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A d d i s o n We s l e y p r e s e n t s
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Toronto, Ontario
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Contents
Addison Wesley
Science Authors
Ray Bowers
Eric Brown
Sadru Damji
Dean Eichorn
Ute Goering-Boone
Art Last
Dale Parker
Robert Perkins
Geoff Rayner-Canham
Mark van Roode
Len Silverman
Gail de Souza
Elgin Wolfe
Rob Young
Advisory Panel
Ray Bowers
Shawna Hopkins
Heather Mace
Philip Marsh
Graham Satterthwaite
Gail de Souza
Elgin Wolfe
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Ray Bowers
Toronto District School Board
Toronto, Ontario
Dean Eichorn
Langley School District
Langley, British Columbia
Len Silverman
Toronto, Ontario
Gail de Souza
Dufferin-Peel Catholic Separate School Board
Mississauga, Ontario
Rob Young
Peel District School Board
Contributing Author
Robert Hedges
Toronto
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Copyright 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be
obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,
or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or likewise. For information regarding permission, write to the Permissions Department.
The information and activities presented in this book have been carefully edited and reviewed.
However, the publisher shall not be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or in part, from
the readers use of this material.
Brand names that appear in photographs of products in this textbook are intended to provide
students with a sense of the real-world applications of science and technology and are in no way
intended to endorse specific products.
The publisher has taken every care to meet or exceed industry specifications for the
manufacturing of textbooks. The spine and the endpapers of this sewn book have been
reinforced with special fabric for extra binding strength. The cover is a premium, polymerreinforced material designed to provide long life and withstand rugged use. Mylar gloss
lamination has been applied for further durability.
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ISBN 0-201-70802-7
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Ack n ow l e d g e m e n t s
Curriculum and Assessment Consultant
Reviewers
Marietta (Mars) Bloch

Ortwin Baldauf
Glendale S.S., Hamilton
Senior Science Consultant

Philip Marsh
Technology Consultant
Mike Newnham
Thames Valley District School Board
Andrew Booth
Cobourg D.C.I. East, Cobourg
Debbie Chambers
North Addington Education Centre, Cloyne
Joe DAmico
St. Mary C.S.S., Pickering
Robert Day
Cardinal Newman C.S.S., Scarborough
Laura Elgar
Stouffville D.S.S., Stouffville
Accuracy Reviewers
Clayton Ellis
Central Technical School, Toronto
Christopher J. Clovis, B.Sc. (Hons), B.Ed., Ph.D.

University of Windsor
Bruce Evans
St. Joan of Arc C.H.S., Maple
L. Kott, Ph.D.
Research Scientist, Canola Breeder/Biotechnologist,
Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph
Pauline Fidler
Chesley D.H.S., Chesley
Ellen Larsen, Ph.D.

Department of Zoology, University of Toronto
David Malloch, Ph.D.
Department of Botany, University of Toronto
Amish Parikh, B.Sc., M.D.
Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
Safety Reviewer
Brian Ryder
Westmount S.S., Hamilton
Istvan Hegedus
Humberside C.I., Toronto
George Hewitt
Iroquois Falls S.S., Iroquois Falls
Beth Lisser
Rick Hansen S.S. Mississauga
Dave Oehring
Kirkland Lake C.V.I., Kirkland Lake (Retired)
Alison Paul
Northview Heights S.S., North York
Mark Potvin
Sir Robert Borden H.S., Nepean
Catholicity Reviewers
Donna Taylor
Iroquois Ridge H.S., Oakville
Naz Fiscaletti
St. Francis Xavier S.S., Mississauga
Angela Vavitsas
Northern S.S., Toronto
Sister Gabriel Riddle, cps

Francis Libermann C.H.S., Scarborough
Contributing Writers
Review Panel
Gabriel Roman Ayyavoo, M.Ed.
Katherine Bellomo
Pearl Bradd
Riverside S.S., Windsor
Zoltan Koritar
Crystal Potvin
Confederation S.S., Val Caron
Gabriel Roman Ayyavoo, M.Ed.

Julie Czerneda
Professional Writer
Beth Lisser
Rick Hansen S.S., Mississauga
Heather Mace
Ottawa-Carleton District School Board
Philip Marsh
Rick Hansen S.S., Mississauga
Ron Thorpe
Marc Garneau C.I., Toronto
Angela Vavitsas
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Contents
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
CHAPTER 1
The Chemistry of Life
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells

1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage
1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage
Case Study Diet and Disease
1.4 Proteins
1.5 Nucleic Acids
Investigation 1 Building Molecular Models
Investigation 2 Testing for Compounds in Foods
Chapter Summary
Chapter 1 Review
CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure and Function
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure
2.2 Cell Structures
2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles
Case Study Ethics and Stem Cell Research
Investigation 1 Estimating an Objects Size with
the Microscope
Investigation 2 Characteristics of Cells
Chapter Summary
Chapter 2 Review
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles
Case Study Drug Addiction and the Cell
Investigation 1 A Study of Osmosis: Determining
the Solute Concentration of Potatoes
Investigation 2 Effects on Permeability
Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 Review
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
4.1
4.2
Cell Reactions and Energy

Enzymes
6
13
17
21
23
26
29
31
33
34
36
38
41
48
57
58
60
61
62
64
66
68
72
75
79
80
82
83
84
86
88
90
4.3 Protein Synthesis

4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production
4.5 Cellular Respiration
Case Study Ethanol or Fossil Fuels?
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting Fermentation
Investigation 2 Factors Affecting the Rate of
Photosynthesis
Chapter Summary
Chapter 4 Review
104
105
106
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 1 Review
108
110
112
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
116
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
118
5.1 Mitosis
Case Study The Demand for Human Tissue
5.2 Meiosis
5.3 Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction
Investigation 1 Observing Cells in the Process
of Meiosis
Investigation 2 Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis
Chapter Summary
Chapter 5 Review
CHAPTER 6
Genetics and Heredity
120
129
131
143
147
148
149
150
152
6.1 The Origins of Genetics

6.2 Genetic Analysis
6.3 Genetics After Mendel
Investigation 1 Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
Investigation 2 Human Traits Following
Mendels Patterns of Inheritance
Chapter Summary
Chapter 6 Review
CHAPTER 7
Genetics and Society
7.1
7.2
7.3
93
95
98
102
103
154
160
168
180
182
183
184
186
Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees
Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics
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188
201
210
v
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Case Study What Genes Can Tell Us

Investigation 1 Gel Electrophoresis Simulation
Investigation 2 DNA Extraction
Chapter Summary
Chapter 7 Review
225
228
230
231
232
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 2 Review
234
236
238
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10.2 The Structure and Function of the

Human Heart and Blood Vessels
10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and
Disease
10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms
Investigation 1 Exercise and Pulse Rate
Investigation 2 Measuring Blood Pressure
Investigation 3 Fetal Pig Dissection
Chapter Summary
Chapter 10 Review
324
335
341
345
346
349
354
356
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 3 Review
358
360
362
246
254
256
UNIT 4
Diversity of Living
Things
366
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
242
CHAPTER 8
Nutrition and Digestion
244
8.1 Nutrition
Case Study Health and the Media
8.2 The Digestive System
8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their
Associated Enzymes
8.4 Digestion in Various Organisms
Investigation 1 What Effect Does Temperature
Have on an Enzyme?
Investigation 2 Enzyme Activity in Fruit
Chapter Summary
Chapter 8 Review
267
275
CHAPTER 11
Classification
368
279
281
282
284
CHAPTER 9
Respiration
11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life

11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Natural Selection
Case Study Biodiversity and Aquaculture
Investigation 1 Using a Dichotomous Key
Chapter Summary
Chapter 11 Review
370
377
382
384
385
386
286
CHAPTER 12
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
and Viruses
388
9.1 The Respiratory System

9.2 The Physiology of Respiration
9.3 Respiratory Disorders
Case Study Health and the Global Community
9.4 Respiratory Systems in
Various Organisms
Investigation 1 Measuring Lung Capacity
A Comparative Approach
Investigation 2 The Effect of Airways of
Different Diameters
Chapter Summary
Chapter 9 Review
311
312
314
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
316
10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the

Components of Blood
Case Study Fair Testing for Athletes?
vi
Contents
288
294
300
305
306
309
318
323
12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and

Eubacteria
12.2 Viruses
12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology
Case Study Viruses: Research versus Risk
Investigation 1 Observing Bacteria
Investigation 2 Preparing and Observing
Stained Bacteria
Chapter Summary
Chapter 12 Review
414
415
416
CHAPTER 13
Protists, Fungi, and Plants
418
13.1 The Protists

13.2 The Fungi
420
427
390
400
405
412
413
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13.3 The Plants

Investigation 1 Growing Moulds
Investigation 2 Improving the Growth of Yeast
Chapter Summary
Chapter 13 Review
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
Next Section
434
445
446
447
448
450
14.1 Simple Animals

14.2 Wormlike Animals
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing
Complexity
14.4 Joint-Legged Animals
14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons
Case Study Cloning and the Cattle Industry
Investigation 1 Study of a Crayfish Body Plan
Investigation 2 Stream Study
Chapter Summary
Chapter 14 Review
452
457
462
465
469
477
478
479
481
482
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 4 Review
484
486
488
UNIT 5
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and Functions
492
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
494
15.1 Plants in Nature

15.2 Plants in Agriculture
Case Study Canadas Laws on Pesticide Use
15.3 Plants in Industry
15.4 Plants in Medicine
496
502
509
514
519
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Investigation 1 A Test for Protein in Seeds

Investigation 2 Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites
Chapter Summary
Chapter 15 Review
523
524
525
526
CHAPTER 16
Plant Structure and Function
528
16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function

Case Study Using Plants to Fight Pollution
16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions
16.3 Water and Food Transport
Investigation 1 Examining Monocot and Dicot
Stems
Investigation 2 Examining Plant Tissue
Chapter Summary
Chapter 16 Review
CHAPTER 17
Plant Growth and Development
530
539
541
545
551
552
553
554
556
17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations

17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant
Growth
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting the Growth of
Plants
Investigation 2 Investigating Gravitropism
Chapter Summary
Chapter 17 Review
558
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 5 Review
580
582
584
Appendix
Glossary
Answers to Numerical Questions
Index
Photo Credits and Acknowledgements
589
610
630
633
644
Contents
568
574
576
577
578
vii
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UNIT
1
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of
cell structure and function and the
processes of metabolism and
membrane transport
Investigate the fundamental

molecular principles and
mechanisms that govern energytransforming activities in all living
matter, whether it be animal, plant,
or microbial
Demonstrate an understanding of
the relationship between cell
functions and their technological
and environmental applications
Cellular Functions
t all started in 1665 when Robert Hooke first viewed what he called cells
through his homemade microscope. It continues today as biologists use
the latest high-tech electron microscopes to reveal the mysteries of cells.
You dont have to be a biologist, however, to benefit from knowledge about
cells. Whether you realize it or not, issues concerning cells affect you in
b) Scanning electron micrograph

(SEM) of a monocyte
a) A replica of Hookes microscope
c) Scientist studying cells through a

light microscope
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your everyday life. Does that new low-fat diet you want to try actually work
and is it safe? Why is there such controversy surrounding the use of anabolic
steroids in sports? Should the government spend millions of tax dollars to
equip hospitals with MRI machines? What is the best way to clean up an oil
spill? These questions have one thing in common: they can best be answered
using an understanding of cellular functions.
In this unit, you will study the dynamic processes by which nutrients and
waste material are moved in, out, and around cells. You will investigate
molecules that make up the structure of cells and others that play important
roles in cell metabolism. You will examine the structures within cells that not
only ensure the health of each individual cell, but also the health of the
entire organism. You will gain the knowledge about cells necessary to make
important decisions throughout your entire life, decisions that could affect
your health and the world around you.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Cell Transplant Procedure Seen as Major

Breakthrough in Treating Diabetes
A team of Edmonton doctors has removed insulinproducing cells known as islet cells from the pancreas of deceased human donors. The islet cells
were then successfully transplanted into the livers
of 14 Canadians with Type 1 diabetes. After the
transplant procedure, the diabetics no longer required daily insulin injections. The pioneer cell
transplant procedure has been hailed as a major
breakthrough in treating diabetes.
Lack of MRI Machines Tests the Patience of

Medical Patients
Imagine feeling sick, but having to wait up to 12
months to find out what is wrong. Such delays face
many Canadians waiting to receive a Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) test. MRI technology is
extremely reliable and accurate for diagnosing conditions such as cancer and brain tumours, but it
is also extremely expensive. A single machine can
cost millions of dollars to purchase and hundreds
of thousands of dollars each year to operate.
Who will pay the bill?
Oil Company Uses Single-Celled Microbe to Purify

Oil Sands
In the past, energy company Syncrude Canada has
managed to cut costs at its Fort McMurray oil sands
refining site by getting the bugs out of the process.
But now it wants to invest over two million dollars
to put bugs back into it! Pseudomonas bacteria will
be used in one of a series of research projects to
improve recovery rates from heavy oil sands mined
at the Fort McMurray site. It is hoped that the bacteria will be useful in removing impurities like nitrogen compounds found in the Syncrude oil.
Bacteria have been used before to clean up oil
spills, but this is the first time they will be used
to purify oil.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learning by proposing recommendations to Health Canada
for allocation of funds for public health campaigns. You
will research the diseases most affecting Canadians today
and analyze which disease or diseases could be most
impacted by increased public awareness. You will also
consider the social and economic impacts of public
health campaigns, and how public awareness can be
most effectively achieved. See page 110.
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CHAPTER 1
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this chapter,

identify and describe the structure

and function of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5,
Investigation 1)
view and manipulate computergenerated, three-dimensional

molecular models of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5)
carry out biological tests for

macromolecules found in living
organisms (Investigation 2)
explain how the scientific

knowledge of cellular processes is
used in technological applications
(1.1, 1.2, 1.3)
analyse ways in which societal

needs have led to technological
advances related to cellular
processes (1.1, 1.2)
FIGURE 1.1 All life depends on the reactions of molecules in a watery
environment.
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ntelopes and grasshoppers, fish and Douglas fir. Life occurs in an

amazing number of different forms, but all consist of a few kinds of
molecules made up of a few different kinds of atoms. How do these atoms
and molecules produce such a variety of living things?
The bonding of atoms produces molecules of a specific structure or shape.
The structure of a particular molecule determines its function. A small change
in one portion of a molecule can mean an important difference in its shape
and a vast difference in its function. For example, a change in the hemoglobin
molecule of only one sub-unit out of a chain of 146 results in sickle-cell anemia in people who have this altered hemoglobin in their red blood cells.
Symptoms include weakness and pain.
Even simple-appearing molecules such as water show the importance
of structure to function. Fifty to ninety-five percent of any living organism
is water and the structure of water gives it remarkable properties. Ions, such
as sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+), account for about 1%, and the remainder of most cells consists of four types of compounds: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These substances interact in a watery
environment. In this chapter, you will gain the understanding to appreciate
these important molecules of the cell and examine how chemical structure
and function are applied in technologies as diverse as magnetic resonance
imaging, production of baby food, and miniaturizing of electronic circuits.
Discovering Biology
Water: An excellent solvent
A solvent is the substance in which a solute is dissolved.
1.
Place a small glass on a saucer and fill the glass to the brim with water.
2.
Slowly add salt to the glass one spoonful at a time.
3.
Record how many spoonfuls of salt the water can hold before the glass
overflows.
What changes have taken place?
How can the water hold so much salt without overflowing?
CHECKPOINT
Brainstorm what you know
about elements and how
they link to one another.
Element
CHAPTER 1
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Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how atoms, ions, and molecules are important to biological compounds
represent the structure of important biological molecules in different ways
identify and describe the structure and biological functions of water
relate characteristics of acids and bases and the use of the pH scale to conditions in
living organisms
WORD ORIGIN
Atom from the Greek atomos,
meaning indivisible or unable
to divide. Democritus kept
breaking grains of salt into
smaller pieces and asked his
students if the pieces were still
salt. He claimed he would
eventually obtain atoms
pieces that could no longer be
broken.
INFOBIT
Many biological terms in this
unit originate from the Greek
language. This is partially because Greek philosophers such
as Democritus and Aristotle
were among the first to study
science. Present-day scientists
have used words originating
from the Greek language to
create modern scientific words
as a tribute to the work of the
ancient Greeks.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
To understand how cells work it is necessary to understand some chemistry.

The field of biochemistry studies the
chemical reactions that take place in
cells. The same compounds are present and the same essential metabolic
processes go on in organisms as different as bacteria and humans. The principles of chemistry and the mechanisms
of chemical reactions apply inside and
outside the cell in the intracellular and
extracellular fluids. Reactions that take
place in cells must be very efficient because the formation of by-products could
be toxic and also waste energy.
The Greek philosopher Democritus
chose the term atom nearly 3000 years
ago. Today, despite the discovery of subatomic particles, the atom is regarded as
the basic unit of matter just as the cell is
regarded as the basic unit of life. Six types
of atoms (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur) make up
about 99% of all living organisms.
Atoms bond to one another to form
compounds. Bonds are formed by the
sharing or transfer of electrons present
in the atoms. Compounds are made up
of at least two different kinds of atoms.
In most important biochemical compounds these bonds are covalent.
Covalent bonds involve a sharing of
electrons between the atoms in the compound (Figure 1.2). Covalent bonds may
be single, double, or triple, depending
on how many pairs of electrons are
shared. For example, in a single bond
one pair of electrons is shared; in a double bond two pairs are shared.
Ionic bonds occur when one atom
donates one or more electrons to
hydrogen
atom
hydrogen
atom
e
e
hydrogen molecule
oxygen atom
e
e
hydrogen
atom
e
e
e
e
hydrogen
atom
water molecule
FIGURE 1.2 Covalent bonding. A covalent bond

forms when two atoms share one or more pairs
of electrons.
a) Two atoms of hydrogen have come together,

and each shares its electron with the other; this
completes the outer shell and gives stability.
b) Two hydrogen atoms are linked with one oxygen atom; two pairs of electrons are shared,
one pair between each of the hydrogen atoms
and the oxygen atom.
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Sodium atom (Na)
another atom (Figure 1.3). This transfer

of an electron causes the atom losing the
electron to become positively charged
and the atom gaining the electron to become negatively charged. The charged
atoms are called ions. The attraction of
opposite charges between the ions results in the formation of an ionic bond.
If the electrons are shared between
atoms, but not equally shared, the bond
is a polar covalent bond. One atom has
a slight positive charge (+ ) and the other
has a slight negative charge (). Polar covalent bonds are important in biological
compounds because of the attraction
between areas of slight positive and slight
negative charge on the compound.
Substances present in cells can be
divided into two classes: organic and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds
contain carbon. Carbon is a unique and
important element in living systems
because of its ability to form strong, stable covalent bonds. Examples of organic
compounds include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Inorganic
compounds are not generally part of the
structure of living cells, but in some
species, for example some corals, they
are an integral part. Most inorganic substances in cells are in the form of ions
such as sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate. Two important exceptions to this
rule are the water molecule and the carbon dioxide molecule. These molecules
are inorganic compounds that are
essential for cell metabolism.
Representation of Molecules Rather than

draw each atom that makes up a chemical compound, chemists have invented
symbol systems to represent molecules.
One such system in use is known as a
molecular formula. Molecular formulas
show the number of atoms of each type
that make up a compound; the formulas
use symbols such as C to represent
carbon, H to represent hydrogen, and
O to represent oxygen. Perhaps the
most well-known molecular formula is
H2O. Subscripts, such as the 2 in H20,
are used to show the number of each
kind of atom present in the molecule.
(Figure 1.4)
Chlorine atom (Cl)
a)
e
electron
transfer
e
Sodium ion (Na+)
Chloride ion (Cl)

ionic
compound
(Na+Cl)
salt crystals
b)
FIGURE 1.3 Ionic bonding

a) When sodium and chlorine atoms come together, sodium loses its third shell electron to chlorine, and becomes a sodium ion with a net positive charge. Having gained
an electron, the chlorine atom becomes a chloride ion, with a net negative charge.
b) The sodium and chloride ions are now attracted to each other because they are
oppositely charged. An ionic bond is formed.
Another symbol system represents

the structure of molecules. These representations are known as structural formulas. Structural formulas use the
same symbols as molecular formulas
to represent the atoms, but structural
formulas also show how the atoms making up the molecule are bonded to one
another (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5).
Since biologically important molecules
consist almost exclusively of covalent
bonds, these bonds are represented in
a structural formula by a line between
atoms. Each line in a structural formula
represents a shared pair of electrons.
Many of the molecules made by cells
are very complex; some protein
molecules consist of thousands of atoms.
Water
Molecular Formulas
Glucose
H2O
C6H12O6
FIGURE 1.4 Molecular
formulas
CHAPTER 1
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H
H
OH
C
H
O
H
OH
OH
OH
water molecule
a)
glucose molecule
C
R
C
OH
b)
c)
OH
amino acid molecule
FIGURE 1.5 Structural formulas
WORD ORIGIN
Polymer and monomer from
the Greek poly, meaning
many, mono, meaning one
and meris, meaning parts.
Polar from the Latin polus,
meaning end of axis.
INFOBIT
PEBBLES (Probes Encapsulated by BioListic Embedding) are
biosensors that allow scientists
to observe chemical processes
within a living cell. These polymer spheres can be as small as
20 nm (1nm = 109 m) in diameter. Dye is placed into the polymer and when the PEBBLE is
injected into the cell, the dye
will become fluorescent if activated by a wavelength of light.
As the targeted ion or molecule
in the cell changes, the fluorescence will increase or
decrease. This technology has
potential applications to the
study of changes in cell chemistry due to diseases or drugs.
Cells are able to make these large

molecules by joining smaller sub-unit
molecules together into chains known as
polymers. Polymers are large molecules
consisting of identical or similar building-block molecules strung together. The
arrangement is somewhat like the beads
in a necklace: each bead represents
the building-block molecule and the
whole necklace represents the polymer. The individual building-block
molecules are known as monomers.
Cells make a wide variety of polymers
using relatively few monomers. For example, glucose is the monomer molecule
of the polymer glycogen (Figure 1.7). All
the reactions that take place in cells are
collectively termed metabolism. The reactions that build up substances like
polymers through a series of steps are
anabolism. Those that break down compounds into simpler forms are
catabolism.
Three-dimensional representations
of molecules are based on patterns of
diffraction of X rays by crystals. They
FIGURE 1.7
a) A glucose molecule: a simple sugar or

monosaccharide
b) A polymer of glucose units forming a starch
molecule in a slice of raw potato
c) A complex, branched polymer of glucose
units making up glycogen globules in the liver
Image omitted due to copyright

restrictions.
WEBLINK
include space-filling models that show

the surface shape of the molecule and
computer-generated ribbon diagrams
that highlight particular areas or domains within the molecule (Figure 1.6).
Water: A Polar Molecule

To view and manipulate a
three-dimensional model of the
water molecule, go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
FIGURE 1.6 A computergenerated ribbon
diagram follows the winding of the polypeptide

chains and highlights the structure of different
domains in the molecule.
Life as we know it on Earth could not

exist without water. Consider that water
makes up 5090% of nearly all organisms, and wherever water is found on
Contents
Previous Section
Proton behaviour
is responsible
for safer, better
medical imaging
Protons in the nucleus of atoms are
like tiny magnets. Magnetic resonance imaging relies on this property
of protons to create detailed medical
images. In an MRI scanner, a person
is placed into a machine capable of
producing a very strong magnetic
field. When the magnetic field is
turned on, the protons in the atoms
of the persons body tissues line up
with the magnetic field (much as a
compass lines up with Earths magnetic field). When the magnetic field
is turned off, the protons return to
their original position.
As the protons return to their
pre-magnetic state, they emit radio
waves that are received by special
Next Section
detectors built into the MRI scanning

machine. The strength of the radio
signal depends on the number of protons in the particular type of tissue.
A computer forms an image of the tissue based on the differences in the
number of radio waves detected and
the time it takes the protons to return
to their original position.
While conventional X rays show
good detail of bone structure, MRI
scans have the huge advantage of
also showing the soft tissues of the
body, such as tendons, ligaments,
muscles, and brain tissue. Cellular
processes resulting from trauma or
disease may result in a different
repertoire of cell compounds and
therefore also of atoms present in the
individuals cells. As a result, MRI
scans are often used to diagnose athletic injuries and cancer in the many
non-bony areas of the body. So far,
no known harm is caused to humans
by strong magnetic fields.
A scientific team from Canadas
National Research Council (NRC), led
by NRC scientist John Saunders, has
our planet, life is also foundwhether

it is in hot springs, the deepest depths
of the sea, or on the frozen water making up polar ice caps.
Water has a number of unique properties due to its molecular structure and
three-dimensional shape. Water is a
polar covalently bonded molecule. This
means there is competition between the
atoms for the shared electrons making
up bonds. In the case of water, the oxygen atom has a larger, more positively
charged nucleus than the two hydrogen
atoms. As a result, the shared electrons tend to spend more time near the
oxygen atom than they do near the hydrogen atoms. This results in an unequal
sharing of electrons and a difference in
charge between the ends or poles of a
water molecule: the oxygen end of the
molecule tends to have a slightly negative charge, while the hydrogen end has
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been developing an MRI scanner

small enough to be used during surgical procedures.
a)
Image omitted due to

copyright restrictions.
b)

FIGURE 1.8 a) MRI scans show soft tissue detail much better than b) X rays do.
H
+
electrons
slight negative
charge
slight positive
charge
a slightly positive charge. Such charge

differences result in what are known
as polar molecules. See Figure 1.9 for
further explanation.
Because of their polar structure,
water molecules tend to form weak bonds
with each other. These bonds, known as
hydrogen bonds, are weak attractions
between the polar ends of water and
FIGURE 1.9 Polar covalent

bonding. In the water
molecule, the oxygen atom
attracts the shared electrons
more strongly than the hydrogen atoms do. The electrons
are shifted toward the oxygen
atom, giving it a partial negative charge (because electrons are negatively charged)
and giving the hydrogen
atoms a partial positive
charge. Partial is indicated
here by the Greek symbol
delta, . The bonds are polar
covalent and the molecule as
a whole is polar.
CHAPTER 1
Contents
INFOBIT
Scientists studying a 175-millionyear-old meteorite from Mars
that landed in India in 1865
have found indications that
water once flowed on the surface of Mars. Grains from the
meteorite contain a high proportion of substances that are
soluble in water. Also, images
from the Mars Orbiter camera
suggest the presence of watercarved gullies on the planet.
These discoveries have piqued
the interest of scientists, who
believe that life cannot evolve
without water.
Previous Section
Next Section
other similar molecules (Figure 1.10).

Although each hydrogen bond is weaker
than either an ionic or a covalent bond,
the effect of the billions of bonds that form
in even a small amount of water is quite
strong. This effect is similar to the way
weak individual strands of a rope combine to produce a rope of greater
strength.
There are other weak forces that operate within and between molecules.
H
+
O
H
O
H
H
+
+
H
H
O
O
+
+ H
+
H
H
+
Hydrogen bond
bonds between water molecules are indicated

by the dotted lines. These bonds exist because
of the attraction between hydrogen atoms, with
their partial positive charge, and the unshared
electrons of the oxygen atom, with their partial
negative charge.
10
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Because water is polar it has unique

properties. For example, water
molecules tend to stick together (cohere).
This helps explain how water columns
move within plants to carry dissolved
minerals from the roots to the leaves.
The mutual attraction of water molecules
is the reason that it takes so much energy to transform liquid water into
steam. It also explains the high boiling
point of water relative to other molecules
of similar mass, and its high specific heat
capacity.
FIGURE 1.10 Hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen
FIGURE 1.11 Waters power

as a solvent
a) The components of a crystal of table salt, Na+ and Cl ,
are attracted to the charged
regions of the water
moleculesodium to the negative charge of waters oxygen
atom and chlorine to the positive charge of waters hydrogen atoms.
b) Pulled from the crystal,
sodium and chloride ions become surrounded by water
molecules.
c) The process repeats until
the ions are evenly dispersed
in the aqueous solution.
Van der Waals interactions are nonspecific weak attractive forces between
atoms or molecules that are the result
of random fluctuations in the distribution of electrons. Both polar and
nonpolar molecules have van der Waals
interactions. Hydrophobic interactions
occur because nonpolar molecules are
excluded from mixing with polar
molecules like water and so tend to associate with each other. Hydrophobic interactions are very important in cell
membranes.
Water and Cell Processes: Cohesion

H
H
+
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High Specific Heat A high specific heat

means that water requires a large
amount of heat energy to produce a
change in temperature, and tends to
retain the heat. This means that water
moderates temperature change, allowing Earth to have a moderate climate
able to support the development and
evolution of life.
sodium and
chloride ions
dissolved
in water
water
(solvent)
H
O
H
sodium
chloride
(solute)
Cl
Na+
a)
b)
c)
Contents
Previous Section
Density Solid water (ice) is less dense

than liquid water. Ice has a more rigid
structure, because it has the maximum
number of hydrogen bonds (Figure 1.10).
This leaves more space between water
molecules, so the mass per unit volume
(density) is less than that of liquid water.
This explains why ponds freeze from the
top downa very important property in
supporting life.
Next Section
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H+ concentration
(mol L1)
pH
ACIDIC
battery acid
hydrochloric acid
lemon juice, gastric (stomach) juice
cola, beer, wine, vinegar
tomatoes
Solvent Properties Water is a very good

solvent. This means that other compounds dissolve readily in watera
property that allows your blood to carry
dissolved nutrients, minerals, and gases
to and from your cells (Figure 1.11).
black coffee
urine
NEUTRAL
pure water
human blood
seawater
Dissociation Another important property of water is its ability to dissociate

(to form ions). In a simplified way, we
can regard this dissociation as water
molecules breaking down to form
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions
(OH). H+ and OH are two of the most
reactive ions in the body.
baking soda
Great Salt Lake
household ammonia
household bleach
H2O
H+ + OH
oven cleaner
lye
Acids, Bases, and pH

Other compounds besides water break
down and release H+ or OH. Compounds
that add H+ to a solution are known as
acids and compounds that take up H+ are
called bases. The more H+ that is in a solution, the more acidic it is; conversely,
the more OH that is in a solution, the
more basic it is. Acids and bases are very
common in and around living things: vinegar, lemon juice, and gastric (stomach)
juice in humans are acidic; pancreatic
juice in humans is basic. The amount of
H+ ion in a cell is normally far less than
the amount of water. However, many vital
cellular processes, such as the proper
functioning of the metabolic reactions that
maintain life, require H+ or are strongly
influenced by the number of H+ ions in
the cell.
The pH scale is a measure of the
BASIC
FIGURE 1.12 Common substances and the pH scale. The pH scale measures the
concentration of hydrogen ions per litre of solution. The most acidic substances on
the scale have the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, while the most basic (or
alkaline) substances have the least concentration of hydrogen ions. The scale is logarithmic, so that a difference of one unit on the pH scale means a 10 times difference in concentration. Wine, for example, is 10 times as acidic as tomatoes and 100
times as acidic as black coffee.
acidity of a solution. The pH scale ranges

from 014, with a pH of 0 being the most
acidic and a pH of 14 the most basic. A
pH of 7 is neutral, neither acidic nor
basic. Pure water has a pH of 7. Figure
1.12 lists the pH of some body fluids and
other common solutions.
Human blood should be within a pH
range of 7.357.45 and any movement
away from this pH results in a clinical
problem. Some reactions in the body
such as the beginning of digestion of the
CHAPTER 1
M AT H L I N K
The pH value is defined as the
negative log of the concentration of H+ in a solution. For every
unit change in pH, there is a 10
times change in the concentration of H+, so a pH of 4 means a
H+ concentration of 104 mol L1
(0.0001 mol L1), while a pH of 5
means a H+ of 105 (0.00001 mol L1).
The hydrochloric acid in Figure
1.12 is 101 mol L1 (0.1 mol L1).
11
Contents
Previous Section
Next Section
proteins in your food require a low pH.

However, the cells in the area of low pH
must be supported by protection from
the effects of acidity.
A Problem with Acid

The tissues of almost all living organisms are very sensitive to acid solutions.
If the pH of an organisms internal
environment becomes too acidic, this
affects the structures of proteins in the
organisms cells and tissues as well as
the chemical reactions in the cells.
Organisms worldwide are suffering
due to the effects of acid rain. Acid rain,
also called acid precipitation is defined
as rain or snow with a pH of less than
5.6. Because of the way the pH scale
works, a decrease by a difference of one
unit on the scale means that the second solution is 10 times more acidic than
the first solution. Rainfall with pH as low
as 4.3 has been recorded in southern
Ontario. Figure 1.13 illustrates how acid
rain forms.
Some scientists believe that all of the
organisms living in areas subjected to
acid rain will be affected. For example,
acid precipitation leaches the soil of some
of the metals normally found there. This
has the effect of destroying plant roots or
interfering with their ability to absorb nu-
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trients. When these metals wash into

lakes, they can interfere with the gills of
fish, preventing them from obtaining oxygen. As fish and other organisms die, the
lakes die too. Hundreds of lakes in
Ontario and Quebec are sick, dying, or
already dead.
Acid rain is also a leading cause of a
worldwide reduction in amphibian populationsfrogs, toads, and salamanders.
The exact reason for the mass decline
and near extinction of many species is
not known. However, it is suspected that
the accumulation of H+ in their habitat
particularly during spring runoffis interfering with their ability to lay eggs and
with the survival of their young. Leaching
of metals into the water causes damage
to spawn, adversely affecting fertilization.
The metals are also suspected of damaging larvae and intermediate tadpole
forms. As a result, in addition to decreased numbers, amphibian populations
are displaying increased rates of abnormalities, such as missing limbs and/or
eyes.
Acid rain is probably not the only
cause of the stress on amphibian populations. It is likely a complex interaction
between loss of habitat, global warming,
ozone depletion, and pesticide use.
Research is currently under way to
explain the factors responsible.
OH (hydroxyl radical)
rain
cloud
pollution
H2SO4
(sulfuric acid)
SO2
HNO3
(nitric acid)
NO2
NO
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
acid
rain
a)
b)
FIGURE 1.13 How acid rain forms
a) Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), combine with hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These combine with atmospheric water to create acid precipitation.
b) A stand of trees in Ontario damaged by acid rain
12
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
Previous Section
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Section 1.1 Review

Understanding Concepts
molecule. Predict whether or not these

alternative structures would behave in
the same chemical manner in cells.
Provide reasons for your answer.
1. Covalent and ionic bonds differ.

Describe two of these differences.
2. Using words and the appropriate diagrams or formulas, describe the differences between a molecular formula,
a structural formula, a space-filling
model, and a ribbon diagram in the
representation of molecules.
3. Water is a polar molecule. Explain.
4. Hydrogen bonds form between water
molecules. Hydrogen bonds do not
form between methane (CH 4 )
molecules. Using diagrams, illustrate
why.
7.
Figure 1.12 shows the relationship between pH and gastric juice, urine, pure
water, and blood. Propose other possible ways of representing this information.
8. The pH of human blood is stabilized at

7.357.45. Explain what might happen if the pH rises or falls above or
below this range.
Making Connections
5. At the beginning of winter, a friend suggests skating on a large local pond.

Explain, using scientific reasoning, the
need to be cautious about the thickness
of the ice. Identify two biological processes that depend on the same
principle.
9. Water is life. Explain this statement.

Present your ideas using an
Agree/Disagree chart.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
11. Propose ways in which effects of acid

rain on the environment can be addressed.
6. The structural formula for a molecule

with a molecular formula of C6H12O6 is
shown in Figure 1.5. Draw other structural formulas possible for this
10. Without control of its water resources,

a society does not control its life.
Analyze and describe the scientific, social and environmental aspects of this
issue.
12. Acid rain impacts the environment. It

also affects society and the economy in
a variety of ways. Explain.
Investigation
Refer to page 29,
Investigation 1
WORDORIGIN
Saccharide from the Greek

sakkharon, meaning sugar.
CH2OH
identify and describe the structure of carbohydrates
understand the formation of polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis
relate the ability to increase energy stored in muscles to physical training
Carbohydrates include the biologically

important molecules, sugars and
starches. These molecules provide shortterm energy to cells (Figure 1.15). In
carbohydrates, as in other organic
molecules, carbon provides the backbone of the molecule. Structurally,
carbohydrates consist of carbon, hy-
O H
Key Understandings
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
glucose
drogen, and oxygen. Like many other organic molecules, carbohydrates may be
monomers or polymers. The monomer
forms of carbohydrates are known as
monosaccharides. For example,
glucose is a monosaccharide. The
molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6
(Figure 1.14).
CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 1.14 The structural

formula of glucose. Glucose
is an important molecule in
organisms for two major reasons. It can be broken down
quickly for the release of energy for metabolism in cells,
and it is the monomer for the
synthesis of larger carbohydrate molecules.
13
Contents

FIGURE 1.15 Carbohydrates

in foods. Breads, cereals, and
pasta are important in our
diet. These foods are all rich
in carbohydrates, one of the
four main types of biochemical compounds.
Previous Section
Next Section
Disaccharides are sugars that consist of

two monosaccharides. Examples include
maltose and sucrose (Figure 1.16).
Maltose is made from two glucose
molecules, and sucrose, commonly
known as table sugar, is made from the
combination of glucose and another
monosaccharide known as fructose.
Disaccharides form by dehydration
synthesis (also known as a condensation reaction). In dehydration synthesis
a molecule of water is split out as the
bond is formed. Disaccharides are broken
down into monomers by hydrolysis, in
which a molecule of water is used up as
a bond is broken to yield two smaller
products. See Figure 1.17.
Sweet Tooth
The average Canadian consumes about
57 kg of sugar a year. Your food, soft
drinks, sports drinksjust about every
prepared food you eathas an added
sweetener. Traditionally, most of this
sugar has been in the form of sucrose
refined from sugar cane grown in
Caribbean countries, thus providing an
important economic export for those
countries. Recently a technique has been
HOCH2
HOCH2
O H
H
H
OH
H
OH
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate
molecules (complex carbohydrates) that
are polymers of monosaccharides such
as glucose. Some important polysaccharides include starch, glycogen and
cellulose. Starch is the energy storage
molecule in plants and a good source of
energy for human cells. Glycogen is the
short-term energy storage molecule in
human cells. Cellulose is the molecule
that makes up plant cell walls.
Differences between the polysaccharides
are caused by differences in their molecular structure. Organisms must break
down polysaccharides to obtain usable
glucose molecules. For example, your
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
developed to convert the glucose in

North Americanproduced corn syrup to
the much sweeter-tasting sugar, fructose.
This new, lower-priced sweetener, called
high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), has had
a major economic impact: the two
largest users of sucrose in the world,
Pepsi and Coke, have completely
switched to HFCS, and the economies of
some Caribbean nations have been adversely affected as a result.
CH2OH
O OH
HO
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O H HOCH
2
H
HO
OH
OH
maltose
HO
OH
CH2OH
sucrose
FIGURE 1.16 The structural formulas of maltose and sucrose
glucose
CH2OH
CH2OH
O H
glucose
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
O H
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
Dehydration
Synthesis
Hydrolysis
maltose
CH2OH
water
CH2OH
O H
H
OH
OH
HO
O H
H
O
H
OH
OH
H 2O
OH
FIGURE 1.17 Carbohydrates follow a building blocks model
Two units of the monosaccharide glucose link to

form the disaccharide maltose. In this dehydration
synthesis, water is also a product of the reaction. The double arrows indicate that the reaction
14
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
is reversible. Under the right conditions, and

with hydrolysis by a water molecule, a single maltose molecule can yield two glucose molecules.
Contents
Previous Section
body breaks down starch and glycogen

by hydrolysisstarch within your digestive system and glycogen within your
cells (Figure 1.18). The glucose released
from the starch molecule in this way is
then available for use for cell metabolism.
However, humans and many other animals cannot break down cellulose into
molecules of glucose. Instead, cellulose
passes undigested through our digestive
system serving as dietary fibre.
potato
a) STARCH
liver
b) GLYCOGEN
Next Section
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Glycogen Storage You probably know

that running a marathon requires several
months of training. One of the main
reasons for this requirement has to do
with the polysaccharide glycogen. Cells,
such as muscle cells, use glucose for
energy. However, only so much glucose
can be carried in the blood, so the extra
glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscle cells. Glycogen is composed
of about 50 000 glucose sub-units. As the
Investigation
Refer to page 31,
Investigation 2
WEBLINK
To view and manipulate threedimensional models, go to

algae
c) CELLULOSE
FIGURE 1.18 Examples of

complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides, like other
large polymer molecules,
have complex three-dimensional structures, as seen in
starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The different three-dimensional
structure of polysaccharides is
due to the different locations
of the bonds between the
glucose monomers in each
molecule.
a) Starch is a form of carbohydrate storage in many

plants. Starch granules can be
seen within the cells of a slice
of raw potato.
b) Glycogen is a form of carbohydrate storage, here seen
as glycogen globules in the
liver.
c) Cellulose, visible as fibres
running through cell walls,
provides structural support for
plants.
CHAPTER 1
15
Contents
Previous Section
Next Section
glucose in the blood is used by cells for

energy, the liver and muscle cells break
down glycogen by hydrolysis. This allows
the cell to replenish the glucose. An
athletes training improves the ability of
muscle cells to store much more glycogen. Without this large amount of stored
energy, the muscles would run out of energy and the runner would not be able to
finish a long race such as a marathon
or a triathlon.
Building Carbohydrates in the Lab We nor-

FIGURE 1.19 Dr. Warren

Wakarchuks research made a
technological advance in response to a need in society.
mally think of carbohydrates as a shortterm energy source, but some of them

have other important tasks. Some of
these carbohydrates help protect infants
from disease-causing micro-organisms.
For infants the best source of carbohydrates, other nutrients, and antibodies is their mothers breast milk.
However, for some mothersincluding
those who have adopted babiesbreastfeeding is not an option. It has been a
challenge for scientists to manufacture
the special carbohydrates found in
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breast milk. While it is possible to build

carbohydrates in a chemistry lab, the
process is very slow and expensive, requiring several steps to make just one
molecule containing only two carbohydrates.
Biological systems like the ones
found in breast-milk producing cells use
specialized proteins called enzymes to
perform the numerous steps required to
make these carbohydrates. Using
biotechnology it is possible to obtain
these enzymes for use in the laboratory.
Efficiently producing the enzymes to
make the carbohydrates in the laboratory was the next hurdle to be overcome.
In answer to this challenge, Canadian
microbiologist, Dr. Warren Wakarchuk,
discovered not only how to manufacture
the necessary enzymes, but also how
to produce two enzymes in one, a step
that has made the process more efficient.
The use of this technology makes it possible to produce biologically important
carbohydrates for products like infant
formula and other health-care products.
Section 1.2 Review

1.
2.
Name one monosaccharide, one disaccharide, and one polysaccharide and

describe the biological importance of
each.
3.
Using diagrams illustrate why a dehydration reaction may be considered the reverse of a hydrolysis
reaction.
4.
16
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
List the similarities and differences between monosaccharides, disaccharides,

and polysaccharides.
Hitting the wall is a term marathon

runners use to describe their bodys reaction once their liver and muscle cells
have run out of glycogen. What strategies could a marathon runner utilize to
prevent this from happening?
Applying Inquiry/
5.
In preparation for competition an athlete has to decide what to eat on the

day of competition. Design an experiment to test the effects of different carbohydrate sources on athletic
performance. What is your hypothesis?
Outline your procedure.
Making Connections
6. Some people believe that a vegetarian
diet is best for you and for the environment too.
Prepare a PMI chart on this statement.
Include a consideration of dietary fibre
(more technically known as the
polysaccharide cellulose).
Contents
Previous Section
Next Section
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Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure of lipids
understand the varied functions of lipids in cells
relate types of lipids to their role in a balanced diet
The organic compounds known as lipids

include fats, phospholipids, waxes, and
steroids. In human cells, fats serve as
long-term energy storage molecules,
phospholipids form cell membranes, and
steroids include cholesterol and certain
sex hormones.
Because fats have many energycontaining carbon-hydrogen bonds
(there may be more than 100 such
bonds in a typical fat molecule), they are
useful long-term energy storage
molecules in both plants and animals.
Fats make for good energy storage
molecules because they are a very concentrated source of energya gram of
fat contains more than twice as much
energy as a gram of carbohydrate. This
translates into more energy requiring
less mass. This is an important consideration in animals that must carry their
stored energy with them as they travel.
Stored fat also helps cushion and
protect important organs such as the
kidneys.
Fats are made up mainly of two
types of molecules: fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are long carbon-hydrogen chains with a carboxyl (COOH) group
at one end. Fatty acids may be either
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated
fatty acids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms and are literally saturated with hydrogen atoms.
As seen in Figure 1.20, saturated fatty
acids are relatively straight (or linear)
molecules. In contrast, unsaturated
fatty acids have one or more double
bonds between carbons and so are not
saturated with hydrogen. Figure 1.20
shows that wherever a double bond is
found in the fatty acid portion of the
WORDORIGIN
molecule, it causes a kink or bend in the

molecule. These kinks prevent unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
from packing together tightly. As a result, the linear saturated fatty acids are
able to pack more tightly together and
tend to be solids at room temperature
(lard, for example). The kinked unsaturated fatty acids cannot pack as tightly
and therefore tend to be liquid at room
temperature.
The
degree
of
Lipid from the Greek word

lipos, meaning fat.
Palmitic acid
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Saturated
(no double bonds)
Oleic acid
H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Monounsaturated
(one double bond)
Linoleic acid
H H H H H H
H H
O H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C H
C C C
C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H
H H
H H H H H H H H
Polyunsaturated
(more than one double bond)
FIGURE 1.20 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
a) The hydrocarbon tail in palmitic acid is formed of carbon-carbon single bonds.

b) In oleic acid there is one carbon-carbon double bond. An additional hydrogen atom
could link to each of the carbon atoms. Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid.
c) The carbon chain in linoleic acid has two double bonds so linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid.
CHAPTER 1
17
Contents
Previous Section
WEBLINK
saturation affects both the form these

lipids take and their effects on human
health.
Lipids made from saturated fatty
acids are known as saturated fats. These
lipids are found in red meat and dairy
products. Saturated fats have proven
to be associated with health problems,
particularly related to the circulatory
system.
Lipids containing unsaturated fatty
acids are called unsaturated fats. They
come from plants, such as canola, corn,
and olives as well as some animal
sources. Some unsaturated fats may benefit your health. Certain unsaturated
fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are
essential in the human diet because they
cannot be made by the body. Recent
research on a substance called
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) suggests
possible health benefits from eating
To view and manipulate threedimensional models of lipids go

to
H
H
OH
HO
C
O
OH
HO
OH H
O
R1
R1
O
R2
O
C
Next Section
R2
3 H2O
water
O
R
R3
H
glycerol
3 fatty acids
triglyceride
FIGURE 1.21 Formation of a triglyceride. R1, R2, and R3 stand for the hydrocarbon
chain of the particular fatty acid. For example, R1, R2, and R3 could be palmitic acid,
oleic acid, or linoleic acid as shown in Figure 1.20.
nucleus of
fat cell
beef, lamb, and goat meat, and dairy

products.
Animals store energy in the form of
fats. Glycerol is an organic molecule
with three carbons and three hydroxyl
groups. Glycerol bonds with two or three
fatty acids to form a fat. A glycerol
molecule bonded to three fatty acids is
known as a triglyceride. Triglycerides
are the long-term energy storage
molecules in animals and are stored in
fat cells in adipose tissue (Figure 1.22).
Unlike other cells in the body, fat
cells have an almost unlimited capacity
for growth. So when individuals put on
weight, they are not making more fat
cells; instead they are just adding more
triglycerides to their existing cells.
Essential Fatty Acids

Low-fat diets are popular, and this may
be a good thing because most Canadians
eat a diet too high in fatespecially saturated fat. However, if low fat is better
for you, how about no fat? Wouldnt that
be even better still? The answer is no.
Lipids have an important role in your
body, and your cells can make some but
not all of the lipids you require. Linoleic,
linolenic, and arachidonic are the essential fatty acidsthe label essential
means they must be present in your
food. Without them, your cells are unable to make all of the fatty acids necessary to function properly. As with any
diet, it is best to consult with your doctor before drastically changing your eating habits.
adipose
tissue
capillaries
fat cells
FIGURE 1.22 In a microscope slide of adipose tissue the fat cells appear empty
because the lipid contents dissolve during preparation of the tissue.
18
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Discovering Biology
The Hidden Fats: What the Food Labels Dont Tell You
Although Health Canada rules require ingredient labels on food products, they
may not always tell you all of the types of compounds present in a particular food.
1. Obtain labels from fat-containing products such as potato chips, margarine,
cookies, mayonnaise, etc.
2. List the amounts of the various types of fats shown on the food labels in a chart
similar to the one shown.
3. Calculate the amount of hidden fat in the food product in the following way:
Total fat (Polyunsaturates + Monounsaturates + Saturates)
= Amount of hidden fat
The hidden fats are known as trans-fatty acids. These lipids
are produced when hydrogen atoms are added to unsaturated fats, a process known as hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation allows liquid vegetable oils to become
solids at room temperature. Trans-fatty acids are considered by many experts to be quite harmful to your
health. They are not required to be listed on food product labels at the present time, although some manufacturers have started to do so.
Product Product Product Product

#1
#2
#3
#4
Total Fat
Polyunsaturates
Monounsaturates
Saturates
Hidden Fat
Questions:
Which food product had the most hidden fats? Which had the least?
Use print or electronic references to research the health-related effect of
trans-fatty acids and report your findings to the class.
What is your opinion on the labelling of different foods? What changes in
labelling, if any, would you like to see?

