Challenges
and
Opportuni2es
for


Teaching
and
Learning
of
Proof
in

High
Schools


Tad
Watanabe

Kennesaw
State
University

twatanab@kennesaw.edu

 Principles
and
Standards
for
School

Mathema4cs
(NCTM,
2000)
Pre‐K
–
12
curriculum
should
enable
all
students

to:

•  recognize
reasoning
and
proof
as
fundamental

aspects
of
mathemaMcs;

•  make
and
invesMgate
mathemaMcal

conjectures;

•  develop
and
evaluate
mathemaMcal

arguments
and
proofs;

•  select
and
use
various
types
of
reasoning
and

methods
of
proof.
 OpportuniMes
&
Challenges
•  OpportuniMes:
“…proof
is
expected
to
play
a

much
more
prominent
role
through
the
enMre

school
mathemaMcs
curriculum
and
to
be
a

part
of
the
mathemaMcs
educaMon
of
all

students.”

(Knuth,
2002,
p.
380)


•  Challenges:
“…
proof
is
expected
to
play
a

much
more
prominent
role
through
the
enMre

school
mathemaMcs
curriculum
and
to
be
a

part
of
the
mathemaMcs
educaMon
of
all

students.”

(Knuth,
2002,
p.
380)
 Challenges
•  MoMvaMng
students


Why
do
we
need
to
prove
it?

We

already
know
it’s
true!
In
elementary
schools,


3B, p. 9
In
elementary
schools,


4B, p. 96
In
elementary
schools,


5A, p. 60
 Convincing
argument?
Students
are
already
convinced.


Examples
and
empirical
evidences

are
convincing
enough
to
many

students.

 Purposes
of
Proof
•  verifica4on

•  explana4on

•  systema4za4on

•  discovery

•  communica4on

•  intellectual
challenge

De Villiers, 1999
 ConvicMon
as
MoMvaMon
In
actual
mathemaMcal
pracMce,

convicMon
is
far
more
frequently
a

prerequisite
for
the
finding
of
a
proof

than
doubt.

(DeVilliers,
2004,
p.
705)
 Proof
as
ExplanaMon
•  Using
two
different
digits
from
1,
2,
3,
…,
9,

make
a
2‐digit
number.

Reverse
the
order
of

digits
to
make
a
2nd
2‐digit
number.

•  Find
their
sum.


•  The
sum
is
always
divisible
by
11.
 Empirical
VerificaMon
•  35
+
53
=
88,
and
11
divides
88.

•  82
+
28
=
110,
and
11
divides
110.

•  97
+
79
=
176,
and
11
divides
176.

•  etc.
 Proof
•  Let
a
and
b
be
the
two
digits.

•  The
two
2‐digit
numbers
are:


10a
+
b
and
10b
+
a.

•  Their
sum,
therefore,
is
10a
+
b
+
10b
+
a.

•  You
can
simplify
this
to
11a
+
11b.

 An
Approach
to
Teaching
Proof
•  Instead
of
focusing
on
verificaMon
and

(global)
systemaMzaMon,
help
students

experience
local
systemaMzaMon.

 Local
SystemaMzaMon
Given
(in
elementary
school)

•  Sum
of
angles
in
a
triangle
is
180°.

New
relaMonship.

•  Sum
of
angles
in
a
n‐gon
is
180°x(n‐2).

180 x (number of triangles)
Sum of angles = 180 x n – 360
= 180 (n – 2)
 Local
SystemaMzaMon
Given
(in
elementary
school)

•  Sum
of
angles
in
a
triangle
is
180°.

New
relaMonship.

•  Sum
of
angles
in
a
n‐gon
is
180°x(n‐2).

Which
leads
to,

•  Sum
of
external
angles
of
a
n‐gon
is
360°.
exterior angle + interior angle = 180°
exterior angle = 180° - interior angle
sum of exterior angles = 180° x 5 + sum of angles
= 900° - 540°
= 360°
 Local
SystemaMzaMon
•  Sum
of
angles
in
an
n‐gon
is
180°
x
(n
–
2)

BECAUSE
sum
of
angles
in
a
triangle
is
180°.


