exteroception,, Interoception
Interoception,, Proprioception
conscious vs. unconscious proprioception
position sensation, kinesthesia
v
v Touch, Pain, Temperature Sensation
discriminative vs. light touch sensation
fast vs. slow pain

Afferents can be classified according to the

type of stimulus (modality) to which they
respond:
n Chemoreceptors
n Mechanoreceptors
n Photoreceptors
n Thermoreceptors
n Nociceptors (Pain)

Chemoreceptors
n
n

Respond to chemicals
Function in taste, smell and changes in
conc. of certain chemicals in body fluids
(carotid bodies)

Photoreceptors
n

Sensitive to light = rods, cones of eyes

Mechanoreceptors
n

Respond to mechanical energy = touch,

pressure and vibrations:
Muscle spindles (stretch), baroreceptors
(monitor blood pressure), ear hair cells
(vibrations: sound waves and fluid
movement)

Thermoreceptors
Respond to temperature changes

Nociceptors (Pain)
n

= free nerve endings

Respond to: intense distortion of skin,

temperature extremes, chemicals released
from damaged tissue

Compound sensations
n

General (Somatesthetic
( Somatesthetic))
sensation:

Classification of Sensory Input

n

A) General (Somatesthetic
(Somatesthetic)) sensation:

B) Special Senses:

- Involve sensations perceived over wide area of

body
- Two types:
1) proprioreceptors (provide sense of
body position, allow fine muscle control)
2) cutaneous receptors (touch and
pressure, pain, temperature)
- information often conducted to the spinal
cord, then possibly to the brain

Somatesthetic Sensations
Includes:
n Touch and pressure (Pacinian
(Pacinian Corpuscle, Meissners
corpuscle)
Heat and Cold
Limb movements
Pain
n Structure of sensors:
-Free nerve endings (heat, cold, pain)
-Expanded dendritic endings (Ruffini
(Ruffini endings and Merkel's
disks = touch) - tend to be tonic
-Encapsulated endings (Meissner's
(Meissner's corpuscles, Krause's
corpuscles, pacinian corpusles = touch and pressure) tend to be phasic

Compound sensations = brain integrates

several simultaneous active sensations e.g.
'wetness' = touch+pressure+temp

Sensory Adaptation
n

Sensory Adaptation - how sensors respond

to constant stimulation
a) phasic receptors firing rate of
receptor (# APs) decreases with constant
stimulus
b) tonic receptors maintain firing
rate as long as stimulus is applied

Special Senses:
n

Involve specific sensations received only

by highly specialized sense organ in the
head = Vision, Smell (olfaction), Taste,
Hearing, Equilibrium
information conducted directly to the brain

Receptive Fields
n

Each afferent has a Receptive Field:

= area of the body that, if stimulated, will
cause a response from a sensory neuron
- There are different sizes of R.F.
- Size of R.F. measured by 2 point
discrimination test:
- > Also a measure of acuity of a perception
(ability to discriminate size, shape of item)
ex. - Mouth and tongue and fingers have many
receptors with small R.F.s while abdomen and
back have few receptors w/ large fields

Dermatomes
n

The area of skin innervated by a single

spinal dorsal root is known as a
dermatome. Dermatomal maps, such as
the one below, are an important
diagnostic tool for locating the site of
injury to the spinal cord and dorsal roots.

Dermatomes
n

Understanding the nerve distribution along

the dermatomes is helpful in determining how
certain diseases, such as shingles and some
other neurological conditions, target one area
of the body. The letterletter- number combinations
show the relationship between the each area
and its corresponding sensory nerve. The
vertebrae are classified as C for cervical, T
for thoracic, L for lumbar, and S for sacral.
The trigeminal nerve is the fifth cranial nerve,
represented by V.

Transduction
Transduction = Receptor responds to the
stim.. by opening ion channels
stim
-> receptor potential (graded)=>
APs
Eye afferents transduce light
into nerve impulses
Note: Receptor Potential is graded :
=> incr stim.(intensity)
stim.(intensity) = incr. depol
depol..
= incr # of A.P.