WORDORIGIN
Phospholipids
+
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic

are from a combination of Latin
and Greek words. Hydro is
Latin, meaning water; philic
is from the Greek philios,
meaning friendly; and phobic
is from the Greek phobos,
meaning fearing.
a)
nitrogencontaining
group
phosphate
group
polar head
nonpolar tails
b)
like attracts like
phospholipids
oil (nonpolar)
water (polar)
nonpolar, hydrophobic
tails (fatty acids)
polar, hydrophilic
heads
FIGURE 1.23 A dual-natured molecule

a)Phospholipids are made up of two
long fatty acid tails attached to a head
that contains a negatively charged
phosphate group and a positively
charged nitrogen-containing group.
b)The polar head can bond with water
and remain submerged in it; the tails
have no bonding capacity for water but
will mix with oils.
CHAPTER 1
19
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Phospholipids
a) What all steroids have in common is a four-ring carbon unit:
b) What makes individual steroids unique are the side chains that
are attached to the rings:
CH3
OH
CH3
HC
CH3
CH3
Steroids
CH2
testosterone
CH2
HC
OH
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
cholesterol
estrogen
HO
HO
FIGURE 1.24 Structure of steroids
a) The basic unit of steroids, four carbon rings

b) Testosterone is a principal male hormone and estrogen is a principal female
hormone. These steroid hormones are found in both men and women, but in differing
amounts. Cholesterol has several important functions; for example, the breakdown of
fats.
Anabolic Steroids
Anabolic steroids are artificial versions of the male sex hormone testosterone that some men and women
take to increase their strength and
muscle size. Anabolic steroids are
UNIT 1
Phospholipids are also necessary to cells.

Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic
(water-loving) phosphate molecule and
two hydrophobic (water-hating) fatty
acid tails. Phospholipids are an important part of cell membranes. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends of
phospholipids help the cell membrane
perform its function of regulating the
passage of molecules into and out of the
cell. Only very small molecules or those
that are fat soluble can pass through the
phospholipid part of the membrane. See
Figure 1.23.
CH2
20
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Cellular Functions
Steroids are an important group of lipids

that consist of four linked carbon rings.
They include cholesterol and certain sex
hormones (Figure 1.24). Although cholesterol is necessary for several functions,
including the proper formation of cell
membranes, too much cholesterol in the
diet can cause heart and/or arterial
disease. The steroid sex hormones estrogen and testosterone are present in
both males and females, but in different relative amounts. Testosterone is
more abundant in males and estrogen is
more abundant in females.
commonly called steroids or roids.

Their use has a number of unhealthy
and dangerous side effects. For example, anabolic steroids can weaken
the immune system, leading to an increased chance of illness, can cause
liver damage, and can also permanently stop bone growth in teenagers.
As a result, the person fails to reach
his or her full height.
Other effects of anabolic steroid
use differ between the sexes. In
females, steroid use can stop menstruation, cause scalp hair to fall out,
and cause body and facial hair
growth to increase. In males, anabolic steroid use can interfere with
the production of natural testosterone, causing the testes to shrink,
sperm count and reproductive ability to decrease, and scalp hair to be
permanently lost.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
Diet and Disease
Defining the Issue
Developing Assessment Criteria
Researching the Issue
Analyzing Data and Information
Proposing a Course of Action
Justifying the Course of Action
Communicating Your Proposal
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
For a number of years the news media have been

reporting possible health risks associated with eating foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat.
The risks include an increased chance of developing heart and artery disease as well as an increased
risk of developing certain forms of cancer. As a result, many people have reduced their intake of foods
high in saturated fats, such as red meat and dairy
products.
However, recent research suggests that while
red meat and dairy products may contain some
harmful compounds, they also contain a substance
that is proving to be very beneficial. This beneficial compound is known as conjugated linoleic acid
a slight variation of linoleic acid, an essential
unsaturated fatty acid. Recall that essential fatty
acids are those that your cells cannot manufacture
and must, instead, be obtained in your diet.
Current testing of CLA is focused on animals like
cattle, as well as laboratory animals like rats and
mice. The farm animals have demonstrated that CLA
results in less body fat, leaner body mass, and better immune function. CLA use in lab animals has
shown promise in fighting different forms of cancer.
It has also resulted in improved tolerance of glucose.
These indicators show that CLA could also have benefits for humans. More testing is required, however,
before this can be proven.
Possible links between diet and disease remain

important areas for research. As a result of this
research there is potential for diseases like cancer
and diabetes to be prevented or cured by the foods
we eat.
FIGURE 1.25 Red meat and dairy products contain

conjugated linoleic acid.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Research diets that are recommended to people living

with cancer or diabetes. Select one of these diets and
summarize your findings under the headings of:
Description of diet; Nutrients present; Advantages of the
nutritional components for combatting the disease;
Disadvantages of the diet for healthy living.
2.
Identify the social and economic impacts (benefits and

costs) that could result in treatment of disease through
diet. Explain the effect that these impacts could have on
other areas of research.
3.
You are members of a team assigned to look at the research that currently exists on diet and its effect on
disease. Your team should include a nutritionist, a scientist, a medical doctor, a member of the news media,
and a person who is living with diabetes or cancer. You
will be preparing a presentation to a Health Canada
Committee on your recommendations for revising or
maintaining the current Canadas Food Guide. Your proposal should include an analysis of statistics, and
evidence from current research, as well as a summary
of the perspectives represented within your team.
CHAPTER 1
21
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A Three-dimensional
View of Molecules
The recently developed scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) and
atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are
able to reveal even smaller things
than either transmission or scanning
electron microscopes can. STMs and
AFMs belong to a family of scanning probe microscopes that are
based on mapping interactions between a physical tip and a surface of
interest. STMs map current/voltage
interactions and AFMs map atomic
force interactions.
The invention of the STM was a
Nobel-prize winning discovery at
the IBM laboratory in Zurich,

Switzerland. The microscope consists
of a tiny probe that maintains a 0.001
m gap while it scans across the surface of a molecule. In order to keep
the distance of the gap at a constant
0.001 m, the probe moves up and
down as it travels across the surface of the molecule. A computer
compiles an image of the molecules
surface based on the up-and-down
movements of the probe.
The three-dimensional map that
is generated has a resolution close to
atomic scale. These unique instruments perform this imaging in realtime and often in situ, without the
need for extensive preparation.
Dr. Christopher Yip of University
of Toronto has studied the insulin
molecule using AFM. He has produced an image of a crystal of insulin
in fluid. The periodic structures seen
WEBLINK
Section 1.3 Review
For more information on STMs,

begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
1.
Next Section
3. Name the molecules required to make

a triglyceride.
4. Why is it necessary to include cholesterol in your diet? Why is it harmful to
have too much cholesterol in your diet?
5. Research the importance of steroids to
human health. Make a chart to list the
normal functions of steroids and a
companion chart indicating the possible results of an excessive intake of
steroids.
Applying Inquiry/
6. A 100-g health food bar is advertised
as being low in saturated fat.
The total fat is listed as 32.2 g,
while polyunsaturates are 1.2 g and
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
in Figure 1.26 are individual insulin

hexamers packed into the crystal
lattice. Each hexamer is about
5.5 nm. in diameter (1 nm = 109 m.)
How would you calculate the
magnification?
FIGURE 1.26 AFM image of a crystal of
insulin.
monounsaturates are 14.4 g. Saturates

are 5.0 g. Write a paragraph to explain
why you would or would not recommend this bar as a healthy choice.
List four important biological functions

of lipids.
2. Explain why fats are well suited to be

the long-term energy storage molecules
in plants and animals.
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Making Connections
7.
There is much discussion in the media

about the possible health effects of saturated versus unsaturated fatty acids.
a) Compare the structures of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

b) Relate the structures to their functions/actions in the body.
c) Predict the long-term health effects
of a diet rich in either of these types
of compounds.
d) Extend your prediction from c) to
a consideration of possible economic impacts on society.
8. Some fats are better for you than others. Two of the better fats are canola
oil (a Canadian discovery and product)
and olive oil. Use a risk/benefit analysis to investigate the effect of a diet in
which the only fat consumed is canola.
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1.4 Proteins
Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure of proteins
understand the formation of peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis
relate protein structure and function
Proteins direct and control the chemical

reactions in life processes: they make up
part of the cell membrane; they provide
support and shape to cells; some function as hormones to send chemical messages between cells or as enzymes to
a) What all amino acids have in common is an
amino group and a carboxyl group attached
to a central carbon.
H
amino
group
H
N
carboxyl
group
OH
R
speed up chemical reactions in your

body. In fact, about half of your bodys
dry weight is protein.
Proteins are polymers of amino
acids (Figure 1.27). Each amino acid
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
similar to carbohydrates and lipids,
but amino acids are unique because they
contain nitrogen. All amino acids have
the same basic structure: an amino
group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH),
WORDORIGIN
Protein from the Greek, proteios meaning of the first
rank. The term was first used
by the Dutch chemist Gerard
Johannes Mulder in 1838.
Mulder recognized the primary
importance of proteins.
The linkage of several amino acids...

side-chain
H
b) What makes the 20 amino acids unique are the

side-chains attached to the central carbon.
H
O
H
N
H
H
N
OH
C
OH
ile
H2 O
OH
OH
gln
ala
H
O
H2 O
CH2
tyrosine
H
N
OH
OH
ala
gln
ile
H
O
H
N
OH
CH2
glutamine
C
H2N
...produces a polypeptide chain like this:

O
ala
le u
s er
glu
glu
his
ala
FIGURE 1.27 Structure of amino acids
a) Elements common to the structure of all amino

acids are an amino group and a carboxyl group,
linked by a central carbon with a hydrogen attached
to it. The side chain that occupies the R position
determines the character of individual amino acids.
b) Examples of actual amino acids: tyrosine and
glutamine
gln
il e
s er
tyr
a la
ser
glu
glu
FIGURE 1.28 Beginnings of a protein
Amino acids join together by dehydration synthesis to form polypeptide chains that
fold up to become proteins. The formation of each peptide bond yields water as a
by-product. Here alanine (ala) joins with glutamine (gln), which is then linked to isoleucine
(ile). A typical protein consists of hundreds of amino acids linked together.
CHAPTER 1
23
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M AT H L I N K
How would you calculate the
number of different proteins
150 amino acids long that could
be assembled from the 20 different amino acids available in
cells? Hint: How many choices
are there for the first amino
acid? How many for the second? How many different proteins, then, could be assembled
from two amino acids? Does
the same logic apply to proteins assembled from 150
amino acids?
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and a side chain (or R group) attached

to the central carbon. The 20 amino
acids important to human metabolism
vary only in the structure of the R
groups. The different R groups give
the various amino acids different biological properties. For example, R groups
may vary in the amount of space they
occupy, carry a partial charge or be able
to form hydrogen bonds with other parts
of the protein molecule. See Figure 1.27b
for examples of different R groups.
Proteins can be very large
molecules. Some of them contain as
many as 1000 amino acid monomers.
Proteins are formed by dehydration synthesis within cells. The bonds that form
between adjacent amino acids are
known as peptide bonds, and such a
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molecule, with many amino acids, is

known as a polypeptide (Figure 1.28).
For a protein to function properly in
a muscle cell, as a hormone, or as an enzyme it must have a particular shape.
Structure determines function (how one
molecule fits together with another).
Some proteins have very complex
shapes, and due to these complex structures, scientists recognize four different
levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. See
Figure 1.29. The primary structure is
simply the order of the amino acids in
the polypeptide. Once formed, the primary structure often folds upon itself
to form a secondary structure in the
form of an -helix or a -pleated sheet
pattern. Tertiary structures are formed
FOUR LEVELS OF STRUCTURE IN PROTEINS

Primary
structure
a)
amino acid sequence
Secondary
structure
b)
helix
random coil
pleated sheet
FIGURE 1.29 Four levels of
structure in proteins.
a) The primary structure of the

protein. The sequence of amino
acids determines the proteins
final shape.
c)
b) The secondary structure

may be a -pleated sheet,
corkscrew-like -helix, or the
less organized random coil.
Secondary structures are due
to hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary
structure
folded polypeptide
chain
c) The tertiary structure involves folding of the secondary

structures.
d) Two or more polypeptide
chains may be linked together
in a given protein, in this case
hemoglobin. This configuration
forms the quaternary structure.
24
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Quaternary
structure
d)
two or more
polypeptide chains
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when the secondary structures fold over

upon themselves, and are held by covalent, ionic, hydrogen and non-polar
bonds. The covalent bonds are
disulfide bridges between sulfur-containing amino acids in different parts of
the polypeptide chain or between different polypeptide chains in the protein.
Quaternary structures occur when two
or more polypeptide chains combine to
form the protein.
Proteins Complexed with

Metal Ions
A number of proteins essential to the
metabolism of different types of cells
contain metal ions. For example,
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hemoglobin is complexed with iron.

Hemoglobin carries oxygen in red blood
cells. Its quaternary structure is formed
from four polypeptide chains. Each
polypeptide chain in the quaternary
structure consists of around 150 amino
acids. Linked to each of the four chains
is a complex called the heme group that
contains iron in the Fe(II) state. This
group is essential to the binding of oxygen by the molecule and imparts the red
colour to human blood. The blood of
some other organisms contains different
complexes; for example, the iron complex is slightly different in the blood of
some marine worms and this results in
their blood being green.
WEBLINK
To view and manipulate

three-dimensional models of
proteins, go to
Section 1.4 Review

1.
Name and describe the monomer

molecule that makes up proteins.
2.
Provide reasons why proteins are important to cells and cellular functions.
3.
Explain the relationship between the

terms peptide bond and polypeptide.
4.
Describe the four levels of protein

structure and indicate the relation
between structure and function in proteins.
5. Make three-dimensional models of protein structures. You may want to use

Styrofoam balls, toothpicks, paper
clips, glue, etc. in the construction of
your models.
6. Your digestive system produces enzymes to break down the proteins in
your diet into amino acids. Within your
cells, these individual amino acids
are reassembled into the proteins
needed by your body. Name the process responsible for a) breaking down
polypeptides and b) joining amino acid
monomers into polypeptides.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
Proteins have a huge range of functions

within the body. Some proteins have
stirred controversy because of their use
in medical treatment. Research and report on one of the following proteins:

human growth hormone, estrogen, herceptin (a cancer-fighting protein), or
beta-amyloid (a protein involved in
Alzheimers disease).
8. You can manufacture only about half
of the amino acids required by your
body. The rest, called essential amino
acids, must be obtained in your diet.
Find out which amino acids are designated as essential, and what foods are
a good source of these important
molecules.
9. Design an experiment to investigate the
effects of three popular protein
supplements.
Making Connections
10. Linus Pauling was one of the few scientists to win the Nobel Prize twice.
Research his work on protein structure
at the library or on the Internet. List at
least two proteins present in common
substances whose structures are precisely known. Relate their function to
their structure.
11. Advertisements for protein supplements are very popular in fitness and
body-building magazines. Identify
claims being made in these ads. Are
they justified? Why?
CHAPTER 1
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1.5 Nucleic Acids

Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure and biological importance of nucleic acids
relate energy release in the cell to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

a)
sugar
(deoxyribose)
nitrogenous
base
NUCLEOTIDE
P
O
O
P
P
O
T
b)
P
P
O
P
P
O
O
P
O
P
sugar-phosphate
backbone
hydrogen bond
phosphate
group
Nucleic acids form the important hereditary molecule DNA, which determines
the formation of substances characteristic of any particular species, and also
its closely related molecular cousin RNA,
which is involved in the synthesis of the
proteins determined by the DNA code.
Nucleic acids are polymers formed from
monomer molecules called nucleotides.
Nucleotides are made of three subunits:
a nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon pentose sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. The sugar is deoxyribose
in DNA or ribose in RNA, and the nitrogen-containing base may be one of
five compounds: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Thymine is
present only in DNA; uracil is present
only in RNA.
As shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31,
in DNA the sugar and phosphate groups
form the outer backbone of the molecule,
while the bases point toward the interior. Hydrogen bonds formed through
P
P
FIGURE 1.30 Nucleotides are the building
blocks of DNA.
DNA strand
DNA
double helix
a) The organization of the nucleotide: sugar,

phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The
structural formulas for guanine and cytosine.
A given nucleotide might contain any of four
bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), or
Cytosine (C).
b) The sugar and phosphate components form
the outer backbone of the molecule while the
bases point toward the molecules interior.
Hydrogen bonds between the bases link the
two chains to form the DNA double helix.
Nucleotides join together in dehydration synthesis to form both single-stranded RNA and double-stranded DNA. RNA nucleotides contain the
sugar ribose and DNA nucleotides contain the
sugar deoxyribose, which has one less oxygen
atom per sugar than ribose.
26
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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slight differences in charge between

pairs of bases link the two chains of
bases. Each of the linked chains of bases,
or strands, is in the form of a helix, so
the molecule is referred to as a double
helix. The three-dimensional structure
of DNA is such that adenine can pair
only with thymine and guanine can pair
only with cytosine. These are referred
to as complementary base pairs. RNA
has a similar sugar phosphate chain
backbone. RNA is usually single
stranded, although it is capable of forming hydrogen bonds and a double helix
under the appropriate conditions.

Adenosine Triphosphate ATP

FIGURE 1.31 DNA is double stranded; RNA is

usually single stranded.
a) A computer-generated space-filling model of

DNA
b) A computer-generated space-filling model of
RNA
Molecular Circuits
For the past four decades electrical

engineers have been constantly proving Moores Law, which states: the
ability to place electronic circuits on
a silicon computer chip doubles about
every 18 to 24 months. This allows
the speed of the computers processor to double as well. However, some
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is another important nucleotide in the cell.

Unlike DNA and RNA, which are polymers, ATP is a monomer. Three phosphate groups are attached to the ribose.
The bonds between these phosphate
groups are often called high-energy
bonds because they are associated with
energy release. ATP is the energy-providing molecule of the cell. When the
third phosphate group is split off by hydrolysis, a net release of energy results, and ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
is formed. The conversion of ATP to ADP
can be simplified to:
ATP ADP + P + ENERGY
computer scientists think that their

ability to miniaturize circuits will
soon have reached its limitand
computers will soon reach their
terminal velocity.
Many scientists think that the answer to this, as well as to other electronic problems, is to use
custom-designed molecules to replace
parts such as transistors. For example, at Cornell University in the U.S.,
researchers have devised a way to
use ATPase (the enzyme that generates ATP in mitochondria) to power
a tiny motor. The researchers hope
that one day, such a device may be
used to inject anti-cancer drugs into

the diseased cells in a cancer patient.
Other research is testing the use of
molecules as switches that can turn
off a flow of electric current, performing a function similar to the
diodes that are currently used.
One of the advantages of using
molecules as opposed to conventional
electronic circuits is that a molecular
circuit can be made up to 60 000
times smaller than its electronic
counterpart. This fact opens up the
possibility that Moores Law may continue unchecked as molecular-based
machines become the standard.
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The ATP cycle
FIGURE 1.32 The ATP cycle

Energy released from the
breakdown of ATP is available
for endergonic (energy-requiring) reactions in the cell.
Exergonic reactions in the cell
provide energy to convert
ADP to ATP.
ATP
Hydrolysis
Energy from
exergonic reactions
ation synth
ydr
es
eh
is
Energy for
endergonic reactions
ADP+ P
This conversion of ATP to ADP, a reaction that releases energy, is termed an

exergonic reaction. For example, muscle cells break down ATP to ADP, providing energy for movement. Reactions
that require energy are called
endergonic reactions.
To replace the ATP that is used, cells

break down glucose to enable ADP to be
re-converted to ATP. Thus, glucose supplies the energy to form ATP, and ATP
provides energy directly to the cell. This
sequence of reactions is often shown
as a cycle, as in Figure 1.32.
Section 1.5 Review

1.
Describe the biological importance of

nucleotides.
2.
Using a table, compare and contrast

DNA and RNA. List their similarities
and differences.
3.
Identify three types of molecules

formed by nucleotides. Describe each
with respect to components, structure,
and function.
4.
Explain how the ATP molecule is involved in the storage and release of energy in cells.
5.
6.
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When researchers analyze the structure of DNA, certain patterns are constant. For example, the number of
adenine nucleotides always equals the
number of thymine nucleotides, and
the number of guanine nucleotides always equals the number of cytosine nucleotides. Based on this information,
what might you conclude about the
structure of the DNA molecule?
Investigate the DNA molecule and
check your conclusion.
Examine Figure 1.30. The structure of
DNA is described as a double helix.
What common object does the shape
of the DNA molecule remind you of?
Relate the parts of that object to the
molecules that make up DNA.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
What might happen to a cell whose

DNA is damaged?
8.
In DNA, A always binds with T and G

with C. If one strand of a DNA molecule
was made up of the bases ATGTCGAA,
what bases would the other strand contain?
Making Connections
9.
DNA could possibly be damaged by

overexposure to UV radiation.
Research the effects of UV radiation on
DNA. Make a list of precautions that
should be taken to minimize such exposure.
10. It is now considered important for

the general public to have a basic
knowledge of DNA. DNA affects our
lives in more and more ways all the
time; ways that include decisionmaking regarding reproduction, health,
voting, and jury duty. Choose one of
these issues, research and prepare a
supported opinion piece indicating why
a basic knowledge of DNA is useful.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 1.2, 1.3, 1.4)
Building Molecular Models

Problem
3.
How do carbon atoms and other atoms join to form organic molecules?
Initiating and Planning
Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
Conducting and Recording
Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating
Build another molecule of glucose and join the two

molecules together to form maltose as shown in
Figure 1.34.
Part B Lipids
4. Build a glycerol molecule as shown in Figure 1.35.
Materials and Equipment

Molecular model kit
Procedure
1.
Use a molecular model kit and build the molecules

indicated in this Investigation. Be sure to make a
labelled sketch in your notebook for each molecule
you build.
OH
OH
OH
Part A Carbohydrates
H
FIGURE 1.35 A glycerol molecule
H
H
OH
5.
H
H
CH3 (CH2)nCOOH
OH
OH
OH
so a simple representation of a fatty acid would

be a 3- or 4-carbon chain as shown in Figure 1.36.
However, be aware that in animal tissues the most
commonly found fatty acids have n between 12 and
24. If you have time, build palmitic acid,
OH
CH3 (CH2)14 COOH
FIGURE 1.33 The structure of glucose
2.
Build three molecules of a short fatty acid. The general formula of a fatty acid is:
Glucose has a structural formula of C6H12O6. Use

Figure 1.33 to help you build a glucose molecule.
glucose
CH2OH
CH2OH
O H
H
H
OH
OH
HO
FIGURE 1.34
glucose
OH
O H
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
Dehydration
Synthesis
Hydrolysis
maltose
CH2OH
water
CH2OH
O H
H
OH
OH
HO
O H
H
O
H
OH
OH
H2O
OH
The formation of maltose.

CHAPTER 1
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(continued)
9.
O H H H
HO
C C C C H
H H H
FIGURE 1.36 A 4-carbon fatty acid
6.
Place the glycerol and three fatty acids you built on

your table and join them together into a triglyceride
by simulating the process of dehydration synthesis.
Part C Proteins
7. Proteins are made from different combinations of
the 20 different amino acids. Remember that all
amino acids contain an amino group and a carboxylic acid group. Two of the simplest amino acids
are glycine and alanine. Use Figure 1.37 to help
you build glycine and alanine.
H O
H
N
H
C C O H
N
H
C C
H C H
O H
H
a)
b)
FIGURE 1.37 a) glycine b) alanine
8.
30
Arrange the amino acids so you can bond them together by simulating the process of dehydration
synthesis.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Reverse the reaction from step 8. This will leave

you with two amino acids through the process of
hydrolysis.
1. Name the process that would allow the completion

of step 3 within a cell.
2. Why did you need to build three molecules of
fatty acid in step 5?
3. What molecules did you have left over after completing step 8?
4. Name the type of molecule you built in step 8.
5. What is the name of the bond that joins the two
amino acids together in step 8?

6. As a class, alcohols have a functional group called
a hydroxyl group. How does this property explain
the fact that ethanol, CH3CH2OH, dissolves in
water but ethane, CH3 CH3, does not?
7. Three fatty acids form a triglyceride with one glycerol. What similarities would the fatty acids have
with polysaccharides? What differences?
Extending
8. When you consume more food than you require the
mitochondria in the liver are involved in forming
triglycerides from the excess. Why is storage of
triglycerides important?
9. Some excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver
and muscle. Why is it helpful that some glucose
supplies are stored as glycogen instead of all being
converted to triglycerides (fat)?
10. Prepare a flow chart or comic strip to communicate to elementary-school students the importance
of consuming a proper diet with regard to fat.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 1.2)
Testing for Compounds in Foods
Most of the compounds present in your cells either originate in or are made from the food that you eat.
Therefore you should be able to confirm the presence
of many of these compounds in typical foods.
3.
Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add

3 mL of tap water to each of 4 test tubes and label
them Starch Control, Sugar Control, Protein
Control, and Lipid Control. Keep these test tubes
in a rack.
Problem
4.

3 mL of the starch solution to another test tube and
label it Starch Suspension.
5.

3 mL of glucose solution into another test tube and
label it Glucose Solution.
6.

3 mL of albumin (egg white) solution to another test
tube and label it Albumin Solution.
7.

3 mL of vegetable oil and 3 mL of water to another
test tube and label it Oil Suspension.
8.
Arrange each of the test tubes from steps 47 in

the rack beside its control tube from step 3.
9.
Add 3 drops of Lugols iodine solution to the test

tubes labelled Starch Control and Starch
Suspension.
What types of compounds are present in typical foods?
Materials
(per group of 24 students)
safety goggles
disposable gloves
(not latex)
Benedicts solution
Biuret reagent
10% NaOH
starch suspension
glucose solution
Lugols iodine
albumin (egg white)
solution
assorted food items
such as 2% milk,
whole milk, hard

candy, butter,
sunflower seeds
400-mL beaker
10-mL graduated
cylinder
grease pencil
hot plate
eyedropper
8 test tubes
test-tube holder
test-tube rack
mortar and pestle
plain brown paper
dropper
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles and gloves. Biuret reagent

is toxic and NaOH is corrosive. Do not let these solutions
come into contact with your eyes, skin, or clothing. Use
tongs to remove the test tubes from the hot water bath.
Procedure
1.
Copy Table 1.1 in your lab notebook. You will complete the white sections only.
2.
Prepare a water bath by placing 300 mL of water

into a 400-mL beaker and placing the beaker on a
hot plate. Bring the temperature to a near boil (simmer). Maintain the water level in the bath by adding
more water when necessary. While the water is
heating, read through steps 313 of the procedure.
Prepare a flow chart for the method used in this
Investigation.
TABLE 1.1 Results of Food Analysis
Test Tube
Contents
Test Results
Starch
Test
Sugar
Test
Protein
Test
Lipid
Test
Control
Starch
Suspension
Glucose
Solution
Albumin
Solution
Oil
Suspension
2% milk

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(continued)
10. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add

3 mL of Benedicts solution to the test tubes labelled
Sugar Control and Glucose Solution. Place the
two test tubes in the water bath and heat for 2 min.
Remove the test tubes from the water bath to
cool.

1. What result indicates a positive test for starch? For
sugar? For protein? For lipid?
2. Which food samples contained the nutrients indicated?
11. To each of Protein Control and Albumin

Solution, add 10 drops of 10% NaOH, followed
by 7 drops of the Biuret reagent.
12. Place one or two drops of Lipid Control and Oil

Suspension on a piece of plain brown paper.
3. Would eating only hard candy or nuts provide a balanced diet? Explain.
13. Record the results of steps 912 in your data table.
4. What compounds did you discover to be present in

milk? Would milk provide a more balanced diet
than candy or nuts? Why or why not?
14. Test a selection of foods for the presence of starch,

sugar, protein, and lipid following the procedure
outlined in steps 912. Use the pestle to crush solid
pieces of food in a mortar and dissolve the material in about 3 mL of water before testing. Record
the name of the food and results in the data table.
Extending
5. Why do you think it is important to know what
compounds are present in food?
6. What application do you think there is for these
tests? Hint: How carefully did you read your breakfast cereal box this morning?
32
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
amino acid
atom
cellulose
cholesterol
compound
covalent bond
disaccharide
double helix
glycerol
glycogen
hydrogen bond
hydrophilic
hydrophobic
inorganic compound
ionic bond
lipid
molecule
molecular formula
monomer
monosaccharide
nucleotide
organic compound
phospholipid
polar molecule
polymer
polypeptide
polysaccharide
primary structure
quaternary structure
R group
saturated fat
secondary structure
starch
steroid
structural formula
tertiary structure
triglyceride
unsaturated fat
Essential Understandings

Atoms are the basic units of matter and are held

together by covalent or ionic bonds to make
compounds.
Molecules can be represented by molecular and
structural formulas.
Many cell compounds are polymers built from
individual units called monomers.
Water is a polar molecule.
Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water
molecules.
Because of the polarity of the molecule, water has
many chemical and physical properties important
to life on Earth.
Many substances dissolve easily in water.

1.4 Proteins


Monosaccharides are single sugar units and are the

basic unit of carbohydrates.
Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides
bonded together.
Polysaccharides are made of many monosaccharides bonded together. They are important shortterm energy storage molecules.
Glucose is the monomer for biologically important
polysaccharides. It is a source of energy for cells.
Lipids consist of an assortment of molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

Fats store energy in their many bonds and are used
for long-term energy storage in plant and animal
cells.
Fats may contain saturated or unsaturated fatty
acids.
Triglycerides, stored in fat cells, consist of three fatty
acids bonded to glycerol.
Phospholipids are important to cell membranes.

Amino acids are the monomers for polypeptides and

proteins
There are 20 different amino acids. They differ only
in their R groups.
Peptide bonds join amino acids together in a
polypeptide.
Proteins are complex molecules that may be organized into four levels of structure.
1.5 Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.

DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids. DNA
determines the heredity of the cell; RNA is active in
protein synthesis.
ATP, the energy molecule of the cell, is a nucleotide.
Consolidate Your Understanding

1.
Revisit the Checkpoint on page 5 and review your web

showing how elements interact. Revise your web based
on what you learned in this chapter.
2.
Draw a concept map to describe the components of the

cell using the following key terms as a starting point:
atom, molecule, compound.
3.
Explain how chemistry and biology work together to support our understanding of the cell.
4.
At the end of the Unit you will be completing an

Achievement Task to demonstrate what you have
learned. As you study the Unit content, what methods
can you use to prepare for this task?
CHAPTER 1
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CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
1. Which of the following combinations does not describe
an organic molecule?
a) carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
b) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c) nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus
d) phospholipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid
2. Water molecules are polar because
a) they have north and south poles
b) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time
around the hydrogen atoms than the oxygen atom,
resulting in the hydrogen atom having a slight negative charge and the oxygen atom having a slight
positive charge
c) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time
around the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom,
resulting in the oxygen atom having a slight negative charge and the hydrogen atom having a slight
positive charge
d) none of the above
3. The monomer of all biologically important polysaccharides is
a) an amino acid
b) water
c) a phospholipid
d) glucose
4. Sucrose is commonly known as
a) table sugar
b) a monosaccharide
c) a polysaccharide
d) a nucleic acid
5. The
is
a)
b)
c)
d)
short-term energy storage molecule in animal cells

glycerol
glucose
glycogen
maltose
6. Saturated fatty acids

a) contain no double bonds between the carbon atoms
b) contain at least one double bond between carbon
atoms
c) are composed of two fatty acids and glycerol
d) are the energy molecules of cells
7. The individual amino acids making up a polypeptide are
bonded together by
a) hydrogen bonds
b) peptide bonds
c) ionic bonds
d) polar bonds
34
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
8. Athletic training helps increase your stored

a) fat
b) glycerol
c) glycogen
d) glucose
9. The secondary level of protein structure represents
a) the order of the amino acids in the finished polypeptide
b) two or more polypeptide chains combine to form a
protein
c) 1000 amino acid monomers
d) a primary structure that is folded into a helix or
pleated sheet
10. The differences between DNA and RNA include the following:
a) DNA is double stranded
b) RNA is usually single stranded
c) RNA contains the sugar ribose
d) all of these
11. Explain the difference between the bonds that form between the atoms of a sugar molecule and the bonds that
form between atoms of sodium and chlorine. What type
of compound is sodium chloride?
12. Draw a diagram of the structural formula of glucose.
Label at least one example of the following parts: carbon atom, hydrogen atom, oxygen atom, covalent bond,
shared electron pair.
13. Surface tension is the property that makes water form
drops and allows some insects to walk across the surface of water in a stream. Using a diagram explain
how the polarity of water results in water having surface tension.
14. Diagram the process that allows the cycling of ATP
molecules in cells.
15. Explain why the name carbohydrate is a descriptive
name for any sugar.
16. Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and transfatty acids.
17. Give two reasons why synthesis and hydrolysis are opposite chemical reactions.
18. Joining monomers into polymers is called polymerization. Describe the role of polymerization in the formation of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Contents
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19. Construct a chart to compare the structure and functions

of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. Some
points of comparison are: a) building blocks; b) functions
in organisms.
Give examples of each type of molecule.
20. Acid precipitation is a somewhat preventable environmental problem. Outline at least five steps you could take
to cut down your contributions toward the acid rain problem.
21. Investigate the carbohydrate-loading method of training
for a running event. Report back to your classmates on
your findings.
22. Describe the four levels of protein structure and how
each level contributes to the three-dimensional shape of
a protein molecule.
Applying Inquiry/
23. A company manufacturing cookie dough claims that their
new product is fat-free. Upon scientific examination of
the contents of the product at Health Canada, it is found
to contain glucose, sucrose, glycerol, a number of different amino acids, and several molecules containing
long carbon hydrogen chains and carboxyl groups.
According to these results, should the manufacturer be
marketing the product as fat-free? Why or why not?
24. Explain why the formation of a polysaccharide is a dehydration synthesis reaction. Use a diagram to help explain your answer.
25. Unsaturated fats are turned into saturated fats, in a process termed hydrogenation. Explain why this is an appropriate name for this process.
26. Suggest simple experiments to decide if a solid food-like
substance contains lipids, proteins, or carbohydrates.
27. Suggest a method a scientist might use to distinguish between a molecule that was a monomer and one that was
a polymer.
28. Using the Internet and other sources, research the controversy surrounding Olestra. Write a paragraph that informs others of the controversy about this substance.
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29. What foods have you consumed this week that were high
in saturated fat, unsaturated fat, trans-fatty acids. Based
on what you have learned in this chapter prepare a table
similar to the one below and fill in the appropriate information.
Type of fat
Food with highest

content of fat
Health effects of
the particular fat
30. Moores Law is the premise that the ability to double

the number of transistors on a circuit doubles every 18
to 24 months. Write a testable hypothesis based on
Moores Law and design an experiment to test your hypothesis.
31. Discuss your plans with your teacher in advance, and
then collect precipitation samples from local puddles,
ponds, lakes, or streams. Test the pH of your samples
and present your findings to the class.
Making Connections
32. Write a brief essay explaining how life in Ontario may
be different if ice did not float.
33. Write a supported opinion in favour of one of the
following statements: (1) organic compounds are the most
important compounds in cells, or (2) inorganic compounds, including water, are the most important compounds in cells.
34. Many organizations publish information related to the
amount and types of food you should be eating. These
nutritional guidelines do not always agree. What sort
of characteristics should you use to decide if the recommendations of a particular group are based on fact
or opinion?
35. There is some controversy as to the cause of global
warming. Many scientists believe that the increase in the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is to blame for global
warming. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
by industrial processes, home heating, and automobile
exhaust. It is thought to act like a blanket over Earth
keeping the heat in. Other scientists claim that the temperature increase is just a cyclical variation in our planets
climate, such as the ice ages were. Still other experts are
in doubt as to what the cause is. If you were the minister
responsible for the environment, what recommendations
would you make to the House of Commons regarding the
actions Canada should take to combat the effects of global
warming?
CHAPTER 1
35
Contents
UNIT
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
describe how organelles and other

cell components carry out various
cell processes and explain how
these processes are related to the
function of organs (2.3,
Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
describe the fluid mosaic structure

of cell membranes (2.2)
illustrate and explain important

cellular processes, including their
functions in the cell, the ways in
which they are interrelated, and
the fact that they occur in all living
cells (2.1, 2.2, 2.3)
identify new questions and

problems stemming from the study
of metabolism in plant and animal
cells (2.3)
explain how scientific knowledge

of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (2.2, 2.3)
analyze ways in which societal

needs have led to technological
advances related to cellular
processes (2.2)
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CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure
and Function
FIGURE 2.1 The diagram of a plant cell indicates the importance of the cell wall,
choroplasts, and central vacuole. These are all structures that are not present in
animal cells.
36
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ll living things are made of cells, but despite the amazing diversity of life
on Earth everything from microscopic bacteria to giant squids to
humans all cells contain similar basic parts. Each part or structure has
a specific job or function to perform. For instance, the cell membrane regulates everything that enters and exits a cell, the nucleus controls all of the
cells activities, and vesicles transport materials from place to place within
a cell. If any structure fails, the operation of the entire cell is compromised.
For example, when a basic cell structure called a lysosome malfunctions in
a human cell, it may cause one of thirty diseases collectively known as
lysosomal transport diseases.
In this chapter, you will be introduced to cells and basic cell theory. You
will study the relationship between surface area and volume, which explains
why cells are so small. You will learn to differentiate between the two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. You will investigate the types of
structures mentioned above as well as other important cell structures such
as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and mitochondria. You will
examine how each structure manages a different cell function. As you proceed
through the chapter, you will gain an understanding of some of the serious
health problems that result when any one of the cells structures malfunctions.
Discovering Biology
Cells
What do you remember about cells? You have probably looked at cells under
the microscope in previous science classes. Sketch a diagram of a cell from
memory. Include structures in your drawing and label them. Compare your
drawing with those of other students. Were you reminded of some organelles
you had forgotten by looking at others drawings?
CHECKPOINT
Make a chart to list what
you know about cell structures and how they function.
Structure
Function
37
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Key Understandings
explain the cell theory
describe the relationship between surface area and volume
understand why cells are small
WEBLINK
Robert Hooke, Antonie van
Leuwenhoek, and Henri
Dutrochet contributed to the
cell theory. Research the role
of each of these scientists and
prepare a written report to
summarize your information.
Begin your research at
M AT H L I N K
Remember the formulas:
a) Volume of a cube = s3
b) Surface area of a cube = 6s2

Cells had been observed since the 1600s,

when Robert Hooke made his first observations of cells in cork, but their importance as the basic unit of life was not
realized until the 1800s when the cell
theory was developed from the work
of many scientists. Schleiden, Schwann,
and Virchow each made a proposal that
contributed to the development of the
theory. Schleiden was the first to observe
that all plant tissue was composed of
cells; Schwann soon extended the observation to animal tissue and then to
all living tissue. Later, Virchow extended
the theory by adding that all cells could
arise only from other cells. Virchows
contribution laid to rest the theory of
spontaneous generation.
Even today, the cell theory is the
foundation used by biologists to try to
understand life on Earth. The modern
cell theory states:

All living things are composed of

cells.
Cells are the basic units of living organisms.
All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Cell Size and Shape

Most plant and animal cells are similar
in sizethey are very small, ranging
somewhere between 10 and 100 m. In
this chapter you will be seeing actual
photos taken through a microscope of
cells and cell structures. These photos
are called photomicrographs.
Why are most cells small? There are
good reasons. A cell needs a constant
supply of energy and a method to rid
itself of waste products. Cells obtain energy and get rid of waste products
through their cell or plasma membrane.
It is therefore better for a cell to have the

FIGURE 2.2 From left to right Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow. Each contributed
to the cell theory, in 1838, 1839, and 1858 respectively.
38
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
Previous Section
maximum membrane surface area possible, while at the same time minimizing the distance within the cell that
important molecules have to travel.
Minimizing distance also minimizes the
time taken for cell processes. With this
in mind, it is easy to show mathematically why it is better for cells to be small.
a)
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100 m
blue whale
10 m
human
1m
10 cm
chicken egg

restrictions.
1 cm
frog egg
1 mm
100 m
plant and
animal cells
b)
10 m
cell nucleus
most bacteria

restrictions.
1 m
100 nm
mitochondrion
smallest bacteria
large virus
10 nm
c)
proteins
lipids
1 nm

restrictions.
0.1 nm
atoms
1 centimetre (cm)
1 millimetre (mm)
1 micrometre (m)
1 nanometre (nm)
FIGURE 2.3 Hidden life. Microscope enlargements of the point of a pin show living organisms, bacteria, present on an object that we
might think unsuitable for supporting life.
a) 85; b) 425; c) 2100)
= 102 (1/100) metre

= 103 (1/1000) metre
= 106 (1/1 000 000) metre
= 109 (1/1 000 000 000) metre
FIGURE 2.4 Little and big. The size of various objects.
CHAPTER 2
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As you can see in Table 2.1, smaller

cells, such as those on the right, benefit from a much larger surface area to
volume ratio than do larger cells. In reality, no cells are perfect cubes or
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spheres and a great variety of shapes

exist. For example, human nerve cells
can be very long, but to maintain a high
enough surface area to volume ratio to
survive, they are very slender.
TABLE 2.1 The Effect of Size per Cube Side on Surface Area and Volume
One (2 2 2)-cm cube