•  Sum
of
exterior
angles
in
an
n‐gon
is
360°

BECAUSE
sum
of
interior
angles
in
an
n‐gon
is

180°
x
(n
–
2).


•  So,
what
is
the
reason
that
sum
of
angles
in
a

triangle
is
180°?
 Challenges
•  Difficulty
with
techniques
with
proving
–

auxiliary
lines

 Durell
&
Arnold
(1924)
•  Some
of
the
principal
auxiliary
lines
used
on

recMlinear
figures
are:

1.  A
line
connecMng
two
given
points.

2.  A
line
through
a
given
point
parallel
to
a

given
line.

3.  A
line
through
a
given
point
perpendicular
to

a
given
line.

4.  A
line
making
a
given
angle
with
a
given
line

(p.
103)

 Durell
&
Arnold
(1924)
•  In
demonstraMng
theorems
relaMng

to
the
circle,
it
is
oren
helpful
to

draw
one
or
more
of
the
following

auxiliary
lines:
A
radius,
a
diameter,
a

chord,
a
perpendicular
from
the

center
upon
a
chord,
an
arc,
a
circle,

etc.

(p.
150)

Let’s
think
about
different
ways
to

prove ∠ ADC = ∠ A + ∠ B + ∠ C
A

B C
Find
the
measure
of
angle
x.

60°
x

40°
Some
possible
approaches:

∠x = 60° + 40°
= 100°
Let’s
think
about
different
ways
to

prove ∠ ADC = ∠ A + ∠ B + ∠ C
A

B C
Using
a
parallel
line
Using
parallel
lines
Using
parallel
lines
Using
parallel
lines
Using
parallel
&
perpendicular
lines
ConnecMng
2
points
ConnecMng
2
points
 Challenges
•  “…proof
is
expected
to
play
a
much
more

prominent
role
through
the
enMre
school

mathemaMcs
curriculum
and
to
be
a
part
of

the
mathemaMcs
educaMon
of
all

students.”

(Knuth,
2002,
p.
380)

 Reasoning
&
Proof
in
pre‐K
‐
12
•  Need
a
more
developmental
view
of

“proof”
–
that
is,
what
is
“proof”
in

elementary
schools?

•  Can
such
a
view
of
proof
be

consistent
with
proof
in
HS
geometry

(and
beyond)?
 DefiniMon
of
Proof

(Stylianides,
2007,
p.
291)
Proof
is
a
mathemaMcal
argument,
a
connected

sequence
of
asserMons
for
or
against
a

mathemaMcal
claim,
with
the
following

characterisMcs:

1.

It
uses
statements
accepted
by
the

classroom
community
(set
of
accepted

statements)
that
are
true
and
available

without
further
jusMficaMon;
 DefiniMon
of
Proof

(Stylianides,
2007,
p.
291)
Proof
is
a
mathemaMcal
argument,
a
connected

sequence
of
asserMons
for
or
against
a

mathemaMcal
claim,
with
the
following

characterisMcs:

2.
It
employs
forms
of
reasoning
(modes
of

argumentaMon)
that
are
valid
and
known
to,

or
within
the
conceptual
reach
of,
the

classroom
community;

 DefiniMon
of
Proof

(Stylianides,
2007,
p.
291)
Proof
is
a
mathemaMcal
argument,
a
connected

sequence
of
asserMons
for
or
against
a

mathemaMcal
claim,
with
the
following

characterisMcs:

3.
It
is
communicated
with
forms
of

expression
(modes
of
argument

representaMon)
that
are
appropriate
and

known
to,
or
within
the
conceptual
reach
of,

the
classroom
community.
3
Dimensions
of
Development

•  Set
of
mathemaMcal
concepts
&

procedures


•  Repertoire
of
argumentaMon


•  Set
of
representaMons
The
unit
digit
of
5 
for
all
natural

n

number
n
is
5.
•  Elementary
school

52
=
25;
53
=
125;
54
=
625;
55
=
3125,
…

•  Grade
5
classroom
(Lampert,
1990)

–  Explain
why
the
unit
digit
of
54
is
5.