Spinal Cord

Transmission
n

Somatic sensation has 2 possible

destinations within spinal cord:
1) Part of reflex arc within spinal cord
2) Relayed up to brain via ascending
interneurons to somatic sensory cortex:
= afferents detecting specific
modality synapse w/ specific INs and travel
to specific location in brain

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n
n

Tracts
n

n
n
n

n
n

The spinal cord itself is organized into a series of

tracts or neuropathways that carry motor
(descending) and sensory (ascending) information.
These tracts are organized anatomically within the
spinal cord.
The corticospinal tracts are descending motor
pathways located anteriorly within the spinal cord.
Axons extend from the cerebral cortex in the brain as
far as the corresponding segment, where they form
synapses with motor neurons in the anterior (ventral)
horn.
They decussate (cross over) in the medulla prior to
entering the spinal cord.
Sympathetic nervous system fibers exit the spinal
cord between C7 and L1, while parasympathetic
system pathways exit between S2 and S4.

The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments, each with a pair of

anterior (motor) and dorsal (sensory) spinal nerve roots.
On each side, the anterior and dorsal nerve roots combine to
form the spinal nerve as it exits from the vertebral column
through the neuroforamina.
The spinal cord extends from the base of the skull and
terminates near the lower margin of the LI vertebral body.
Thereafter, the spinal canal contains the lumbar, sacral, and
coccygeal spinal nerves that comprise the cauda equina.
Therefore, injuries below L1 are not considered SCIs because
they involve the segmental spinal nerves and/or cauda equina.
Spinal injuries proximal to L1, above the termination of the
spinal cord, often involve a combination of spinal cord lesions
and segmental root or spinal nerve injuries.

Properties of Sensory Tracts

n

3 order neuron set

1 st order neuron from somatic receptor to
brain stem (face, mouth, teeth, eyes along
cranial nerves) or spinal cord (post. Head, neck
and body via spinal nerves).
2 nd order neuron synapse with 1 st ON in brain
stem/SC transmits impulses to thalamus
3 rd order neuron synapse with 2nd ON in
thalamus transmits impulses to post central
gyrus ( Somatosensory area).

Sensory Tracts

central
process
cell body
in DRG

peripheral
process

The dorsal columns are ascending sensory tracts that

transmit light touch, proprioception, and vibration
information to the sensory cortex.

The lateral spinothalamic tracts transmit pain and

temperature sensation. These tracts usually
decussate within 3 segments of their origin as they
ascend.
The anterior spinothalamic tract transmits light touch.
Autonomic function traverses within the anterior
interomedial tract. 2nd ON decussate at the medulla
before continuing to the thalamus

DRG (dorsal root ganglion) neuron

pseudounipolar cell
telodendron
telodendron

Posterior Column Medial

Lemniscus Pathway
n

Sensations:

Discriminative touch
Stereognosis (size, shape, texture)
Proprioception
Weight discrimination
Vibratory sensation

Anterolateral / Spinothalamic
Pathway
n

Sensations
Lateral spinothalamic
Pain
Temperature

Anterior spinothalamic
Tickle
Itch
Crude touch
Pressure

Trigeminothalamic
Tract
A. trigeminal ganglion
B. trigeminal sensory
nucleus
C. thalamus (VPM)
D. cerebral cortex (S I)
1. spinal tract of
trigeminal nerve
2. ventral
trigeminothalamic tract
3. dorsal
trigeminothalamic tract
4. corona radiata
V. trigeminal nerve

Perception
Sensory
Homunculus

Somato sensory cortex

Cerebellum

Cerebellum
n

Receives somatic sensory input via.

anterior & posterior spinocerebellar tracts and
the cuneocerebellar subconscious
proprioceptive input impt for posture, balance
& coordination of skilled movements
rostral spinocerebellar tracts proprioception
from trunk and upper limbs