Surface Area (cm2)
3
Volume (cm )
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Eight 1-cm cubes
24
48
96
3:1
6:1
12:1
INFOBIT
Section 2.1 Review
Although most cells are about

the same size, there are exceptions: Mycoplasma (at approximately 0.2 m in diameter) is
the smallest cell yet discovered
and the single-celled
Acetabularia sp. (at 57 cm) is
one of the largest cells.
1. Biologists accept that life begins at the
cellular level of organization. Provide
two pieces of evidence to support this
view.
2. What is the normal size range for most
cells? Explain why it is an advantage
for cells to be small.
3. Calculate the volume and surface area
of 512 cubes with sides of 0.25 cm.
Applying Inquiry/
4. Two different types of cells have the following dimensions. Cell #1 is 2 mm
2 mm 8 mm and cell #2 is 1 mm
2 mm 16 mm.
Investigation
Refer to page 58,
Investigation 1
40
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Sixty-four 0.5-cm cubes
a) Calculate the volumes of cell #1 and

#2. How do they compare?
b) Calculate the surface areas of the
two cells. How do they compare?
c) Calculate the surface area to volume ratio for the two cells. How do
these values compare?
d) What do the values in c) tell you
about the importance of cell shape?
Use this information to explain how

nerve cells can be very large (up to
1 m in length).
5. Cells were observed as early as 1665.
Since that time, important new discoveries about the cell have been made.
Research and construct a time-line of
observation and discovery.
6. Assume you are a 19th-century reporter assigned to explain the importance of the discovery of cells and the
cell theory. Write a supported paragraph to tell your readers why such
discoveries are important to them.
Making Connections
7.
An understanding of cells informs and

affects everyone.
a) Explain how the cell theory relates
to other living organisms besides
humans, e.g., to a dog or an
amoeba.
b) Describe four ways that cells have
affected your life.
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2.2 Cell Structures

Key Understandings
distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe how cell structures manage various cell functions
explain the fluid mosaic structure of membranes
There is no such thing as a typical cell,

but all cells can be classifed according
to certain characteristics. Every organism must be either a prokaryote or a
eukaryote. Prokaryotic cells lack internal compartments and membranebound organelles, and these organisms
are all unicellular. Bacteria and other

similar cells of the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria are the
only prokaryotes. All other cells are eukaryotic and have a membrane-bound
nucleus and organelles. Eukaryotes may
be single-celled or multicellular and in-
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
DNA
in nucleoid region
within membrane-bound nucleus
Size
usually smaller
usually larger
Organization
usually single-celled
often multicellular
O2
O2
Metabolism
O2
O2
may not need oxygen
O2
O2
O2
usually need oxygen to exist
Organelles
no organelles
membrane-bound organelles
CHAPTER 2
FIGURE 2.5 Comparison of

prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Prokaryotes, the
Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, are single-celled
organisms. Eukaryotes may
be single- or multicelled and
include protists, fungi, plants,
and animals.
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WORD ORIGIN
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clude all protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Protists are organisms like
Amoeba and Paramecium.
Eu is a Greek word meaning good.
Therefore eukaryotes have a good or
real nucleus as well as other cell structures. Eukaryotic cells are divided into
compartments by membranes. These different compartments have specific functions and are called organelles. Each type
of organelle has its own unique function.
Throughout the rest of this chapter you
will learn about the structure and function of the various cell organelles.
Prokaryote is from a mixture

of Latin and Greek; the Latin
Pro, meaning before, and
karyote from the Greek karyon,
meaning kernala reference
to the appearance of the nucleus through early microscopes. The combination of the
two terms indicates that
prokaryotes originated before
cell structures such as the
nucleus evolved.
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allow a sufficient number of food

molecules, such as glucose, to pass in
and must also allow for the prompt removal of waste products, such as carbon dioxide. Without this control the cell
will die.
The cell (or plasma) membrane is
made of a double layer of phospholipid
molecules called the phospholipid bilayer. Because it is too small a structure
to be seen clearly with a microscope, scientists have developed a model to explain what they think it looks like. This
model is known as the fluid mosaic
model. The term fluid is used because
the phospholipid molecules and proteins
that make up the membrane are free
to drift around in fluid motion. The term
mosaic is used to describe the position
of the protein molecules. The molecules
are placed randomly and there is no set
pattern.
Cell (Plasma) Membrane

The cell membrane is the only thing between a cell and its outside environment.
It has a crucial role to play in the life of
a cell: it must control what enters and
leaves the cell. The cell membrane must
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
phospholipids
cholesterol
cytoskeleton
FIGURE 2.6 The

plasma membrane
42
UNIT 1
A double or bilayer of
phospholipid molecules,
with their hydrophilic
heads facing outward,
toward the watery
environment that lies both
inside and outside the cell,
and their hydrophobic
tails pointing inward,
toward each other.
Cellular Functions
Cholesterol molecules
that act as a patching
substance and that help
the cell maintain an
optimal level of fluidity.
proteins
peripheral
protein
integral
protein
a.
b.
Proteins, which are integral, meaning bound to

the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, or
peripheral, meaning not bound in this way.
Membrane proteins serve four main functions:
a. Structural support,
often when attached to
parts of the cells
scaffolding, or
cytoskeleton.
b. Recognition. Binding
sites on some proteins can
serve to identify the cell to
other cells, such
as those of the immune
system.
Contents
Previous Section
Waste Not,
Want Not
As it turns out, environmentally
harmful substances that would kill
most organismssuch as crude oil,
gasoline, diesel fuel, and other organic pollutantsserve as a source
of food for other organisms. It is the
Next Section
discovery that certain bacteria and

fungi thrive upon pollutants that
forms the basis for what is known as
bioremediation technology. There
are about 1000 species of bacteria
known to have the ability to break
down toxins and/or pollutants for use
as their food source. They then release far less damaging waste products themselves.
Bacteria produce enzymes that
break down waste materials into substances that they can more readily digest. As the bacteria digest these
The phospholipid bilayer is composed of two rows or layers of phospholipid molecules. The hydrophilic
heads of the phospholipids are found on
the outside and inside of the membranefacing the watery environment
located both inside and outside a cell.
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wastes, they produce more enzymes

to break down more waste. The cycle
continues until all the waste material
is gone. Then the bacteria either
become inactive and/or die from starvation. Companies that specialize in
this form of biotechnology grow and
study many types of micro-organisms, so that they know which type
of organism can be used to effectively
clean up a certain type of industrial
waste.
The hydrophobic fatty acid tails from

each layer face one another in the middle of the membrane (Figure 2.7). If you
disorganize a membrane, the phospholipid molecules will return to their original arrangement because of their
reaction to water. The polar heads will
glycocalyx
sugar
chains
c.
d.
4
c. Communication. Receptor
proteins, protruding out from the
plasma membrane, can be the point
of contact for signals sent to the cell
via traveling molecules, such as
hormones.
d. Transport. Proteins can

serve as channels through
which materials can pass
in and out of the cell.
The glycocalyx. Sugar

chains that attach to
communication or
recognition proteins,
serving as their binding
sites. The glycocalyx can
also lubricate cells and act
as an adhesion layer for
them.
CHAPTER 2
43
Contents
Previous Section
Membrane Glycoprotein
Chains Play a Key Role
in the Fight Against
Disease
Dr. Harry Jennings of the National
Research Council has contributed to
a medical breakthroughthe production of the first fully synthetic
Next Section
(human-made) vaccine. Dr. Jennings

has spent 24 years developing a vaccine to prevent a disease known as
group B meningitis. Meningitis is a
disease caused by bacteria that kills
about 40 people a year in Canada
about half of whom are infantsand
often leaves the survivors with brain
damage that causes mental retardation and blindness.
Dr. Jenningss research resulted
in the making of a combination carbohydrate-protein molecule that resembles the cell membrane
orient toward the watery environment

while the non-polar lipid tails will mix
with other non-polar molecules.
The protein molecules embedded in
the membrane are called integral or intrinsic proteins. They have different
functions. Some serve as special carriers or transport channels for molecules
that are either too large or too hydrophilic to pass through the phospholipid bilayer. The transport proteins
allow these molecules to enter the cell.
Other membrane proteins have sugar
chains attached to them. These carbohydrate and protein combinations,
known as glycoproteins, act as attach-
polar
head
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glycoprotein chains of the meningitis

bacteria very closely. As a result, cells
from your immune system think that
the meningitis bacteria has invaded
your body and produce antibodies to
fight the bacteria. However, since the
carbohydrate-protein vaccine is
harmless, you gain protection against
meningitis without risk of becoming
ill. Human trials for this vaccine are
currently under way, and if successful, it should become available for
public use soon.
ment sites for molecules that need to

enter or carry a message to the cell. They
are highly specific to each individual and
help the cells of your immune system to
recognize your body cells while also
identifying foreign cells in your body so
that they can be destroyed.
Cholesterol is also found within cell
membranes. Its function is to help keep
the membrane fluid. At low temperatures cholesterol keeps the phospholipids
apart. This keeps the membrane fluid.
At higher temperatures (around 37C) it
attracts the phospholipids and helps
stabilize the membrane.
watery
extracellular
fluid
FIGURE 2.7 The
phospholipid bilayer.
A double layer or bilayer of phospholipids
form the plasma
membrane. The hydrophobic tails form
the interior of the
membrane, while the
hydrophilic heads
point toward the watery environment inside and outside the
cell.
44
UNIT 1
hydrophilic
nonpolar
tails
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
hydrophobic molecules
pass through freely
a) Phospholipid molecule
Cellular Functions
b) Phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic molecules
do not pass through
freely
watery
cytosol
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Cell Wall
Cell walls are not found in animal cells,
but they are found in Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria, some protists, fungi, and
plant cells. Plant cell walls are mainly
made of the polysaccharide cellulose.
Cell walls are much stronger and thicker
than cell membranes, and in plants provide structural support to the cell. It is
because of cell walls that trees are able
to grow to such enormous heights and
that wood, composed of cell walls with
the compound lignin attached, is as
strong as it is.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 2.8 Strength from
cell walls
a) Cell walls play a role in both
living and dead cells. Here they
make up part of the bark.
b) A tree can reach enormous
heights because of the strength
of the wood, which is mostly
made up of lignified cell walls.
b)
a)
Discovering Biology
A Model of the Cell Wall
Caution: Do not do this activity if you have a latex allergy unless you are sure the balloons
are non-latex balloons.
1. Take a party balloon and blow it up until it bursts.
2. Cut a length from the leg of some pantyhose.
3. Take the same type of balloon as used in Step 1 and put it inside the length of
pantyhose.
4. Blow up the balloon as far as possible. Try to make it burst.
5. Observe the result.
The material of the pantyhose acts like the cell wall and prevents the balloon from
bursting. This is due to the cross-linking of fibres that makes the pantyhose very
strong. In a similar way the cell wall prevents the cell membrane in a plant cell
from bursting. Compare this to the animal cell shown in Figure 3.7, page 71.
CHAPTER 2
45
Contents
WEBLINK
Penicillin no longer functions
effectively as an antibiotic for
some people. Research why
this is so, as well as three
alternative antibiotics that can
be prescribed. Summarize your
information in a summary
paragraph and data table,
including the name and
description of the alternative.
INFOBIT
Previous Section
Next Section
Cell Walls and Antibiotics Antibiotics are

medicines that kill bacteria. Many scientific discoveries are the result of hours of
research and countless setbacks. Other
discoveries appear to occur quite by accident. The discovery of penicillin, the first
antibiotic by Alexander Fleming in 1928
is one example of a seemingly accidental discovery. Fleming discovered that one
of his Petri plates growing bacteria had
been contaminated with mould, a type of
fungus. Fleming noticed that no bacteria
were able to grow around the area of the
mould. Rather than throw the plate away,
Fleming investigated the mould further.
His studies revealed that a chemical it
Cell without a nucleus

Mature red blood cells are
unique; they no longer have a
nucleus! These oxygen-carrying cells actually expel their
nuclei to make more room for
oxygen in the cell. This has two
important results. Lacking the
instructions contained in the
nucleus, red blood cells cannot
reproduce themselves and so
new red blood cells are formed
in bone marrow instead. Also,
DNA testing of blood actually
uses the DNA in the diseasefighting white blood cells. No
nucleus means no DNA, so the
red blood cells cannot be used.
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produced was highly effective in killing

bacteria. The mould was later identified
to be a species of Penicillium.
The discovery of penicillin is an
example of how observation can lead to
further experimentation. Fleming was
working against the background of late
nineteenth-century studies in microbiology by Pasteur and others that
had indicated an effect of mould on
bacterial growth. He had himself already
discovered other substances that caused
bacteria to burst. So he was able to
appreciate the importance of an apparently chance observation and to carry
the scientific process forward in his
experiments.
Today it is known that penicillin
works by preventing the formation of
bacterial cell walls. This leads to the
death of the bacteria. Since eukaryotic
cells, including human cells, do not have
cell walls, penicillin targets only the
invading bacteria for destruction and not
nucleolus
nuclear
envelope
DNA
DNA
FIGURE 2.9 The nucleus. In eukaryotic

cells the DNA remains in the nucleus.
Compounds pass into the nucleus
through nuclear pores. The nucleolus
specializes in the production of ribosomal
RNA, a substance found in the ribosomes.
(Transmission electron micrograph
4400)
mRNA
inner membrane
outer membrane
nuclear pore
46
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Contents
Previous Section
the cells of the infected person. Countless

lives have been saved by penicillin since
its discovery. The discovery of penicillin
opened the door for the successful
search for many more antibiotics.
Antibiotics must always be prescribed
and taken with care. For example, some
people are allergic to penicillin.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the genetic control centre of the cell. It is usually spherical
in shape and is often the most easily
seen structure when cells are viewed
through a light microscope. The nucleus houses the cells DNA. In eukaryotes, the DNA is combined with
proteins into a fine, thread-like structure called chromatin. Occasionally,
just before cell division occurs, the
chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. Chromosomes are also visible
through a light microscope. Because
the nucleus is a large structure that is
easily stained and readily visible under
the light microscope, it was one of the
first cell structures to be studied. In
1882 the German scientist Walter
Flemming discovered chromatin as well
as the stages of cell division (mitosis).
Next Section
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The nucleus is separated from the

rest of the cell by the nuclear envelope,
a double membrane with many nucleospores in it to allow materials to pass in
and out of the nucleus (Figure 2.9). Also
within the nucleus is the nucleolus.
Under the light microscopes the nucleolus appears dense. It is composed of
DNA, granules, and fibres, and is the location where other cell structures called
ribosomes are made. The dense-appearing material contains many copies
of the region of the DNA that determines
the formation of the RNA in ribosomes.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells includes
the interior of the cell between the nuclear envelope and the cell membrane.
Once thought to be composed mainly of
fluid, the cytoplasm has been revealed
by electron microscopy to be a highly organized area. Approximately one half of
the space in the cytoplasm is taken up by
other organelles. The other half of the cytoplasm is the liquid portion known as
the cytosol. The cytosol contains a concentrated mix of ions and molecules such
as enzymes, amino acids, ATP, and carbohydrates.
Section 2.2 Review

1.
What two cell structures do most cells

have in common?
2. Describe the structure and function of

a) the cell membrane
b) the nucleus
c) the cytoplasm
3. Explain why the fluid mosaic model
is used to describe the appearance of
the cell membrane.
4. Describe the differences between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Relate
these differences to their distribution
on Earth.
Applying Inquiry/
5. Imagine that your cell membranes suddenly became cell walls made of cellulose. List three possible effects of this
change.
Making Connections
6. In what ways did the discovery of penicillin affect society?
7.
Prepare a cost/benefit analysis of the

use of bioremediation in cleaning the
environment.
CHAPTER 2
47
Contents
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Key Understandings
describe how cell organelles manage various cell functions
relate cell functions to the functions of organs
WORD ORIGIN
Vesicle from the Latin
vesicula, meaning little bladder or container.
Endoplasmic from the Greek
endon, meaning within and
plasm, derived from the term
cytoplasm.
The activities in eukaryotic cells are organized in ways that can be compared
to the body as a whole. Using the analogy of the bodys organ systems, structures that perform specialized functions
in cells are called organelles. Your digestive system breaks down food materials into substances accessible to other
parts. There are organelles called lysosomes, that are powerful in digestive
functions within each cell. As your blood
system acts to transport the products of
digestion, so the cells vacuoles and vesicles store and/or transport substances
within the cell. Just as your body has a
system of blood vessels, the cell has
membranous transportation channels
called the endoplasmic reticulum. The
FIGURE 2.10 Transmission electron micrograph of important nuclear structures.

The arrows indicate nuclear pores. A vesicle (V) approaches the nucleus.
48
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
mitochondria in the cell use oxygen to

produce ATP. In the process, carbon
dioxide is produced and is excreted
through the cell membrane. This
transport process is similar to the way
that your respiratory system supplies
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
Advances in Microscopy
Our understanding of cells and their
functions has increased dramatically due
to improvements in microscopy. The designing of the microscope began with the
work of Dutch lens makers in the 1500s.
Until about 50 years ago scientists were
restricted to using light microscopes.
Clear colour images of living tissue or
prepared and stained non-living tissue,
can be obtained using the light microscope. However, there are limits to the
resolving powerthe ability to distinguish between two closely positioned objects. Also magnification is limited to
about 1000.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM) was invented in 1938 by
Canadian scientists James Hillier and
Albert Prebus, and perfected by John
L. Watson to a point where it was useful for biological research. As the name
suggests, electron microscopes use a
beam of electrons instead of rays of light
to produce an image. The two types of
electron microscopes, scanning electron
microscopes (SEMs) and transmission
electron microscopes (TEMs), work in
different ways and for different purposes. TEMs send a beam of electrons
through a thinly sliced sample of an
object and produce a finely detailed view
of parts of its inner structure. The sci-
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entist must re-create the three-dimensional relationships of the various structures. SEMs scan the outer surface of an
object and produce pictures that look
three-dimensional. Scanning tunnelling
microscopes (STMs), are one of the latest advances in microscope technology
and provide a three-dimensional view of
molecules. (See Section 1.3.)
Vacuoles and Vesicles

Vacuoles and vesicles are both containers, bags made of membrane, filled with
water and dissolved molecules. Vacuoles
are found mainly in plant cells and are
used for storage of starch molecules or
water and to give support to the cell.
They are surrounded by a single-layered
membrane called a tonoplast. Vesicles
are used for transporting materials
throughout the cell rather than for storage and keep the different parts of the
cell in contact.
nuclear
envelope
ribosomes
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
cisternae
cisternal
spaces
FIGURE 2.11 The rough endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins take shape.
Polypeptide chains made at the ribosomes drop into the cisternal space of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. The chain then folds up into its protein shape and may undergo
processing; for example, the addition of a side chain of carbohydrate. The protein is then
surrounded by a vesicle and transported to the Golgi complex.
membranes
without
ribosomes
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are dense-looking dark granules located on the surface of parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum and also floating
within the cytoplasm. They are made of
a combination of RNA and protein, and
are the sites where amino acids are assembled into proteins in a process known
as protein synthesis.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
ribosomes
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
cisternal
spaces
a)
b)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a series
of interconnected small tubes (tubules)
made of membranes that branch out
from the nuclear envelope. Part of the endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it. The ribosomes give the
endoplasmic reticulum in this location a
rough-looking appearance; therefore, this
portion is known as the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) is where protein synthesis takes place at the ribosomes, particularly the synthesis of those proteins
for use outside the cell (Figure 2.11,
2.12b). Additional membranes are also
FIGURE 2.12 The endoplasmic reticulum. a) The smooth endoplasmic reticulum

lacks ribosomes: it is involved in the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates. b) The
rough endoplasmic reticulum has attached ribosomes where proteins are synthesized (TEM 90 500)
manufactured on the rough endoplasmic

reticulum, in response to the need for
membranes by other organelles.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes and takes its
name from its resulting smooth-looking appearance (Figure 2.12a). The function of the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is to make lipidsincluding
phospholipids and steroids. It also serves
as a storage site for calcium ions.
CHAPTER 2
49
Contents
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INFOBIT
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Golgi Complex (Apparatus)

Named after the Italian scientist who discovered them, Golgi complexes are numerous and important to the operation
of the cell. They consist of flattened
stacks of membrane, whose function is
to receive, modify, and transport proteins produced by the endoplasmic reticulum. If the destination of the protein is
outside of the cell, the Golgi packages
it into a vesicle and sends it to the cell
membrane for export out of the cell.
DNA segments coding for

fluorescent molecules from a
jellyfish were fused with DNA
coding for proteins of the Golgi
apparatus so that these proteins
would become fluorescent too.
Scientists were then able to
follow the movement of these
proteins in the cell. Scientists
believe that these proteins
were immobilized in the Golgi
complex. Other proteins move
out of the Golgi complex and
head to the part of the cell
where they will carry out their
specific function. It remains a
mystery why some proteins are
not transported.
Lysosomes
Both the Golgi complex and the endoplasmic reticulum produce lysosomes.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs
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that make compartments in the cell to

allow digestion. They contain hydrolytic
enzymes and have a variety of roles.
In unicellular organisms, lysosomes may
be used to digest food, while certain
types of human white blood cells (neutrophils and macrophages) use them to
destroy invading bacteria.
Lysosomes are also used to break
down damaged organelles within a cell.
For example: human brain cells survive
from birth until death but have organelles
within them such as mitochondria and
ribosomes that are usually less than one
month old. Therefore the cells themselves are, with the help of the lysosomes, breaking down old organelles
while continually forming new ones.
from RER
cisternae
cisternal
space
Golgi
complex
Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.
vesicle
to plasma
membrane
for export
out of cell
to cytosol
1. Side chains are edited

(sugars may be trimmed,
phosphate groups added).
50
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
2. Vesicle formed
for protein transport.
FIGURE 2.13 The Golgi

complex. Vesicles from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum
fuse with the Golgi membrane. Side chains may be
modified as the protein
passes through the cisternae
of the Golgi complex. The
protein is then encased in a
vesicle for further transport
inside or outside the cell.
Contents
Previous Section
Researchers now think that lysosomes may also play a role in the ageing process. Apparently lysosomes
cannot digest all of the outdated material in a cell. As these compounds accumulate within the lysosomes over
time, they cause a decrease in cell functions such as is associated with ageing.
Lysosomes in Human Disease A missing

or defective enzyme in lysosomes causes
Next Section
a number of human diseases known as

lysosomal storage diseases. Among them
is Tay-Sachs disease, a hereditary condition that results in deterioration of the
brain. When working correctly, the enzyme involved breaks down excess fat
in the brain. Without this enzyme, fat is
allowed to build up in the lysosomes
stored within the brain cells. This causes
increasing, irreversible damage, and eventually leads to death at around age five.
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WEBLINK
Research lysosomal storage
diseases. Compile a list of the
types of disease, the specific
causes, and the treatments
available. Begin your research
at the Pearson Education Web
site at
Investigation
CELLULAR RECYCLING
Refer to page 60,

Investigation 2
worn-out
organelle
lysosome
digestive
enzymes
fusion
digestion
molecules
recycled to
make new
organelles
small
molecules
returned to
cytosol
FIGURE 2.14 Lysosomes:

cellular recycling.
When a lysosome fuses with a

worn-out organelle, its enzymes
break the organelle down into
small molecules that can be returned to the cytosol and used
elsewhere. Lysosomes expel
materials that they cannot digest from the cell. In unicellular organisms lysosmes also
digest food particles for use in
the cell.
wastes expelled
from cell
CHAPTER 2
51
Contents
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Next Section
Discovering Biology
Watching a Parameciums Organelles
Interaction between living organisms can show their physiology
1. Prepare and observe a slide of a live Paramecium culture under
the low power objective of a microscope.
2. Obtain a small sample from a yeast solution that has been
treated with an indicator that changes colour as the acidity of
the solution changes. Transfer a small drop of the yeast solution to the edge of the slide using a toothpick.
3. Observe the Paramecium through the microscope for five minutes and record your observations.
What changes did you observe in the Paramecium? What organelles did you see at work within the Paramecium?
Caution: Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
Vett Lloyd, Cell

Biologist
Dr. Vett Lloyd is a professor of cell biology at Dalhousie University in
Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her cell biology
research has focused on lysosome
storage and transport diseases.
Children with these diseases experience a lot of pain and eventually die
of cancer, usually in late childhood.
What happens in these sick children
is that the lysosomes inside their cells
do not work properly, says Lloyd.
One of the roles of lysosomes is
to help your immune system to destroy cancer cells. If a cell in your
body turns cancerous, your immune
system sends out a killer cell that engulfs the cancer cell. Powerful enzymes inside the immune cells
52
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Other diseases such as gangliosidosis, Sly syndrome, and Hurler syndrome

are caused by other defective lysosomal
enzymes. There are approximately 30
human diseases in total involving malfunctioning lysosomal enzymes. The
number of diseases caused by improperly working lysosomes clearly indicates
the importance of this structure to the
cell.
Lysosomes are also responsible for
changes in whole organisms. Examples
of tissues digested by lysosomes are the
tail of a tadpole, any unwanted tissue
during insect metamorphosis, and tissue
that exists between the fingers in the
human embryo, giving them a webbed
appearance.
lysosomes then destroy the cancer

cell. The lysosomes in the sick children, however, lack these enzymes.
Normally, enzymes are delivered
to the lysosomes in tiny cargo packets called vesicles. Unfortunately, in
the children, the vesicles get lost. It
is as if the post office has lost the
package because the wrong address
was written on it. The enzymes
dont get into the lysosomes so the
lysosomes dont work, and if the lysosomes dont work the immune system cells cannot kill the cancer cells,
says Lloyd.
Her first big breakthrough came
a number of years ago when she discovered fruit flies that were dying
from the same lysosome problem that
was killing human children. Lloyd is
now using the fruit flies to help her
in her studies. The big advantage of
using fruit flies is that you can test
the safety and effectiveness of new
drugs on them before you give the
drugs to children. She believes the
fruit flys cells will provide the
answers that will eventually lead to

a cure to this group of dreaded childhood diseases.

FIGURE 2.15 Dr. Vett Lloyd studies lysosomal storage and transport diseases.
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
are found in both plant and animal
cells. These organelles play a vital role
in energy-transforming activities.
Mitochondria are composed of an outer
membrane, an inner membrane organized into folds called cristae, and an
inner liquid solution known as the
matrix.
The mitochondrion is the site of cellular respiration in eukaryotic cells. The
process of cellular respiration involves
extracting energy from food molecules
such as glucose and using that energy to
make ATP. In the process CO 2 is produced, to be later excreted by the cell.
mitochondrion
cristae
matria
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Chloroplasts
These green organelles, found only in
cells of plants and some protists (like
algae), are responsible for producing
food for most of the life on Earth. The
organelles produce food by the process
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
enables plants and some protists to
convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
A Unique Gift
from Your Mom,
and Her Mom...,
Mitochondria contain their own DNA,
separate from the DNA in a cells nucleus. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is
inherited from both parents, mitochondrial DNA (known as mtDNA),
is inherited along maternal linesor
in other words, from your mother.
food
oxygen
water
carbon dioxide
ATP
FIGURE 2.16 Mitochondria. Mitochondria convert the energy contained in the

chemical bonds in food into a form more easily used by the cell, the ATP molecule.
This unique form of inheritance is

useful for scientists because it allows
them to study human evolution using
changes in the structure of molecules.
Because mtDNA is passed from
mother to offspring it is fairly easy to
trace its course through a population.
For example. although you had eight
great-grandparents, you inherited
your mtDNA from only one of them
(your mothers grandmother on her
mothers side). It is also possible to
analyze mtDNA from sources such as
teeth and bonesoften still available
even from ancient human remains.
Because DNA is known to change
naturally over time (or mutate), at a
fairly constant rate, researchers are

able to compare modern mtDNA with
that from early human remains and
determine how related certain populations may be. For example, scientists recently compared the mtDNA
of prehistoric human bones found in
a cave in Wales with mtDNA from
volunteers throughout Europe. To
their surprise, the closest match was
found belonging to a man living in a
nearby Welsh town. This proved that
the man was a direct descendant
from the cave person and that the
mans ancestors had lived in that
area of Wales for at least 30 000
years!
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53
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outer membrane
inner membrane

restrictions.
water
carbon dioxide
minerals
sugar (food)
oxygen
FIGURE 2.17 The chloroplast. Surrounded by a double membrane, chloroplasts are

the sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts enable plant and some protist cells to use
the energy of sunlight to transform water, carbon dioxide, and a few minerals into
food materials that sustain most of the life on Earth. Micrograph: 13 000
Chloroplasts have a double membrane surrounding them and also have

an internal membrane system containing light-capturing molecules of
chlorophyll. The internal membranes
are interconnected and frequently form
a stack of pancake-shaped structures
called grana (singular: granum). A thick
fluid, the stroma, that contains enzymes
and other molecules, occupies the remainder of the space in a chloroplast
(Figure 2.17).
Chloroplasts are the best known of
a diverse group of organelles called
plastids that occur only in plants and
algae, and some other protists. As well
as photosynthesis in chloroplasts, plastids store nutrients and give colour to
many cells by storing pigment.
The Endosymbiotic Theory Did you know

that you have ancient bacteria living in
your cells? According to Dr. Lynn
Margulis, a professor of botany at the
University of Massachusetts, you do.
Early in her career she developed the
endosymbiotic theory, proposing that
mitochondria and chloroplasts were
54
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
once free living cells; bacterial cells and

algal cells, respectively. She proposes
that about 1.4 billion years ago, these
bacterial and algal cells found a better
life living inside other cells. There is evidence to support this theory. For example, mitochondria and chloroplasts
reproduce on their own, separately from
the rest of the cell. They contain their
own DNA and ribosomes. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are about the
same size as bacteria.
Marguliss theory took a long time
to gain acceptance. Many scientists rejected the concept when it was proposed
in the early 1960s. However, Margulis
persevered in her investigations, slowly
accumulating more evidence for her hypothesis and more supporters among
her colleagues.
An accidental discovery by Dr. Kwang
Jeon added strong support to Marguliss
theory. Jeon found that among amoebas
infected with bacteria, some survived the
infection while still harbouring up to
40 000 bacteria living inside of them.
Even more remarkably, he also found,
upon trying to remove the bacteria from
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Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Microfilaments
7 nm
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Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Intermediate filaments
10 nm
Main function: changes

in cell shape
Next Section
Microtubules
25 nm
Main function: maintenance

of cell shape
Main functions: maintenance

of cell shape, movement of
organelles, cell mobility (cilia
and flagella)
FIGURE 2.18 The cytoskeleton. Three types of fibres

form the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, about 7 nm; intermediate filaments, about 10 nm ; and microtubules,
about 25 nm.
their hosts, that the amoeba could no

longer live without the bacteria. Jeon,
then, proved that it is possible for an organism to become dependent on an invading organism, and that, rather than
have the bacteria destroy the amoeba, it
was possible for them to co-exist.
Cytoskeleton
The cell membrane gives very little support to an animal cell. Plant cells have a
cell wall to support their shape. However,
animal cells are able to maintain their
shape due to the cytoskeleton: a supportive network of fine protein fibres.
These protein fibres, the microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules
are shown in Figure 2.18. Besides offering support to the cell, the cytoskeleton helps anchor the organelles within
the cytoplasm and may also play a role
in relaying messages back and forth between the cell membrane and the interior of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are made of fine protein fibres that function to provide
movement to some cells. The most obvious difference between them is their
length: flagella are long; cilia are short.
Also cilia may be very numerous and
cover the cell while flagella are few in
number. Many protist cells use these
structures for locomotion: Paramecium
is covered with tiny cilia that beat in a
coordinated fashion to propel it through
the water, Euglena moves by way of its
two whip-like flagella located at the
anterior. Human sperm cells are able to
move due to the presence of a single
flagellum (Figure 2.19).
CHAPTER 2
INFOBIT
Many of our sensory structures
may have evolved from cilia.
The basic cilia-like form is
found in: the light-sensitive
portions of our eye; the fibres
located in our noses that allow
us to sense smells; and the tiny
hairs of our internal ear that
are used to help us maintain
our balance.
WORDORIGIN
Endosymbiosis from the
Greek symbiosis, meaning living together and endo, meaning within. When combined,
the two words nicely represent
endosymbiosis, meaning one
organism living inside another.
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a)
b)
FIGURE 2.19 Functions of microtubules
a) Electron micrograph of protist cell covered with hair-like cilia for locomotion.
b) Human sperm cell; notice the long flagellum on the sperm cell.
Section 2.3 Review

1.
What are organelles?
2.
How do lysosomes function to digest

materials?
3.
Describe the location of the endoplasmic reticulum. Make a table to show

the differences in appearance and function between the rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
4.
Explain the function of the Golgi complex (apparatus).
5.
The table below shows the observations made of three different cells.
Determine as much as you can about
each type of cell. For example, are
the cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic;
plant or animal?
6.
If scientists were able to remove mitochondria or chloroplasts from cells and

turn them into free functioning organisms once more, would this help, hinder, or have no effect upon Dr. Lynn
Cell wall
56
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Marguliss endosymbiotic theory?

Explain.
Making Connections
7.
A patient being treated for a form of

cancer known as leukemia, had his
spleen removeda common treatment
for this type of cancer. Soon researchers discovered that the mans
spleen cells produced a protein that actually helped fight the cancer. The researchers patented the cells and the
patientupon discovering that his cells
were being used this waysued for a
share of the profits but eventually lost
the lawsuit. Do you think the researchers were correct in their use of
the cells without obtaining the patients
consent? Do you think the patient was
treated fairly? How would you have
voted if you were on a jury deciding
this issue? Provide the reasons behind
your decision.
Cell membrane Chloroplasts Mitochondria
Nucleus
Cell A
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cell B
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Cell C
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
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Case
Study
Ethics and Stem Cell

Research
Defining the Issue
Stem cells and their potential uses in the treatment of

disease are the focus of heated social controversy. There
are two types of stem cells, those that are totipotent (that
is, make all cell types), and those that are tissue restricted
(that is, make one type of tissue only). Totipotent cells
(sometimes called embryonic stem cells) have been
thought to provide a way to treat diseases like
Parkinsons, juvenile diabetes, and Alzheimers by regenerating tissue.
Stem cells may be obtained from different sources.
Many people believe that using the stem cells from human
embryos for research and medical purposes is morally
wrong. Others believe that it is the responsibility of the
medical community to use whatever knowledge they possess in their research to decrease human suffering. They
feel society has an obligation to do the research required
for the people who are living with these diseases.
Dr. Mickie Bhatia, Scientist at The John P. Robarts
Research Institute in London, Ontario, has discovered
that when adult blood stem cells are given a protein
present during human blood development earlier in life,
these blood stem cells will grow and reproduce in a similar manner to embryonic blood stem cells. If these blood
stem cells could be induced to form other types of tissue,
such as neural or muscle cells, these adult cells could
provide a potential alternative to the use of totipotent
embryonic stem cells in the treatment of disease. Will the
controversy continue? Wherever ethics come into a question, there will most likely always be differing opinions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 2.20 Dr. Mickie Bhatia studies adult blood stem
cells.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
What are the ethical perspectives relating to the controversy about stem cell research?
4.
Research stem cells and their use in the treatment of

Parkinsons disease.
2.
What additional factors influence societys response to

stem cell research? Explain.
5.
3.
Propose what impact Dr. Bhatias discovery may have

on attitudes toward stem cell research and treatment
with stem cells.
Prepare a risk-benefit analysis to summarize your findings. Write a position paper to address the following
question. If faced with a degenerative or potentially fatal
disease, should a person be able to refuse medical help
because of his or her own moral principles if that help
is available to them?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 2.1)
Estimating an Objects Size

with the Microscope
While it may be interesting and informative to view

objects under a microscope, it often difficult to
know the actual size of the object being observed.
Magnification causes us to lose our perspective on
size. In this lab you will learn how to estimate the
size of an object by comparing it with something you
already knowthe diameter of the field of view.
Problem
How is the compound microscope used to estimate
the size of microscopic specimens?
Materials
microscope
transparent metric ruler
prepared slides
Procedure
1.
Obtain a microscope and place a transparent metric ruler on the stage so that it covers about half
of the stage, as shown in Figure 2.21.
FIGURE 2.22 Adjust the position of the ruler so that you

can measure the diameter of the field of view.
4.
Measure the diameter of the low power field to

the nearest tenth of a millimetre. Record this measurement in your notebook.
5.
Use a ratio to calculate the diameter of the high

power field (the magnification of objectives is inversely proportional to the field size).
high power
field diameter
FIGURE 2.21 Set-up

for measuring the diameter of the field of
view.
58
2.
Observe the ruler under low power. Adjust the position of the ruler so that its view is similar to
Figure 2.22.
3.
Move the millimetre ruler so that you are measuring the diameter (width) of the low power field
of view from left to right.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
low power
field diameter
low power
magnification
high power
magnification
6.
Record the high power field diameter in micrometres. Show your work.
7.
Estimate the size of objects you view under

the microscope by comparing them with the
diameter of the field of view. For example, if an
organism takes up one-half of a field of view
that is 500 m in diameter, then its size is about
one-half of 500 m, or 250 m.
8.
Obtain prepared slides of various organisms and

practise estimating their lengths and/or widths.
Record the name of the organism or structure you
are viewing and its estimated size in m in the
data table.
9.
Return your microscope and slides to their proper

storage locations once you have finished this activity.
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(continued)
1. Set up a data table similar to Table 2.3 in your

notebook.
3. How many micrometres are in one millimetre?

4. How many micrometres are in one metre?
5. Describe what happens to the field of view when
you switch from the low power magnification to
the high-power magnification.
6. How many times is the magnification increased
when you change from the low power lens to
the high power lens?
7. How many times is the field diameter decreased
when you change from the low power lens to
the high power lens?
8. Approximately 400 bacteria fit across the field
of view of the low-power lens. What is the estimated size of one bacterium?
9. Approximately six of a certain species of protist
can fit across the high-power field of vision. What
is the size of one protist?
10. If a microscope has a low-power magnification of
100, a high power magnification of 450, and
a low-power field diameter of 1800 m, what is
the high power field diameter in micrometres?
11. If 16 protists fit across a low-power field of view
whose field diameter is 4800 m, what is the
approximate size of each protist?
12. You have determined the field size of the low and
high-power objective lenses. How do you think
you would calculate the field diameter of the
medium-power lens?
TABLE 2.3 Size of Field Diameters
Field
Magnification
Field diameter
in mm
Low power
From measurement:
High power
From calculation:
For calculation, see the equation given in procedure step 5.

2. Gather the necessary information to complete
Table 2.3 and copy it into your notebook. Copy
and complete Table 2.4 in your notebook.
TABLE 2.4 Size of Objects
Name of object
Estimate of objects size
Extending
13. Make a wet-mount slide of a protist culture.
Choose one protist and observe it under low and
high power. Estimate its length in micrometres.
CHAPTER 2
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 2.3)
Characteristics of Cells
Cells are the basic units of structure and function
for all living things. All cells fall into one of two major
divisionsprokaryotic or eukaryotic. How might you
classify an unknown cell? You will determine the differences through an examination of prepared slides.
You will then use these differences to help you classify a test specimen.
6. In your notebook, draw and label the appearance

of the specimen under high power.
7.
Repeat steps 36 for the other prepared slides provided by your teacher.
8. Repeat steps 36 for an unidentified prepared slide

provided by your teacher.
Problem
9. Once you have finished the lab, return all of the

equipment to its proper place.
What differences can be observed between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

1. Based on your observations, do all cells have a
common shape? Explain your answer.
2. Under which magnification can you see the different structures?
3. What cell structures were common to all cells?
Materials
(per group)
microscope
prepared slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
CAUTION: Observe proper technique with the microscope
and slides to ensure safe handling of equipment.

4. What cell structures are found only in eukaryotic cells?
5. Explain how you decided on the cell type of the
unknown specimen.
6. Why do different types of cells have different
shapes and sizes?
Procedure
1.
Set up your data table in your notebook in a manner similar to Table 2.2.
2. Obtain a microscope.
3. Obtain a prepared slide to examine.
Extending
4. In the data table, write the name of the specimen

you are examining. Sketch its shape. Place a check
mark under the cell structures you are able to
identify on this slide. Examine the slide under low,
medium, and high power to help you locate as
many cell structures as possible.
7. The procedure of DNA fingerprinting relies on extracting DNA from the nucleus of a cell in order
to identify a suspect. Explain why DNA fingerprinting will not work if DNA is extracted from a
blood sample that contains only red blood cells.
5. Based on your observations, decide if each cell

is a prokaryote or a eukaryote.
8. Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane but contain DNA in the cell. How can these cells carry out
cell activities without a nuclear membrane?
TABLE 2.2 Characteristics of Cells
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic?
Plastids
Vacuoles
Cytoplasm
Nuclear Envelope
Nucleus
Cell Structures
Cell Membrane
Shape
Cell Wall
Cell Specimen
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Key Terms
cell membrane
cell theory
cellulose
cell wall
chloroplasts
cholesterol
chromatin
chromosomes
cilia
cytoplasm
cytoskeleton
cytosol
endoplasmic reticulum
eukaryote
flagella
fluid mosaic model
Golgi complex
(apparatus)
lysosome
mitochondria
nucleus
nuclear envelope
nucleolus
organelles
photosynthesis
phospholipid bilayer
prokaryote
ribosome
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
surface area
vacuole
vesicle
Cell Organelles in Plant and Animal Cells

Name
Location
Function
Cell (Plasma) membrane

Nucleus
Cytosol
Vacuoles and vesicles
Ribosomes
Surrounds cytoplasm
Within nuclear envelope
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Free-floating in cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Outside cell membrane
Outside cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Contains the DNA
Fluid containing organelles and important molecules such as proteins
Vacuoles store food or water; vesicles transport molecules
Site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Lysosomes (in animal cells only)
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Cilia and flagella
Cell wall (in plant cells only)
Chloroplasts (in plant and some
protist cells only)
Processing of proteins
Lipid synthesis
Processing and packaging of protein
Digestion of molecules, bacteria, or damaged organelles
Produce ATP from energy released from glucose
Maintains cell shape and helps hold organelles in place
Permits cell movement
Provides shape and support for the cell
Uses energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates (photosynthesis)


Cells are the basic units of life and are present in

all living things.
Cells come only from pre-existing cells.
Cells are small so that they can maximize their surface area.
An increased surface area helps cells obtain energy
and rid themselves of waste products through their
cell membranes.


2.2 Cell Structures

Eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called

organelles.
The phospholipid-containing cell membrane separates the cell from the environment.
In eukaryotes the volume inside the cell membrane
is divided into nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles.
Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles are structures located within the cytoplasm that perform specialized functions for the cell.
Cell organelles include vacuoles and vesicles, ribosomes, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton, cilia, and flagella.