“You
don’t
have
to
do
that
(actually
mulMply

25x25).

It’s
easy,
the
last
digit
is
always
going
to

be
5
because
you
are
always
mulMplying
last
digits

of
5,
and
5
Mmes
5
ends
in
a
5.”

(p.
48)

The
unit
digit
of
5 
for
all
natural

n

number
n
is
5.
•  Through
mathemaMcal
inducMon

(1)

Prove
it
is
true
when
n
=
1:
51
=
5,

true.

(2)

Assume
it
is
true
when
n
=
k.

(3)

Prove
it
is
true
for
n
=
k
+
1

5k+1
=
5k
x
5

The
unit
digit
for
5k
is
5.

Therefore,
the
unit
digit
of
5k+1
is
the
unit

digit
of
5
x
5,
which
is
a
5.

(4)

(1),
(2),
and
(3)

the
statement
is
true.

 Generic
Argument
•  Suppose
we
have
94
and
49.

•  If
you
write
the
verMcally,
we
have:


9 4
+ 4 9

•  We
can
switch
the
ones
digits
without

changing
the
sum.

•  So,
we
have
99
+
44,
and
11
divides
both.

•  So,
the
sum
must
be
divisible
by
11,
too.

Principles
and
Standards
for
School

Mathema4cs
(NCTM,
2000)
• 
From
children's
earliest
experiences
with

mathemaMcs,
it
is
important
to
help
them

understand
that
asserMons
should
always
have

reasons.


(p.
56)

• 
By
the
upper
elementary
grades,
jusMficaMons

should
be
more
general
and
can
draw
on
other

mathemaMcal
results.
(p.
58)
Principles
and
Standards
for
School

Mathema4cs
(NCTM,
2000)
• 
Students
should
move
from
considering

individual
mathemaMcal
objects
‐‐
this
triangle,

this
number,
this
data
point
‐‐
to
thinking

about
classes
of
objects
‐‐
all
triangles,
all

numbers
that
are
mulMples
of
4,
a
whole
set
of

data.
(p.
188)
 OpportuniMes
•  “…proof
is
expected
to
play
a
much
more

prominent
role
through
the
enMre
school

mathemaMcs
curriculum
and
to
be
a
part
of

the
mathemaMcs
educaMon
of
all

students.”

(Knuth,
2002,
p.
380)


•  “This
abrupt
transiMon
to
proof
is
a
source
of

difficulty
for
many
students,
even
for
those

who
have
done
superior
work
with
ease
in

their
lower‐level
mathemaMcs

courses”
(Moore,
1994,
p.
249).

 References
De
Villiers,
M.
(2004).
Using
dynamic
geometry
to
expand
mathemaMcs

teachers’
understanding
of
proof.
Int’l
Journal
of
Mathema4cs

Educa4on,
Science
and
Technology,
35,
703‐724.

De
Villiers,
M.
(1999).
Rethinking
proof
with
Sketchpad.
Key
Curriculum

Press.

Durell,
F.
&
Arnold,
E.
E.
(1924).
New
plane
geometry.

New
York:

Charles
E.
Merrill
Company.

Lampert,
M.
(1990).
When
the
problem
is
not
the
quesMon
and
the

soluMon
is
not
the
answer:
MathemaMcal
knowing
and
teaching.

American
Educa4onal
Research
Journal,
27,
29
–
63.

Moore,
R.
C.
(1994).
Making
the
transiMon
to
formal
proof.
EducaMonal

Studies
in
MathemaMcs,
27(3),
249‐266.


NCTM.
(2000).
Principles
and
Standards
for
School
Mathema4cs.

Reston,
VA:
The
Council.

Stylianides,
A.
(2007).
Proof
and
proving
in
school
mathemaMcs.

Journal
for
Research
in
Mathema4cs
Educa4on,
38,
289‐321.