Sensory
Sensory System
System

Special
SpecialSensation
Sensation

Special
Special Sensation
Sensation
Gustatory
Gustatory Sensation
Sensation (Taste)
(Taste)
---------Taste
Taste Pathway
Pathway
Auditory
Sensation
(Hearing)
Auditory Sensation (Hearing)
---------Auditory
AuditoryPathway
Pathway
Vestibular
Vestibular Sensation
Sensation (Equilibrium)
(Equilibrium)
----Vestibular
----- Vestibular Pathway
Pathway
Vision
Vision
---------Visual
VisualPathway
Pathway
Olfaction
Olfaction(Smell)
(Smell)
---------Olfactory
Olfactory Pathway
Pathway

Taste (Gustatory) Pathway

Taste (Gustatory)
Pathway
Modality: Taste Sensation
Receptor: Taste Bud
Cranial Nerve: VII, IX, X

Termination: Gustatory Area

Brodmann area 43 & parainsular cortex

SVA (Special Visceral Afferent): Cranial Nerve VII, IX, X

Taste Bud

Vestibular Pathway
Vestibular
Pathway
Sense of Equilibrium

Modality: Equilibrium Sensation

Receptor: Macula & Crista Ampullaris
Cranial Nerve: VIIIv

Termination: Primary Vestibular Area

Vestibular Mechanism - Otolithic Membrane

Auditory
Pathway

Auditory Pathway
Middle Ear - Sound Amplification
Modality: Auditory Sensation (Hearing)
Receptor: Organ of Corti of Cochlear Duct
Cranial Nerve: VIIIc

Termination: Primary Auditory Area (A I)

Brodmann area 31, 32

Inner Ear - Cochlear Duct

Visual
Pathway

Visual Pathway
EYEBALL
Modality: Vision

3 Tunics
Tunica Fibrosa
Fibrosa::
cornea, sclera
Tunica Vasculosa
Vasculosa::
choroid,, ciliary body, iris
choroid
Tunica Nervosa:
Nervosa:
retina

Receptor: Photoreceptor Cell of Retina

Cranial Nerve: II (Optic nerve)

1st Neuron:

Bipolar Cell

2nd Neuron:

Ganglion Cell
optic nerve
optic chiasm
optic tract

3 Chambers
Anterior Chamber
Posterior Chamber
Vitreous Body

3rd Neuron:

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

optic radiation

Termination:

Primary Visual Area (V I)

Brodmann area 17

Visual Pathway

RETINA - Pars Nervosa

1. Pigment Epithelium
- retinal detachment

1. Optic nerve

2. Neuronal Layer
(1) Photosensitive Cell Layer
Rod Cell, Cone Cell

2. optic chiasm
3. optic tract
4. lateral geniculate body

(2) Bipolar Cell Layer

Bipolar Cell
Horizontal Cell
Amacrine Cell

5. optic radiation
6. visual cortex
(striate cortex)
7. Meyer
Meyers loop

(3) Ganglion Cell Layer

Ganglion Cell
Optic Nerve (II)

8. lateral ventricle

Clinical Features of Visual Pathway Lesion

Visual
Pathway

1. optic nerve
2. optic chiasm
3. optic tract

1. Optic nerve

4. 5. optic radiation

2. Optic chiasm
3. Optic tract

A. unilateral blindness

4. Lateral geniculate

B. bitemporal hemianopsia
C. left homonymous
hemianopsia

body
5. Optic radiation
6. Visual cortex
(Striate cortex)

Olfactory Pathway

Modality: Olfaction
Receptor: Olfactory Cell of Olfactory Epithelium

Olfactory
Pathway

Cranial Nerve: I (Olfactory Nerve)

1st Neuron: Olfactory Bulb --- Mitral & Tufted Cell

olfactory tract
olfactory striae

Sense of Smell

lateral & intermediate olfactory striae

Termination: Primary Olfactory Area ( Rhinencephalon

Rhinencephalon))

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Olfactory Epithelium

Olfactory Receptor

References
n

Some of the slides in this presentation were

taken from
http://anatomy.yonsei.ac.kr/neuro/SensRevi
ew2K1.ppt

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