1.
Revisit the Checkpoint on page 37 and review your chart

listing the structures and functions of cells. Revise your
chart based on what you learned in this chapter.
3.
Prepare an analogy to describe the structures and functions of the cell to an elementary school class. Suggest
illustrations or models to support your presentation.
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between the following key terms: cell theory, prokaryote,
eukaryote, organelle, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nucleus.
4.
Reflect on your learning. Explain why theories like the

cell theory are important to the process of scientific
discovery.
CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
1. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
genetic control centre of the cell is the

nucleus
cytoplasm
mitochondrion
lysosome
9. Under a microscope a cell was found to contain many mitochondria, chloroplasts, a nucleus, a cell wall, cytoplasm,
as well as other organelles. This cell is most likely a
a) bacterial cell
b) human cell
c) plant cell
d) none of these
2. The structure of the cell between the nucleus and cell

membrane is called the
a) mitochondrion
b) cytoskeleton
c) chloroplast
d) cytoplasm
10. Which of the following structures is not involved in cell

support or movement?
a) cytoskeleton
b) cell wall
c) cilia
d) lysosome
3. Which of the following organisms have prokaryotic cells?

a) humans
b) bacteria
c) fungi
d) plants
11. Sketch a typical animal cell to show all of the structures and organelles it is likely to contain. Do the same
for a typical plant cell.
4. As the surface area of a cell increases, the surface to

volume ratio:
a) increases as much as the surface area
b) does not change
c) decreases
d) none of these
5. Cells that need a large amount of energy would usually
contain many
a) mitochondria
b) chloroplasts
c) vesicles
d) Golgi complexes
6. Organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus are called
a) prokaryotes
b) eukaryotes
c) plants
d) fungi
12. Which structures are found in plant cells but not in animal cells?
13. Explain the difference between the nucleolus and
nucleus.
14. Living cells are sometimes compared to factories. Explain
what part of a cell may match the function of each of
these: security guard, shipping centre, power plant, factory manager, and storage tank.
15. Sketch a diagram of the cell membrane and identify
the structures present. Using your diagram as a reference, explain why the term fluid mosaic model is appropriate to describe the cell membrane as we know it.
16. Prepare a speech for a meeting of cell biologists. The title
of your speech is to be: It is better for organisms to be
made of many small cells than a few large ones.
17. Compare the information obtained from transmission
electron microscope and scanning electron microscope
images.
7. Which structure is the site of protein synthesis?

a) nucleus
b) lysosome
c) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
d) ribosome
18. How did the evidence accumulated by Dr. Kwan Jeon

support the endosymbiotic theory?
8. Where in a cell would you expect to find the cytoskeleton?

a) within the nucleus
b) within a mitochondrion
c) within the cytoplasm
d) between the cell membrane and the cell wall
20. Explain why secretory cells like the thyroid gland cells
might be expected to have an active Golgi complex?
62
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
19. Make a flow chart to show the way that bacteria may be
used to break down waste materials.
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Applying Inquiry/
24. Prepare a concept map illustrating how the ribosomes,

rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and cell
membrane may function together.
21. Draw a diagram of three cells with the same volume but
different surface areas.
22. a) Complete the following chart in your notes to perform
a mathematical comparison of surface area (S.A.) and
volume (V) for a hypothetical cube-shaped cell.
Dimensions
of cube
cell (cm)
Surface
Area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm3)
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S.A.:
Volume
(ratio)
Index =
S.A./V
05 0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
25. Robert Hooke coined the term cells while looking at dead
cork cells through his homemade microscope. Some years
earlier, Dutch tailor Antonie Van Leuwenhoek observed
a number of different living specimens using microscopes
of his own design, but did not describe cells. Why do you
think this is so?
26. Liver cells have hundreds of mitochondria, while fat cells
have only a few. Why do you think there is such a difference between the two cells in the number of mitochondria? Provide reasons for your answer.
27. When a specialized white blood cell defends your body
against bacteria many cell systems are involved in the
process. Set up a T-chart to show the organelles involved
and their functions in defense of the body.
1.5 1.5 1.5

2.0 2.0 2.0
2.5 2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0 3.0
Making Connections
b) Plot a graph of your calculated values for the index
versus the length of cube side of the cube-shaped
cell. Plot the index on the vertical axis.
c) Describe the shape of your graph.
d) Now relate this mathematical relationship to the operation of a cell as it increases in size. Why must
the majority of cells ultimately divide using mitosis?
23. Copy the graph below onto a separate piece of paper.
Add data points to the graph for cubes with sides of
2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm. (In order to do this, you
will need to first calculate the surface area for each of
the cubes, and then calculate the surface area to volume
ratio.) Complete the graph and indicate what information can be obtained from the graph.
28. Scientists believe that originally all life on Earth consisted of prokaryotic cells and that eukaryotic cells
evolved later. Based on what you know about the differences between the two cell types, explain why this
view does or does not make sense.
29. a) Explain why an understanding of cell processes is
essential to the development of vaccines.
b) How might this understanding have impact on
Canadas health system and allocation of resources?
Surface area/volume
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
Length of cube side (cm)
FIGURE 2.23
CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 3
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Cell Transport


function of organs (3.1, 3.2, 3.4)
describe the fluid mosaic structure

of cell membranes and explain the
dynamics of passive transport and
the processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis of large particles (3.1,
3.2, 3.3, 3.4, Investigation 1)
design and carry out an investigation on cellular function, controlling

the major variables (Investigation 2)
present informed opinions on advances in cellular biology and possible applications through related
technology (3.1, 3.3)
analyze ways in which societal

needs have led to technological advances related to cellular processes (3.3)
any cellular functions involve the transport of materials in, out, and
through cells. Cells, particularly those in multicellular organisms, are
surrounded by a complex and constantly changing liquid environment consisting of many dissolved molecules: gases such as oxygen, compounds such
as glucose, ions such as sodium, and chemical messengers such as pro-
FIGURE 3.1 Colour enhanced scanning electron microscope image of a lymphocyte,

natural killer cell attacking a cancer cell (orange).
64
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teins. Literally billions of events involving these various molecules must occur
daily to ensure your survival. The cell membrane plays a vital role in these
events: it regulates what enters and leaves the cell; it ensures the cell receives
a non-stop supply of nutrients from its surroundings; and, at the same time,
it steadily allows waste products to pass through it in order to exit the cell.
In the transport of large molecules and even other cells into the cells
interior, the cell membrane rearranges its structure to form a vesicle.
The membranes of organelles within the cell, such as the mitochondrion
and endoplasmic reticulum, must also regulate what substances enter and
leave them. And the membrane of some organelles, such as the Golgi complex, must not only be able to regulate the passage of molecules, but must
also be able to package, send, and receive shipments from other organelles.
This chapter will outline the transport methods used to move materials
such as nutrients, water, and oxygen into cells, and waste products such as
carbon dioxide, out of cells. It will also highlight new information about some
disease states that have their origins in faulty cell processes.
Discovering Biology
Observing Osmosis
The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis.
1.
Draw the apparatus your teacher has set up as a demonstration and

record the original fluid level on your drawing.
2.
Observe the apparatus every 60 s for at least five minutes and record the
change in height of the fluid in the tube.

How would you explain the change in height of the fluid in the tube?
What is happening to the material on the inside of the tube?
thistle
funnel
beaker
containing
water
FIGURE 3.2
CHECKPOINT
Draw a diagram of the cell
membrane to illustrate
what you know about how
this structure functions.
Experimental set-up for observing osmosis.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Key Understandings
relate the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure to the function of membranes
explain the importance of permeability to transportation within and between cells
WORD ORIGIN
Permeable from the Latin
permeare, meaning to pass
through.
FIGURE 3.3 The

cell membrane. The
cell membrane is
selectively permeable. It freely allows the passage
of fat-soluble substances through
the lipid bilayer
and small non-fatsoluble molecules
through the protein
channels.
The cell membrane plays an essential

role in regulating what enters and leaves
the cell. This role depends largely on its
structure. Because most membranes, including the cell membrane, allow some
substances to pass through them, they
are said to be permeable. In addition,
because most living membranes are able
to control what passes through them,
they are described as being selectively
permeable. Non-living membranes that
prevent some molecules from passing
are called semipermeable membranes.
Both the phospholipid bilayer and
the protein molecules help to control the
passage of materials through the cell
membrane. The construction of the
phospholipids
proteins
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
glycocalyx
cholesterol
sugar
chains
Communication. Receptor proteins,

protruding out from the plasma
membrane, can be the point of
contact for signals sent to the cell via
traveling molecules, such as
hormones.
66
bilayer is unique. The hydrophilic

phosphate heads point toward the liquid
environments inside and outside the cell.
The hydrophobic fatty acid tails making
up the middle of the membrane,
prevent some molecules from entering the
cell. Because the phospholipids are tightly
packed together, molecules that are too
large cannot pass through this portion
of the membrane. Hydrophilic molecules
that are not fat-soluble cannot dissolve
and pass through the middle fatty acid
portion of the membrane. The protein
molecules embedded in the bilayer provide an entryway for certain small
molecules that cannot enter through the
bilayer portion of the membrane.
Transport. Proteins can

serve as channels through
which materials can pass
in and out of the cell.
The glycocalyx. Sugar

chains that attach to
communication or
recognition proteins,
serving as their binding
sites. The glycocalyx can
also lubricate cells and act
as an adhesion layer for
them.
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Protein Kinases
For many years the nucleus was considered the exclusive control centre
of the cell. However, within the last
15 years, scientists such as Dr. Tony
Pawson at the University of Toronto,
have learned that the cell membrane
and molecules within the cell, called
protein kinases, have an equally
important role in controlling cell
function and allowing the communication between cells that is necessary
Next Section
for the proper functioning of the

whole organism.
This cell-to-cell communication
functions as follows: messenger
molecules from other cells (often hormones) travel through the bloodstream and then attach to specialized
protein molecules on the outside of
the membrane of the target cell. The
protein receptor molecule, which
spans the cell membrane, changes the
shape of its tail (which sticks into
the cytoplasm). The shape change
then triggers a chain reaction that involves protein kinases in the cell.
Protein kinases transmit the
commands of many hormones that
regulate cellular processes such as
cell division and specialization. Once
Membrane proteins have functions

in addition to transporting molecules.
Some of the proteins provide structural
support to the cell by binding to the
protein fibres of the cytoskeleton. Other
proteins have a communication function.
They receive chemical messengers sent
by other cells. Proteins that have carbo-
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activated by the receptor proteins, the

kinases join together like Lego blocks
to carry the message to the proper
location within the cell and allow the
cell to respond to the command.
The understanding of this
method of cell-to-cell (called
intercellular) and within-cell (called
intracellular) communication has
provided new insights into a number
of human diseases. For example, scientists have learned that many types
of cancers and some types of diabetes
are caused by problems with the protein kinase intracellular communication system. New treatments aimed
at correcting these problems are currently being tested in clinical trials.
hydrate chains attached to them are

involved in communication and cell
recognition. These carbohydrote sugar
chains are called the glycocalyx. Other
cells, such as those in your immune system, use these carbohydrate chains to
recognize a cell or a molecule as being
self or being foreign.
Section 3.1 Review

1.
What is the function of the cell membrane?
2.
Name and describe the molecules that

make up the cell membrane.
3.
Describe the different types and functions of the proteins found in the cell
membrane.
4.
Contrast the terms permeable and

selectively permeable.
Making Connections
5.
Work with a partner to research the

role of protein kinases in cell biology.
Investigate their involvement in a particular disease. Present an informed
opinion on the effectiveness of new

treatments based on knowledge about
protein kinases.
6.
Cholesterol molecules are a normal

part of the cell membranes of mammals; however, some people have high
levels of cholesterol in their blood that
can lead to heart and/or artery disease.
Some doctors have suggested that all
adults should have their blood cholesterol level tested, and those who have
abnormally high cholesterol levels
should be given medication or put on
a special diet. Research the cost to
society if the Canadian government implemented a plan of this nature. Use
a PMI chart to organize the results of
your research.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Key Understandings
describe how organelles and cell components carry out various cell processes such
as transportation
explain the dynamics of diffusion and osmosis
Solutes are substances that are dissolved

in fluid to form a solution. The liquid that
the solutes are dissolved in is referred
to as a solvent. Many of the molecules
that must enter or leave cells, such as
glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, are
dissolved in water and can therefore
be referred to as solutes. Many solutes
must constantly make their way into and
out of cells to ensure cell survival.
Investigation
Refer to page 82,
Investigation 2
sa
lt
solute
solvent
water
salt
water
solution
FIGURE 3.4 A solute dissolved by a solvent results in a solution. A small amount of table salt
poured into water results in a solution of sodium
chloride.
Discovering Biology
Diffusion
Particles diffuse along the concentration gradient. Add a drop of

dark food colouring to a beaker or glass of cold water and another
drop to a beaker of hot water. Observe the changes to the appearance of the water over time.
68
What have you just observed in action?
What comments can you make about the speed of the process you have just observed? Suggest an explanation.
How might you test your suggestion?
When did the process appear to stop?
Did the molecules become stationary at this time? Why or why

not?
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Diffusion
Particles, even those in solids, are constantly and randomly moving. As a result,
over time, particles tend to spread themselves out evenly. Diffusion is the tendency of particles to move from an area
where they are more concentrated, and
there are more random collisions, to an
area where they are less concentrated and
have fewer collisions (Figure 3.5). When
there is an equal concentration of particles in all areas, equilibrium is achieved.
Movement from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
is known as moving along the concentration gradient. Movement along the
concentration gradient is referred to as
passive transport. A common example
of diffusion occurs when someone is wearing a strong cologne or perfume. Although
the concentrated source is located on their
body, the perfume molecules spread by
diffusion to fill the room.
Diffusion is the driving force behind
the movement of many molecules
through the cell membrane, including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and
small lipids. A number of factors determine whether a molecule can enter a cell
by diffusion. One of these factors is size.
Large molecules cannot squeeze through
the tightly packed phospholipids easily.
Another factor is lipid solubility. If a
molecule cannot dissolve in the oily mixture created by the membrane fatty
acids, it cannot diffuse through the membrane. Physical factors such as the size
of the concentration difference and the
distance the molecule has to travel also
affect the diffusion process.
Your lungs rely exclusively on diffusion to add oxygen to and remove carbon
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due to copyright
restrictions.
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restrictions.
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due to copyright
restrictions.
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WEBLINK
For simulations of diffusion,

osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion, go to
a
water
molecules
dye
molecules
FIGURE 3.5 Diffusion. A few drops of red dye added to a beaker of water are initially very
concentrated in one area. Diffusion, the movement of particles along their concentration
gradient from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, occurs until an
equilibrium concentration is produced throughout the solution.
dioxide from your blood. The air sacs of

the lungs, called alveoli, and the specialized blood vessels known as
capillaries that surround the alveoli, have
adaptations to speed up the relatively slow
process of diffusion. For example, both
alveoli and capillaries are only one cell
layer thick, providing the shortest distance
possible for the dissolved gases to travel
through the respiratory membrane. Each
alveolus is surrounded by many capillaries, thus increasing the surface area
for diffusion to occur. Since the oxygen
content is higher in the freshly breathedin air of the alveoli than in the deoxygenated blood of the capillaries, the
oxygen travels along this concentration
gradient, leaves the alveoli, and enters the
bloodstream. The carbon dioxide moves
along its concentration gradient from the
blood and into the alveolar air.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion.
It is the diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane, such
as the cell membrane. Despite the fact

that water molecules are not lipid soluble, they can easily pass through the
phospholipid bilayer. This is apparently
because they are small enough to fit
through gaps created by the moving
phospholipids. During osmosis, water
molecules always pass from the side of
the membrane that has a higher
concentration of water and less solute
concentration to the side that has the
lower concentration of water and higher
solute concentration until equilibrium, if
possible, is established.
The osmotic conditions of the solutions surrounding a cell are given special names. In a hypertonic solution, the
fluid surrounding the cells has a higher
solute concentration than the cytoplasm
of the cell. As a result, water diffuses out
of the cell by osmosis.
In an isotonic solution, the concentration of solutes in the fluid surrounding the cell is the same as it is in
the cells cytoplasm; therefore, the solute concentrations are at equilibrium
and no net movement of water occurs.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Contents
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lt
sa
a)
solute
solvent
semipermeable membrane
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In a hypotonic solution, the solute

concentration of the fluid surrounding
the cell is less than that of the cells
cytoplasm. As a result, water diffuses
into the cell by osmosis.
Osmosis is a very important process
in cells. Freshwater organisms generally
have a higher solute concentration inside their cells than outside. As a result,
they are constantly taking on more water
by osmosis and have developed mechanisms to rid themselves of the extra
b)
FIGURE 3.6 Osmosis
a) A semi permeable membrane separates the

chamber on the left, containing water, from the
chamber on the right to which salt is added.
b) Water flows through the membrane in both
directions but there is a net movement of water
along its concentration gradient into the right
chamber.
OSMOSIS
Discovering Biology
Cell Size and Diffusion
The size of a cell affects the rate of diffusion.

Materials
3 different-sized blocks of agar

made with water containing
phenolphthalein
0.4% sodium hydroxide solution
300-mL beaker
test tube holders or tongs
scalpel
metric ruler
CAUTION: Wear disposable non-latex gloves and safety goggles when using sodium
hydroxide. Do not allow sodium hydroxide to come in contact with your skin. If it does,
wash it off immediately. Be careful when using sharp instruments.
1. Obtain and measure the dimensions of three different-sized agar blocks.
2. Calculate and record the surface area-to-volume ratio for each block.
3. Place the three blocks of agar in a 300-mL beaker. Add 0.4% sodium hydroxide
solution until it completely covers the blocks.
4. After 8 min, use test-tube holders or tongs to gently remove the agar blocks
from the solution and then blot them dry. Cut each block in half with a
scalpel.
5. Use a metric ruler to measure the distance the pink material has diffused into
each block and record your measurement.
What was the diffusion distance in each block?
Which block had the greatest amount of pink material in it? Can you identify a
pattern between this answer and the surface area-to-volume ratios you
calculated?
Calculate the rate of diffusion in mm/min.
70
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
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water. Some unicellular organisms such

as Paramecium have contractile vacuoles
that fill up with water and, when full,
contract. This squeezes the water out of
the organism.
You place your body cells in an osmotic situation when you eat or drink.
For example, when you drink a lot of
water, your blood develops a higher
concentration of water. If the water entered your cells by osmosis, every cell in
your body could be affected. However,
your kidneys regulate the water balance
of your blood, so if there is too much
water in your blood, the kidneys excrete
more water in your urine and in this way
maintain equilibrium between your
blood and your cells.
Osmosis also helps the kidneys if you
dont have enough water in your blood.
Portions of the kidney tubules pass
through areas of high solute concen-
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normal cell
Hypertonic
Isotonic
Hypotonic
Very Hypotonic
The concentration
of solutes outside
is higher than it is
inside the cell.
The concentration
of solutes outside
the cell is equal to
that inside the cell.
The concentration
of solutes outside
is lower than it is
inside the cell.
This cell has burst

due to the large
amount of water
entering.
FIGURE 3.7 The effects of solute concentration on cells
tration. This enables the kidneys to

reabsorb water back into the blood by
osmosis rather than having that water
leave as part of the urine. The ability
to reabsorb water is an important adaptation of all land animals.
Investigation
Refer to page 80,
Investigation 1
Section 3.2 Review

1.
Differentiate between a solute and a

solvent.
2.
Define the term diffusion and give an

example of diffusion in action.
3.
What is meant by the term concentration gradient?
4.
Define osmosis and provide an example of osmosis in action.
5.
House plants will wilt if you forget to

water them. The stems will become
limp. However, a few hours after you
remember to water them they will
appear normal again. Using your
knowledge about the movement of
solutes and water, explain these
observations.
Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills
6.
If a cell whose cytoplasm was about 1%

solute concentration were placed in a
3% salt solution, what would you
expect to happen? Use a diagram to
explain what would happen.
7.
Before refrigeration was invented,

many foods were preserved by storing
them in salt. Explain why microorganisms may have a difficult time
growing on food preserved this way.
Compare the advantages of salt preservation and refrigeration. Provide two
examples of foods that are preserved
using salt.
Making Connections
8.
Many people suffering from kidney

failure survive through dialysis treatment which artifically cleans their
blood. Most dialysis patients have to
travel to a hospital for treatment, although new technology is enabling
some patients to have dialysis units
in their homes.
a) Explain how this technique depends on diffusion and osmosis.
b) Analyze the social and economic
impact of a treatment like dialysis.
c) Evaluate home dialysis from the aspects of patient care, affordability,
and the health care system.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Key Understandings
describe how the cell membrane uses proteins to carry out transportation
explain the dynamics of facilitated diffusion
compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport
relate certain disease states to a lack of function of cellular processes
describe how advances in cell biology can be applied through technology
Facilitated Diffusion
Some molecules cannot travel through the
lipid portion of the cell membrane. They
may be too large or may be hydrophilic.
Many of these molecules enter cells by facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion
occurs when molecules enter cells through
channels that exist in special transport
proteins that span the membrane (Figure
3.8). Transport proteins are specialized
to carry only certain molecules into or out
of cells. Because they only transport
materials along the concentration gradient, no energy from ATP is required to
perform facilitated diffusion. For this

reason facilitated diffusion is a form of
passive transport.
Glucose is an example of a molecule
that is too large to travel through the cell
membrane without one of these special
protein carriers. Since glucose is constantly being used inside cells for energy
to produce ATP, the concentration of
glucose inside cells is usually lower than
the concentration of glucose in the fluid
surrounding the cells. Therefore, glucose
moves along the concentration gradient
and into the cell by facilitated diffusion.
TRANSPORT THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Passive transport
simple
diffusion
Active transport
facilitated
diffusion
phospholipid
bilayer
transport
proteins
a)
FIGURE 3.8
b)
ATP
c)
Transport through the plasma membrane
a) In simple diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient.

b) In facilitated diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient but pass
through the membrane with the assistance of a transport protein.
c) In active transport, molecules move against their concentration gradient with the
assistance of a transport protein and the use of energy from ATP.
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Active Transport
Sometimes cells need to move molecules
or ions against a concentration gradient.
Cells cannot rely on any type of diffusion
to do this since diffusion only moves particles from a high concentration to a low
concentration. Therefore, cells have developed another transport method
known as active transport to move
molecules or ions against a concentration gradient.
Like facilitated diffusion, active transport relies on transport proteins to allow
substances to pass through the membrane. This time, however, the molecules
or ions bind to the proteins and are then
pumped across the membrane. Moving
molecules or ions this way is not without
Diabetes: A Problem
with
Facilitated Diffusion
Diabetes is a disease that has a long

history of death and destruction as
well as a long history of research and
discovery by Canadian scientists.
Diabetes, a disease caused by the inability to transport glucose into cells,
currently affects about two million
Canadians.
Diabetics are unable to produce
a protein-based hormone called
insulin that binds to transport proteins on the cell membrane and
allows glucose to enter cells by
facilitated diffusion. Without insulin,
the cells are unable to take up
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its cost: active transport requires energy

released from the breakdown of ATP to
move substances against the concentration gradient.
The sodium/potassium (Na + /K + )
pump in nerve cells (neurons) is an important example of active transport. In
order to function properly neurons must
maintain a higher concentration of
sodium ions outside the cell compared
to inside the cell. They must also maintain a higher concentration of potassium
ions inside the cell compared to outside.
In order to maintain this imbalance, specialized transport proteins in neurons
pump sodium out of the cell and potassium in. See Figure 3.9 for further
explanation.
glucose. This causes the glucose level

of the blood to increase to dangerously high levels when the person
eats a meal. The symptoms of
untreated diabetes include thirst,
moodiness, blindness, circulatory
problems, and unconsciousness leading to death.
The first step in the successful
treatment of diabetes came with Dr.
Frederick Bantings discovery of insulin in 1922 while working at the
University of Toronto with his colleagues Best, Collip, and Macleod.
Banting and Macleod (who provided
lab space and advice to Banting)
shared the Nobel Prize in 1923.
Identifying and purifying insulin allowed diabetics to inject themselves
with insulin after eating. This discovery has been called one of the most
revolutionary moments in medicine
and has saved the lives of an estimated
15 million diabetics worldwide.
Biotechnology has assured a plentiful
supply of insulin through techniques
WEBLINK
Investigate the contribution
of Canadian scientists to
diabetes research. Compile a
timeline of discovery.
that enable this human protein to be

made by micro-organisms.
Dr. Michael Smith, another Nobel
Prize winner and Canadian researcher at the University of British
Columbia, contributed to the improved treatment of diabetes. In
1988, Zymogenetics, a biotechnology
research firm he co-founded, used his
Nobel Prizewinning technique to improve the purity of insulin available
for treating diabetics. This was
another important step toward improving the lives of diabetics.
Even more recently, researchers
at Kinetek Pharmaceuticals, a
Vancouver-based biotechnology company, have developed a new treatment that may eventually free
diabetics from their daily ritual of insulin injections. The new treatment
affects signalling pathways within the
cell, between the cell membrane and
the nucleus, and is currently undergoing clinical trials.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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extracellular
fluid
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Na+
K+
Na+
potassium ion
Na+
Na+
phospholipid
bilayer
Na+
Na+
K+
Na+
Na+
K+
Na+
cytosol
sodium ion
ATP
1 Three sodium ions

(Na+) from inside the
cell bind to a transport
protein.
ADP
2 ATP gives up a
high-energy
phosphate group
to bind to the
transport protein.
FIGURE 3.9 Active transport: the sodium-potassium pump
Discovering Biology
3 The binding of phosphate causes a shape

change in the protein.
The channel opens to
the extracellular fluid;
the Na+ binding sites
are lost and the ions
are released outside
the cell; binding sites
for potassium ions (K+)
are created.
A Concentration Situation
The cell membrane controls the movement of ions and molecules.

The graph below shows the concentration of different ions inside an animal cell (in green) and outside the cell (in blue).
Use the graph and what you have read in the previous sections to
answer the following questions:
Explain which ions are transported into the cell by active
transport.
Explain which ions are transported out of the cell by
active transport.
160
outside
inside
Concentration (mmol.L-1)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sodium
Magnesium
Chloride
Potassium
FIGURE 3.10 Concentration of ions inside and outside the cell.
74
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
K+
4 Two K+ ions bind to the

transport protein,
resulting in the release
of the phosphate
group from the protein.
5 The loss of the

phosphate group
returns the protein to
its original shape. The
K+ ions are released
inside the cell and the
transport protein is
ready to bind more
Na+ ions.
Cystic fibrosis is due to a faulty active transport protein Cystic fibrosis is a devastating inherited disease that affects about
one in 2500 Canadian children. The disease, characterized by the buildup of
mucus in the lungs and other organs,
slowly destroys lung tissue.
The problem is caused by a faulty
membrane-based protein that should
function to actively transport chloride
ion out of the cell. Due to the defect, less
chloride ion is released than normal.
This results in decreased reabsorption
of sodium ion, dehydration of the membranes lining the respiratory and digestive passages, and the formation of a
thick mucus. The abnormal secretions
also have a reduced ability to kill invading bacteria. A cycle of infection and
inflammation takes place.
Research on cystic fibrosis over the
past twenty years included the 1989 discovery of the gene that causes the defect. Improved antibiotics, physiotherapy
and concentration on improving nutritional health have led to better lung
health and an increased life span. Heart
and lung trasnsplants are also a possible treatment. The estimated median
survival age for people born with cystic
fibrosis in the 1990s is 40 years.
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Section 3.3 Review

1.
Provide an example of a molecule that

must use facilitated diffusion to cross
membranes. Explain why it cannot
enter cells by some other means.
2.
Describe the process of active transport.
3.
Explain why active transport requires

energy in order to function.
4.
Construct a table to show the similarities and differences between diffusion,

facilitated diffusion, and active transport.
Investigate why the movement of these

ions is required to facilitate nerve cell
communication to and from your brain.
Illustrate, using a diagram of the movement of the ions during a nerve impulse.
6.
Making Connections
7.
Applying Inquiry/
5.
Nerve cells rely on the Na+/K+ pump

in order to function properly.
Each transport protein is specific to the

substance it channels across the cell
membrane. Suggest ways that the specificity of the transport protein for the
molecule being transported is ensured.
Research one of the following: Type I

or Type II diabetes, or juvenile-onset or
mature-onset diabetes. Prepare a brief
report, explaining the importance of diet,
medication, and lifestyle in the management of the form of diabetes you have
chosen to investigate.

Key Understandings
describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis of large particles
explain how these processes are related to the function of organs
Simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated

diffusion efficiently transport substances
of a small size through the cell membrane. However, some situations, for example, defence against infection, require
the movement of large particles into the
cytoplasm. Others, for example, the secretion of hormones, require the removal
of large particles from the cell. These situations require the formation of vesicles
and involve some rearrangement of the
cell membrane. Proteins and polysaccharides are examples of very large
molecules that need to pass into and
out of cells. Because these molecules
are too large to fit through a protein carrier they must use another method to
enter or exit the cell.
Endocytosis
Moving material into the cell by
endocytosis involves the pinching in of a
portion of the cell membrane around the
material to be transported into the cell.
The pinched-in portion eventually breaks
free from the cell membrane and forms
a vesicle in the cytoplasm. This allows the
material within the vesicle to travel to its
final destination within the cell.
CHAPTER 3
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WORD ORIGIN
Endocytosis from the Greek,
endon, meaning within, and
kutos, meaning vessel or
cell.
WEBLINK
For animations of phagocytosis,

pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, and exocytosis,
go to
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There are three types of endocytosis. The first type, called phagocytosis
involves the movement of large
molecules and sometimes even whole
cells into the cells interior. Phagocytosis
literally means cell eating. Specialized
white blood cells, known as
macrophages, may phagocytose whole
bacteria as part of your bodys defence
against disease.
A second type of endocytosis, called
pinocytosis or cell drinking, involves
the transport of liquids into vesicles.
From the descriptions and Figures 3.11
and 3.12, you can see why phagocytosis
and pinocytosis are well named.
The third type of endocytosis is
known as receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME), and it is the way a number of
nutrients and proteins, such as the hormone insulin, enter the cell. During RME,
the molecule that is to enter the cell binds
to special receptor proteins located on the
outside of the cell membrane. These receptor proteins move within the cell
membrane towards other identical receptor-molecule complexes. Once enough
molecules have gathered in an area, the
cell membrane pinches in, forming the
vesicle that will transport these molecules
into the cell. (Figure 3.13)
RME is currently the subject of extensive research. One reason for interest in RME is that cholesterol molecules
Quit
enter cells in this way. Cholesterol, is

necessary for the production of certain
sex hormones, and is itself a component
of cell membranes. However, cholesterol
can lead to heart and artery disease if
too much of it is present in the blood.
Normally, due to RME, excess cholesterol
in the blood enters liver cells and is
safely removed from the blood.
However, some individuals inherit
varying degrees of a disease known as
hypercholesterolemia. In this disease,
the cholesterol receptors on the liver cells
are either absent or greatly reduced in
number. People who completely lack
cholesterol receptors are unable to remove excess cholesterol from their blood
and may die from heart disease while
still in childhood. Others who have fewer
than normal receptors are also at risk,
but may be treated with a low-fat diet
and cholesterol-lowering drugs.
Researchers are trying to determine the
possibility of stimulating the action of
liver cell cholesterol receptors as a way
to treat patients with high blood cholesterol levels.
The rearrangement of the cell membrane needed for vesicle-formation is an
energy requiring process. All three types
of endocytosis involve vesicle formation.
For this reason all three types of
endocytosis require energy from the
breakdown of ATP.
Phagocytosis
bacterium
(or food particles)
pseudopodium
vesicle
FIGURE 3.11 Phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, particles including whole bacteria are

taken in by pseudopodia that surround them. The cell membrane of the pseudopodia
fuses and forms a vesicle that moves into the cells interior.
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Pinocytosis
extracellular fluid
plasma membrane
vesicle
cytosol
FIGURE 3.12 Pinocytosis. In pinocytosis, the cell membrane sinks in to surround
molecules in the extracellular fluid. The membrane then fuses to pinch off a vesicle
that can then move within the cell.
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis and is used to export large molecules
out of the cell (Figure 3.14 on the next
page). Large molecules such as proteins
are surrounded by a membrane at the
Golgi complex and a vesicle is formed.
In this vesicle the substances make their
way to the cell membrane where the
vesicle membrane joins with the cell
membrane and the large molecules are
expelled from the cell. Exocytosis, like
endocytosis, also requires energy from
the breakdown of ATP molecules.
Exocytosis, like endocytosis, is a
common process in many cells in our
bodies. Hormones are made within cells

but act outside of these cells, sometimes
at a great distance. For example, specialized cells in the pancreas make the
blood-sugar-controlling hormone insulin.
Like other hormones, insulin travels
throughout the body by way of the
bloodstream. The process of exocytosis
carries the insulin molecules out of the
pancreatic cells and allows them to enter
the blood. In another example, digestive
enzymes, made by specialized cells lining the intestine, are released by the process of exocytosis into the interior of the
intestine where they are used to digest
food materials.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
receptors
captured
molecules
coated
pit
vesicle
FIGURE 3.13 Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Many receptors bind to molecules.

The receptors move laterally within the cell membrane, forming a coated pit that
pinches off to form a vesicle.
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extracellular fluid
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protein
plasma membrane

restrictions.
cytosol
transport vesicle
a)
b)
FIGURE 3.14 Movement out of the cell
a) In exocytosis, a transport vesicle moves to fuse with the cell membrane. The cell
membrane rearranges, opens, and releases the contents of the vesicle outside the cell.
b) Material being expelled by exocytosis.
Section 3.4 Review

1.
Describe the process of endocytosis

in its three forms.
2.
Outline the similarities and differences

between phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
3.
Explain the process of exocytosis and

describe two examples in human cells.
4.
Use a T-chart to compare phagocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Applying Inquiry/
5.
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Cells involved in large amounts of

exocytosis, such as pancreatic cells,
may seem to run out of cell membrane
quite quickly if they are constantly
sending pieces of it away with exported
materials, yet the cell membrane remains a fairly constant size. Make a
hypothesis about what processes are
needed to keep the cell membrane at

this constant size. Suggest ways to test
your hypothesis.
6.
Predict the consequences if your body

cells could not perform a) endocytosis
or b) exocytosis.
7.
An amoeba is like a free-living

macrophage. Write a supported paragraph to agree or disagree with this
statement.
Making Connections
8.
Recently it has been discovered that

most cold-causing viruses bind to a
protein on the cell membrane and
enter the cell they are about to infect
by an endocytosis-like process. How
might researchers working for a
pharmaceutical company utilize this
information? Suggest an experiment
that could be performed.
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Case
Study
Drug Addiction and the Cell
Defining the Issue
Whatever the causes of drug addiction, once addictive drugs are introduced into the body, the chemistry of brain cells is altered. Scientists believe that
mesolimbic dopamines, neurotransmitters in the
central nervous system (CNS), control a persons
mood. These specialized molecules control communication from one neuron to another.
Some addictive drugs enhance mesolimbic
dopamines role in the brain, which elevates a persons mood, giving them a high. Heroin, for example, increases the rate at which nerve cells in the
CNS release dopamine. As a result, those who use
heroin experience a brief feeling of extreme euphoria, followed by an extreme low. In order to maintain the same level of response, they must take
higher doses of the drug to achieve the same high.
This is due to the way brain cells adapt to the ongoing use of the drug.
Scientists believe that, over time, the actual number of dopamine receptors is reduced. As a result,
not only does the user require more of the drug more
frequently, but other activities such as being with
friends no longer bring pleasure. This also contributes to the frequency and amount of drug used
by the addict.
The turning point for the addict is the decision
to end the addiction. There are a variety of therapies available to help combat addiction. Some people believe that addiction can be overcome with
willpower and strength of personal character. Others
FIGURE 3.15 Drug addiction is often complicated by
loneliness.
argue that addiction is an illness, and while

willpower is important in overcoming addiction, addiction requires medical treatment. Recent research
indicates that addiction occurs at the cellular level
in the brain.
Understanding the causes of addiction is vital
in developing treatments to help addicts recover.
Scientific studies that look at the genetic and social
factors influencing addiction may hold the key to
prevention.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Describe the social and economic factors that influence

the search for a cure to drug addiction.
2.
Research two different drug therapies, one that focuses

on working with the psychology of the addict, and a second that focuses on using drug treatment. Compare the
two therapies by preparing a P M chart. Identify the circumstances under which both would be appropriate.
3.
Plan a class debate that focuses on one of these drug

therapies. As a class, identify the question for the focus
of the debate. Set the criteria you will follow (e.g., time
allotted to speakers, how many participants will speak).
Participants must support their point of view with
research data and real examples.
4.
When the debate has concluded, evaluate the arguments

that were presented.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 3.2)
A Study of Osmosis: Determining the Solute

Concentration of Potatoes
Even though potatoes may no longer be growing on
their plants, they are still alive, and their cells, like all
others, have selectively permeable cell membranes. In
this lab you will study osmosis; the diffusion of water
from an area of high water concentration to an area
of lower water concentration. You will determine
how osmosis affects potato sections.
TABLE 3.1 Solute Concentration
Test Tube Number
10
Volume of Sucrose (mL)
10
Solute Concentration (mol.L1)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Volume of Water (mL)
Problems
Part 2: Preparation of the potatoes
What is the solute concentration of potatoes?
Prepare 6 equal-sized potato sections.

cork borer
Materials

test tubes
10-mL graduated cylinder
2 100-mL beakers
10-mL, 5-mL, 2-mL pipette
test-tube rack
#5 cork borer
single-edged razor blade or scalpel and handle
ruler
centigram balance/electronic balance
potato
1 mol L1 sucrose solution
distilled water
marker for test tubes
grid paper
paper towels
CAUTION: Work carefully with sharp instruments.
Procedure:
Part 1: Preparation of the solutions
potato
board
potato section
FIGURE 3.16 Set up for preparation of potato sections
1.
Set up the data table in your notebook as shown in

Table 3.2.
2.
Use a #5 cork borer to bore a section of potato. Cut

the skin off both ends and then use a razor blade
to trim the section to a length of 4 cm.
3.
Rinse the sections with distilled water and blot them

dry with paper towel.
4.
Use a balance to determine the mass of each potato

section. Record this mass, I, in Table 3.2, and place
each section in its corresponding test tube; that
is, the first potato section you weigh goes into test
tube 1, the second section you weigh goes into test
tube 2, and so on.
5.
After 24 hours, remove each potato section and

gently blot it dry. Record the final mass, F, of each
potato section in Table 3.2.
6.
Calculate the change in mass for each potato section as follows:
Prepare six test tubes, each with a different solute concentration, as follows:
80
1.
Label the tubes #16 and place them in a test-tube

rack.
2.
Using a pipette, add the correct amount of water

to each tube and then the correct amount of
1 mol L1 sucrose solution to prepare the intended
solute concentration for each tube. See Table 3.1.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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(continued)
TABLE 3.2
Test Tube #
Solute
Concentration
(mol.L1)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Initial Mass
I (g)
(Final Mass Initial Mass) = (F I ) = change in mass.

(If the potato lost mass, this number should be
negative.)
7.
Calculate the percent change in mass for each

potato as follows:
F I I 100
= % change in mass
(Any negative signs from step 6 will cause a negative result here, too.)
8.
On grid paper, plot the Percent change in mass vs.

Solute concentration. Include both negative and
positive numbers (if necessary) on your y axis. Use
a line of best fit to represent your data points.

1. Determine the solute concentration of the potatoes
by interpolation (Hint: what percent change in mass
would you expect if the sucrose solution had the
same solute concentration as the potato section?).
2. Indicate on your graph those solutions that were
hypotonic or hypertonic to the potato cytoplasm.
3. Explain your results. For example, explain why
some potato sections gained mass and others lost
mass over the 24-hour period.
Final Mass
F (g)
Change in Mass
(F I) (g)
Percent Change
in Mass
(F I)
100
I

4. Do you think your experimental results are accurate? Explain why or why not.
5. Describe possible changes to the procedure of this
lab that would produce more accurate results.
6. You can restore wilted flowers or vegetables by
soaking them in water. From your knowledge of
osmosis, would it be better to soak them in distilled
or tap water? Explain.
Extending
7. Explain why it is important for intravenous fluids
to be of the same solute concentration as human
blood.
8. If you prepared a solution with the same solute concentration as you determined in question one, what
change in mass would you expect to find from a
potato section that had soaked in that solution for
24 hours? Explain your answer.
9. Road salt that has been accidentally spilled on grass
often kills the grass. Use the knowledge you have
gained in this investigation to help explain why this
happens.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(section 3.2)
Effects on Permeability
Your teacher will demonstrate a model of a selectively permeable membrane made from simple household materials. The demonstration will consist of a
solution of cornstarch added to a plastic bag that is
placed in a beaker of distilled water with 20 drops of
iodine added to it.
Problem
What factors or variables might influence diffusion or
osmosis in this experimental system?
Experimental Design

1. What can you conclude about the plastic bag used
in this experiment?
2. Explain, using your knowledge of diffusion, how
the factors you investigated influenced diffusion or
osmosis in this system.
3. How would the rate of diffusion change if some of
these factors were applied together?
4. Suggest two ways of changing the rate of diffusion.
1.
Describe what you observe from the demonstration.
5. What criteria did you apply to developing your procedure?
2.
Write a list of the variables that you think might influence the diffusion or osmosis across the membrane.
6. Describe which observations you felt provided evidence as to how much diffusion or osmosis had
taken place.
3.
Write a hypothesis for how each variable would affect the movement of particles.
7. Account for any experimental errors that may have

affected your conclusion.
4.
Design a procedure to test the hypothesis about each

variable.
8. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to

your procedure if you repeated your experiment.
5.
Have your teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your investigation.
Extending
Present the results of your investigation in a clear

and well-organized manner. Use a data table and
graphs.
9. Using what you have learned from this activity, devise a method to get rid of unwanted weeds in the
cracks of a driveway.
6.
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Key Terms
active transport
concentration gradient
diffusion
endocytosis
exocytosis
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
passive transport
permeable
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
selectively permeable
sodium potassium pump
Summary table
Name of Transport Method
Description
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (along a
concentration gradient) until equilibrium is established
Osmosis
Movement of water along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is established
Facilitated Transport
Movement of large or polar molecules through a membrane along a concentration gradient by

means of a carrier protein. This method does not require energy from ATP.
Active Transport
Movement of molecules through a membrane against a concentration gradient by means of a carrier

protein. This method requires energy from ATP.
Endocytosis
The cell membrane forms a vesicle around large objects that must enter the cell. This method
requires energy from ATP.
Exocytosis
A vesicle fuses with the cell membrane to rid the cell of large objects. This method requires energy from ATP.
The cell membrane controls movement of substances

into and out of the cell.
In active transport, cells use energy to move substances against their concentration gradients.
Active transport requires the use of carrier proteins

in the membrane similar to those used in facilitated
diffusion. It requires energy from ATP.

Some substances pass through the cell membrane

by diffusion, the movement of a substance from high
to low concentration.
Water enters or leaves cells by the process of osmosis, the diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane in response to its concentration gradient.

Endocytosis without a transport protein occurs in

one of two forms: phagocytosis, the intake of large
molecules or whole cells, and pinocytosis, the
intake of liquids.
Some molecules enter the cell by receptor-mediated

endocytosis involving a membrane transport
protein.
Exocytosis involves the export out of the cell of large

molecules such as proteins.
Both endo- and exocytosis require energy from ATP.

In facilitated diffusion, substances move from regions of high concentration to low concentration by
means of carrier proteins in the membrane. No energy use is needed.

1.
Revisit the Checkpoint on page 65 and review your diagram of the cell membrane. Revise your drawing based
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between the following key terms: cell membrane, permeability, diffusion, molecules, concentration gradient,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, glucose, and proteins.
3.
Cellular biologists require a variety of employability skills.

Research careers in cellular biology and list what you
think are the five most important skills cellular biologists require. Explain your choices.
4.
Reflect on your learning. Evaluate the skills you used

to complete the Investigations in the first three chapters
of the Unit. Begin a database inventory of lab skills
that you can add to throughout the year.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
1. The process in which molecules of a substance other
than water move from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration is called
a) osmosis
b) diffusion
c) selective permeability
d) active transport
2. Energy from ATP is needed in
a) active transport
b) diffusion
c) facilitated diffusion
d) osmosis
3. Materials that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane
can be brought into the cell by
a) endosymbiosis
b) osmosis
c) endocytosis
d) exocytosis
4. In the fluid mosaic bilayer, the term fluid refers to the
a) shifting phospholipids in the cell membrane
b) the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell
c) the fluid portion of the cytoplasm known as the
cytosol
d) the liquids that enter the cell by the process of
pinocytosis
5. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane
may
a) function as transport proteins to help molecules
enter and exit cells
b) bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural
support
c) have carbohydrate chains that are involved in cell
communication attached to them
d) all of these
6. Solutes are
a) fatty acid molecules present in the cell membrane
b) substances dissolved in a fluid
c) the liquid portion of a solution
d) molecules that can only move against the concentration gradient
7. Molecules that can diffuse through the cell membrane
are
a) small
b) lipid soluble
c) water soluble
d) both a and b
84
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
8. Endocytosis is used to bring _______________ molecules

into cells.
a) small, lipid soluble
b) water
c) large
d) oxygen
9. Facilitated diffusion differs from diffusion because in facilitated diffusion
a) energy from ATP is required
b) protein carriers are used
c) molecules move against the concentration gradient
d) smaller molecules are transported
10. Active transport differs from facilitated transport, because in active transport
a) protein carriers are used
b) energy from ATP is required
c) molecules are moved against the concentration
gradient
d) both b and c
11. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following
statement: Membranes are the most important structures in cells.
12. What would happen if a solution with a higher concentration of water than is in your body cells was added to
your bloodstream? Explain your answer.
13. Write a story entitled: A Day Without Diffusion.
14. Explain why the phospholipid heads of the cell membrane phospholipids are always pointing toward the cytosol or the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell, while
the tails are always pointing toward the middle of
the membrane.
15. Soft drinks and other beverages contain different concentrations of solutes. Some of these drinks have low solute concentrations and, as a result, are a source of water
for your body cells. Other drinks have a high solute concentration and can dehydrate your body cells. Which of
these drinks should be marketed as thirst quenchers?
Explain your answer.
16. If cell membranes were completely permeable, what
effect would this have on cells?
17. Living yeast cells placed in a particular type of red dye
(called Congo red) remain colourless. However, dead
yeast cells placed in the same dye turn red. Explain
this observation.
18. In this chapter the structure of the cell membrane was
considered in detail. All membranes within cells have
similarities. What differences would you expect to find
among membranes in the interior of the cell?
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19. A beaker containing two salt solutions is divided by a

membrane. The level of solution is higher on the right
of the beaker than on the left side. The membrane is permeable only to water. Which side of the beaker originally
contained a hypertonic solution? Explain your answer
23. Draw one diagram to illustrate active transport and

another diagram to illustrate facilitated transport. Label
the diagrams and indicate clearly how the two types of
transport differ.
24. The red blood cell in humans behaves as an indicator of
the concentration of a solution. Justify this statement.
Use a series of diagrams to support your position.
20. The graph below shows the relative sizes of some

molecules that can diffuse across a cell membrane.
Predict which substances will diffuse across the membrane the most quickly, the most slowly, and which will
diffuse across at about the same speed. Explain your answers in each case.
25. Using the information gathered in question 24, discuss

the statement: Human life depends on the integrity of
the red blood cell membrane.
26. Design an experiment to determine the water concentration of an uncooked French fry. As a hint, remember that potatoes are made of cells with cell membranes,
and will either gain or lose water due to osmosis.
carbon dioxide
Substances tested
Quit
alcohol
glucose
27. Prepare a working model of the cell membrane. Use materials such as Styrofoam, marbles, string, thread spools,
or other equipment. Label the structures that you are using
to represent the phospholipid bilayer, transport proteins,
etc. Add the functions of each structure as well.
glycerol
oxygen
water
0
FIGURE 3.17
50
100
150
200
Relative size of molecules
Applying Inquiry/
21. Design an experiment to test the effect of temperature
on the rate (speed) of diffusion. Use the following materials in your experimental design: food colouring and
three beakers of water. One of the beakers is at room
temperature, the other is filled with ice-cold water and
the third is filled with hot water. Predict what will happen to the water and include an experimental control.
22. The container in the following diagram has a selectively
permeable membrane separating two solutions. Assume
that the starch molecules are too large to pass through
the membrane. What will happen to the water level on
either side of the membrane? Explain your answer.
semi permeable membrane
pure
water
starch
solution
28. The inside of your stomach is very acidic. This acid

condition is created by some of the cells lining your stomach; they pump hydrogen ions into your stomach against
the concentration gradient.
a) What process is involved in creating the acidic environment of your stomach?
b) Research how surrounding cells are protected from
the effects of low pH.
c) Predict the result of problems with this protection
mechanism.
Write a supported paragraph on the environment of the
inside of the stomach.
Making Connections
29. One way of growing crops in particularly dry areas of
the country, such as the prairie provinces, is to irrigate
the crops. However, the water tends to contain salts that
are left behind in the soil as the water evaporates. Based
on what you know about the movement of salts and
water, explain what might occur as a result. Predict the
long-term economic effects on the area. Propose solutions to this problem.
30. Protein kinases, the important molecules of communication within cells, are being heavily researched because
of the possibility that they can be used to stop the spread
of cancer and treat diseases like diabetes. Propose a way
to prioritize the focus of research on specific diseases.
FIGURE 3.18
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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CHAPTER 4
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Cells at Work


function of organs (4.3, 4.4)
explain the flow of energy between

photosynthesis and respiration (4.5)
compare anaerobic respiration and

aerobic respiration and state the
advantages and disadvantages for
an organism or tissue of using either process (4.5)
illustrate and explain important cellular processes including their function in the cell, the ways in which
they are interrelated, and the fact
that they occur in all living cells
(4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
identify new questions and problems stemming from the study of

metabolism in plant and animal
cells (4.2, Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
explain how scientific knowledge

of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (4.2, 4.3,
4.5)
undamental molecular principles and mechanisms control energytransforming activities in all living things. Most life on Earth depends on
the sun, the energy source for photosynthesis. The amazing amount of energy provided daily by the sun is about 15 billion times more than the total
yearly amount of electricity generated in Canada. Photosynthesis is the
Catch: Cells 60
FIGURE 4.1 Almost all life on Earth depends on the energy of the Sun. This elk is
a herbivore and depends on vegetation for food.
86
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process that plants, some bacteria, and some protists use to capture the suns
energy and produce carbohydrates. Only about 1% of the suns energy is
actually captured through photosynthesis.
Plants are not the only organisms to benefit from this arrangement.
Although photosynthetic organisms can make their own food, other organisms must obtain their food in some other way. This is usually by eating plants
or eating other organisms that eat plants, or both. This chain of consumption means that practically all living things on Earth rely on the Sun as their
ultimate energy source.
Life also depends on the interconnection between the energy-converting
systems of photosynthesis and cell respiration. The products of photosynthesis, oxygen and sugars, are the reactants for cell respiration and the products of cell respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are reactants in
photosynthesis. This chapter will focus on ways in which cells work to
convert energy and to use the energy in protein synthesis.You will also be
introduced to the alternative methods some cells have developed to metabolize nutrients.
Discovering Biology
Identifying a Substance Produced During
Energy Reactions in Cells
Every reaction in your body uses reactants and produces products that
must be reused or removed. Perform these tests to identify end products of
metabolism.
1.
What happens when you exhale on the surface of a mirror? What substance forms on the surface of the mirror?
2.
Place a plastic bag over some leaves on a plant and seal the bag with a
tie or elastic band. Place the plant in sunlight. What substance eventually forms on the inside of the bag?
What substance have you identified as a product of cell metabolism?
CHECKPOINT
Draw a cycle diagram to
show what you know about
the stages of photosynthesis. (Your diagram may
include more stages than
are shown in this example.)
Photosynthesis
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4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy

Key Understandings
list the fundamental molecular principles and mechanisms involved in energytransforming reactions in cells
describe how ATP functions as the energy molecule of cells
Thousands of different chemical reactions occur constantly within cells. The

term metabolism refers to the sum of
these chemical reactions. These reactions are crucial to providing cells with
energy. Recall that endergonic reactions
require energy in order to proceed. In
fact, the term endergonic means energy
in. Most biological endergonic reactions
produce molecules containing covalent
bonds that store energy. For example,
photosynthesis is a series of endergonic
reactions that produces energy-rich glucose molecules.
Exergonic reactions release energy;
the term exergonic means energy out.
Cells use an exergonic reaction, known
as cellular respiration, to release useable energy from carbohydrates.
Cellular respiration is the name for a
series of reactions in cells that release
energy from glucose molecules to form
molecules of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP serves as a manageable form
of chemical energy for the cell to use.
FIGURE 4.2 Energy storage

and release. Energy is
needed to build up complex
molecules like glycogen from
simpler molecules like
glucose. Such an anabolic
reaction is endergonic, or
energy-requiring in nature.
Energy is released in the
breakdown of complex
molecules into simpler ones.
Such catabolic reactions are
exergonic or energy-releasing
in nature.
glycogen
molecule
ENDERGONIC
REACTION
ENERGY
IN
ENERGY
OUT
EXERGONIC
REACTION
glucose
molecules
UNIT 1
ATP is a molecule made from a nucleotide. It consists of adenine, the fivecarbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate
groups. It is the energy molecule of cells
and is necessary for cell membrane functions like active transport and also for
muscle contraction.
ATP is well suited to its role as the
energy molecule. It contains specialized
bonds, known as high energy bonds, between its phosphate groups. It is also a
small molecule and releases energy in
small enough quantities to be useful to
the cell. Cells are very efficient in their
energy use. Consider a carbohydrate such
as glucose to be equivalent to a dollar coin
and the smaller ATP molecule to be equivalent to a penny. When the cell needs energy, it can spend an appropriate number
of small ATP molecules and not waste
extra energy by spending the larger carbohydrate or lipid molecules.
When energy is needed for a reaction in a cell, the bond is broken between
the second and the third phosphate
group in the ATP. Once this phosphate
has been removed, the molecule has two
phosphates and is referred to as adenosine diphosphate or ADP. The result of
this conversion is the release of about
30kJ of energy per mole of ATP. This reaction is commonly represented as
ATP ADP P Energy
Product
contains more
energy than
the reactants.
88
ATP: The Energy

Molecule of the Cell
Cellular Functions
Product contains
less energy than
the reactants.
ADP molecules can be converted

back into ATP. Cellular respiration is the
process involved in turning ADP back
into ATP. The relationship is often shown
as a cycle.
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NH2
Adenine
O
N
ON
Adenosine
O
O
Ribose
OH
O
O
P
O
Phosphate groups
OH
ATP
Energy is stored.
Energy
N
O
ON
O
O
O
OH
ADP
NH2
N
Energy is released.
FIGURE 4.3 Energy release from breakdown of

ATP. ATP stores energy in chemical bonds. When
the bond between the second and third phosphate groups of ATP is broken, the phosphate
group separates with the release of energy. ATP
becomes ADP. If ADP picks up another phosphate group, the reaction is reversed.
O
O
Energy
OH
Section 4.1 Review

Activity
1.
2.
Define metabolism.
kJ consumed per hour

by an average person
running
3260
walking
660
3.
Describe and give an example of an exergonic reaction.
Describe and give an example of an endergonic reaction.
4.
5.
List the components of an ATP molecule.
6.
Write the equation for the breakdown

of ATP, and list some of the cell functions that can occur due to the energy
released.
7.
Most exergonic reactions are also

catabolic and most endergonic
reactions are anabolic. Justify this
statement.
swimming
Why is ATP well suited for its role as

the energy molecule in cells?
Applying Inquiry/
8.
cycling
The average adult person requires

9000 kJ of energy per day. If your diet
provides you with 10 500 kJ of energy
340
2240
per day, how long would you have to

exercise each day to burn off the extra
energy by a) running; b) walking;
c) cycling; d) swimming? Use the table
above to help determine your answer.
Making Connections
9.
For an organism to survive, what

would you predict about the number
of endergonic reactions versus the
number of exergonic reactions occurring in its cells? How might you extend
this reasoning to the worldwide
depletion of fossil fuels? Present a supported opinion.
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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4.2 Enzymes
Key Understandings
describe the importance of enzymes to the metabolic reactions of all living cells
understand why enzymes act on specific reactions
INFOBIT
Some enzymes require helper
molecules called coenzymes in
order to function properly.
Vitamins often function as
coenzymes. This is why an appropriate amount of vitamins is
important in the diet. A lack of
vitamins in the diet can cause
diseases such as scurvy, rickets, or certain forms of anemia.
WEBLINK
Enzymes can be used in cleaning up oil spills on the ocean
by metabolizing or breaking
down organic chemicals.
Research how this process occurs and describe the process
using a flow chart diagram.
Enzymes are specialized protein

molecules that function as biological catalysts. Catalysts facilitate chemical reactions. Enzymes allow reactions to be
completed up to 10 billion times faster
than they would be without the presence
of the enzyme. Life on Earth depends on
enzymes, because although essential reactions could still occur without them, the
reactions would not occur fast enough to
maintain life.
Enzymes speed up reactions by
binding to the reactants known as
substrates. The enzyme-catalyzed
reaction occurs at a location on the
enzyme known as the active site. The
joining of the enzyme to the substrates
produces an enzyme-substrate complex. It is during the formation of the
enzyme-substrate complex that the reaction occurs. Following the reaction,
the enzyme releases the products. See
Figure 4.4. Enzymes are reusable, so
once the products are released, the enzyme is ready to bind to more substrate.
Each enzyme generally catalyzes
only one chemical reaction. As a result,
enzymes are said to be specific to their
particular substrate(s). Recall how structure is critical to any proteins function.
Enzyme specificity occurs because the
three-dimensional shape of the active
enzyme
site of an enzyme is designed to precisely

fit and accept the substrate molecule(s).
This observation has led to what is
known as the lock and key model of
enzyme action. Once the key or substrate is in place in the lock, or enzyme
the chemical reaction can begin.
Occasionally, a molecule similar in
shape to the substrate may bind to the
enzymes active site, preventing the
actual substrate molecule from binding.
Such molecules are known as competitive inhibitors; they compete with the
substrate for the active site of the enzyme and if they bind to the enzyme,
they inhibit its function. The poisons
cyanide and arsenic work in this way. If
present in the body, they compete with
the intended substrate, bind to key enzymes involved in important metabolic
pathways and prohibit them from functioning. This inhibition leads to death
if not treated immediately.
By binding to their substrates,
enzymes are able to lower the amount
of energy that must be supplied for the
reaction to occur. This energy, known as
activation energy, can be compared to
a barrier that must be overcome in order
for a chemical reaction to occur. Figure
4.5 compares the activation energy with
and without an enzyme present. The
enzyme-substrate
Complex
Substrate
FIGURE 4.4 An enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The intermediate form,

the enzyme-substrate complex, is short-lived.
90
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
products
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Canadian
Biotechnological
Breakthrough
Many species of micro-organisms
produce enzymes that are important
in cleaning up waste materials
including oil spills and other toxic
wastes. An enzyme known as
xylanase is produced naturally
by fungi such as Trichoderma
harzianum and bacteria such as
Bacillus circulans. Xylanase was
being used in pulp and paper mills to
Next Section
reduce the amount of toxic waste, including PCBs, produced by the

bleaching process used to produce
white paper. However, xylanase
breaks down and does not function
at temperatures greater than 55C,
and the temperature during the maufacturing process for pulp is usually
higher than xylanase can withstand
(55C70C).
Dr. Wing Lam Sung, working at
the National Research Council, took
up the challenge of redesigning the
xylanase enzymea challenge many
other scientists had predicted to be
impossible. However, Dr. Sung proved
them wrong by successfully changing
the order of the amino acids making
up the protein of the xylanase en-
presence of the enzyme makes the obstacle, or hill, smaller, and as a result,
the reaction can occur faster; more energy is available to be used in more reactions, rather than being wasted on
overcoming the obstacle.
Thousands of different chemical
reactions must occur in cells to make life
possible. Each reaction requires its own
specialized enzyme in order to proceed
efficiently. For example, cellular respiration and photosynthesis are both complex metabolic processes that involve
many reactions and therefore many enzymes. The digestion of food also requires the production of enzymes,
known as digestive enzymes, by specialized cells located in the stomach,
small intestine, and pancreas.
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zyme. The outcome was the production of a modified xylanase

enzyme that could withstand the high
temperatures necessary in the pulp
mills. The presence of this enzyme reduces the toxic output of the mills by
10 % and reduces the operating costs
of each mill by $500 000 per year.
An Ottawa-based biotechnology
firm, Iogen, collaborated with Dr.
Sung to test and market the product,
which became known as BioBrite.
Tests showed that although other
xylanase enzymes were available
from competing companies, none of
their products worked as well as
the xylanase designed by Dr. Sung.
Iogen is now the worlds leading
supplier of this enzyme.
a) Without enzyme
sucrose
glucose
+
fructose
activation energy
without enzyme
net energy released

from splitting of
sucrose
b) With enzyme
sucrase
sucrose
glucose
fructose
activation energy
with enzyme
FIGURE 4.5 Enzymes lower activation energy.

a) Without an enzyme, the amount of energy
needed to activate the split of sucrose into
glucose and fructose is high. b) In the presence
of the enzyme sucrase, the activation energy is
low, so the reaction proceeds more easily. The
energy release per molecule is the same under
both conditions.
net energy released
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Section 4.2 Review

1.
Define an enzyme. Explain the aspects

of enzyme function shared by all living
cells.
2.
Draw a diagram to show the progress

of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
3.
If more substrate is added to a reaction vessel, what happens to the number of enzyme molecules?
4.
Explain why lock and key is or is not

a good analogy to use with enzymes.
5.
When Dr. Wing Lam Sung synthesized

the heat-resistant xylanase enzyme, he
changed the order of some of the
amino acids in the protein. Some characteristics of the protein must not have
changed. Explain why.
6.
Life on Earth depends on enzymes.

Write a supported paragraph to defend
or deny the statement.
7.
The text compares the amount of activation energy to be overcome in a reaction with an obstacle or hill. Propose
a second analogy that helps to clarify
the meaning of activation energy.
The Link Between

Biotechnology and
Protein Synthesis
The nucleotides that make up DNA
are the same in all organisms. It is
only the order and arrangement of
the bases that is different from
species to species. This means that
DNA from one organism can be added
to a different organism. The resulting DNA is called recombinant DNA,
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Applying Inquiry/
8.
Construct a flowchart to explain the

role of competitive inhibitors.
Making Connections
9.
Scientific knowledge of cellular processes is sometimes used in anti-social

ways. The nerve gas Sarin was used in
a recent terrorist attack on a Japanese
subway station. Research and report
on the international regulations in
place that address the production and
use of nerve gas.
10. The symptoms of influenza and other

viral diseases are often caused by the
enzymes produced by the virus. Based
on your knowledge of enzyme function,
suggest some possible ways to treat the
flu. Propose how these methods might
be incorporated into the health care
system.
11. What relationships do scientists and
because it contains DNA from more

than one organism. Since the reactions that implement the genetic code
of DNAprotein synthesisare
essentially the same in all living
things, scientists have used this
knowledge to create the field of
biotechnology.
For example, certain human proteins such as insulin are necessary for
treating human diseases such as diabetes. However, scientists are unable
to make insulin and many other organic molecules from scratch; they
must rely on other organisms. This is
where the universality of the genetic
code and protein synthesis come in:
quite simply, the human DNA segment
business share as new technologies are

developed?
that codes for synthesis of the insulin protein is inserted into the DNA
of an organism that reproduces
quickly and can be grown cheaply,
such as yeast or bacteria. Since DNA
is DNA, no matter what organism it
comes from, the yeast or bacteria now
have the instructions to make the new
protein, in this case insulin, and they
begin to manufacture it. The insulin
is then extracted from the organism,
purified, and packaged for delivery to
pharmacies and clinics.
Many other proteins have also
been prepared in a similar manner
to fight diseases such as cystic fibrosis, and different forms of cancer.
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Key Understandings
illustrate the process of protein synthesis
explain how cell organelles work together
describe how organelles carry out transportation
Protein Synthesis
Proteins are essential to the life of the cell.
They have many functions. The cytoskeleton provides support. Enzymes catalyze reactions. Intrinsic proteins in the
cell membrane act as chemical receptors
and transport substances. Hormones provide chemical communication between
cells. A continuing supply of new protein is therefore needed for the health of
the cell. All the organelles of the cell work
together to produce protein through the
process of protein synthesis.
The manufacture and export of a
protein is a complex process (Figure 4.6).
However, protein synthesis can be considered as two main steps. In the first
step, known as transcription, the protein-making instructions on DNA are
copied into a molecule of RNA called
messenger RNA (mRNA). This form of
RNA is transcribed from one of the
strands of the DNA molecule. The mRNA
is then carried to the ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER). Here, the second step, known as
translation, occurs. During translation
another form of RNA, known as transfer RNA (tRNA), brings the required
amino acids one at a time to build the primary structure of the protein according
to the instructions on the mRNA
molecule. Each amino acid links to the
next by a peptide bond. For this reason,
the protein at this stage may be called a
polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide has been assembled at the ribosome it enters the
RER. In the RER the molecule assumes
the final shape of the protein. This may
involve several protein subunits coming
together in a quaternary level of structure.
nucleus
Instructions from
DNA are copied onto
mRNA.
mRNA moves to
ribosomes, where
instructions are read.
Amino acid chain

growing from ribosomes
is dropped inside
membrane. Chain folds
into protein.
Protein moves to
Golgi complex for
additional processing
and for sorting.
Protein moves to
plasma membrane
for export.
ribosomes
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
complex
plasma
membrane
FIGURE 4.6 The path of production of a protein
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WEBLINK
Nuclear medicine has an
important role in diagnosing
disease. Write a report on how
nuclear medicine is used in the
treatment of cancer. Begin
your research at
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The RER sends the protein out by way

of a vesicle to the Golgi complex, where
the protein may undergo further
changes. If the protein is to be used outside the cell, it is placed in yet another
new vesicle and travels to the cell membrane. At the cell membrane the protein
will be exported from the cell by the process of exocytosis.
Nuclear medicine: using the knowledge of

cell functions and technology Nuclear
medicine is a number of techniques that
use the knowledge of cellular functions
such as protein synthesis to diagnose
diseases. For example, to diagnose
problems with the hormone-producing
thyroid gland, patients are asked to
X-ray Crystallography
of Proteins
Dr. Gil Priv loves his career as an Xray crystallographer at the University
of Toronto. Dr. Priv studies the structure and function of the protein
molecules found in cells, and his special interest is proteins found in cell
membranes.
As opposed to electron microscopes, which use a beam of electrons to form an image, the process
of X-ray crystallography uses X rays,
special sensors, and computer technology to allow scientists to view the
smallest level of detail in molecules.
Dr. Priv describes X-ray crystallography as the perfect intersection of
physics (the X rays), chemistry (the
structure of the molecule), and biology (the problem you are trying to
solve with regard to the molecules
function).
Recently, Dr. Priv and his colleagues discovered the structure of a
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drink a glass of water containing radioactive iodine (131I). The hormone produced by the thyroid gland is a protein
that consists of many iodine-containing
amino acids. Radioactive iodine will be
taken up and incorporated into this protein. In a normal thyroid gland the radioactivity is soon detectable and is
captured on film by a special nuclear
medicine camera. Images of the thyroid
gland are taken over a period of time.
The length of time it takes for the radioactivity to appear and the amount
of radiation detected in the thyroid gland
both provide important information to
physicians about the health of the thyroid gland and its ability to produce hormone molecules.


FIGURE 4.7 Computer-generated diagram
of the PLZF protein
protein known as PLZF that is among

other things involved with causing
leukemia. Dr Priv claims that learning the structure of this molecule is
the first step in understanding how
it works and ultimately learning how
to control it. Dr. Priv states that in
biological systems, out of fairly simple interactions you get very complex
behaviours that allow cells to make
decisions such as whether to divide
or not to divide. It makes for fascinating research, says Dr. Priv.
You get to discover things that have
existed since life began but that no
FIGURE 4.8 Dr. Gil Priv
else knows about. He claims that you

may be cut out for a career in science
if you are naturally curious and like
to solve puzzles; he also states that
the ability to be a scientist is an attitude more than an aptitude.
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Section 4.3 Review

1.
Name and describe the two steps of

protein synthesis.
2.
Describe the roles of mRNA and tRNA

in building a protein.
3.
Explain how other organelles become

involved in protein formation after the
polypeptide is assembled at the
ribosome.
4.
List at least five types of proteins that

are important to cells.
5.
Acromegaly is a condition caused by

the overproduction of growth hormone
in adults. Investigate the symptoms of
this disease. Write a paragraph to summarize your findings.
Applying Inquiry/
6.
Outline the steps necessary for a pancreatic cell to manufacture and export the protein-based hormone insulin
into the blood. Include a diagram in
your answer.
Making Connections
7.
Nuclear medicine contributes to the diagnosis of many abnormal metabolic

conditions. Research and report on
how radioactivity is used to diagnose
disease.
4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production

Key Understandings
illustrate and explain the process of photosynthesis
describe organisms that do not depend on photosynthesis as their source of energy
Photosynthesis produces the oxygen that

nearly all living things must have in
order to survive and it allows plants to
feed themselves as well as to become
food sources for other organisms. Most
of the molecules that now make up your
body originated in a plant as a result of
photosynthesis.
Plants, some bacteria, and some
protists like algae have the unique
ability to convert the energy of sunlight
into the energy of chemical bonds
within carbohydrates. This ability
defines photosynthesis. The photosynthetic reactions occur in specialized organelles called chloroplasts. Within the
chloroplasts, specialized pigmented compounds known as chlorophyll molecules
are able to capture the energy of light.

The captured light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide from the air and
water from the soil into glucose
(C6H12O6).
Photosynthesis is a complicated
endergonic process that can be
simplified into two main stages: the
light-dependent reactions and the lightindependent reactions. In the lightdependent reactions, water molecules
are broken down into oxygen and
hydrogen. The oxygen is released as a
product. In the light-independent
reactions, carbon dioxide from the air
is added to the hydrogen atoms acquired
from water in the first stage to form the
carbohydrate glucose.
Investigation
Refer to page 104,
Investigation 2
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Cells at Work
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The reaction below shows the net

equation or ingredient list a plant
must have in order to produce one
molecule of glucose.
In this equation, the reactants are
shown on the left side of the arrow and
the products are shown on the right side
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of the arrow. Although a number of

enzymes are involved in the process, they
are not included in the equation.
Both of the products of photosynthesis are extremely important to other
living things. The glucose produced
provides energy not only for the plants
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2

carbon
dioxide
water
glucose
light energy
oxygen
glucose + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
FIGURE 4.9 The process of

photosynthesis. The interaction of light energy, pigmented chlorophyll in
chloroplasts, carbon dioxide,
and water results in the formation of sugars and oxygen.
Discovering Biology
Plants and Oxygen
Joseph Priestly, an 18th-century English clergyman and scientist, proved the existence of oxygen by the decomposition of mercury II oxide. Priestly also performed a famous experiment with plants.
1. Light a candle, place it on a plate, beside a small potted plant, such as mint,
and place a large beaker upside down over the candle. After a short time the
candle will go out.
2. Place the apparatus near a sunny window for two to three days.
3. Remove the beaker just enough to re-light the candle. The candle should light
and burn temporarily.
What substance was consumed by the candle?
What must have been added to the beaker to allow the candle to burn the sec-
ond time?
Where did the oxygen come from?
What would happen if the apparatus were put back in the window for a fur-
ther few days?

What would happen if the plant and beaker were put in a dark cupboard for
a few days? Would the candle burn again?

What was the contribution of the plant?
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themselves but also for organisms that

eat plants, and also for the organisms that
eat those organisms. The oxygen produced is needed by almost all living
thingsincluding the plants themselves
for the process of cellular respiration.
Alternative Forms of
Food Production:
The Chemoautotrophs
Photosynthetic organisms are called
autotrophs, meaning they can make
their own food. Most other organisms
are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs must
eat other organisms to obtain energy.
However, another highly specialized
method of energy acquisition does exist.
Because of that we must say that technically, not quite all life on Earth relies
on photosynthesis. Certain species of
bacteria, known as chemoautotrophs,
do not rely on either photosynthesis
or the products of photosynthesis to
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survive. Instead, they produce their own

food chemically. These unique organisms
release the energy stored in inorganic
molecules such as hydrogen sulphide,
carbon dioxide, or iron-containing compounds to provide energy for themselves
and to make the organic compounds
such as carbohydrates and amino acids
necessary to support life.
Many scientists believe that the
chemoautotrophic bacteria are related
to the first life forms on Earth. They
would have been well suited to the conditions that probably existed on this
young developing planet. Inorganic
compounds from Earths crust were
common, and little or no oxygen existed
to support autotrophs.
Today, the chemoautotrophs live in
environments where conditions similar
to those of a primitive Earth still exist,
in deep-sea hot vents, deep in the soil of
wetlands, or in the near-boiling water of
hot springs.
Section 4.4 Review

Making Connections
1.
Explain the importance of photosynthesis to all living things.
7.
2.
In what cellular organelle does photosynthesis occur?
3.
Where do the substrates (reactants)

of photosynthesis come from?
4.
Write the net equation for photosynthesis.
5.
Compare the lifestyle of chemoautotrophs and single-celled photosynthetic organisms.
Applying Inquiry/
6.
In the process of photosynthesis, can

you tell if the oxygen atoms for the
product oxygen originate from the
reactant carbon dioxide or from the reactant water? Design an experiment to
determine which reactant supplies the
oxygen atoms.
The greenhouse effect is caused by the

buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil
fuels. Investigate:
a) how the greenhouse effect may affect photosynthesis in plants.
b) the possible economic results of
effects on photosynthesis in plants.
c) the consequences of choosing not
to acknowledge the greenhouse
effect.
8.
Rain forests, such as those in the

Amazon river basin, actually create
much of their own rainfall. Cutting
down the rain forest decreases the
rainfall in the area. Crops are grown
on the cleared rain forest land. Prepare
a chart that lists the pros and cons of
such action.
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Key Understandings
describe the results of cellular respiration
explain the flow of energy between photosynthesis and respiration
state the advantages and disadvantages to an organism or tissue of using aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration
INFOBIT
36 or 38? Cellular respiration
can produce different amounts
of ATP; some cells are better at
making ATP than others. In the
human body, the cardiac
(heart) muscle cells produce 38
ATP molecules per glucose
molecule. All of the other cells
in our bodies are less efficient
and produce only 36 ATP per
glucose molecule. It is not surprising that heart muscle cells
are so efficient considering
how important your heartbeat
is to maintaining your life.
The metabolic process of cellular respiration supplies cells with energy in the
form of ATP. ATP is used to provide energy for important cellular processes such
as active transport, muscle contraction,
and all other endergonic reactions occurring in the cells of all living things.
Cellular respiration also provides the heat
to keep warm-blooded animals, such as
humans and other mammals, warmer
than their environment.
Glucose is the fuel for cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, the covalent bonds in glucose are slowly broken
down in a series of reactions that are
overall exergonic. The energy released is
used to make ATP. The process of
cellular respiration can be summarized
by the equation in the diagram below.
The first steps of cellular respiration,

known as glycolysis, occur in the cytoplasm in the cytosol. Glycolysis splits the
glucose into two molecules of pyruvic
acid. Two molecules of ATP are also
formed. Gloyolysis does not require oxygen and occurs in all cells. In eukaryotic
cells, if oxygen is present, the remaining steps of cellular respiration and the
remaining ATP production occur in the
mitochondria. Because prokaryotic cells
do not have organelles such as mitochondria, they can only perform glycolysis, and are, therefore, much less
efficient at producing ATP than eukaryotic cells.
Figure 4.10 shows the major stages
in cellular respiration and the locations
in the cell where these stages take place.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (in the form of 36 or 38 ATP)

glucose
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
water
Reactants
glucose
Products
2 ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
2 pyruvic acid
further processing
cytosol
mitochondrial
membrane
6 carbon dioxide
6 oxygen
34
FIGURE 4.10 The harvest of
energy from cellular
respiration
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mitochondrion
6 water
ATP
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The Energy Flow on Earth
Sources of Energy
Compare the equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration. What

do you notice? Did you recognize that
the reactions are opposites? This is an
important feature of life on Earth. The
energy that fuels life on earth cycles
between photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Photosynthesis uses light
energy to produce glucose and other
organic molecules and cellular respiration releases the energy stored in the
bonds of glucose to make ATP to fuel
cellular functions.
The products of each of these
metabolic processes become the substrates for the other metabolic process.
Life on Earth depends on photosynthesis to continuously supply the glucose and
oxygen needed by cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration supplies the carbon
dioxide and ATP energy that allow plants
to continue to photosynthesize.
Although glucose is the cells most efficient source of fuel to make ATP, cells
may also use other molecules for energy.
For example, polysaccharides are polymers of glucose; therefore they can be
easily broken down to glucose and used
for energy. Such polysaccharides are
often called complex carbohydrates.
Other molecules, such as lipids and
proteins, may also be used for energy.
These substances can enter the cellular
respiration pathway but at different
stages from where carbohydrates enter
the pathway. Generally, cells will use carbohydrates for energy first, fats second,
and then finally break down proteins in
order to continue the cellular respiration
process. Without a steady supply of ATP
molecules, cells die within seconds.
Figure 4.11 shows the entry of different
types of molecules into the cellular respiration pathway.
food
proteins
carbohydrates
amino acids
sugars
fats
glycerol
fatty acids
glycolysis
glucose
pyruvic acid
NH3 (ammonia)
FIGURE 4.11 Molecules other than glucose can enter the cellular respiration pathway. These
reactants enter the respiratory pathway at different stages.
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WORD ORIGIN
Aerobic from the Greek, aer,
meaning air, bios, meaning
life and suffix ikos meaning
of the nature of. The an in
anaerobic is from the Greek for
not.
INFOBIT
If you like murder mysteries,
you may have heard of the
poisons arsenic and cyanide.
Both are deadly, and although
arsenic works slowly and
cyanide works very quickly,
they both affect cellular
respiration in the mitochondria:
they prevent certain reactions
of cellular respiration from
occurring and, therefore, prevent ATP formation.
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Forms of Respiration
The summary equation for cellular respiration, shows that oxygen is required.
See Figure 4.10, page 98. Cellular respiration using oxygen is known as aerobic
cellular respiration. However, most cells
are able to continue to produce some ATP
without oxygen. Producing ATP in the
absence of oxygen is often called anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria use a
number of different strategies to accomplish anaerobic respiration. Eukaryotic
cells usually rely on one of two pathways:
lactic acid fermentation or alcoholic
fermentation.
Refer to page 103

Investigation 1
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acid. Lactic acid fermentation is inefficient when compared to aerobic cellular respiration, but it remains in humans
as a way to get a little extra energy in
an emergency situation.
Lactic acid fermentation is also used
in the dairy industry to make cheese and
yogurt. The process involves providing
a suitable carbohydrate source to the
proper species of bacteria under anaerobic conditions. The products are harvested once the fermentation has been
completed. Fermentation by bacteria, a
Lactobacillus, results in the production
of yogurt and sour cream.
Alcoholic Fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation
When faced with anaerobic conditions,
many eukaryotic cells can convert the
pyruvic acid obtained from glycolysis
into another product, called lactic acid.
This conversion, known as lactic acid
fermentation, occurs in the cytoplasm.
Although lactic acid fermentation does
not add to the ATP already produced by
glyolysis, it is necessary in order to
regenerate a coenzyme that allows
glycolysis to continue.
pyruvic acid lactic acid
Investigation
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Did you ever wonder why your muscles hurt after exercise? Fermentation is
the reason. When you exercise vigorously, your circulatory system cannot
provide enough oxygen to your muscle
cells. As a result, your muscles rely on
the anaerobic process of lactic acid
fermentation to provide at least a little
bit more energy. However, the product
lactic acidis toxic to the cells and
causes pain as it continues to accumulate in the muscles. Because of its poisonous effect, the lactic acid must be
changed back to pyruvic acid in the
presence of oxygen. This explains why
you need to breathe deeply after intense
exerciseyou are supplying the oxygen needed to break down the lactic
Yeast, a type of fungus, and a few other

kinds of micro-organisms utilize another
method of fermentation called alcoholic
fermentation. In this process, pyruvic
acid is broken down into ethanol and
carbon dioxide. Similar to lactic acid
fermentation, alcoholic fermentation
does not contribute any more ATP
molecules to those already produced
by glycolysis; it is necessary to regenerate a coenzyme allowing glycolysis
to continue. The equation for alcholic
fermentation is:
pyruvic acid alcohol + CO2
Humans have utilized this process
for thousands of years. This was one of
the earliest examples of biotechnology.
The rising of yeast-bread dough is the
result of carbon-dioxide production by
the yeast cells. Brewing wine and other
alcoholic beverages relies on the ability
of yeast to ferment sugar to alcohol and
carbon dioxide. In order to make wine,
grape juice and yeast cells are mixed and
left in anaerobic conditions. The yeast
ferments the sugar into alcohol, but dies
once the alcohol concentration reaches
about 12%. Therefore, in order
to produce alcohol of a higher concentration, further processing, called
distillation, is required.
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To Ferment or Not to Ferment Clearly, it

is a major advantage for organisms to
be able to aerobically metabolize glucose. The organism obtains 36 or 38 ATP
per glucose, compared to only 2 ATP per
glucose obtained by fermentation.
In fact, a full 90 % of the energy in
glucose is unavailable to those
organisms that rely on anaerobic
metabolism. Why is fermentation
important? The answer is probably
linked to the conditions that existed on
a very young planet Earth. Scientists believe that fermentation developed before
aerobic respiration because oxygen was
not present in the atmosphere when the
earliest forms of life appeared on Earth
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some 3.5 billion years ago. As a result,

the first creatures to appear on Earth relied on fermentation to supply their energy needs. They were probably similar
to anaerobic bacteria that exist today.
Later the composition of the atmosphere
changed as photosynthetic bacteria
evolved to produce oxygen as a product of photosynthesis. As the oxygen concentration on Earth increased, the
organisms that relied on fermentation
were replaced by other organisms that
could carry out aerobic respiration. Now
they are found only in environments
where there is no oxygen, such as deep
in the soil or in the bodies of other organisms.
Section 4.5 Review

Making Connections
1.
Why do cells perform cellular respiration?
8.
2.
Write the overall equation for cellular

respiration. From what reactant is the
oxygen in the product, water, obtained?
3.
Explain the flow of energy between cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
4.
Describe the difference between aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.

Write a paragraph to discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of each
process to a tissue or an organism.
Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are proteins that are found in hibernating

bears and interfere with a mitochondrions ability to make ATP. Instead of
making ATP the energy is lost as heat
used to keep the bears warm. UCPs are
currently being studied as a possible
weight-loss solution in humans.
Research UCPs and prepare a PMI
chart on the prospects of their use as
a weight-loss solution.
9.
Mark McGuire was using a performance supplement known as creatine

phosphate the year he broke baseballs
all-time home-run record. Find out
more about the number of athletes
using creatine phosphate and its advantages and dangers. Conduct a
risk/benefit analysis and report your
findings to your class in the form of a
presentation or a poster.
5.
Make a T-chart to show the differences

between the two types of fermentation.
6.
What would be the effect on your

metabolism if your mitochondria
stopped functioning? Refer to Figure
4.10 in your answer.
7.
Make a diagram to show how lipids

can be used as alternative sources of
energy for cellular respiration.
10. Creatine phosphate is naturally found

in your cells and enhances their ability to make ATP in anaerobic condition.
Although creatine phosphate is not a
banned substance, in your opinion, is
it ethical for athletes to use this substance to enhance performance?
Explain.
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Case
Study
Ethanol or Fossil Fuels?
Defining the Issue
Ethanol, a clean-burning fuel, is a renewable resource made from the fermentation of sugar or
starch. Cheap agricultural waste, like corn stalks
and straw are used in this process as a sugar source.
Until now, ethanol has been more expensive to produce than gasoline or diesel fuels. However, with increased understanding of the effects of fuel emissions
on the environment, ethanol is becoming a more
cost-competitive alternative. Over 500 service stations in Canada sell ethanol blends. Benefits to the
environment of a 10 % ethanol blend include reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 30 %
and reduction of carbon monoxide emissions up to
10 %. Ethanol is also high octane. In fossil fuels,
octane enhancers like methyl manganese trycarbonyl (MMT) are used. Manganese is a neuro-toxin
and has recently been banned.
In 1997, Canada and over 160 other countries
met in Kyoto, Japan and established the Kyoto
Protocol. These countries agreed to target
reduced green-house gas (GHG) emissions to fight
climate change. Canadas target is to reduce GHG
FIGURE 4.12 Vehicles burning fossil fuels produce pollution.
emissions by 6 % below 1990 levels between 2008

and 2012. An evaluation of the cost and benefits of
continued use of ethanol and fossil-fuels will be an
important step in Canadas assessment of how it can
best meet this target goal.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Research the use of alternative fuels, focusing on the

potential of ethanol as the fuel of the future. Your
research focus should include information on the
process of creating ethanol, current testing and results,
as well as the cost of production.
2.
In a group, identify the advantages and disadvantages

of replacing fossil fuels with ethanol. Organize these
under the headings science, technology, society and
environment.
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Cellular Functions
3.
In groups, have a round-table discussion about sustainability and the long term impact on the planet of use
of current and alternative fuel-types. Every member of
the group should have an opportunity to express his or
her opinion. When you have heard the opinion of every
person in the group, come to a consensus about whether
or not Canada should have a plan for implementation of
alternative fuels for the future.
4.
Prepare a brief report, based on the round-table

discussion, that supports your opinion.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 4.5)
Factors Affecting Fermentation

In this lab exercise, you will study the effect of temperature on the process of alcoholic fermentation by
yeast. You will conduct experiments at three different
temperatures and compare the rates of production of
a product of fermentation. To test for a product of
fermentation you will use bromothymol blue, an indicator solution that turns yellow-green in the presence
of carbon dioxide.
yeast suspension
3 test tubes
test tube rack
6 beakers
bromothymol blue
stopwatch or clock with second hand
rubber stoppers with rubber tubing attached
graduated cylinder
thermometer or temperature probe
CAUTION: Bromothymol blue stains skin and clothing.
Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
Set up your data table in your lab notebook:
TABLE 4.1
Beaker Temperature
(C)
Time Taken for Colour Change

(minutes:seconds)
cold
room temperature
warm
2.
4.
Label the three remaining beakers: Cold, Room

Temperature, and Warm. Add ice and water to the
beaker labelled Cold, add tap water to the beaker
marked Room Temperature, and add hot water to
the beaker marked Warm. Use a thermometer or a
temperature probe to measure the actual temperature of the water in the beakers. Record the measurements in Table 4.1 in your notebook.
5.
Place one of the yeast-containing test tubes into

each of the beakers from step 4. Place the free end
of the rubber hose from each test tube into a separate beaker of bromothymol blue.
6.
Record the time taken for each beaker of bromothymol blue to change colour in Table 4.1 in your
notebook.

1. What product of fermentation were you testing
for in this investigation?
2. Which beaker of bromothymol blue changed colour
fastest?
3. What must be included in the yeast suspension in
order for the yeast to carry out fermentation?
Procedure
1.
Obtain six beakers. Add an equal volume of bromothymol blue solution to each of three of the
beakers. Each beaker should be approximately half
full.
Materials

3.
Problem
What is the effect of temperature on alcoholic fermentation by yeast?
Add yeast suspension to three test tubes to within

3 cm of the top of each tube. Place a stopper with
a rubber tube attached to it on each test tube. Set
the tubes in a test-tube rack.
4. If a fourth beaker with a temperature of 0C were

to be included in this lab, predict whether the
rate of fermentation would be faster or slower than
the results that you obtained. Explain.
5. If another beaker containing yeast were heated to
100C, predict whether the rate of fermentation
would be faster or slower than the results that you
obtained. Explain.
6. Yeast are also used to produce alcoholic beverages
such as wine. Usually the fermentation process to
make wine takes at least 30 days. What would you
suggest to speed up the process?
7. If you have access to a colourimeter, you could measure the decrease of colour in the beaker over time.
Suggest a method by which you could calculate the
rate of product production.
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work

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(continued)
Extending
11. Enzymes, such as those involved in fermentation,

are sensitive to a number of different factors including temperature and pH. In this lab you have
investigated the effect of temperature. Design and
test a procedure to determine the effect of pH on
fermentation.
8. Design an experiment to test the effectiveness of

different carbohydrate sources on fermentation.
9. Why do muscle cells sometimes participate in
fermentation?
10. Explain what could be added to this experiment
to act as an experimental control?
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(section 4.4)
Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

Introduction
To a test tube containing bromothymol blue solution
that has been previously exposed to carbon-dioxide
gas, your teacher will add a piece of Elodea canadiensis and then seal the test tube with a stopper. Wait
at least one day and examine the test tube for any
changes. Elodea canadiensis is available in Canada. It
is a slightly narrower form of the Elodea sp. often used
in plant physiology experiments.
Problem
How could the Elodea test system be used to investigate
a factor or variable that affects photosynthesis?
CAUTION: Wash your hands after handling living organisms.
5. Have your teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your investigation.
6. Present the results of your investigation in a clear
and well-organized manner, using a data table and
graph.
Analyzing and Communicating

1. Explain, using your knowledge of photosynthesis,
how the factors you investigated influenced the rate
of carbon dioxide uptake.

2. What criteria did you apply to develop your
procedure?
3. Describe which observations you felt provided evidence about how quickly photosynthesis occurred.
Experimental Design
4. Account for any experimental errors that may have

1. Describe what you observe in the demonstration test

system.
5. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to

your procedure if you repeated your experiment.
2. Write a list of the variables that you think might influence the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Write a hypothesis about the way each variable
would affect the reaction rate.
4. Design a procedure to test your hypothesis about
each variable. include your materials and safety
considerations.
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CU H
4 Cell Functions
at Work
N AI TP T1E R Cellular
Extending
6. What application of this investigation could be used
by farmers and agriculturalists?
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Key Terms
active site
activation energy
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
aerobic respiration
alcoholic fermentation
anaerobic respiration
catalyst
cellular respiration
coenzymes
endergonic reaction
enzyme
enzyme-substrate complex
exergonic reaction
fermentation
glycolysis
lactic acid fermentation
metabolism
mRNA
net equation
photosynthesis
protein synthesis
pyruvic acid
tRNA
transcription
translation
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in

the cell.
Reactions may be either endergonic or exergonic.
Energy for cell activities comes from ATP.
The high energy bonds in ATP are used for storing

and releasing energy.
4.2 Enzymes
4.4 Photosynthesis and Food production

Photosynthesis is the process that plants and some

other organisms use to capture the energy of sunlight and convert it to chemical energy.
The net photosynthesis equation is:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Some organisms can use sources of energy other

than sunlight to produce organic compounds.
Enzymes are proteins that function as chemical catalysts to speed up chemical reactions.
Cellular respiration is the release of energy from

food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
Enzymes increase reaction speed by binding to substrates at their active site.
The net cellular respiration equation is:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP)
Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration; glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic
acid with the formation of two molecules of ATP.
The remaining steps of cellular respiration occur in

the mitochondria and produce most of the ATP.
Some organisms can break down pyruvic acid under

anaerobic conditions.

Protein synthesis consists of two main steps: transcription (occurring in the nucleus) and translation (occurring in the cytoplasm).
The ribosome is the site of protein synthesis.
Messenger RNA and transfer RNA are essential for

protein synthesis.

1.
Revisit the Checkpoint on page 87 and review your cycle

diagram of photosynthesis. Revise your diagram based
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
3.
Issues relating to the cell and biotechnology appear in

the media on an ongoing basis. In a chart, list some
issues using the following categories: social, ethical, economic, environmental, technological.
4.
Reflect on your learning. When you researched the Case

Studies in this unit, you compiled data from a number
of sources. Describe the research process that you use.
In what ways could your process be more effective?
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
1. Which of these is the cells main energy-carrying
compound
a) enzymes
b) proteins
c) vitamins
d) ATP
2. Pyruvic acid is a final product of
a) cellular respiration
b) photosynthesis
c) fermentation
d) glycolysis
3. During strenuous exercise, the bodys muscles produce
a) alcohol
b) lactic acid
c) glucose
d) starch
4. Photosynthesis occurs in
a) chloroplasts
b) mitochondria
c) prokaryotes only
d) muscle cells
5. An
a)
b)
c)
d)
end product formed during fermentation in yeast is

hydrogen
water
alcohol
glycogen
6. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
substrates of photosynthesis are

oxygen and glucose
carbon dioxide and oxygen
carbon dioxide and water
glucose and water
7. Anaerobic respiration
a) only occurs in bacteria
b) ends with glycolysis
c) requires oxygen
d) yields no ATP
8. C6H12O6 + 6 O2
a)
C6H12O6 + H2O + energy
b)
6 O2 + 6 H2O + energy
c)
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
d)
6CO2 + 6 H2 + energy
9. Which is more efficientaerobic respiration or fermentation? Explain your answer.
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Cellular Functions
10. What is the role of enzymes in providing energy for living systems?
11. Compare aerobic respiration and fermentation with
respect to energy input and energy output. Which
process is more efficient and why?
12. Explain how energy flows between cellular respiration
and photosynthesis.
13. How are proteins important to the overall survival of a
cell? Of an organism?
14. Identify a biologically important endergonic reaction,
and explain why it is so important to supporting life.
15. Describe how a competitive inhibitor affects an enzyme.
16. Define activation energy for a reaction. Use diagrams to
show how the presence of a competitive inhibitor will
affect activation energy in an enzyme-catalysed
reaction.
17. Compare and contrast autotrophs, heterotrophs, and
chemoautotrophs. Write a supported paragraph on the
contribution of each form to the environment.
18. Why do you suppose chemoautotrophs still exist on Earth
today?
19. What accounts for any differences in ATP production
among different kinds of cells?
20. What advantage is there to having anaerobic respiration
available for certain human cells?
21. Do you think yeast cells would grow more quickly
when respiring aerobically or anaerobically? Explain
your answer.
22. Heart attack victims often have trace amounts of lactic
acid in the blood vessels leaving their heart. If you were
a medical researcher, what would this lead you to believe about the cause of heart attacks?
23. Set up a Venn diagram to relate the terms: anabolism,
catabolism, endergonic reaction, exergonic reaction,
metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration.
24. Explain why the minimum number of carbon dioxide
molecules needed to make a glucose molecule in photosynthesis is six.
25. Some desert dwellers, such as kangaroo rats, never have
to drink water. Use your knowledge of cellular
metabolism to identify how kangaroo rats obtain the
water they need from their diet of dry seeds.
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Applying Inquiry/
26. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Characteristic
Aerobic
Cellular
Respiration
Anaerobic
Respiration
Starting Material (substrates)
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30. The greenhouse effect refers to the buildup of carbon

dioxide in the earths atmosphere. How do you think the
greenhouse effect will affect the process of photosynthesis? Explain.
31. Glucose is the chief starting material for cellular respiration but it is not the only starting material. Other
carbohydrates as well as fats and proteins can be used.
Choose one of these alternative sources of energy and
research the way in which it enters the cellular respiration pathway. Present your answer as a diagram.
Pathways Involved
End Products
Energy Produced
27. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Characteristic
Photosynthesis
Cellular
Respiration
Starting Reactants
(substrates)
Location of Process
within the Cell
Endergonic or
Exergonic
Sample Organism
that Carries Out
this Process
32. If you eat an extra donut every day and do not increase
your activity, what happens to the extra energy that you
consume? If you want to work off the extra energy how
long would you have to exercise by a) running,
b) walking, c) cycling, d) swimming? Use the table to help
determine your answers. Assume your excess intake
was 1200 kJ.
Activity
kJ Consumed per Hour by an Average Person
running
3260
walking
660
cycling
340
swimming
2240
Making Connections
28. What do you think would happen to a plant that was

placed in an airtight jar by a window? Explain.
29. The table below shows the amount of energy released
from compounds during three different energyreleasing reactions. How does the percentage of energy
converted compare in each case? What happens to any
energy that is lost?
Compound
Conditions
Energy
converted
into
% of energy
converted
Glucose
Burned in
a fire
Heat, light
100
Glucose
Used in
cellular
respiration
ATP
40
Gasoline
Burned in
car engine
Motion
25
33. The worlds oil supplies cannot last forever, and since oil
is a non-renewable resource within human lifespans,
scientists are searching for other sources of fuel for
automobiles and other motorized vehicles. One possible
solution is to use yeast to ferment plant waste such as
wheat straw into alcohol. What questions should be
considered in deciding whether this is a worthwhile
solution? How could some of these questions be
answered?
34. The process of biotechnology using recombinant DNA
techniques allows scientists to make a number of human
proteins to treat diseases. What other human protein
products would you like to have available to humans?
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Cells at Work
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Taking the World by Storm

Biology is about to take the world by
storm, making changes in our lives even
more rapidly than the arrival of the personal computer and the Internet. Why?
Biology has always had a profound impact on both individuals and society
because it asks fundamental questions
such as: What are we? How do our
bodies work? Where do we fit within a
world of other living things? Finding these
answers is more than scientific curiosityits essential to our survival. Yet, until
recently, biology has been a rather quiet
science, its important discoveries
overshadowed by amazing developments

in other fields, such as information
technology.
What has changed? Think about the
various fields of science as blocks used
to build the same structureour
overall understanding of how things
work. Each change in a block changes
the entire structure. In other words,
what is learned in any one field of science, including new technology, stimulates and changes ideas in all the others.
For example, increased computing
power gave biologists the tool they had
needed to make the next huge leap
forward, deciphering the genetic code
for living things, including ourselves,
in far less time than ever predicted.
Remote sensing devices in space
allowed biologists to view patterns
biochemistry
of change over the entire planet,
food science
while GPS satellite tracking
environmental chemistry
allowed them to follow animals
ecology
B I O L O G Y
C H E M I S T R Y
as diverse as sea turtles and
pathology
butterflies wherever they
travelled.
How does this affect your
medical physics
investigation
of possible
bioinformatics
careers
in
biology?
First, this
aquatic science
is
a
field
undergoing
both
rapid
optical physics
physiology
physical chemistry
growth and rapid change.
biomechanics
molecular physics
This means there are exciting
acoustical physics
nuclear chemistry
opportunities now as well as in the
microbiology
polymer chemistry
paleontology
P H Y S I C S
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FIGURE 1 In terms of what people do and

their careers, the sciences are far from isolated
into biology, chemistry, or physics. Instead,
these fields overlap, have common information
and techniques, and new, specialized subfields
of science form between them all the time.
Most careers are found in such crossover areas.
Contents
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foreseeable future, but it also means you

need to be flexible in your thinking and
planning. Second, the definition of
working in biology is growing fuzzy at
the edges, as this field draws into itself
more and more tools from other
sciences. This means there are a lot of
careers that combine biology with other
areas of science, as you can see in Figure 1.
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nature of scientific endeavour involves

constantly adding new concepts and
testing existing ones. Regardless of the
career you may choosefrom a medical
physicist in a hospital to patent lawyer
to a mycologist working in a redwood
forestyoull find keeping up with
change wont be a problem. In fact,
youre likely to be the one telling
others whats new in the world.
Be Prepared for Change

If advances in biology mean that new
careers are appearing almost daily, and
existing careers are changing, how does
anyone manage to keep up? When you
think about it, your career as a student
is changing with each new school term
and course. You manage. How? Its a
matter of being prepared and willing
to learn.
1.
Make a list of tasks and reminders

for a new student arriving at your
school. In that list, describe in
detail what the student will need to
do to be ready for the first day of
term. Once you have finished your
list, consider these questions.

Where did you acquire your
own knowledge of how to
prepare for school?

The student has moved from
another school. Most of the
courses hell be taking at your
school sound familiar, how
could the new student find out
what may be as expected and
what may be different?

The student is a little worried.
One of his courses will be in a
subject completely new to him.
If this were you, what could you
do to prepare for such a course?
Learning is the best way to keep ready

for change. Fortunately, lifelong learning
is more than an expression to someone
working in biology or other science
fieldits one of the rewards. The
FIGURE 2 A medical physicist viewing CAT scans
Looking Outward
2.
Research a list of biology-related

careers. Use all the resources you
can, including those from your
classroom, your guidance department, and the Internet. Compare
lists with other classmates until you
have as many different careers as
you can find.

Where do these careers fit
within the diagram of crossover
careers? Is there a pattern or
trend you can find?

What does this suggest about
how you can best prepare
yourself for a career in biology,
or any career likely to change
over time?
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Health Care Research:

Making Informed Decisions
Background Information
As medical technology advances, there are increased expectations that cures
to previously untreatable diseases may be found. Diseases like cancer,
Parkinsons disease, diabetes and many others, are often in the news, as scientists make new breakthroughs and develop new theories about causes and
cures of the diseases being investigated. The government decides how to allot
its funding dollars for further research. In Canada, the Canadian Institutes
of Health Research allotted $340 million for research grants and awards in
its 20002001 budget.
Ordinary citizens also face decisions about which kinds of research will
receive their financial support. Their reasons may be personal. Perhaps a
family member is living with a disease, or they know someone affected by a
particular illness. The media also play a role in influencing the expenditure
of research dollars. Celebrities often associate themselves with an illness and
their appeal to the public can also influence donation decisions. Actors like
Michael J. Fox and Christopher Reeve have made a tremendous impact on
funding for Parkinsons disease and spinal cord research. There are many
other illnesses that do not receive high profile publicity yet deserve funding.
In a society that has limited funds for medical research, which diseases should
be the priority? This question faces society every day.
SCENARIO
Choose one of the two suggested below.
1. You are members of a team hired by Health Canada to review potential public
health campaigns that publicize awareness of diseases that commonly affect
Canadians. Decisions to fund these campaigns will be based on your recommendations.
2. You are members of a group submitting a proposal requesting funding from
Health Canada. The funds will be used for a public health campaign on one of
the diseases that commonly affect Canadians. Decisions to allocate funding will
be based on your submission.
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Contents
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Part A: Research the Disease

1.
Brainstorm a list of the top five diseases

that you believe the public should be educated about. Explain the prioritization of
the list.
2.
In groups, choose one of the diseases from

your list to research. The following information must be included:

3.
the cause of the disease

the cells of the body affected by the
disease
the symptoms
the prognosis
detection and prevention
the number of people in Canada and
the world with the disease.
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Part B: Analyzing the Data

4.
Prepare a public awareness campaign for

the disease that you researched. Your plan
should include consideration of your audience and your objective. Propose a campaign that includes consideration of (a)
likelihood of cure; (b) social impact of research. Include in your campaign, statistics
and diagrams as a support for your message.
5.
Develop class criteria to evaluate group presentations.
Part C: Reflection
6.
In what ways do you believe that public

awareness campaigns influence (1) likelihood of a cure; (2) prevention.
7.
Explain the social and economic impact of

directing funds to medical research.
8.
For diseases that are not regularly in the

public eye, what alternative methods are
there to create public awareness? Is it appropriate that the media highlight only highprofile diseases? Why? Why not?
Some examples of major diseases affecting

Canadians include:

Breast cancer
Parkinsons Disease
AIDS
Muscular dystrophy
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 1 REVIEW
1. Which is an ionic compound?
a) water
b) sugar
c) carbon
d) sodium chloride
2. A disaccharide is an example of a
a) lipid
b) protein
c) carbohydrate
d) nucleic acid
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
monomer of a protein is a(an)

sugar
fatty acid
nucleotide
amino acid
c)
d)
allows some substances to enter and all substances

to exit
allows only some substances to exit and all substance to enter
10. The process that involves substances moving through

the cell membrane without requiring energy is called
a) endocytosis
b) exocytosis
c) active transport
d) facilitated transport
11. Which compound is the energy providing molecule for
the cell?
a) DNA
b) RNA
c) cholesterol
d) ATP
4. Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called

a) amino acids
b) saccharides
c) steroids
d) nucleotides
12. How many molecules of ATP are produced by aerobic

cellular respiration?
a) 29
b) 2
c) 4
d) 36 or 38
5. Who was the first person to view and name cells?

a) Hooke
b) Dutrochet
c) Van Leuwenhoek
d) Schwann
13. Which process is used by plants to make food?

a) fermentation
b) respiration
c) photosynthesis
d) glycolysis
6. The molecule that forms the bilayer of a cell

membrane is called a
a) protein
b) lipid membrane
c) phospholipid
d) cholesterol
7. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain
a) vacuoles
b) DNA
c) endoplasmic reticulum
d) cytoskeleton
14. 6CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy

a) C6H12O6 + 6O2
b) 6O2 + 6CO2
c) C6H12O6 + 6H2O
d) C6H12O6 + 6CO2
15. Fermentation occurs in the
a) presence of ATP
b) presence of oxygen
c) absence of ATP
d) absence of oxygen
16. Distinguish between an acid and a base.
8. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
site where ribosomes are assembled is called the

mitochondrion
DNA
chromosome
nucleolus
9. The cell membrane is known as selectively permeable

because it
a) allows all substances to enter and exit the cell
b) allows some substances to enter and some
substances to exit the cell
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17. Set up a T-chart to compare glycogen and cellulose.

18. Outline at least five effects that would occur if hydrogen bonds did not form between adjacent water
molecules.
19. Explain the difference between a molecular formula and
a structural formula. Give an example of each type of
formula. What additional information is available if a
structural formula is used?
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20. The hydrogen bond is particularly important in biochemistry. Illustrate this statement with regard to:
a) fish in the Canadian winter
b) the secondary structure of a protein
c) DNA structure
21. Define dehydration synthesis. Use diagrams to show the
importance of dehydration synthesis in:
a) formation of a complex carbohydrate
b) formation of a protein
22. Phospholipids contain glycerol bonded to one or two fatty
acids and to an organic base that is attracted to water.
Explain how this chemical structure is essential to the
structure and function of the cell membrane.
23. Demonstrate the formation of a peptide bond by drawing a diagram. Use the structural formulas for glycine
and alanine in your diagram.
24. The polypeptide chain formed at the ribosome may not
be ready to function in the cell. Discuss the role of the
Golgi apparatus in producing the final, active protein.
25. Set up a T-chart to compare the types of information obtained from transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
26. Explain why you should not place an unopened bottle of
pop in a freezer.
27. Which molecule is larger, ATP or ADP? Explain how you
know this and why there is a size difference.
28. Compare covalent, ionic, and polar covalent bonds.
29. List the components of the cell membrane. Indicate how
hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties are important
for entry of substances through the cell membrane.
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theory. List the essential characteristics of the cell

theory.
36. What would happen if you added 3 mL of cola to
10 mL of water? Predict the movement and distribution
of the molecules in the solution.
37. Associate faulty transport mechanisms in the cell with
diseases in humans.
38. Draw a diagram to show the relationship in the cell
between ATP and ADP.
39. After glycolysis occurs, what happens to pyruvic acid if
no oxygen is present?
40. What does the term essential represent with respect to
nutrients.
41. Set up a concept map to show the relationships between
aerobic and anaerobic respiration and ATP production,
alcoholic fermentation, and lactic acid fermentation.
42. Draw a flow chart to indicate the relationship between
photosynthesis and respiration.
43. List three uses humans have made of the process of
fermentation.
44. Justify the following statement: Chemoautotrophs are
the only living organism that do not depend on photosynthesis to surivive.
45. Explain how DNA controls the production of proteins
in cells.
46. Explain why photosynthesis and respiration are considered opposite processes.
30. Draw a diagram to show how the structure of water contributes to its properties as a solvent.
47. Outline the importance of the cell membrane to the survival of the cell. Explain why it is important for the cell
membrane to be selectively permeable.
31. Define specific heat. Indicate the importance of the

specific heat of water for biological systems.
48. Describe in detail what would happen to a freshwater

organism if it were placed in salt water.
32. List three similarities and three differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
33. Name and describe the cellular structure that contains
digestive enzymes. Explain the importance of this structure to the cell.
34. Draw a flow chart of protein synthesis.
35. Draw a timeline of observation and discovery during the
19th century that led to the development of the cell
Applying Inquiry/
49. Some antibiotics act by binding to enzymes of the
disease-causing bacteria.
a) Draw a diagram to show one way that the antibiotic might affect the activity of the enzyme.
b) What effect of this binding on the bacteria would
you expect?
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50. Consult Canadas Food Guide or another nutritional information source to determine the recommended consumption of saturated and unsaturated fat for a person
of your age. Then maintain a dietary journala record
of what you eat for five days. Consult reference sources
to determine your approximate intake of saturated vs.
unsaturated fats. What changes, if any, should you make
to your diet in light of your findings. What are the
likely benefits to your health of making a change to the
amount of fat you consume?
51. Use a T-chart to show the possible positive and negative
effects of constructing computer processors and other
circuits out of molecules as opposed to constructing them
out of elements as they are currently made?
52. Design an experiment to compare the speed with which
polar and nonpolar compounds dissolve in water. Nonpolar compounds include vegatable oil and sugar. Polar
compounds include acetone and hydrogen chloride.
Predict the results of your experiment.
53. Imagine that a Canadian scientist has discovered a
new and greatly improved microscope that can greatly
increase the magnification and resolution of microscopes.
What effects might this have on our understanding of
cells?
54. People who have nearly drowned in sea water have to
be kept under medical supervision for several hours after
they have been revived. Using your understanding of osmosis, explain why this is necessary.
55. Briefly describe a plan that would allow you to observe
the effects of water moving into a plant cell by osmosis.
56. The table below shows the different amounts of energy
released from glucose by two different processes.
Compare the amount of energy released for each process. Explain what has happened to energy that appears
to have been lost.
Fuel
Fuel use
Efficiency of
energy conversion
Glucose
burned in laboratory
experiment
100%
Glucose
metabolized during
cellular respiration
40%
57. Design an experiment to demonstrate the effects of

different amounts of light on plant growth. Write a
hypothesis and submit your experimental design to your
teacher before you begin your experiment.
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Cellular Functions
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58. Copy and complete the following chart on aerobic and

anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic
Respiration
Anaerobic
Respiration
Substrate
Products
Energy (# of
ATP produced)
59.Copy and complete the table below. Obtain a sheet of

grid paper and graph the data.
Size of Cube
(cm)
Surface area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm3)
Surface area
Cube/Volume ratio
1
2
3
4
5
60. The average human requires 2200 kcal per day to
meet their energy demands. If a person were to regularly consume 2500 kcal what effect would this have
on their body? Express these values in kilojoules.
61. All human cells metabolize glucose and human bones
actively metabolize calcium. Cancerous cells often metabolize at much faster rates than normal cells. Read the
section: Nuclear Medicine: using the knowledge of cell
functions and technology on page 94, and then describe
how you would design further nuclear medicine tests
to determine cancer in any body tissue as well as cancer in bones.
62. Use the table on the next page to answer the following:
a) What food in the table has the highest ratio of proteins to lipids? The lowest ratio of proteins to lipids?
b) If you were advised by your doctor to eat a low fat
diet, which of the foods listed should you eat less
of?
c) Calculate the number of grams of proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates in the following breakfast: 1 cup
of orange juice, 1 boiled egg, 2 slices of fried bacon,
2 slices of whole wheat toast, and 10 g of margarine.
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Nutritional Composition of Selected Foods

Food
breakfast cereal (30-g serving)
Proteins (g)
Lipids (g)
Carbohydrates (g)
1.9
3.0
24
salad dressing (15-mL serving)
0.4
8.5
0.4
chocolate chip cookies (2)
1.9
7.8
17
light cream cheese (30-g serving)
2.2
5.2
1.2
whole wheat bread (1 slice)
2.6
1.0
13.0
fried bacon (1 slice)
2.3
4.0
0.25
8.0
0.1
boiled egg (1)
6.5
5.8
0.5
orange juice (125 mL)
1.8
0.5
26
margarine (10-g serving)
carrot (1)
0.5
0.1
4.9
macaroni (250 mL)
2.4
0.3
16.3
Making Connections
63. Stem cell research is based on the principle that some
cells are capable of dividing and giving rise to different
types of differentiated cells. The object of this research
is to have transplanted stem cells assume the role of essential functions missing or lost due to diseases like
Alzheimers. Other research studies factors that may prevent such diseases. Research dollars are limited.
Set up a PMI chart to investigate support for these two
types of research. Consider:
a) data available currently from the two types of research
b) short-term effects on society
c) long-term effects on society
64. Research possible chemical-based and biological-based
alternatives to fossil fuels. Set up a PMI chart for each
method you research. Include a consideration of:
a) the cost of the research
b) the likely time-frame before the alternative fuel is
commercially available
c) effects on the environment
d) effects on the Canadian economy
65. Imagine that you are the director of medical imaging for
Health Canada. Recent research results point strongly to
the possibility of harmful effects on humans through exposure to strong magnetic fields. Outline at least five recommendations you would make in this circumstance to
hospitals and clinics that are currently using MRI scanners. What other medical diagnostic tool may serve to
provide some guidelines for writing your proposal?
66. The function of molecules is often dependent on their threedimensional shape, which leads to yet another story about
performance enhancing drug use by Mark McGwire.
Besides using creatine phosphate, during his home-run
hitting record breaking season, he was also using androstenedionea legal steroid hormone that is identical
to testosterone except for the placement of a single hydrogen atom. While other anabolic steroids are banned
from use, androstenedione is not. What is your opinion of
McGwires use of this performance enhancing substance?
Do you think he should be entitled to keep his record? If
you were a personal trainer to a world class athlete, what
would your advice be regarding the use of androstenedione? Write a supported paragraph on this topic.
67. Compose a letter to the bottlers of Coca-Cola outlining
your opinion of their use of HFCS sweeteners in their
products.
68. You have recently been assigned to the federal government cabinet position of Minister of Health. Draft a statement outlining your official policy on performance
enhancing drugs, such as anabolic steroids.
69. Dr. Harry Jennings invented the first synthetic vaccine.
Other vaccines may cause the inoculated person to contract the disease they are supposed to be protected against.
This is a rare occurrence. Synthetic vaccines do not cause
diseases. Imagine you are a medical researcher. What
other diseases would you suggest for the development of
synthetic vaccines? List the reasons for your choices.
Unit Review
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UNIT
Genetic Continuity
ow does a single cell manage to divide and eventually become a complex multicellular organism, such as an elephant or a giraffe? How
does a species pass all of its special traitsa leopards spots, a zebras
stripes,from one generation to the next? These abilities, found only in
living things, are known as genetic continuity. They are one of lifes great
mysteries. Or at least they were until recently. Scientists are now busy
mapping the chromosomes, genes, and DNAthe hereditary information
inside the nucleus of all
b)
cellsof many organisms including humans.
This new found genetic
knowledge is already
revolutionizing many
aspects of our lives.
Genetic engineering
has been used to create
clones and to develop
designer organisms.
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
demonstrate an understanding of
the necessity of meiosis and
describe the importance of genes
in transmitting hereditary
characteristics, according to
Mendels model of inheritance
perform laboratory studies of

meiosis and analyze the results of
genetic crosses related to the laws
of heredity
outline the scientific findings

and some of the technological
advances that led to the modern
concept of the gene and genetic
technology, and demonstrate an
awareness of some of the social
and political issues raised by
genetic research and reproductive
technology
c)
a) Binary fission in E. coli

produces two cells genetically
identical to the parent cell.
d)
b) The members of three

generations in a family show
shared hereditary characteristics but each person is genetically unique.
Genetic continuity over the
centuries can be observed.
c) A fossil sabre-toothed tiger
d) A modern-day tiger.
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a)
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Genetic screening techniques have been used to detect birth defects in the
developing fetus. Research is being done with gene therapy to cure inherited
disorders such as certain cancers, hemophilia, heart disease, and cystic
fibrosis.
However, the ability to understand and manipulate DNA does have its
downside. How would you feel if you were denied a job because a DNA test
showed that you have a certain genetic defect? What if that blood sample
your doctor ordered fell into the wrong hands and was used to find out everything about you, without you even knowing it? What if a genetically
modified organism multiplied out of control in the wild and drastically altered
the natural ecosystem? These are just a few of the fears some people have
about unlocking the secrets contained in the genes.
Properly assessing the many pros and cons associated with genetic technology requires a good understanding of genetic continuity. In this unit, you
will examine mitosis, the process that ensures genetic continuity within an
individual from cell to cell. You will study meiosis, the process that ensures
genetic continuity from one individual to the next, from generation to generation, within a particular species. You will investigate the science of genetics, the study of how genes operate, and the complex interaction between
genes and their environment. You will look at the various techniques and
technologies that have evolved to study and manipulate DNA. Finally, you will
examine some of the moral and ethical issues that surround these new
technologies. By the time you finish the unit, you will be better equipped to
form your own opinion about the proper use of genetic information.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Alzheimers allele unmasked

Scientists at the University of Wales expect to announce the location of a gene thought to be linked
to late-onset Alzheimers disease. In 429 pairs of
siblings over the age of 65 with Alzheimers, all
shared a particular allele of a gene located on chromosome number 10.
Theres gold in them thar genes!

Knowledge of the human genome may hold the
promise of healthier lives in the future, but right
now its all about big egos, competing technologies
and wild stock prices. The race to commercialize
the human genetic code has produced a stock market frenzy.
Genetically altered athletes?

Swedish professor Bengt Saltin, an expert in exercise physiology, suggests that a form of gene therapy used in flies, where genes are removed,
modified, and reinserted, could be applied to athletes as early as the next summer Olympic games.
This could mean bizarre choices for athletes. A
sprinter could benefit from more fast-twitch muscles. A long-distance runner could choose the gene
form that produces more of the hormone erythropoetin to stimulate formation of red blood cells.
A high jumper could even have localized muscle
growth in the take-off leg.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learning by providing recommendations to an ethics panel
about the potential applications of genetic technologies.
You will analyze the social, ethical, and economic impact of their use and propose a course of action for future application. See page 236.
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CHAPTER 5
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Mitosis and Meiosis

the process and importance of
mitosis (5.1)
explain how the concepts of DNA,

genes, chromosomes, and meiosis
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from
generation to generation (5.2, 5.3)
explain the process of meiosis in

terms of the replication and
movement of chromosomes (5.2
explain the process of meiosis

with reference to your own
investigations with a microscope
(Investigation 1)
organize data that illustrate the

number of chromosomes in haploid
cells and diploid cells, and the
number of pairs of chromosomes in
diploid cells, that occur in various
organisms before, during, and as a
result of meiosis (5.2)
describe and analyze examples of

technologies that were developed
on the basis of scientific
understanding (5.1)
single bacterium elongates, constricts near the middle, and miraculously

divides in two. A half hour later, the two daughter cells also divide in two.
A half hour after that, the four resulting cells divide to become eight. With
cell division continuing at this rate, fifteen hours later there are one billion
bacteria. In this scenario, offspring were produced by what is known as
b)
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FIGURE 5.1 When an egg cell and a sperm

cell fuse they produce a zygote, the first cell of
a new organism. Mitosis is the process that
transforms the single cell into an adult like the
mature elephant. a) Fusion of egg and sperm
b) A mature elephant.
a)
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asexual reproduction. With asexual reproduction, only one parent is required

and each offspring is genetically identical to the parent and to all the other
offspring.
After mating in mid-winter and following a 49- to 56-day gestation period,
a female red fox gives birth to four pups deep inside her den. She and her
mate then take care of the pups until they are old enough to fend for themselves. In this scenario, offspring were produced by sexual reproduction. With
sexual reproduction, two parents are required and each offspring carries genetic traits from both parents. All offspring are genetically different from one
another.
Compared to sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction seems so much
more efficient: you dont have to bother trying to find a mate and you can
produce many, many more offspring. If this is the case, why does Mother
Nature bother with sexual reproduction at all? Would the fact that a species
that reproduces asexually contains members that are all genetically uniform
affect the ability of the species to survive? What if the climate suddenly got
colder? Would a genetically uniform species be able to adapt to new conditions as well as a genetically diverse species can? This chapter deals with the
scientific answers to these questions. You will gain a good understanding of
mitosis, the process of cell division used to reproduce asexually, and meiosis, the process used to reproduce sexually. By the end of the chapter, you
will be able to make an intelligent comparison of the pros and cons of each
of the methods of reproduction.
Discovering Biology
The Chromosome Numbers Game
Imagine an organism that has a characteristic chromosome number, the
diploid number, of six.
1.
On a sheet of paper, sketch one of the cells of this organism and draw six
lines inside the cell to represent the six chromosomes.
2.
Sketch two of these cells to represent the sex cells of this organism,
with each cell containing six chromosomes.
3.
Sketch the results of fertilization involving these two cells. How many
chromosomes does the fertilized egg now contain?
4.
Sketch what would happen if this pattern were repeated for three more
generations.
Predict the effect this sequence of events would have on the characteristics of this imaginary organism.
CHECKPOINT
Draw a comparison chart to
list what you know about
mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
CHAPTER 5
Meiosis
Mitosis and Meiosis
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5.1 Mitosis
Key Understandings
briefly outline the cell cycle and the stages of mitosis
distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis
understand how one technique for cancer treatment depends on the scientific understanding of mitosis
M AT H L I N K
The first cell of a new organism, the zygote, divides by mitosis to produce a ball of cells
known as a blastula. In animals where the egg has little
yolk, the total number of cells
doubles every round of division. How many rounds of division are necessary to produce
a blastula with 1024 cells?
Hint: the mathematical formula
is 2n = x where n is the number
of divisions and x is the total
number of cells.
Research on cell division results in new

discoveries about cell function on an almost daily basis. Cell division is necessary for the growth and development
of any multicellular organism. It also
allows for tissue repair and the replacement of ageing cells.
Cell division does not occur at a fixed
rate. Biologists have shown that cell division occurs rapidly in developing embryos and young organisms. The rate of
cell division is also critical when you consider surfaces of the body that are exposed to daily wear and tear. The cells
on the surface of the skin or the lining
of the gut must replace themselves on
a regular basis as they are worn away
by constant exposure to the environment
or to food materials and enzymes.
On the other hand, muscle and nerve
cells lose the capacity for cell division at
an early age. This means there is no possibility of replacing a cell that breaks
DNA wraps around protein

to make chromatin
DNA
chromatin
down. A current theory suggests that this

loss of function may also account for
the ageing process.
Mitosis and Genetic Continuity

The main function of mitosis has been
clearly identified by biologists. Mitosis
occurs when a parent cell divides to
produce two daughter cells. The daughter cells are genetically identical to each
other. The hereditary information in the
nucleus, the DNA, must be duplicated
and an exact copy must be passed to
each daughter cell. With every round of
mitotic division, the total number of cells
is doubled, but the hereditary information stays exactly the same. The
transmission of the hereditary material
through cell division is called genetic
continuity. Because the hereditary information is stored on the chromosomes
within the nucleus, any consideration of
Chromatin folds up
to make chromosomes
duplicated chromosome
cell
FIGURE 5.2 The chromosomes. The hereditary material in the nucleus is made up of long
strands of DNA that are condensed, folded and, in association with proteins, formed into
chromosomes.
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mitosis must focus on the division and

distribution of these chromosomes
(Figure 5.2).
Chromosomes are made of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and associated
proteins. The long strands of DNA are
packaged in condensed, folded structures
to make the chromosomes found in the
nucleus of every eukaryotic cell.
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b)
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
The Need for Cell Division

In 1855 Rudolph Virchow stated that all
cells are derived from pre-existing cells.
This statement is accepted as part of the
Cell Theory but there are many questions still to be answered about the
production of new cells. Why is it necessary for a cell to divide? Why do cells
not simply continue to grow to four or
five times their initial size?
Scientists have identified two key
factors that restrict cell growth and initiate cell division. First, as a cell grows,
its surface area and volume do not
change at the same rate. The volume
of cytoplasm and cellular organelles increases at a faster rate than the surface area of the cell membrane. At some
point in cell growth, the transport of materials through the cell membrane is not
enough to satisfy the nutrient requirements of the larger cell volume. When
this happens, the cell becomes inefficient
at performing its tasks. One impetus to
cell division is to keep the surface area
to volume ratio of the cells sufficient for
effective exchange across the cell membrane. Unlike other cells, nerve cells are
large and elongated but they do not
divide. Their long extensions and
infoldings maintain an efficient surface
area to volume ratio.
The second factor that restricts cell
growth involves the nucleus. As a cell
grows larger, the nucleus has difficulty
controlling the activities of the increased
volume of cytoplasm and organelles. Once
again, the efficiency of the cell is
hindered. Cell division maintains the cell
contents at a manageable volume. An
exception to this rule is found in skeletal muscle tissue. The cells are long and
FIGURE 5.3 These large cells have avoided the need to

divide. a) nerve cell b) striated muscle
thin but they maintain nuclear

control by having many nuclei within a
common cytoplasm. Why some cells
need to divide while others do not and
what factors trigger cell division in
different cell types are questions that
continue to challenge researchers.
The Cell Cycle

Cells do not divide continuously. In cells
that are capable of dividing, the period
between cell divisions is termed
interphase. During interphase the cell
undergoes growth, duplicates the hereditary information, and prepares for
mitosis. The length of this period varies,
depending on the organism and cell type.
Once a cell does begin to divide, two
separate processes must occur. The
nucleus must first undergo mitosis, a
process that ensures the distribution of
a complete set of chromosomes to each
daughter cell. Then cytokinesis, the
division of cytoplasm and organelles,
follows. The result is a pair of daughter
cells, each with a genetic makeup identical to the original parent cell.
Most of the life of the cell is spent in
interphase, when hundreds of specific
functions are performed. Obtaining
energy, synthesizing products like
hormones, repairing damage, and fighting
disease, are just a few of these functions.
Interphase has often been misnamed as
CHAPTER 5
INFOBIT
During interphase the cells of
an organism are actively
producing proteins. These
proteins may be used to
produce structures within the
cell or they may act to regulate
processes in the organism.
For example, the cells of the
pancreas produce the protein
insulin that leaves the
pancreas via the bloodstream.
This chemical then influences
the metabolism of glucose in
cells throughout the body.
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Cell growth
G1 phase
Cyt
nes
is
Telop
hase
Cell
division
Anaphase
hase
Metap
nt
se
ha
rop
e p li
catio
is
M it o s
Chromosome
division and
distribution
erphase
oki
G2 phase
Pr
ep
ara
tion
for
m
DN
Ar
S phase
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the resting phase of the cell cycle.

Although the interphase cell is between
mitotic divisions, it is not at rest. It is actively growing and performing its functions. Before mitosis can occur, the
genetic information in the chromosomes
must be duplicated. This duplication
(called replication) occurs during the period of interphase termed the synthesis
phase or S phase. Prior to this S phase,
the cell has been growing and preparing for replication. This is termed the G1
(or first gap) phase. Following the S
phase, the cell enters the G2 (or second
gap) phase as the cell begins its final
preparation for cell division. The cell
cycle is illustrated in Figure 5.4.
The Phases of Mitosis

ito s i s
FIGURE 5.4 The cell cycle can be divided into mitosis, cytokinesis, and the three
phases of interphase
While a cell is in the interphase stage,

the chromosomes are not readily visible
through a microscope. However, the nucleus is easily seen at this time. It has an
outer membrane, the nuclear envelope,
which controls the exchange of
materials between the nucleus and
cytoplasm. Within the nucleus, one or
more nucleoli are visible. These compact
centromere
a)
b)
chromatids
FIGURE 5.5 A human chromosome.
a) A human chromosome as it appears through an electron microscope

b) A chromosome, made up of two chromatids held together by a centromere, as it
appears during late prophase
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spherical bodies are rich in RNA, which

is involved in the production of ribosomes. During interphase, the chromosomes are spread throughout the
nucleus and appear as an irregular network of strands and granules. In this
form, they are called chromatin.
Although mitosis is a continuous
process, it is divided into four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. The results of mitosis and the
movement of the chromosomes are similar in all eukaryotic cells but there are
differences between different groups of
organisms. Plant cells and yeast cells do
not have centrioles and their division
spindles do not have the asters and
astral rays clearly seen in animal cells.
Yeast cells have structures analogous to
centrioles called spindle pole bodies.
Figures 5.6 through 5.10 show the similarities and differences in cell division
in animals and plants.
Prophase Mitosis in animal cells begins

with the movement of the two pairs of
centrioles to the opposite sides, or poles,
of the cell. The original pair of centrioles
replicated during interphase, along with
the chromosomes. Tiny fibres of protein
called astral rays form around each pair
of centrioles. These astral rays and a
given pair of centrioles take on a starlike appearance and are termed asters.
As the chromatin condenses into shorter,
thicker strands, the chromosomes
become clearly visible. The replication
process that occurred during interphase
is now apparent. These replicated chromosomes appear as strands joined at a
single point called a centromere. Each
identical strand is called a chromatid.
(See Figure 5.5.)
While the chromosomes are condensing, the nuclear envelope breaks
down and the nucleolus decreases in size
and then disappears. More fibres made
of microtubules form between the
centrioles at opposite poles, producing
a network called the mitotic spindle.
Toward the end of prophase, the
spindle fibres attach themselves to the
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chromatids at their centromeres and the

chromosomes begin to migrate to the
centre of the cell. See Figures 5.6 and 5.7.
Metaphase Metaphase is characterized

by the lining up of the chromosomes
across the equator (middle) of the cell.
This is sometimes called the metaphase
plate. The chromosomes are held by
their centromeres midway between the
poles and perpendicular to the spindle
fibres. The chromosomes are now very
condensed and thick. Because metaphase
chromosomes can be seen more clearly
than chromosomes at any other stage,
they are often photographed for study.
The use of metaphase chromosomes to
produce a karyotype is discussed in section 7.1. See Figure 7.1.
WEBLINK
For an animation of mitosis,

go to
Anaphase Anaphase begins with the separation of the chromatids at the centromere to produce two identical
single-stranded chromosomes. Each separate chromosome is now slowly pulled
toward opposite poles as the protein fibres attached to the centromeres shorten
by a decrease in microtubule sub-units.
Anaphase ends as a complete set of chromosomes arrives at each of the poles.
Telophase Telophase is characterized by

a return to interphase conditions. The nuclear envelope reforms and the nucleoli
reappear. The chromosomes elongate by
uncoiling to become chromatin once again.
The spindle and aster disappear. Two nuclei are visible within the single cell.
Cytokinesis Cytokinesis, the division of

the cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells, usually begins during
telophase in animal cells. The cell membrane pinches inward at the equator of
the cell, producing a furrow (Figure 5.8).
This furrow continues to deepen until
two separate daughter cells are formed,
each with its own nucleus. During cytokinesis, the parent cells organelles,
such as ribosomes and mitochondria,
are distributed to the two daughter cells.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
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MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS

chromosomes
(each a pair of sister chromatids
joined together)
replicated, uncondensed DNA
pair of
centrioles
nucleus
nucleolus
END OF
INTERPHASE
DNA has already duplicated
back in the S phase. Centrioles have
doubled.
spindle fibres
(microtubules)
mitotic
spindle
PROPHASE
metaphase
plate
METAPHASE
Mitosis begins. The chromosomes take

shape as the DNA condenses. The
nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The two pairs of centrioles begin to
move toward the cellular poles,
sprouting microtubules as they go.
Linkage and alignment. The

mitotic spindle consists of
several varieties of
microtubules; some of these
form a football-shaped cage
around the cells former
nucleus, while others attach
to the sister chromatids and
align them at the equatorial
metaphase plate. Each
chromatid now faces the pole
opposite that of its sister
chromatid.
FIGURE 5.6 Mitosis and cytokinesis in animal cells. Note that mitotic cells always have
an even number of chromosomes called the diploid number, although only three
individual chromosomes are shown here and in the diagrams of plant cells in Figure 5.9.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 5.7 Mitosis in animal cells of the

whitefish embryo.
a) Prophase. Early in prophase the chromatin begins to condense.
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b) Metaphase. The metaphase chromosomes line

up on the metaphase plate at the equator of the
mitotic spindle. Asters and astral rays can be seen.
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spindle fibres shortening
cleavage
furrow
separating
chromosome
ANAPHASE
Separation. Sister chromatids are
moved to opposite poles in the
cell by the disassembly of the
microtubules they are attached
to. Each chromatid is now a fullfledged chromosome.
nuclear
envelope
forming
TELOPHASE AND
CYTOKINESIS
Exit from mitosis. Chromosomes
decondense, the mitotic spindle
breaks down, and nuclear envelopes
form around the two separate
complements of chromosomes.
Meanwhile, a cleavage furrow begins
to form near the middle of the cell.
COMPLETION OF
CYTOKINESIS
One cell becomes two.
The cell membrane pinches
together completely, the
membranes on either side fuse
together, and the one cell
becomes two. These two cells
now enter the G1 phase of
interphase.

restrictions.

restrictions.
c) Anaphase. The chromosomes separate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle.
d) Telophase. Chromosomes are in two separate

complements. The mitotic spindle is breaking
down. The cleavage furrow is forming.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
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cell plate to form a new cell wall, two

daughter cells are produced.
After Mitosis
FIGURE 5.8 A dividing frog egg. In animal cells cytokinesis begins with the
formation of a cleavage furrow.
In plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the formation of a cell plate

across the equator of the cell (Figure
5.9). Cell plate formation begins in late
anaphase. As cellulose is added to the
As a result of mitosis, one of each kind

of chromosome from the mother cell is
present in the nucleus of each daughter
cell. The cells of a multicellular organism
are formed through mitosis, so each cell
will have exactly the same number and
kinds of chromosomes as those in every
other cell. If by some chance a cell should
receive an incorrect number of chromosomes due to some malfunction in cell
division, the resulting cell would be
abnormal and might not survive.
How then can cells in the same organism have different forms and functions?
The process of differentiation is
responsible for differences among cells.
This process is studied in the fields of developmental biology and developmental
genetics. Scientists in these fields investigate how some genes are turned on in
cells in one location in an organism,
while remaining inactive in cells in other
parts of the same organism. For example, enzymes specific to liver cells are different from those specific to muscle cells.
Mitosis takes place in the cells we call
CYTOKINESIS IN PLANTS
cell wall
two
daughter
cells
vesicles
cell plate
plasma
membrane
Membrane-lined vesicles
accumulate near the
metaphase plate. The
vesicles contain precursors
to the cell wall.
Vesicles fuse together,

forming a cell plate that
grows toward the parent
cell wall.
The newly formed plasma

membrane and cell wall
fuse with the parent plasma
membrane and cell wall,
forming two distinct
daughter cells.
FIGURE 5.9 Plant cells complete cytokinesis by building a cell wall between the daughter cells.
126
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Contents
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cell wall
FIGURE 5.10 Mitosis in plant cells of the hyacinth
a) Prophase. By middle to late

prophase the chromosomes are
condensing. The nuclear envelope
has broken down.
b) Metaphase. Chromosomes
are lined up at the equator of the
cell. Asters are not present.
Molecular Switches
Control Cell Activity
Yoshio Masui spent over 30 years isolating and studying factors in the cell
that control the cell cycle and trigger
cell division. Dr. Masui, along with
the many students that he worked
with at the University of Toronto, designed equipment and techniques to
pursue their studies and stretch a
limited budget. They were able to
identify two key proteins in the cytoplasm of the cell that control the process of cell division in all organisms.
One of these, the maturation promoting factor (MPF), initiates cell division. The second key protein, the
cytostatic factor (CSF), stopped cell
division. The role of each of these
chemicals was identified using
Masuis own microinjection technique
to transfer controlled amounts of
each factor into cells under study. The
contributions of his research to the
understanding of the regulation of cell
division were recognized in 1992
c) Anaphase. Chromosomes separate to the opposite poles of the

cell.
d) Telophase. Chromosomes are

in two separate complements.
when he received the Gairdner

Award (Canadian) and then again in
1998 when he received the Lasker
Award (American). His contributions
to the field of biomedicine are seen
as a major step forward in our attempt to battle cancer. As a professor emeritus at the University of
Toronto, Dr Masui remains actively
engaged in research.
Toronto researchers Josef
Penninger, an immunologist at the
Ontario Cancer Institute, and Peter
Liu, a cardiologist at Toronto General
Hospital, have discovered a protein
that plays a critical role in the
operation of the immune system.

Their findings have been published
in the British journal Nature. The
immune response to an infection
must be controlled or cells may continue to grow, producing a tumour.
Alternatively this overreaction may
cause autoimmune diseases like diabetes or multiple sclerosis. The protein named CD45 found on the
surface of white blood cells is one of
the important off switches for the
immune system. Studies with CD45
will increase understanding of the
mechanism of controlling the immune response.


a)
FIGURE 5.11 a) Dr. Yoshio Masui
b)
b) Dr. Josef Penninger and his colleague
Dr. Takehiko Sasaki prepare an extract.
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
127
Contents
WORD ORIGIN
Karyotype from the Greek,
karyon, meaning a nut,
kernel, or nucleus and tupos,
meaning a stamp, a model or
a pattern.
WEBLINK
Find out how the mitotic
division of cancer cells is
abnormal. Research the
various forms of cancer treatment to determine how they
are directed at this abnormal
cell division in cancer cells.
Identify the success rate of
different methods of treating
various forms of cancer.
Begin your research at:
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somatic cells, that is, all cells of the body

apart from the reproductive cells. Each
type of organism has a characteristic
number of chromosomes present in each
of its somatic cells. Fruit flies have 8
chromosomes, pea plants 14, goldfish
94, and humans 46. Simpler organisms do not necessarily have a lower
number of chromosomes. This number, indicating a complete set of chromosomes, is termed the diploid number.
As mitosis occurs in human cells, a
mother cell with 46 chromosomes will
produce 2 identical daughter cells, each
having 46 chromosomes. The total
chromosome complement, that is, the
number and form of the chromosomes
for any cell, makes up its karyotype.

restrictions.
FIGURE 5.12 These cells
are cancer cells from a skin
tumour. They are being grown
for study in the laboratory.
The highlighted cell is undergoing cell division.
Discovering Biology
Mitosis in Onions
The growing tip of an onion root is active in mitosis.

1. Obtain a microscope slide of an onion root tip from your
teacher.
2.
Use a microscope to focus (on high power) on a cell that

was caught in metaphase when the slide was prepared.
Manipulate your slide so that this metaphase cell is in the centre of your field of vision (or at the tip of the eyepiece pointer
if your microscope has one).
3.
Have your teacher check that you have located a cell in

metaphase.
4.
Examine a microscope slide of an onion root that has been

treated with colchicine. Colchicine prevents the formation of
the mitotic spindle so the chromosomes lie free in the cell.
Compare the appearance of the chromosomes in the
treated and untreated cells.
What is the diploid number of the onion?
128
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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Mitosis and the

Treatment of Cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases that are
characterized by abnormal cell division.
Researchers have gained a great deal of
information about cancer cells through
extensive experimentation and data collection. Cancer cells are different from
normal cells in two fundamental ways.
First, they are dividing out of control.
This uncontrolled division produces
many wild cells with unusual characteristics. These wild cells may be very
large, very small, have huge nuclei, or
contain an abnormal number of
chromosomes. Thus, cells from a cancer
patient have a unique appearance. Often
this appearance can be useful in distinguishing between the various forms of
cancer. The second unusual feature of
these cells is that they continue to divide
and pile up on one another. This lack
of inhibition combined with rapid division often produces an abnormal lump
of cells called a tumour. Fortunately, not
all tumours are cancerous. If a tumour
shows no tendency to spread, it is
termed benign. However, if a tumour
is capable of spreading, it is termed
malignant. A malignant tumour is
dangerous and capable of metastasis,
moving through the body to invade new
tissues. It is these metastatic growths
that are ultimately life-threatening.
Several forms of treatment, other
than surgery, take advantage of the
knowledge of abnormal cell division in
cancerous tissue. Rapidly dividing
cancerous cells are very susceptible to
any factor that may upset DNA synthesis during replication in the S phase, or
upset the actual mitotic process.
Radiation therapy can be directed at
specific sites in the body to kill cancer
cells by upsetting the mitotic process.
Chromosomes in irradiated cells do not
line up on the metaphase plate properly,
or, in anaphase, migration of chromosomes does not take place. The daughter cells that are produced often have too
much or too little genetic information,
and die as a result. Radiation therapy
thus disrupts cell division. Contd. p.130.
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Case
Study
The Demand for Human

Tissue
Defining the Issue
Advances in biotechnology have created a global

demand for practically every component of the
human body including blood, brain tissue, bone samples, saliva, sperm, eggs, skin, and DNA. These items
are in high demand by academic institutions,
government research labs, and biotechnology
companies.
Some people feel that the human body is sacred
and should not be put up for sale. Doing so reduces
us to mere objects, commodities, or products. Other
people argue that body parts are a natural asset that
individuals should be free to do with as they please.
Advances in the biomedical industry are also
raising questions about ownership. A few years ago
a man sued his doctor and several pharmaceutical
companies for using his blood and tissue samples
without his consent. The samples were used to
create a commercial cell product now estimated to
be worth billions of dollars. The man lost the case
because the court felt that people should not own
the rights to their own tissues because this might
hinder medical progress.
Source: Discover, February 2001 Volume 22, Number 2
FIGURE 5.13 Human blood products today have a price tag.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
2.
Prepare a consequence map, using the following categories: scientific, social, economic, political, ethical, and
any additional categories that you feel should be
considered.
Research the ethical and cultural perspectives that influence points of view on this issue. Explain how they
affect public opinion and government policy.
3.
What could some of the future social and economic impacts of marketing human tissue be?
4.
Write a position paper to defend your own point of view

on this issue. Use research, as well as your own beliefs, to support your opinion.
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
129
Contents
INFOBIT
It is estimated that there were
approximately 132 100 new
cases of cancer and 65 000
deaths from cancer in Canada
in the year 2000. Men
outnumbered women for both
new cases (67 900 versus 64
200) and deaths (34 600 versus
30 400). Three types of cancer
accounted for at least 50% of
these new cases in each sex:
prostate, lung, and colorectal
cancers in males, and breast,
lung, and colorectal cancers in
females. Almost one-third of
the cancer deaths in men and
almost one-quarter of the
cancer deaths in women were
due to lung cancer.
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Chemotherapy involves the use of

a wide range of drugs. Once injected,
these drugs affect the whole body and
all actively dividing cells, not just the
cancerous cells. The majority of these
drugs are effective because they disrupt
DNA replication and eliminate the
cancer cells mitotic ability. Many
chemotherapy patients lose their hair
because normal, actively-dividing hair
follicles are affected by the drugs. Cell
division stops in the hair follicles. The
dead cells produced in chemotherapy
degenerate and their compounds are
eventually reutilized by the body.
Quit
More recently, techniques of

immunotherapy use the bodys own
immune defences to treat cancer. The
use of chemicals produced naturally in
the immune response may someday
replace the chemicals traditionally used
in chemotherapy.
Doctors and researchers are
becoming more optimistic about the
chances of a cure for cancer as they
come to better understand the disease.
In addition, with early diagnosis and
improved treatment, cancer diseases are
being dealt with at earlier stages. As a
result, a higher cure rate has been
attained with many types of cancer.
Section 5.1 Review

1. Why is mitosis necessary? How does
it contribute to genetic continuity?
2. Describe the stages in the cell cycle.
3. In a flow chart summarize the events
that occur in each of the four stages of
mitosis. Include drawings and text.
4. Use a T-chart to contrast mitosis and
cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
5. If chromosomes do not divide properly during mitosis, the daughter cells
can end up with an abnormal number
of chromosomes (some number other
than the diploid number). Hypothesize
the effect of the abnormal number of
chromosomes on the functioning of the
daughter cell. Put forward evidence to
support your hypothesis.
6. Colchicine prevents the formation of
the mitotic spindle in dividing cells.
What effect would this drug have on
mitosis? Support your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
130
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Mitosis ensures that all cells in a multicellular organism contain a complete

set of genetic instructions. Many types
of differentiated cells that are part of a
tissue exist in these organisms.
Research the ways that parts of a cell
become exaggerated in order to carry

out a specific function in nerve cells or
muscle cells, for instance. There is a
negative aspect (in terms of the abilities of the cell) when this type of specialization takes place. What drawback
is there when a cell undergoes differentiation to become part of a tissue?
8. The rate of cell division varies in the
human body, depending on the location of the tissue type considered.
Suggest locations in the human body
where the rate of cell division would
be high and others where it would be
low. Support your suggestions with
evidence.
Making Connections
9. Research immunotherapy using a variety of print and electronic resources.
Explain the proposed advantages of
this form of cancer therapy. Based on
your research, do you believe that
immunotherapy will be a beneficial
treatment. Why? Why not?
10. A knowledge of cell division and the
controls determining the rate of cell division may be important in our understanding of the ageing process. Should
society pursue this type of research in
an effort to lengthen the human life
span? Write a supported opinion.
Contents
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5.2 Meiosis
Key Understandings
explain the need for meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually
explain the importance of chromosome number and structure
describe the key events of meiosis
distinguish between the formation of egg cells, and sperm cells
compare mitosis to meiosis
Mitosis ensures genetic continuity of cells

within any multicellular organism. The
specific chromosome number characteristic of the species is maintained by
mitotic division which ensures every cell
within the organism has the same chromosome number. The general body cells
are called somatic cells. When special sex
cells or gametes unite in sexual reproduction the number of chromosomes is
crucial. If two body cells with a full complement of chromosomes were allowed to
unite, each new organism in each new
generation would have twice the number
of chromosomes its parents had. Because
each species has a specific number of
chromosomes, a new kind of life form
would result, if it were to develop at all.
To prevent this type of doubling from
occurring in sexual reproduction, a division process other than mitosis is needed.
This division process is meiosis. A comparison of the processes of mitosis and
meiosis is given on page 142, Table 5.2.
Chromosome Number and

Structure
Human somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes. This is termed the diploid
number and is designated 2n. The 46
chromosomes are not actually 46 distinctively different units. They are arranged in 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes. One chromosome of each
pair came from the individuals mother
and the other came from the individuals
father. The 23 chromosomes that came
from the mother are called the maternal
set of chromosomes and the 23 chromosomes that came from the father are
called the paternal set of chromosomes.

Each of the homologous chromosomes (homologs) carries information for
the same hereditary traits as its partner.
The information for any specific trait is
in the form of a gene, a hereditary unit
which is, a length of DNA. Each gene has
a particular position or locus (plural loci)
on a chromosome and the two chromosomes of a homologous pair carry genes
for the same trait at the same locus.
The genes for a specific trait are not
necessarily identical. For example, if a
gene on one homolog codes for attached
earlobes, the gene on the other homolog
at the same locus may code for free earlobes. The different forms of the same
gene are called alleles. The earlobes of
the individual involved will result from
the interaction of the alleles present on
the homologs.
Each homologous pair of chromosomes carries genetic information for
thousands of hereditary traits. Mitotic
cells, specially treated so that the
metaphase chromosomes do not separate, allow us to identify the pairs of
homologous chromosomes. Pairs are
FIGURE 5.14
a) A person with
attached earlobes
b) A person with free
earlobes


a)
b)
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
131
Contents
FIGURE 5.15 Homologous

chromosomes. Homologous
chromosomes are the same
size and shape. They carry
information for many traits.
These chromosomes are
double-stranded, as in a
colchicine metaphase preparation. The chromatids of each
double-stranded chromosome
carry identical information.
The other homolog has information for the same traits at
the same gene loci. The homologous chromosomes may
carry different alleles of the
gene at a particular locus: for
example, at the earlobe locus
shown here.
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attached
earlobes
Next Section
attached
earlobes
free
earlobes
chromatid
blond
hair
blond
hair
blond
hair
blond
hair
sister chromatids
matched by their length, centromere position, and the patterns of banding that
result from staining the chromosomes.
Figure 5.15 shows the characteristics of
homologous chromosomes in a colchicine
metaphase preparation.
The process of meiosis produces
gametes that contain one of each of the
homologous pairs of chromosomes. The
number of chromosomes in each gamete
is one-half of the diploid number. This is
called the haploid number, designated
n. In humans n is 23. When fertilization
occurs in sexual reproduction in humans,
two haploid gametes, the egg or ovum
(female) and sperm (male), join to make
multicellular
diploid
adults
1n
egg
sperm
fertilization
2n
mitosis and
development
zygote
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
FIGURE 5.16 The human life cycle. The diagram relates the roles of meiosis and mitosis in
our life cycle. The diploid phase is shaded blue.
UNIT 2
free
earlobes
centromere
meiosis
132
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Genetic Continuity
a single diploid cell called the zygote, the

first cell of the new organism. This
zygote is now capable of mitosis and
differentiation. In this new organism, one
homolog of each pair of homologous
chromosomes came from the father and
the other from the mother. Each human
cell contains 23 paternal chromosomes
and 23 maternal chromosomes.
Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis ensures that sex cells have the
right type (one of each homologous pair)
and number (haploid) of chromosomes.
As a result, when the gametes come
together in fertilization, the zygote will
receive the right type and number of
chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in the
reproductive tissues of sexually reproducing organisms. In humans, sperm are
produced by special cells called spermatogonia in the male testes, while eggs
are produced in the oogonia in the
female ovaries. In plants pollen and
ovules are produced.
Mitosis consists of a single division
of the nucleus. Meiosis is characterized
by two major divisions, called meiosis I
and meiosis II. Each division is further
subdivided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Meiosis I and
meiosis II show some similarities to mitosis but also have some unique features.
Study Figure 5.18 as you read the description of meiosis. The diploid number
for the hypothetical organism shown in
Figure 5.18 is 4. Compare this number
with the diploid number of 46 in humans.
Contents
Previous Section
First Meiotic Division (Meiosis I) The

genetic material has been synthesized
in the S phase before meiosis
(pre-meiotic S). This is a similarity to
mitosis where, the chromosomes replicate prior to prophase. In prophase I of
meiosis, the chromosomes begin to condense and shorten and become visible.
Homologous chromosomes come
together in a process termed synapsis,
so that they lie side by side along their
entire length. When the homologs come
together, they often break and rejoin at
several places. As the chromosomes
shorten and thicken, it can be seen
that the replicated chromosomes are
composed of two identical chromatids
joined by a centromere. The unit formed
by each homologous pair of chromosomes now consists of four chromatids
and is called a tetrad. The points where
chromatids break and reunite are called
chiasmata. Breakage and reunion allows chromosomes to exchange genetic
material. This process is known as genetic recombination or crossing over
because at the point of recombination,
the genetic material on the chromosome
crosses from one homolog to the other.
This process allows for greater genetic
variation in a population of a species
because it recombines genes in new
combinations. (See Figure 5.17.)
The activities in the rest of the cell
at this time are similar to those during
mitosis. The nuclear membrane and nucleoli have disappeared, and in animal
cells the centrioles have migrated to the
poles to produce the asters and spindle.
2 chromatids
tetrad
a chiasma
FIGURE 5.17 Chiasmata visible in the first division of meiosis in the grasshopper. The tetrad is
composed of four chromatids.
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Plant cells and yeast do not have centrioles as part of their division spindles.
In late prophase I, the tetrads move
toward the equator of the cell.
As metaphase I begins, the tetrads
(homologous pairs) move onto the spindle and line up with their centromeres
at an equal distance from the equator of
the spindle. Anaphase I now begins. In
mitosis, the chromatids of a single chromosome move apart at this point. In
meiosis, the chromatids do not separate
in meiosis I. Instead, the homologous
pairs move apart as they separate, with
one chromosome going to each pole.
During telophase I, the chromosomes
condense slightly and a nuclear membrane may form. At the end of the first
division of meiosis, there are two daughter cells, each with exactly half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
As a result, meiosis I is often called the
reduction division because the number
of chromosomes has been reduced by
half: from 2n to n or, in the example
shown in Figure 5.18, from four chromosomes to two.
Investigation
Refer to page 147,
Investigation 1
Second Meiotic Division (Meiosis II) In

most organisms, the interphase after
meiosis I is very brief, while in some it
is totally lacking. There is no duplication
of chromosomes in the interphase
between meiotic divisions. The second
meiotic division may be similar to mitosis, but it begins with half the genetic
material of mitotic cells. Each cell has
the n number of double-chromatid chromosomes. When the spindle forms at the
end of prophase II, each chromosome,
made up of two chromatids, lines up on
the equator. The centromeres split and
one chromatid of each chromosome is
pulled to each of the opposite poles of
the cell. The number of chromosomes
per cell remains the same. In telophase,
the nuclear membrane begins to reform
as the meiotic process nears completion.
Each of the cells produced will contain
the haploid number of chromosomes. As
a result of meiosis, one diploid cell can
produce four haploid cells.
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
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MEIOSIS I
Diploid
END OF
INTERPHASE
DNA has already
duplicated
PROPHASE I
Microtubules
move homologous
chromosomes
to metaphase plate.
Crossing over
occurs.
Independent
assortment
occurs.
Two very important

sources of genetic
variation
CROSSING OVER
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.
duplicated
maternal
chromosome
duplicated
paternal
chromosome
tetrad
sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids
FIGURE 5.18 Stages of meiosis
134
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
METAPHASE I
Homologous
chromosomes
link as they
condense, forming
tetrads.
ANAPHASE I
Microtubules
separate homologous
chromosomes
(sister chromatids
remain together).
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MEIOSIS II
Haploid
cytokinesis
cytokinesis
TELOPHASE I
Two haploid
daughter cells
result from
cytokinesis.
PROPHASE II
METAPHASE II
(Brief)
Sister chromatids
line up at new
metaphase plate.
ANAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
Sister chromatids
separate.
Four haploid
cells result.
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Random alignment of
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
METAPHASE I
METAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
... but they could have

lined up this way, yielding
a different outcome.
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
135
Contents
WEBLINK
To view a simulation of meiosis,

go to
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Random Assortment of
Chromosomes
During the separation of the doublestranded chromosomes at anaphase I of
meiosis, there is no necessity for chromosomes that came from the father (the
paternal set) to stay together or for chromosomes that came from the mother
(the maternal set) to stay together.
In other words, there is random
assortment of the chromosomes (Figure
5.19). Some gametes may receive all
paternal chromosomes. Some may
receive all maternal chromosomes.
These results are unlikely according to
meiosis
FIGURE 5.19 Random assortment of chromosomes in organism with 2n = 6
Discovering Biology
Random Assortment of Chromosomes
During meiosis chromosomes assort randomly. Model random
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis in an organism with
2n = 8. Use modelling clay, pipe cleaners, strips of differentcoloured paper, or materials of your choice. Make the four
chromosome pairs different lengths and use a different colour for
maternal and paternal sets. Demonstrate the different possible
combinations of chromosomes in gametes.
136
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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probability. Others may receive a mixture

of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
The number of different possible kinds of
gametes produced by random assortment
of chromosomes is 2n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes in the organism. How many possible different
gametes can you get from meiosis when
2n = 46?
Meiosis is therefore an important
source of genetic variability. There are
two ways that meiosis produces variability. The first way is through random
assortment of chromosomes. Because
maternal and paternal sets of chromosomes do not need to stay together, an
organism with a diploid number of 10,
that is, 5 pairs of chromosomes, can produce 25 or 32 different combinations of
chromosomes. Any one of these 32
different combinations in an egg could
come together with any one of the 32
possible combinations in a sperm. What
are the total possible combinations for
that species, depending on random
assortment alone?
The second way that meiosis produces variability is from crossing over
or genetic recombination as a result of
breakage and reunion of chromatids
during prophase of meiosis I. Genetic recombination from breakage and reunion
may occur at different points along the
chromosomes, and so each chiasma will
affect different genes. The number of
possible gene combinations that result
from genetic recombination is extremely
large, and that is in addition to the variety of combinations resulting from random assortment of chromosomes. This
enormous potential variability explains
why some siblings may look very much
alike while others in the same family
look very different.
Sperm and Egg Cells

At the end of meiosis in male animals,
four functional cells called spermatids
are produced. These spermatids then
undergo differentiation to become sperm
cells. Sperm cells are characterized by
having a head (containing the nucleus),
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a tail (flagellum) for movement, and a

middle piece containing mitochondria
that provide energy for the beating of
the tail. The sperm of various species
are quite different. However, they are
always quite small relative to the female
gamete as seen in Figure 5.20.
The nuclear events in the production of the female gamete, tetrad formation, crossing over, anaphase I and
anaphase II separations, are exactly the
same as those occurring in the male, but
the events in the cytoplasm are different. In meiosis I in the female, the division of the cytoplasm is unequal,
producing one large cell (a secondary
oocyte) containing nearly all the nutrients and cytoplasm, and one small cell
(the first polar body) containing only the
nucleus. In meiosis II, the secondary
oocyte divides unequally once again. One
large ovum or egg, and a second, small,
polar body result. The first polar body
may divide, but usually it simply deteriorates. At the end of meiosis in the
female animal, only one functional egg
is produced in contrast to the four sperm
cells produced in the male. The unequal
cytoplasmic divisions ensure that the
mature egg will have enough cytoplasm
and nutrients to support development of
the zygote following fertilization. See
Sperm Banks
Reproductive technologies pose ethical, moral, and legal questions for
individuals, as well as society as a
whole. For example, the use of
sperm banks is a controversial issue.
Couples who are unable to conceive because the male is infertile
may consider obtaining donor sperm
from a sperm bank. In such cases,
offspring will receive 50% of their
genetic make-up from the mother
and 50% from the sperm donor.
Genetic information about sperm
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FIGURE 5.20 Hundreds of

sperm cells are attempting to
fertilize this single egg cell. The
relative size of the two sex cell
types is clearly illustrated.

restrictions.

a)

b)
FIGURE 5.21 The second division of meiosis in the egg of a marine worm.
a) Metaphase II as seen from the pole of the spindle

b) Anaphase II. The first polar body can be seen.
Figure 5.22 on the next page for the differences in gamete formation in animals.
donors and their family histories are

carefully recorded. Usually the sperm
of a male who is similar in characteristics to the sterile male is used.
In this way the child may possess
characteristics similar to both members of the couple. Some geneticists
have expressed concern that if many
children are conceived in this way, it
is possible that two individuals who
are genetically related might unknowingly marry and produce
children.
In a highly controversial case in
the late 1970s, Robert K. Graham
opened the Repository for Germinal
Choice, a sperm bank Graham
claimed had Nobel Prize Winner
sperm for sale. Eventually, Graham
said that the majority of the sperm

came from professionals and young
scientists. The repository was
clouded in secrecy and rumour until
it closed in 1999. It claimed to be responsible for the birth of 229 children spread across 7 countries.
Graham was criticized extensively by
the genetic community for his attempt
to produce so-called genius babies
or designer babies. Geneticists
viewed this as unacceptable interference in the characteristics of the
next generation.
Reproductive technologies are a
matter for societal consideration, requiring the thoughtful attention of scientists, ethicists, religious leaders,
and individual citizens.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
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SPERMATOGENESIS
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OOGENESIS
oogonium
spermatogonium
primary
oocyte
primary
spermatocyte
meiosis I
polar
body
secondary
spermatocytes
secondary
oocyte
meiosis II
spermatids
polar bodies
(will be degraded)
a)
b)
FIGURE 5.22 Gamete formation in animals. In sperm formation diploid

spermatogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes that pass
through meiosis to produce four spermatids. In egg formation oogonia divide by
mitosis to produce primary oocytes that pass through meiosis to form one egg
and two or three polar bodies. Sperm and egg cells both have the haploid number
of chromosomes. Four functional sperm result from meiosis in the male while only
one functional ovum results from meiosis in the female.
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egg
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Chromosome Numbers
Complete the table to show the number of chromosomes present in different

stages of cell division in a variety of species.
TABLE 5.1 Number of Chromosomes Present at Different Stages of Cell Division
Cabbage
Number of
Chromosomes
in Daughter
Cells of Mitosis
Diploid
Number
Haploid
Number
Number of
Pairs of
Homologous
Chromosomes
Number of Chromosomes Present in Meiosis

at Beginning of Each Phase
Prophase I
Prophase II
Telophase II
18
18
18
Trillium
Black Bear
38
Human
23
Fruit fly
Peanut
8
40
Mistakes in Meiosis
Meiosis is an elegant process but in any
organism errors in meiosis sometimes
occur. These errors may be the result of
mistakes in separation of the chromosomes during division or of an incorrect
exchange of genetic information during
chiasma formation. Many genetic disorders in humans can be traced back to
errors in the formation of the gametes in
meiosis. Mistakes in meiosis can result
in an abnormal number of chromosomes
in an egg or sperm cell. If this egg or
sperm is then involved in fertilization, the
zygote will exhibit an abnormal number
of chromosomes. The child produced
from this zygote (following mitosis and
differentiation) will have cells with too
few or too many chromosomes, a
condition known as aneuploidy. Down
syndrome is an example of aneuploidy.
In another abnormality, chromosomes exchange information incorrectly
during the crossing-over process of
meiosis. The resulting sex cells, and
ultimately the fetus produced from
fertilization involving these cells, will
have the correct number of chromosomes, but the genetic information may
be altered or the chromosomes may
contain duplications or deletions of
genetic material.
Abnormal Chromosome Number

Aneuploidy is caused by a mistake in the
meiotic process known as nondisjunction. If the homologous chromosomes
fail to move apart properly during
meiosis I, or the sister chromatids do not
separate during meiosis II, the resulting
gametes will have either extra or missing chromosomes. If fertilization involves
a sex cell that is missing a chromosome,
the resulting child will have only one
copy of a particular chromosome, a
condition known as monosomy. If
fertilization involves a sex cell that has
an extra chromosome, the resulting child
will have three copies of a particular
chromosome, a condition known as
polysomy. In either case, if the child
survives, he or she will show effects
associated with the genetic information
carried on the chromosome involved in
the aneuploidy. Down syndrome is a type
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
139
Contents

FIGURE 5.23 deVries in his
genetic garden
Investigation
Refer to page 148,
Investigation 2
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of polysomy that results from an extra

chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). This
condition and several other numerical
abnormalities are described in Chapter
7. The effects of nondisjunction in the
meiotic process are illustrated in Figure
5.24.
In a more severe disruption of the
meiotic process, an abnormal male or
female gamete produced from the nondisjunction of all of its chromosomes may
unite with a haploid gamete to produce a
zygote with three sets of chromosomes
(69 in humans). This zygote has a chromosomal alteration known as polyploidy.
In this case the zygote produced would
be described as triploid or 3n. Accidents
of this sort are extremely rare in the
animal world because the zygote usually
doesnt complete its development.
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However, polyploidy does occur more

frequently in plants.
In the early years of the twentieth
century the geneticist Hugo de Vries was
studying the evening primrose Oenothera
lamarkiana. de Vries discovered the
possibility of polyploidy in plants. In
autopolyploidy, nondisjunction during
meiosis results in gametes that are diploid.
Self-fertilization produces a tetraploid
(4n) offspring. Such offspring can self-fertilize or mate with other tetraploids to produce viable offspring (offspring that
survive to maturity).
If the tetraploid mates with the original (2n) species the combination of an n
gamete with a 2n gamete results in a
triploid organism. This organism may be
viable but is not fertile. It cannot produce
normal gametes.
FIGURE 5.24
Nondisjunction results
in an abnormal
chromosome number.
Nondisjunction, the
abnormal separation of
chromosomes, can
occur in either meiosis I
or meiosis II. If
nondisjunction happens
in meiosis I all the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
If it happens in meiosis
II, only half of the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
nondisjunction
in meiosis I
normal
meiosis I
normal
meiosis II
nondisjunction
in meiosis II
gametes
24
24
22
abnormal number of
chromosomes
100%
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22
23
23
normal
50%
22
24
abnormal number
of chromosomes
50%
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The original diploid form and the

new tetraploid form can co-exist but they
cannot produce fertile offspring.
Therefore they are different species. As
a result of the original nondisjunction, a
new species has been formed. This situation is called sympatric speciation.
Abnormal Chromosome Structure

Sometimes during the crossing-over process that occurs during meiosis I, the
pieces of genetic information that are exchanged do not reattach properly to the
chromosomes involved. A deletion
occurs if a chromosome fragment fails
to reattach to the homolog and is somehow lost. If this segment reattaches to a
complete homolog, then the resulting
chromosome will have a duplication. If
this segment reattaches to the correct
homolog but in the reverse order, then
the chromosome is said to have an
inversion. In the fourth type of incorrect
reattachment, the segment of DNA
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attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome producing a translocation. If

fertilization involves a gamete that has
one of these alterations, the child
produced may exhibit a wide range of
symptoms depending on the severity of
the genetic alteration and the specific
genetic information involved. Figure 5.25
illustrates each of these alterations to
chromosomal structure.
Meiosis versus Mitosis

Mitosis and meiosis are different. Mitosis
is essential for the development and
maintenance of each individual. Meiosis
is essential for gamete production and
the continuation of the species into the
next generation. They are similar in that
DNA is replicated, a division spindle is
required, and different phases are observed. The processes are summarized
in Table 5.2.
normal chromosomes
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
duplication
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
inversion
C D
V W
A B
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
WORDORIGIN
Sympatry from the Greek Sun
meaning together and
patria meaning father land:
refers to species that co-exist
but cannot produce fertile
offspring.
a) a duplication causes the

repetition of a segment.
b) a deletion causes the

removal of a segment.
c) an inversion reverses the
proper sequence of the
genetic information.
translocation
A B
Canadian wheat. Our common

bread wheat, Triticum aestivum
is an example of polyploidy
resulting from a cross of
T. monococcum (goat grass
with a diploid number of 14)
and T. dicoccon (Emmer wheat
with a diploid number of 28).
This cross produces bread
wheat with a
chromosome number of 42.
This variety of wheat exhibits
large kernels and produces
excellent pasta and stock feed.
FIGURE 5.25 Alterations

caused by improper crossing
over. The colours indicate the
regions involved in the improper rearrangement of chromosomes. The letters
represent the location and sequence of genes along the
chromosome.
deletion
A B
INFOBIT
V W
C D
V W
CHAPTER 5
d) a translocation moves a
segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous
one.
Mitosis and Meiosis
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Mitosis
Meiosis
Function of Process
ensures genetic continuity within the individual

from cell to cell
for growth, repair, and maintenance
ensures genetic continuity from one generation to

the next for a given species
to prevent the doubling of chromosome number
from one generation to the next
Location of Process
in all body (somatic) cells, with the exception of

reproductive organs
only in the reproductive organs in designated cell
Number of Divisions
1 division
2 successive divisions
Meiosis I reduction division
Meiosis II similar to mitosis
Number of Cells
Produced in Animals
2 identical daughter cells
male 4 functional sperm cells

female 1 functional egg cell or ovum (in humans,
for example)
Number of
Chromosomes per Cell
at End of Process
diploid number 2n
46 in humans
haploid number n
23 in humans
TABLE 5.2 Comparison of

the processes of Mitosis and
Meiosis
Section 5.2 Review

1. In your own words, outline the process
of meiosis.
2. Why are the number and shape of
chromosomes important to a species?
3. How are homologous chromosomes the
same? different?
4. Explain the origin of each homolog
within any given homologous pair of
chromosomes.
5. Meiosis has an essential role in organisms that reproduce sexually.
Explain.
6. Make a diagram of the human life cycle
to demonstrate the relationships
between the terms diploid and haploid and the processes of meiosis,
mitosis, and fertilization.
7.
Briefly outline the events of the first

and second meiotic divisions. Why is
the first meiotic division described as
reduction division? How is the second
meiotic division similar to the mitotic
process?
8. Compare and contrast the production

of gametes in female and male animals.
9. Describe the disruption in the meiotic
process that would cause:
a) aneuploidy b) polyploidy c) a deletion d) a translocation.
10. Write a paragraph to highlight the similarities and differences between
mitosis and meiosis.
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Applying Inquiry/
11. A diploid cell contains 4 pairs of chromosomes designated #1, #2, and #3
#4. Each pair contains a paternal and
maternal chromosome (1p and 1m, 2p
and 2m, 3p and 3m, 4p and 4m).
Illustrate the possible combinations
of chromosomes that could be observed
in the haploid gametes resulting from
meiosis in this cell. Use a diagram and
a table.
12. An organism has a diploid number of
10. Calculate the probability that
a gamete will contain five paternal
chromosomes.
Making Connections
13. Geneticists can intentionally disrupt the
meiotic process in plants and animals
to produce new mutations or abnormal
chromosome numbers in the sex cells
of these organisms. The intent is to
produce a new organism that possesses
a new desirable combination of traits.
Should scientists be tampering with life
in this manner? Should consideration
be given to the type of organism that
undergoes this manipulation? In paragraph form outline two advantages and
two disadvantages that could result
from this type of research. Support
your statements with research.
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5.3 Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction

Key Understandings
explain how genetic continuity is maintained in asexual reproduction
describe several different methods of asexual reproduction
explain the importance of genetic recombination and the necessity of meiosis
describe the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction and

Genetic Continuity
In some organisms, one parent alone is
capable of producing a new individual.
The hereditary information is transmitted from one generation to the next
through a process termed asexual
reproduction. The single parent may
split, bud, or fragment to produce a new
individual. The genetic information in any
new individuals will be identical to the
original parent (unless a chemical change
in the DNA, called a mutation, occurs).
As a result, asexual offspring will display traits very similar if not identical to
one another and to the original parent.
Asexual reproduction may produce
many offspring very rapidly; as an extreme example: if bacteria divide every
20 min, one bacterial cell could give rise
to more than 2 million bacteria in 7 h.
Genetic continuity is maintained in asexual reproduction, but the chance of variability is very low. Forms of asexual
reproduction are reviewed in Table 5.3.
Characteristics of Sexual
Reproduction
Meiosis produces haploid gametes containing one of each of the homologous
pairs of chromosomes. The products of
meiosis are different from each other
because of the random assortment of
chromosomes and also because of the
genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I. There are thousands of
possibilities for each gamete. When
fertilization occurs in sexual reproduction, a diploid zygote results. This zygote

contains all of the genetic information
required to produce an individual of the
species involved.
Regardless of which organism we
consider, if sexual reproduction is utilized, two parents and two different
sex cells are required. Two gametes from
among the thousands possible come
together to form a unique offspring. As
a result, the offspring produced will contain a mixture of hereditary information
from both parents and will not look
exactly like either parent. The characteristic chromosome number and form
for the species are maintained, but
individuals produced in each successive
generation will show variation. They will
not be exactly the same. Meiosis and
sexual reproduction mean variation.
Sexual versus Asexual

Reproduction
Some organisms are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. This is quite
common in the plant kingdom. Why do
different organisms display two types of
reproduction? Asexual reproduction involving one parent produces identical
copies (clones) in a relatively short time.
This appears to be the easiest means of
reproducing. Why dont all living organisms use this approach to reproduction?
Sexual reproduction requires a much
greater amount of time and energy. Is the
ability to produce offspring with genetic
variation a significant advantage?
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TABLE 5.3 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Method of
Asexual
Reproduction
Organisms
Utilizing This
Method
Description
Binary Fission
Bacteria
. Bacteria lack organelles for mitosis and the

bacterial chromosome remains attached to
the cell membrane. Under ideal conditions
occurs once every 20 min.
Parent cell undergoes cell division to produce two new individuals.
Parent organism is lost in process.
Amoeba
Paramecium
Illustration
a) A micrograph of an Amoeba completing

binary fission.
Budding
Yeast
Hydra
Fragmentation
Flatworms
Sea stars
Nuclear material undergoes mitotic division

Cytoplasm divides but smaller cell
(bud) remains attached to the larger cell
(parent).
Bud will eventually separate from parent.
Budding begins as a bulge growing from the
parent.
The multicellular bud eventually separates
from the parent.
b) Budding in Hydra. The genetically identical bud will eventually separate from the parent Hydra to form a new individual.
Body of parent breaks into several pieces.

Each piece regenerates missing parts to produce a whole organism.
c) A sea star can regenerate a complete

organism from a piece of one arm.
Vegetative
propagation
Wide range of
plants
New plant is formed from a piece of root,

stem, or leaves of the parent plant.
d) In addition to sexual reproduction, a

Kalanchoe plant can produce complete small
plants along the edges of its leaves.
Spores
Ferns
Bread moulds
Mushrooms
Specialized spores contain genetic information inside of tough outer casings. They may
be stored in spore cases, called sporangia,
until released.
If a spore lands where conditions are
favourable the spore will grow into a new organism.
e) Sporangia containing spores on the back
of a fern leaf.
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FIGURE 5.26 What advantage might this human

population gain by having
such a wide variety among
its members?
The answers to these questions lie

in a consideration of evolution and the
environment. When the environment is
not changing, asexual reproduction will
allow a well-adapted organism to rapidly
produce a new generation of similarly
well-adapted organisms. But what if the
environment changes? Then the asexual organism will have difficulty in
adapting to the changing environment.
When the environment changes, any
species that shows variation from one
generation to the next will have a better
chance of survival. Sexually produced
offspring are all slightly different. Some
individuals may be better adapted to the
new conditions. They will live to perpetuate the species. Biologists say that
the species has undergone adaptation.
A Theory of Sexual
Reproduction
Many theories have been put forward attempting to account for the importance
of meiosis and the advantages of sexual
reproduction. Success of a species is a
different thing from the life of an individual of the species. Sexual organisms
may not produce many offspring but
those they do produce are unique and

may respond differently to different environmental conditions. If the environment changes, there is the possibility that
at least some of the offspring may survive to thrive under the new conditions.
Asexual organisms produce many
identical offspring but they are all the
same. Therefore an environmental
change that negatively affects one of the
offspring affects all the members of the
population in the same way. The whole
population may be wiped out by one environmental change.
Sexual reproduction can still be
risky. There is the problem of finding a
mate. The risk that a mate may not be
found in a species whose members are
at a low density means the risk that no
offspring will be produced. Also, parental
genes sometimes combine in ways that
are not beneficial. However, in sexual reproduction, offspring can sometimes be
better adapted to their environment than
their parents are. If this is the case, the
offspring will most likely survive. In
terms of evolution and the survival of the
species over time, it is the probability of
passing on genes to the next generation
and the future that counts.
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a) Penguins
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b) Gannets
FIGURE 5.27 Populations and variability. These populations do not appear to have
a great deal of variety in external appearance. However, each individual is unique in
its combination of internal physiology and chemical makeup. What advantage might
these populations gain by maintaining diversity among their members?
Section 5.3 Review

1. Describe how genetic continuity is
maintained in asexual reproduction.
2. Explain why individuals resulting from
any form of asexual reproduction are
identical to the parent.
3. What general differences exist between
sexual and asexual reproduction?
Communicate your ideas in a graphic
organizer.
4. Outline the process of genetic recombination and describe the outcome of
this process.
5. Make a list of environmental conditions
that would benefit:
a) organisms that reproduce
sexually.
b) organisms that reproduce
asexually
6. Define the term adaptation. Describe
how sexual organisms adapt.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
Horses have a diploid number of 64

and donkeys have a diploid number of
62. Mules result from crossing a male
donkey with a female horse. Mules are
usually sterile. How many chromosomes will a mule cell contain? If mules
could be crossed with each other, what
chromosome problem would exist?
Prepare a diagram of the diploid state
of the two animals, the make-up of any
gametes formed, and the chromosome
problems found in the mule.
Making Connections
8. Reproductive technologies are becoming more common in todays society.
List the ethical issues raised by the use
of these technologies. Propose an argument for and against the use of reproductive technologies. Write an
argued, supported paragraph that expresses your point of view.
9. Couples who have the potential to produce a child with a serious genetic defect should be discouraged from having
children. Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Present your answer as a supported opinion.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 5.2)
Observing Cells in the Process of Meiosis
Cells undergoing meiosis can be preserved on microscope slides. Photography through the microscope allows study of the stages of meiosis and the comparison
of plant and animal material. Figure 5.18 illustrates
the events in hand-drawn pictures.
4.
Fill in the chart that you have produced with the

appropriate information. Use the information in the
booklet provided to describe the key events in
the microslide view. Take care to sketch the
chromosomes and their arrangement as accurately
as possible.
Problem
To identify stages in meiosis in plant and animal cells

using photomicrographs and prepared microscope
slides.
Compare what you have drawn to the illustrations

provided in Figure 5.18.
6.
Obtain one of the plant microslides from your

teacher. Observe each of the stages illustrated on
this microslide. Note any differences you see in the
process of meiosis or cytokinesis from comparable
stages you saw in the animal microslide. Add this
information to your chart.
Materials
animal LAL1
meiosis and plant meiosis microslide and
microslide viewer
microscope slides of spermatogenesis in grasshopper testes
drawing materials
Part B Spermatogenesis in Grasshopper Testes

7.
Obtain a microscope and a microscope slide of

grasshopper testes that has cells undergoing meiosis.
Procedure
8.
Prepare a full-page chart similar to the one you prepared for Part A.
Part A Microslides of Animal and Plant Meiosis
9.
Examine your slide to find cells undergoing meiosis. Using high-power magnification, make drawings of cells in the eight stages of meiosis that you
identified in the microslide material used in Part A.
1.
Obtain one of the animal meiosis microslides and

a microslide viewer from your teacher.
2.
Read the introduction in the microslide booklet.

Observe each of the eight views provided on the
microslide strip. The photomicrographs in the microslide will help you to recognize the stages of
meiosis described in Figure 5.18.
3.
Produce a full-page chart in your notebook. Use the

headings indicated below.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11. Make a diagram of a tetrad with one chiasma. How

many recombinant gametes will result?
TABLE 5.9
Name of Stage
Shown
10. Observe chiasmata in cells in late prophase of meiosis I. Carefully draw one tetrad in which one
chiasma is visible and one tetrad in which several
chiasmata are visible. See Figure 5.17.
Description of Key
Events
Sketch of the Stage

Shown
1. Which of the stages in meiosis are easiest to identify in the microslide material and the grasshopper
material? Why?
2. What was the diploid number for the animal and
plant shown on the microslides, and for the
grasshopper? What was the haploid number for
each?
3. Meiosis differs in plant and animal cells. Highlight
the differences in the process of meiosis in the plant
cells and the animal cells that you observed.

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(continued)
crossing over occurs at the tetrad or four-strand

stage of meiosis.)
4. What is the relationship between the frequency of

crossing over (chiasma formation) and the number
of recombinant cells formed? (Hint: remember that
5. Are the cells at the end of the meiotic process ready

for fertilization? Explain.
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 5.2)
Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis

In section 5.2, you read about several mistakes in the
meiotic process. The mistakes may result in abnormal
numbers of chromosomes in the gametes or in gametes
with chromosomes that have abnormal structures.
Abnormal structures may include duplication, deletion,
and rearrangement of genetic material. Fertilization of
these gametes may result in genetic defects. In this exercise, you will investigate abnormalities of number
and structure. You will produce illustrations of these
mistakes in meiosis using materials of your choice.
3.
For the purposes of your model assume that the organisms sex is to be determined the way it is in
humans, with X and Y chromosomes. Choose a low
diploid number for the species and chromosome
sizes and centromere positions to simplify the modelling process.
4.
Consider any other aspects of meiosis important to

your model. Have the teacher approve your design
before you begin your model.
5.
Clearly describe the abnormality in the sex cells

that are formed when each of the mistakes occurs.
Problem
How can you illustrate mistakes in meiosis? How can
you determine whether an abnormality will result after
fertilization involving these gametes?
Experimental Design
148
1.
Identify the mistake in crossing over and the mistake in segregation of the chromosomes that you
wish to illustrate.
2.
Design a method of illustrating these errors in

meiosis. Choose any materials that you feel will
allow you to show the process effectively. Your final
product will be posted on a bulletin board for display. Write a list of materials required.
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Analzying and Interpreting

1. What abnormalities in number and/or structure resulted in your investigation?
2. Is it possible that either of the mistakes that you illustrated may not lead to a genetic defect? Explain.

3. Briefly explain how you distinguished between
a) the different homologous pairs b) maternal and
paternal chromosomes.
4. Explain why you chose the materials that you used
in your model.
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Key Terms
adaptation
anaphase
aneuploidy
asexual reproduction
asters
cancer
cell cycle
cell plate
centromere
chiasmata
chromatid
chromatin
chromosome number
clone
crossing over
cytokinesis
daughter cells
deletion
diploid, 2n
DNA
duplication
fertilization
gametes
gene
genetic continuity
genetic recombination
haploid n
homologs
interphase
inversion
locus
meiosis
metaphase
mitosis
monosomy
nondisjunction
oogonia
polar bodies
polyploidy
polysomy
prophase
reduction division
replication
sexual reproduction
spermatogonia
S phase
synapsis
telophase
tetrad
translocation
zygote
5.1 Mitosis

Mitosis ensures genetic continuity from cell to cell

within an organism, for growth, repair, and development.
Mitosis is subdivided into four stages: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis produces two diploid cells that are geneticaly identical.
Meiosis is necessary to produce haploid gametes for

sexual reproduction and to ensure that the chromosome number of a species is maintained.
Meiosis is characterized by two nuclear divisions,

called the first and second meiotic divisions.
The first meiotic division is called reduction division

because this part of meiosis reduces the number
of chromosomes in the sex cells by half.
In humans, the net outcome of the meiotic process

is four haploid sperm cells in the male and one haploid ovum in the female.
If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, sex cells

with an abnormal number of chromosomes may be
produced.
5.3 Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction
5.2 Meiosis

Asexual reproduction ensures genetic continuity

from one generation to the next.
Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically

identical to the parent.
Binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and

vegetative propagation are means of asexual
reproduction.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that show

variation relative to the parents and to each other.
This variation may help the species adapt in an
environment that is changing.

1.
Revisit your T-chart from the Checkpoint on page 119.

Revise your work based on what you learned in this
chapter.
2.
Create a concept map to summarize the main concepts

in the chapter. Use the Key Terms for this map.
3.
Evaluate how society is affected by the evolution of scientific knowledge.
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CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
1. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
5. A tetrad is made up of:

a) two chromatids from one chromosome
b) one chromatid from two homologous chromosomes
c) four chromatids from two homologous chromosomes
d) one chromatid from one chromosome
second meiotic division:

is identical to the first meiotic division
is similar to mitosis
is called reduction division
produces 2 diploid cells
6. At which point in the cell cycle does replication of the

genetic information occur? Why is this process so
important?
2. An organism with a diploid number of 32 would produce gametes with ____ chromosomes.
a) 16
b) 32
c) 64
d) a variable number of
7. Describe the number and type of cells that result from

meiosis.
8. Explain why the first meiotic division is referred to as
reduction division. Support your answer with an
example.
3. In a changing environment, a sexually reproducing organism may gain an advantage because:

a) it can produce many identical offspring
b) it reproduces very rapidly
c) its offspring show variation and may be adaptable
d) its offspring contain the same genetic information
as the parents
9. What effect do crossing over and linkage have on the

genetic variation of the offspring?
10. Outline the sequence of events in the cell cycle.
11. Describe the different types of genetic defects that can
result from nondisjunction during meiosis.
4. Uncontrolled cell division is a characteristic of:

a) cancer
b) mitosis
c) cytokinesis
d) meiosis
Organism
cotton
fruit fly
Diploid
Number
Haploid Number of
Number Chromosomes
in Daughter Cells
of Mitosis
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Prophase I
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Telophase I
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Telophase II
4
64
toad
18
chicken
78
goldfish
UNIT 2
Number of Pairs
of Homologous
Chromosomes
52
horse
150
12. Copy the following table and then complete it to show

the number of chromosomes present at different stages
of cell division in a variety of organisms.
47
Genetic Continuity
Contents
Previous Section
13. Draw a cell in the following phases of mitosis or meiosis. Clearly indicate the number of chromosomes and
chromatids present.
a) metaphase of mitosis for a cell with 2n = 6
b) anaphase of meiosis II for a cell with 2n = 8
c) telophase of meiosis I for a cell with 2n = 6
14. Explain why an organism would gain an advantage if it
could reproduce both sexually and asexually.
15. Produce a concept map entitled The Human Life Cycle
relating the roles of mitosis, meiosis, cell differentiation,
diploid number, haploid number, fertilization, sexual reproduction, gametes, and genetic continuity.
16. Look at the dividing cells in Figure 5.28
a) Is the organism an animal or a plant? Explain your
answer.
b) Identify the stage of division in cell A.
c) Identify the stage of division in cell B.
d) Identify the stage of division in cell C.
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18. Suppose that during meiosis I, the paternal chromosomes

always went to one pole and the maternal chromosomes
always went to the other. How would this affect the
genetic variability of the offspring? Would children tend
to look more like the parents? Explain.
19. Following fertilization in multicellular organisms, a
zygote divides rapidly by mitosis in a process called
cleavage. If this were the only process to occur in
development, the distinctive characteristics of each
species would never develop. The developing embryo
must also undergo differentiation. Research an explanation of how cells are directed to follow the various
routes of differentiation. Present your research in a written report that includes flowcharts and diagrams.
20. What would happen if the human zygote received any
23 chromosomes from each parent rather than one of
each homologous pair?
Making Connections
A
B
21. An increased risk of contracting cancer has been linked

to both hereditary and environmental factors. List the
environmental factors that are thought to increase a persons risk. Which of these factors can be reduced by a
change in lifestyle? Which cant? Where could you obtain information about each environmental factor that
you have listed? How does society deal differently with
the hereditary aspect of cancer risk?
22. Statistics show that approximately one in six couples in
North America have difficulty in conceiving and/or carrying a child to term. State several reasons for this high
incidence of infertility in society today. What methods are
available today to help these couples have children?
FIGURE 5.28
Applying Inquiry/
17. The oxygen-carrying red blood cells in our bodies are
replaced approximately every 120 days. New cells are
produced in the red bone marrow by mitosis. Calculate
how many red blood cells are produced each day. Blood
contains about 5 million red blood cells per
cubic millimetre and an average person has about 5 L
(5000 cm3) of blood in their body. To calculate this value,
determine the number of red blood cells in the body and
assume that this number would be totally replaced over
a 120-day span.
23. The incidence of lung cancer in North America has risen

significantly since the 1930s. In the 1930s and 1940s
there were many causes suspected for this increase. At
the time, there was a notion that smoking may be responsible for the increase. Science, however, is not based
on notions. How did science ultimately clarify the link
between smoking and an increased incidence of cancer?
(Note: Today the area of science investigating possible
links like this is called epidemiology.)
24. Why is knowledge of asexual and sexual reproduction
so important to scientists working in the fields of agriculture and horticulture today?
25. Asexual reproduction methods produce clones of the parent organism. A knowledge of these methods has existed
for many years. Why is the topic of cloning much more
controversial today than it was 20 years ago?
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
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Contents
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CHAPTER 6
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS

describe and explain the process of

discovery that led Mendel to
formulate his laws of heredity (6.1)
explain, using Mendelian genetics,

the concepts of dominance,
co-dominance, incomplete
dominance, recessiveness, and
linkage (6.1, 6.2, 6.3)
solve basic genetic problems

involving monohybrid crosses,
incomplete dominance,
co-dominance, dihybrid crosses,
using the Punnett square method
(6.2, 6.3)
explain how the concepts of

chromosomes and meiosis account
for the transmission of hereditary
characteristics (6.2)
predict the outcome of various

genetic crosses (6.2)
compile qualitative and

quantitative data from a laboratory
investigation on monohybrid and
dihybrid crosses, and present the
results. (Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
summarize the main scientific

discoveries of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries that led to the
modern concept of the gene. (6.1,
6.2, 6.3)
ikeness between human parents and offspring has intrigued scientists and
physicians through the ages. Descriptions of many physical characteristics, which we now know to be inherited, have been documented for thousands of years. However, these descriptions were almost always given without
any insight into how the characteristics were inherited. For example, ancient
FIGURE 6.1 A Inheritance of physical characteristics is obvious in parents and their offspring.
152
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Egyptians made statues of very short individuals with short extremities and
unusually shaped skulls, which we now recognize as the characteristics of an
inherited disorder called achondroplasia. These statues preceded descriptions of this disorder in scientific literature by some 3000 years.
The tendency for a defect to recur within families went apparently unnoticed for generations. One wide-spread explanation of malformations in a
newborn was the idea of maternal impressions. If the mother saw some
ugly or frightening sight during her pregnancy, it might influence the development of her unborn baby. For this reason, many mothers in ancient Greece
spent their time gazing at beautiful statues around the city, hoping that the
features of their unborn infants would be as attractive.
Probably the earliest inkling that diseases could be inherited through families is recorded in ancient Hebrew writings, where it was stated that brothers and male cousins of boys with bleeding disorders were not to be
circumcised. Obviously, some implications about the inheritance of hemophilia
were recognized.
It is only in the last 50 years or so that we have truly understood how
these family traits are passed from generation to generation. The explanation of this transmission of traits is the basis of the branch of science called
genetics, the study of heredity. When Gregor Mendel outlined his nowfamous laws of heredity in the 1800s, he had no knowledge of chromosomes
and the process of meiosis. Today, knowledge of the process of meiosis is key
to our understanding of the inheritance of traits. Mendels laws and the patterns he described can be used to explain inheritance through dominance,
co-dominance, incomplete dominance, recessiveness, and X-linkage. They
also explain the patterns of inheritance of many human genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology
A Human Characteristic
Hold your thumb and hand in a position that you would use if you were hitchhiking. Note the shape of your thumb. If the last joint of your thumb bends
backwards you have inherited a hitchhikers thumb. If it does not bend
backwards then your thumb is described as being straight. Pool the data
for your whole class.
How many of your classmates are hitchhikers and how many are
straight? The inheritance pattern of this trait is explained by a simple
scheme of inheritance first outlined by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s.
Although the inheritance of many traits in humans is complex, numerous traits can be explained using Mendels patterns of inheritance.
If you were to study seven of these types of traits in your classmates,
where each student is described in one of two ways for each trait, how
many different combinations of traits would exist for the seven traits that
you study?
Would you expect any two of your classmates to possess the same combination of traits for the seven studied? Explain your answer.
CHECKPOINT
Scientific discovery is a
process that follows a
particular methodthe
scientific method. In a
sequence diagram, show
the steps involved in
researching a hypothesis.
Researching a
Hypothesis
CHAPTER 6
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Key Understandings
explain why Mendels attempts to explain inheritance patterns were successful
describe the steps in Mendels work
use correct terminology to explain dominance, recessiveness and Mendels laws of
inheritance
Many early attempts to explain patterns

of inheritance suggested that traits were
determined by the blending of information received from both parents.
Today geneticists know that this is not
the case. Hereditary information is
passed from generation to generation in
distinct packets called genes. It is possible that some genes may not be expressed for several generations but
remain intact as distinct units that can
then appear as their information is expressed in future generations.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, controlled experiments delving
into inheritance patterns were restricted
or frowned upon by the general population and in particular by religious groups.
The use of quick breeding and prolific an-
FIGURE 6.2 Every organism inherits certain traits from its parents. What traits do
you think the baby moose inherited from its mother?
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UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
imals such as rats and mice was not acceptable: that would be breeding vermin!
What about plants? Their pollination
could be controlled easily, but no one used
plants for scientific purposes before 1750.
One of the major stumbling blocks was
that scientists of the time had to become
accustomed to the notion that plants had
sex! Religious naturalists who expected
to learn good morals from nature wrote
of their surprise in finding such an abundance of pollen grains (males) and so
few seed chambers (females). In spite of
a doubting society and religious restrictions, written accounts of inheritance
patterns started to appear more frequently in the 18th century.
In the 1800s there were numerous
attempts made to account for the transmission of specific traits from one generation to the next. One of the most
strongly supported explanations was that
there was some information in the blood
of both parents that was mixed at conception. Therefore offspring would be
expected to show some combination of
parental features. Although this belief
was eventually discounted, we still use
the term bloodline to indicate relationship between two individuals. This
concept was not based on careful scientific observation and experiment.
Although our knowledge of inheritance patterns has expanded rapidly in
the last 200 years, a great deal of debate
still exists when people consider explanations of heredity. Differing opinions
also exist when society considers the
ethics of the many possible applications
of genetic knowledge.
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Mendels Success
It is believed that the first scientific attempt to explain the scheme of inheritance was made in the middle of the
nineteenth century by a Moravian monk
named Gregor Mendel. Mendel spent
several years at the University of Vienna
studying science in order to become a
high school teacher. He eventually returned to a monastery in what is now
the Czech Republic, where he performed
his famous experiments in genetics.
Mendels success in demonstrating
the basis of heredity is not surprising.
He was armed with some of the most advanced scientific and mathematical
knowledge of the day. He knew that duplicating his experimental crosses thousands of times would lend validity to his
results and his explanations as well.
Mendels applications of mathematics,
and in particular of probability, were
rare in the field of science in the mid1800s. However, a consideration of probability strengthened his work. Although
Mendel observed crosses in mice, bees,
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and several plants, he centred his attention on the common pea plant, Pisum
sativum. Because the common pea plant
is normally self-pollinating, Mendel
found it easy to control the parental
crosses. (See Figure 6.4.) In addition,
this annual plant was easily grown and
matured quickly, producing many seeds.
In this way, many generations could be
studied over a relatively short period of
time. Most important was the fact that
pea plants show several pairs of obvious, contrasting traits. For example,
some plants grow tall while others are
dwarf plants and some have round,
smooth seeds while others have wrinkled seeds. These contrasting traits are
shown in Figure 6.5.
INFOBIT
Most of society in the 1860s
supported two notions about
inheritance. The blending
theory of inheritance
suggested that the seeds
that controlled hereditary traits
were blended together from
generation to generation.
Pangenesis suggested that
hereditary traits could be
modified throughout a persons
lifetime. If a person practised
a particular skill throughout his
or her lifetime then his or her
offspring would inherit the
improvement in this skill. The
work of Gregor Mendel would
eventually refute both of
these notions.
a) Stamens
removed from
purple flower
b) Pollen from
stamens of white
flower transferred with paint
bush to carpel of purple flower

restrictions.
c) Seeds set and mature
as peas in the pod
d) Plant these peas

e) Examine F1
generation: all purple
FIGURE 6.3 Moravian monk and naturalist

Gregor Mendel is often referred to as the
Father of Genetics.
FIGURE 6.4 Mendel was able to control the crosses of different varieties of pea
plants by using an artists brush to transfer pollen (the male sex cell) from one plant
to the egg-bearing carpel of another plant. The seeds produced in this cross could
then be planted to observe the next generation.
CHAPTER 6
155
Contents
Character
Studied
Previous Section
Dominant Trait
Next Section
Recessive Trait
Stem Length
Tall
Dwarf
Seed Shape
Smooth
Wrinkled
Seed Color
Yellow
Green
Inflated
Wrinkled
Green
Yellow
Flower
Color
Purple
White
Flower
Position
On stem
At tip
Pod Shape
Pod Color
FIGURE 6.5 This chart illustrates the seven pea plant characteristics studied by
Mendel. Note that the two forms of each trait are easily distinguished from one
another.
Mendels Experiments
Mendel eventually identified and used the
seven pairs of contrasting traits shown
in Figure 6.5. Observable characteristics
or traits are called phenotypes. Mendel
spent several years self-pollinating the
pea plants in order to establish pure
lines or purebred plants. Tall plants
were repeatedly self-fertilized until
Mendel was sure that he had tall plants
that would yield only seeds that would
produce tall plants. The same process
was carried out with the dwarf plants.
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Plants that produced seeds that grew

into plants identical to the parent were
termed pure-breeding. Mendel also
chose among his pure breeding lines to
set up his crosses. He used lines that
had the same viability. This meant that
the different lines could be expected
to produce approximately the same
number of plants for every 100 seeds
planted. This was important for his
mathematical analysis of results.
Mendel understood the value of having controls in his experiments. For this
reason he began by studying crosses
between pure-breeding plants that were
different for only one contrasting pair
of traits. These parent plants were
called the parent generation or the
P generation. When crossing a pure tall
plant with a pure dwarf one, all the resulting plants were called hybrids. All
of the hybrids in this first filial
(offspring) generation, called the
F1 generation, were tall. There was not
one dwarf plant in the F1 generation.
(See Figure 6.6.)
The same pattern was observed in
the crosses involving the other contrasting characteristics. For example,
when purebred plants with round seeds
were crossed with purebred plants with
wrinkled seeds, only round-seeded
plants resulted in the F 1 . Although
Mendel wasnt surprised by these results, other researchers in the 1800s
would have predicted that the F1 generation would display an intermediate
phenotype such as medium height. Since
the traits of tallness and round seeds
seemed to dominate the traits of dwarfness and wrinkled seeds, Mendel called
them the dominant traits. The trait that
was not expressed in the F1, he called
the recessive trait. (See Figure 6.6.)
Next, Mendel crossed his F1 generation plants. He wished to determine if
the F1 tall plants were identical to the
P generation tall plants. If they were
identical, then an F1 cross would produce
only tall plants. Mendel found that the
resulting F2 generation (second filial
generation) yielded about three tall
Contents
Previous Section
plants for each dwarf plant, a mathematical ratio of 3:1. This meant that the
hybrid tall plants were somehow different from the purebred tall plants. (See
Figure 6.6.) Mendel carefully repeated this
experiment for each of the other six pairs
of contrasting traits. In every case the results were similar. The F2 generation displayed a phenotypic ratio very close to
3:1. For each of the seven traits studied,
3/4 of the F2 generation exhibited the
dominant trait and 1/4 exhibited the recessive trait. His findings are summarized
in Table 6.1. The average ratio for all of
the traits in the F2 generation was 3:1.
Mendels Law of Segregation

Mendel observed a very obvious pattern
in his experimental results. He now attempted to account for this pattern by
describing a mechanism of inheritance.
He suggested that units of inheritance,
which he called factors, were involved.
We now call these factors genes. For any
given characteristic, there were several
different forms of these genes. These different forms are now called alleles. For
example, the gene for plant height has
two different alleles, a dominant tall
allele and a recessive dwarf allele.
Mendel could not account for his results
if each plant had only one factor that determined its phenotype. He suggested
that each plants phenotype was determined by a pair of alleles that could be
identical or different. Once Mendel established this key idea, he was able to
make generalizations about heredity.
From his numerical results, he saw
that one allele of a pair has the ability
to express itself while the second one
is not expressed. The allele expressed in
the F 1 is dominant, the allele not expressed in the F1 is recessive. If a pea
plant possesses one of each of the alleles for height, it will be tall. The only way
for a plant to develop as a dwarf plant is
if both of its alleles are the recessive type.
Mendel suggested that when sex
cells or gametes are produced, the members of each pair of alleles segregate or
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TABLE 6.1 Results of Mendels Crosses.
Characteristic
Dominant
Trait
Recessive
Trait
F2 generation
Dominant:
Recessive
Mathematical
Ratio
Flower colour
purple
white
705:224
3.15:1
Flower position
on stem-axial
at tip-terminal
651:207
3.14:1
Seed colour
yellow
green
6022:2001
3.01:1
Seed shape
smooth/round
wrinkled
5474:1850
2.96:1
Pod shape
inflated
wrinkled
882:299
2.95:1
Pod colour
green
yellow
428:152
2.82:1
Stem length
tall
dwarf
787:277
2.84:1
separate into different reproductive cells.

A gamete could contain an allele for tallness or an allele for dwarfness, but not
both. When fertilization occurs, these alleles unite to give the zygote the necessary pair of alleles.
Mendels Law of Segregation: members of a pair of alleles for a given trait
are segregated (separated) when gametes are formed.
So far we have only referred to the
observable traits in pea plants, the phenotypes. Once Mendel had formulated the
law of segregation he was able to describe
the gene makeup, or genotype, of a plant
or a gamete. Mendel used letters of the
alphabet to represent genes. Capital letters represent the dominant allele and
lower case letters represent the recessive
allele. For example, the allele for tallness
would typically be represented by T and
the dwarf allele by t.
We can now describe Mendels
experiments genotypically. Purebred tall
plants would be represented by TT and
purebred dwarf plants by tt. Genotypes
with identical alleles are called
homozygous. When segregation occurs in these P generation plants, the sex
cells of the TT plants would contain only
one dominant allele
while those of
the tt plants would contain only one
recessive allele,
. After fertilization
CHAPTER 6
INFOBIT
Inheritance in animals as well
as plants can be explained
by the principles discovered
by Mendel. The first
demonstration of this came in
1902 from William Batesons
experiments with chickens.
Bateson was the first person
to use the term genetics.
WORDORIGIN
Genotype from the Greek,
genos meaning race or kind
and tupos meaning model or
pattern
Phenotype from the Greek
phainein meaning to show
or to appear and tupos
meaning model or pattern
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Generation
Previous Section
Genotypes
Next Section
Phenotypes
Parental
P Cross
tall dwarf
both purebred
TT
tt
homozygous homozygous
tall
Gametes
formed
all t
all T
dwarf
Tt
F1
F1 all tall hybrids
heterozygous
Dominance is
operating.
Tt
F1 Cross
Gametes
formed
F1 Cross a monohybrid cross
Tt
Law of Segregation in effect
TT
Tt
Tt
tt
homo- hetero- hetero- homozygous zygous zygous zygous
F2
3/4 tall
Ratio in F2
Genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1
1TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
1/4 dwarf
Phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1
3 tall : 1 dwarf
FIGURE 6.6 A summary of Mendels cross involving tall and dwarf pea plants. T
represents the tall allele and t the dwarf allele.
Investigation
Refer to page 182,
Investigation 2
158
UNIT 2
occurs, we can see that there is only one

F1 combination possible, Tt. This nicely
accounts for the F1 generation all looking the same (tall). These hybrid plants
in the F1 generation that possess a genotype with different alleles are said to
be heterozygous. (See Figure 6.6.)
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In the next generation, when two

heterozygous F1 plants are crossed in
what is termed a hybrid or monohybrid
cross, each F1 plant produces two types
of gametes,
and . This produces
different results from the original P generation cross. Figure 6.6 illustrates
theoretically why we would expect 3/4
of the F2 generation to appear tall and
1/4 dwarf, as Mendel observed. Thus the
expected phenotypic ratio resulting from
the F 1 cross is 3:1 (3 tall for every 1
dwarf) while the expected genotypic ratio
is 1:2:1 (1 homozygous tall: 2 heterozygous tall: 1 homozygous dwarf).
Mendels Law of Independent

Assortment
Once Mendel established that the pattern of dominance and segregation was
followed by all seven pairs of contrasting traits, he turned his attention to what
would happen if more than one pair of
characteristics were used in a cross. He
began with a P generation cross involving a dwarf plant with purebred
round seeds (ttRR) and a purebred tall
plant with wrinkled seeds (TTrr). As a
result of this series of experiments
Mendel outlined his second major law.
Law of Independent Assortment: When
two or more pairs of characteristics
are considered at one time, each pair
shows dominance and segregation
independently of the other.
In the P generation cross, each
parent plant can produce only one type
of gamete. The first plant produces
gametes with a genotype of
and
the second plant produces gametes with genotype of
. The only
genotype possible in the F1 generation
is TtRr (a dihybrid). All F1 generation
plants are tall with round seeds. Mendel
then crossbred two of these F1 plants in
what is termed a dihybrid cross,
TtRr TtRr. His Law of Independent
Assortment would allow each parent
plant to produce four different gamete
Contents
Previous Section
combinations,
,
,
and
.
When two F1 plants were crossed, 16 or
(4 4) combinations had to be considered. Mendel observed an F2 generation
with 9/16 of the plants tall with round
seeds (2 dominant traits), 3/16 tall with
wrinkled seeds (1 dominant and 1 recessive trait), 3/16 dwarf with round
seeds (1 recessive and 1 dominant trait),
and 1/16 dwarf with wrinkled seeds (2
recessive traits).
This ratio of F 2 phenotypes of
9:3:3:1 is found in all dihybrid crosses
that involve fully dominant and
recessive alleles. Figure 6.7 shows the
result for the dihybrid cross of smooth
yellow seeds with wrinkled green seeds.
Mendels laws are summarized in
Table 6.2.
Mendel first presented his findings
in 1865 to the Natural Science Society
and published his formal paper shortly
thereafter. It was ignored for the most
part because at that time few scientists
could grasp the mathematical reasoning
and implications of his research. It is interesting to note that at that time the
work of Charles Darwin in his On the
Origin of Species (published 1859) had
scientists looking at the importance of
gradual change and small differences instead of sharp discontinuities such as
those seen in Mendels tall and dwarf
peas. The significance of Mendels results was not realized until after 1900,
when independent experiments carried
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Investigation
P generation
Refer to page 180,

Investigation 1
smooth
yellow
wrinkled
green
WEBLINK
crosspollination
x
Do research on the Internet to

find out more about Mendel
and the history of genetics.
Complete a summary page of
the information that you locate.
F1 generation
100% smooth yellow

self-fertilization
F2 generation
315
9
smooth
yellow
101
108
32
3
:
3
:
1
wrinkled
smooth
yellow
green
wrinkled
green
FIGURE 6.7 In one dihybrid

cross, Mendel crossed plants
that had smooth yellow seeds
with plants that had green
wrinkled seeds. All the F1
plants had smooth yellow
seeds. When he crossed two
of these F1 plants in a dihybrid cross, the F2 generation
had phenotypes in the ratio
9:3:3:1.
out by three prominent scientists, Carl

Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich von
Tschermak led to the same conclusions
that Mendel had come to. Gregor Mendel
died without knowing that one day his
explanations would become the basis of
our understanding of genetics.
TABLE 6.2 Mendels Laws
Mendels Laws
Mendels First Law The Law of Segregation
During gamete formation two alleles of a gene pair segregate or separate from each other. A heterozygous plant that is Tt forms gametes that are
and
in equal numbers. The gametes are not
a blend of the two traits.
Mendels Second Law The Law of Independent Assortment
Segregation for different pairs of alleles occurs independently. A plant that is heterozygous for two
pairs of alleles, for example Tt Rr, can form four types of gametes:
,
,
and
.
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Section 6.1 Review

1. Describe an explanation of heredity
common in the 1800s that was not
based on proper scientific observation
and experiment.
2. Explain why Gregor Mendel was successful when others had failed in their
attempts to explain inheritance. List
five reasons for Mendels success.
3. What are purebred pea plants? How did
Mendel ensure that he had a purebred
pea plant?
4. Distinguish between the following pairs
of terms:
a)
dominant and recessive
b)
phenotype and genotype
c)
heterozygous and homozygous
5. What is a monohybrid cross? What
phenotypic and genotypic ratios result
from such a cross?
6. State the two laws formulated by
Gregor Mendel.
7.
What is a dihybrid cross? What

phenotypic and genotypic ratios result
from such a cross?
Applying Inquiry/
8. Explain how Mendels Law of
Segregation is actually based on meiosis. Use diagrams to illustrate your
answer.
9. In a flow chart, outline the process of
experimentation used by Mendel.
Making Connections
10. Why do you think it was so difficult for
society of Mendels time to grasp and
accept his explanations of heredity?
11. If Mendels findings had been accepted
immediately, do you think that our
knowledge of genetics and genetic technologies would be more advanced
today? Outline several points to support your argument.

Key Understandings
understand how Punnett squares can be used to illustrate Mendels findings
construct Punnett squares to solve problems involving monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
explain the importance of meiosis to the inheritance patterns outlined by Mendel
INFOBIT
The Punnett square approach
to genetic problems is named
for the geneticist Punnett who,
with his colleague Bateson,
investigated the genetics of
chickens in the early years of
the 20th century.
Punnett squares illustrate the possible

outcomes (offspring) of a particular
cross. They aid in understanding and
clarifying difficult concepts. Consider the
Punnett squares that follow as you read
the text material.
WORD ORIGIN
Allele, a shortened form of the
term allelomorph, from the
Greek allele meaning one another and morphe meaning
form
160
UNIT 2
Constructing
Punnett Squares
Mendels experiments began with a cross
between a purebred tall plant (TT) and
a purebred dwarf plant (tt). These
Genetic Continuity
parental genotypes are indicated on two

sides of the square. The possible genotypes of the gametes of each parent are
then placed on the exterior of the
squares as indicated. This number of different types of gametes possible from
each parent determines the dimensions
of the Punnett square. The 1 1 Punnett
square in Figure 6.8 is the simplest
Punnett possible. The possible combinations of gametes following fertilization
are shown within the grid of the Punnett.
In this cross because each parent
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produces only one type of gamete, all

members of the F1 generation have the
genotype Tt.
A 1 1 Punnett Square: The P generation

cross Consider the cross TT tt. The
steps to set up the Punnett square are:
1. Determine the parental genotypes
TT and tt.
2. Determine the genotypes of the gametes that are possible,
and
. Therefore a 1 1 Punnett is
required.
3. Fill in the interior and interpret the
genotype and phenotype of the next
generation.
tt
Gametes
t
TT
Gametes
Tt
Tall
FIGURE 6.8 A 1 1 Punnett square. All the

F1 plants will be Tt genotype and show the tall
phenotype.
A 2 2 Punnett Square: The F1 generation

cross If two F1 plants are considered in
a cross, a 2 2 Punnett square is

required.
Consider the cross Tt Tt. The steps
to set up the Punnett square are:
1. Determine the genotypes: both are
heterozygous tall parent plants, so
the genotype is Tt.
2. Determine possible genotypes of gametes. Two types are possible from
each parent,
or
. This determines that the Punnett is 2 2.
3. Fill in the genotypes and phenotypes
of the F2 generation and interpret.
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Tt
Gametes
Tt
Gametes
TT
Tall
Tt
Tall
Tt
Tall
tt
Dwarf
FIGURE 6.9 A 2 2 Punnett square

Phenotypic ratio (tall:dwarf) = 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio (TT:Tt:tt) = 1 : 2 : 1
The Sutton-Boveri
Hypothesis
The rediscovery of Mendels work
around the turn of the twentieth century,
together with cytological studies of meiosis, led scientists to the understanding
that the segregation of Mendels factors
mirrored the movement of chromosomes
in meiosis. Contributions by a number
of investigators resulted in the SuttonBoveri hypothesis of 1902. This
hypothesis suggested that genes were
carried on the chromosomes and that
segregation and independent assortment
of factors were the results of the physical process of meiosis. The members of
pairs of alleles segregate or separate independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. The different
chromosome pairs also separate independently of each other during meiosis
due to the random orientation of the
tetrads on the spindle at metaphase of
meiosis I. Sutton and Boveris chromosome theory of heredity was a major
breakthrough because it pointed out the
physical basis for Mendels rules.
Experimental data in support of this
hypothesis came a few years later when
in 1910, T. H. Morgan demonstrated that
the inheritance of a particular trait of
eye colour in male fruit flies was associated with a particular chromosome.
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Discovering Biology
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Colour in Corn Kernels
Each kernel in an ear of corn represents an offspring that resulted from a separate
fertilization. Working with a partner, count the number of purple and yellow
kernels on an ear of genetic corn. Mark row 1 with a coloured pin or thumbtack
and count along the rows in an orderly sequence.
What ratio of purple to yellow kernels does your ear of corn have? Compare
your ratio with the ratios found by several other groups. Is there any agreement between the ratios?
Try to explain why your ear has more kernels of one colour and fewer of the
other. Compare your explanation with that of several other groups.
EXAMPLE 1
Single Trait Analysis
In humans, the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), T, is dominant to nontasting, t. Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios resulting from
a cross between a heterozygous taster and a non-taster.
Given: T is dominant to t. Therefore, a heterozygote is Tt and a non-taster is tt.
The parental genotypes are Tt and tt.
Required: The genotypic and phenotypic ratios expected in the offspring
Analysis:
The cross is Tt tt
Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
T tasting
t non-tasting
parental genotypes Tt and tt
Tt produces 2 types of gametes
and
with a probability of 1/2 for each
tt produces only 1 type of gamete

Punnett Square
Tt
Gametes
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In humans, the allele A, for
pigment formation is dominant to the allele a, for inability to form pigment. aa
individuals are albino.
Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios
expected from a cross between two individuals heterozygous for this trait.
162
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
tt
Gametes
1/2
1/2
Tt
1/2
tt
1/2
Taster
Non-taster
Two types of genotypes and phenotypes result in the F1 generation.

Statement:
Genotypic ratio 1:1 (Tt : tt)
Phenotypic ratio 1:1 (tasters : non-tasters)
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The Chromosomal Basis

of Heredity
Gregor Mendel had no knowledge of the
process of meiosis upon which to base
his explanations. Instead, his explanations were based on extensive experimentation and observation and a
knowledge of probability. Mendel did not
realize that his Law of Segregation was
actually a reflection of the division of genetic information in the meiotic process
as homologous chromosomes separate
in the first meiotic division.
We now know that one of each of the
pairs of factors (genes) determining a
trait in the pea plant is located on each
chromosome of a homologous pair. Each
gene is found at a specific place or locus
on the chromosome. In this way, each
gamete can only contain one of the alleles of a gene for any given trait, because
each gamete contains only one of each
homologous pair of chromosomes.
If a pea plant with a Tt genotype
produced 400 gametes, meiosis would
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produce 200 with the T allele and 200

with the t allele. We can describe this in
terms of probability. Because half of the
gametes produced contain the T allele,
there is a probability of 1/2 that this gene
will be passed on by a Tt parent plant.
The results of gamete formation in a Tt
plant are illustrated in Figure 6.10. Pea
plants contain seven homologous pairs
of chromosomes, but only the pair carrying the gene for height is shown in
Figure 6.10.
Of the gametes produced, 1/2 carry
the allele T, 1/2 carry the allele t.
Many genetics problems can be
solved using a paper-and-pencil method
that follows a sound scientific approach.
Once you have clearly identified the
letter codes that you are going to use to
represent the different forms of genes,
you can develop a hypothesis, an educated guess, to explain the results observed. Then the data can be interpreted
in a Punnett square and inferences can
be drawn. Note the steps in reasoning
used in Example 2.
WEBLINK
For links to sites that show
examples of genetic analysis
using Punnett squares, go to
1/2
with T
1/2
with t
T
T
T
T
T
t
T
t
t
t
t
t
prophase I
anaphase I
metaphase II
gametes
FIGURE 6.10 The segregation of chromosomes and alleles. The gametes formed during
meiosis in a Tt plant will either contain T (probability of 1/ 2) or t (probability of 1/2 ). Notice
that each homologous chromosome has replicated and that pairing (synapsis) has occurred to
form the tetrad. The tetrad is made of two chromosomes each made up of two chromatids as
the chromosomes enter prophase 1.
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163
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EXAMPLE 2
Recognizing Hybrids
A geneticist crosses two parent plants that have the dominant trait of purple
flowers. When the resulting seeds are planted the geneticist observes that 145 of
the F1 plants have the recessive trait of yellow flowers and 430 of the F1 plants
have purple flowers. How can you explain these results? What are the genotypes
of the parent plants and the F1 plants?
Given: F (purple flowers) is dominant to f (yellow flowers). Both of the P1 plants
possess at least one F gene: F__ F__
Required: The genotypes of the parents and F1 plants
Analysis:
The key to this question is the appearance of the ff (yellow plants) in the F1.
Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
The appearance of the recessive trait in the phenotype of the F1 plants can only
occur if they are homozygous recessive (ff). This can only happen if both of the purple parent plants are heterozygous and each parent contributed the recessive
allele to these yellow plants. In addition, recognize that the ratio of purple plants
to yellow plants is approximately 3:1. This ratio indicates a monohybrid cross.
Ff
Gametes
F
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/2
FF 1/4
Ff
1/2
Ff
ff
Ff
Gametes
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In mice, G for grey coat colour
is dominant to g. The gg individuals are black. Two grey
mice are mated to produce
nine grey mice and two black
mice. Explain these results.
These observations are the result of a monohybrid cross. Both parents are
Ff. The 145 F1 plants with yellow flowers are homozygous recessive (ff) while
the 430 F1 plants with purple flowers are either heterozygous (Ff) or homozygous dominant (FF). You would expect 1/3 of the purple-flowered plants
to be homozygous dominant and 2/3 to be heterozygous. This prediction is
based on the Mendelian genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
When Mendel made a dihybrid cross

involving two pea plants with the genotypes TtRr, he used his Law of
Independent Assortment to account for
the production of four different gametes,
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
1/4
(145 given)
Statement:
A 4 4 Punnett square for a dihybrid cross
164
1/4
,
,
, and
. This result is simply a reflection of how genetic material
that is carried on chromosomes separates in meiosis. As long as the genes for
plant height (T,t) and seed type (R,r) are
on different homologous pairs of
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chromosomes, gamete formation occurs

as illustrated in Figure 6.12.
The gametes formed by a TtRr plant
could contain
(probability of 1/4 ),
( probability of 1/4),
(probability
of 1/4) or
(probability of 1/4). The
combinations produced are determined
by the way the tetrads line up during
metaphase in meiosis I. Note that we
must consider two different outcomes
where each outcome has an equal chance
of occurring as shown in Figure 6.12.
The results of this dihybrid cross can
also be summarized in a Punnett square.
This Punnett square is illustrated in
Figure 6.11. The fractions included represent the probability or chance of the
formation of a particular gamete by a
parent plant or a particular genotype in
a plant in the next generation.
The 16 inside squares in the Punnett
square in Figure 6.11 represent the genotypes of the F2 generation for Mendels
dihybrid cross. If you consider each F2
individual phenotypically, then the expected phenotypes can be determined.
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TtRr
Gametes
TR
Tr
tR
tr
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
TR 1/4
TTRR
TTRr
TtRR
TtRr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
Tr 1/4
TTRr
TTrr
TtRr
Ttrr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
tR 1/4
TtRR
TtRr
ttRR
ttRr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
tr 1/4
TtRr
Ttrr
ttRr
ttrr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
TtRr
Gametes
FIGURE 6.11 A 4 4 Punnett square The expected phenotypes in the

F2 generation of a dihybrid cross are: 9/16 tall round plants
3/16 tall wrinkled plants
3/16 dwarf round plants
1/16 dwarf wrinkled plants
line of first
meiotic division
Next Section
gametes
produced
T
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
meiosis
t
t
r
R r
T
r
meiosis
t
t
R
CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6.12 Segregation

of genes and random assortment of chromosomes in
meiosis in a dihybrid
organism.
165
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The Test Cross
ttrr (dwarf, wrinkled)

Gametes
dividual, whose genotype is being tested,

to a recessive individual. The recessive
individual must be homozygous and so
can only produce one type of gamete.
To test one of his dihybrid tall, round
plants Mendel crossed it to a dwarf,
wrinkled plant. The dwarf, wrinkled
plant showed both recessive traits and
so its genotype was known to be ttrr. The
cross is TtRr ttrr. The dihybrid can
produce four types of gamete while the
homozygous recessive produces only one
type, as shown in Figure 6.13.
The validity of any scientific theory is seen

through experiments based on that theory. Mendel was able to verify his prediction of independent assortment by the
use of test crosses, sometimes called back
crosses. A test cross is the cross of an in-
FIGURE 6.13 The Punnett

square for the test cross of
the recessive homozygous ttrr
to the dihybrid, TtRr
TtRr (tall, round)

Gametes
TR
Tr
tR
tr
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
TtRr
Ttrr
ttRr
ttrr
1/4 Tall,
Round
1/4 Tall,
Wrinkled
1/4 Dwarf,
Round
1/4 Dwarf,
Wrinkled
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tr 1/4
The genotypic and phenotypic ratios

in the offspring of a test cross are
1:1:1:1.
EXAMPLE 3
Questions Involving More Than One Trait
In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. What fraction of F1 mice would you predict to have grey coats
and short tails when a male ggTt parent is crossed with a female GGtt parent?
Given: G is dominant to g. T is dominant to t. Therefore:
GG or Gg grey coat
g g white coat TT or Tt long tail
tt short tail
Required: The fraction of F1 mice expected to have grey coats and short tails;
that is, to be of genotypes GGtt or Ggtt
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In pea plants tall (T) is dominant to dwarf (t) and round
seeds (R) is dominant to wrinkled seeds (r). Use a Punnett
square to determine what
fraction of the offspring produced in each of the following
crosses you would expect to
be tall with wrinkled seeds.
a) TtRr TtRr (This is a dihybrid cross! Use your
ratios.)
b) TtRr ttrr
c) TtRr TTRr
d) TtRr Ttrr
e) TtRr ttRr
f) TTrr ttRR
166
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Analysis:
The cross is ggTt GGtt.
Produce a Punnett square.
Solution:
The ggTt parent produces two types of gametes
and
The GGtt parent produces only one type of gamete

The dimensions of the Punnett square are 2 1.
ggTt
Male gametes
gT
GGtt
Female Gt 1
gametes
1/2
gt
1/2
GgTt 1/2
Ggtt 1/2
Grey long
Grey short
Statement:
In the F1 mice that are produced, half of the mice will be expected to have
the genotype Ggtt and as a result, half of the F1 mice will exhibit the grey
coat and short tail phenotype combination.
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A knowledge of probability is important

in any analysis of genetic crosses.
Probability means the ratio of the number of times a desired event is expected
to occur to the total number of events.
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For example the probability of picking a

king from a deck of cards is 4/52 = 1/13.
This means that we expect to pick a king
from a deck of cards 1 in 13 times.
Section 6.2 Review

1. How can Punnett squares be used to
illustrate Mendels findings?
2. How many different types of gametes
would each of the following parent
plants be capable of producing? List
the possible combinations.
a) TT
e) ttRr
b) Tt
c) TtRr
d) TTrr
f) TtRrSs (a trihybrid)
3. What determines the dimensions of a

Punnett square? State the dimensions
of a Punnett for:
a) a monohybrid cross
b) a dihybrid cross
c) a trihybrid cross
d) a cross: AaBbcc x aabbCc
4. Use diagrams to explain the relationship between independent assortment
of genes in a dihybrid cross and random assortment of chromosomes during meiosis, if the genes are carried on
different chromosomes.
5. How might family practitioners use
Punnett squares as a tool to explain
inheritance patterns to patients and patients families?
Applying Inquiry/
6. The product rule of probability states
that the probability of a series of events
occurring simultaneously is the product of each of the individual probabilities. Use this rule to calculate the
probability of each of the following:
a) The probability of an AaBbCcDd
parent producing a gamete with the
genotype ABCD
b) The probability of an AabbccDd parent producing a gamete with the
genotype Abcd
7.
In humans, the ability to taste PTC, T,

is dominant to non-tasting, t.
Determine the expected genotypic and
phenotypic ratio resulting from a cross
between:
a) a homozygous taster and a nontaster

b) two heterozygous tasters
c) a heterozygous taster and a homozygous taster
8. In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant
to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. The genes for the
two traits are located on different chromosomes. What fraction of F1 mice resulting from each of the following
crosses would you expect to have grey
coats and short tails?
a) Ggtt Ggtt
b) ggtt GGtt
c) GgTt GgTt
d) GgTt ggTt
9. For the A trait, A is dominant to a
and for the B trait, B is dominant to
b. The genes for the two traits are located on different chromosomes.
Construct a Punnett square to show the
results of a cross between parents with
genotypes Aabb (parent #1) and AaBb
(parent #2). Determine each of the following:
a) What fraction of the offspring is expected to have the same genotype
as parent #1?
b) What fraction of the offspring is expected to have the same phenotype
as parent #2?
c) What fraction of the offspring is expect to be dihybrid?
10. In a certain animal black fur (B) is
dominant to white fur (b). Two blackfurred animals produced 51 white furred and 147 black-furred offspring.
What were the probable genotypes of
the parents? What fraction of the blackfurred offspring would you expect to
be heterozygous? Why?
Making Connections
11. In your opinion, should all family practitioners have a general background in
genetics? Explain.
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167
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Key Understandings
describe incomplete dominance and co-dominance
explain the inheritance of blood types in the ABO blood group system in humans
explain what is meant by multifactorial inheritance
outline the effects of linkage and crossing over on inheritance patterns
solve problems involving incomplete dominance and co-dominance
Mendels laws of segregation and independent assortment established that the

two members of a gene pair separate in
the formation of the gametes and that
different gene pairs assort independently
of each other. These principles are still
the basis of our understanding of heredity. The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that
genes are carried on chromosomes was
a physical explanation of Mendels rules.
It suggested a way to look for the material basis of heredity. The combination
of these approaches has led to the
modern concept of the gene.
Incomplete Dominance
RR
Red
rr
White
P
generation
Rr
100% pink
F1
generation
Mendel had used the concept of dominance to explain his results in pea plants
but he saw instances in nature where
strict dominance did not apply. In other
species of plants that he experimented egg
sperm
R
R
with, the patterns observed were distinctly different from those seen in the
pea, Pisum sativum. In one species of
r
r
RR
snapdragon, when he crossed whiteflowered plants with red-flowered plants,
the F1 plants that resulted were neither
Rr
Rr
red- nor white-flowered plants, as he
would have predicted. All of the F1 plants
were pink.
F2
Under dominance the dominant
generation
rr
allele can hide the expression of a recessive allele in the heterozygous condition. However, in the determination of
1
:
2
:
1
some traits, the different alleles of a gene
red
pink
white
may be expressed in the heterozygous
FIGURE 6.14 Incomplete dominance. Notice
condition to produce an intermediate
how the red and white phenotypes disappear in
phenotype. When neither gene is comthe F1 generation but reappear in the next
generation.
pletely dominant over the other, we say
168
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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Previous Section
that there is incomplete dominance. One

of the clearest examples of incomplete
dominance is found in the colours of the
same snapdragon flowers that puzzled
Mendel.
Snapdragons are either red or white
in the homozygous conditions, RR and
rr. Neither colour dominates the other
when a pure red (RR) is crossed with a
pure white (rr). The F1 plants (Rr) show
an intermediate flower colour of pink.
In an RR plant, enough red pigment
protein is produced to give the flower a
red appearance but in the Rr plant there
is only sufficient red pigment produced
to make the flower appear pink.
On the surface it would appear that
the genetic information has been blended.
However, if we cross two of these F 1 ,
plants (Rr) this idea is disproved. In the
F 2 generation, white and red flowers
reappear. See Figure 6.14. The alleles for
red or white must remain as distinct
units. They came together in the F1 generation, but then were able to separate
in the F2 generation. The law of segregation operates. The ratio of flower
colours observed in the F2 is a familiar
Mendelian ratio that can be explained in
a Punnett square. If we breed two of the
pink plants from the F1 generation, we
observe a 1:2:1 phenotype ratio in the F2
generation: 1 red flower to 2 pink flowers to 1 white flower. The genotypic and
phenotypic ratios that result from this
cross are the same. We dont observe this
in cases where dominance is in effect.
Many traits in humans show incomplete
dominance. These include the inheritance
of most hair, skin, and eye colours.
Co-dominance
A slightly different form of inheritance is
observed in horses and shorthorn cattle where two alleles are expressed at the
same time. If one parent is homozygous red and the other homozygous
white, the offspring will be a pinkish
colour termed roan, a blend of red and
white. However, in this instance, each individual hair in the coat of the animal
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FIGURE 6.15 This close-up

of the roan coat found in
horses clearly shows that the
allele for red and the allele
for white have both been
expressed. Some hairs are
white while others are red.

restrictions.
is either completely white or completely

red. The two alleles have been expressed
at the same time, a type of inheritance
termed co-dominance. In this condition,
neither allele dominates the expression
of the other. Capital letters with superscripts or simply capitals are often used
to represent genotypes when co-dominance is in effect. A roan calf (RW or
CRCW) results from crossing a white parent (WW or CWCW) with a red parent (RR
or CRCR). If we cross two roan cows, then
the phenotypic and genotypic ratios in
the next generation will both be 1:2:1.
Geneticists have identified that
human blood types in the ABO blood
group system show co-dominance. The
possible blood types in this system are
A, B, AB, and O. Your blood type in
this system is determined by a pair of
alleles. In this case, however, there are
three different alleles that may be found
at the locus on either of the homologous
chromosomes. When there are more
than two alleles possible for a given gene
(remember Mendel suggested that there
were two), the condition is termed
multiple allelism. Multiple alleleism results in a larger number of possible
genotypic combinations and a greater
variety of phenotypes. However the principle of segregation still operates.
In human blood types the alleles for
A (represented by IA) and B (represented
by I B ) are both co-dominant over the
allele for O (represented by i). Neither IA
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169
Contents
Knowledge of another blood

group system, the Rh system, is
critical in preventing a potentially life-threatening condition
in newborns called haemolytic
disease of the newborn (HDN).
This disease is more commonly
known as Rh disease. The late
Dr. Bruce Chown of the
University of Manitoba developed techniques for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of HDN. His work has
resulted in the prevention of
most Rh disease in Canada and
elsewhere in the world.
Next Section
nor IB can dominate the other. If a person has the genotype IAIB, then his or
her phenotype is blood type AB. The possible genotypes and corresponding phenotypes in the ABO blood group system
are listed in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3 Co-dominance and Multiple Allelism
in the ABO Blood Group System
Genotype
Phenotype
IAIA or IAi
Type A
IBIB or lBi
Type B
IAIB
Type AB
ii
Type 0
WEBLINK
Multifactorial Traits
In humans and other higher organisms,
most traits show a very wide range of
phenotypic expression. In large families,
characteristics such as height or hair
colour show a large number of different
phenotypes. Multiple allelism cannot
explain this wide range of variation. The
term multifactorial is used for traits
whose phenotypic expression is
controlled by genes found at many loci
(polygenic). The expression of a multifactorial trait is often influenced by other
contributing factors including the persons internal and external environments. Many multifactorial traits show
a continuous distribution of phenotypes
(for example, heights from 140 cm to
200 cm for the students in your school),
FIGURE 6.16 Graphs to

demonstrate phenotype expression in simple Mendelian
inheritance versus multifactorial inheritance.
a) Discontinuous distribution
of phenotypes occurs when
one pair of alleles showing
dominance is involved.
b) Continuous distribution of
phenotypes occurs in multifactorial inheritance.
170
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
while traits where only one pair of alleles is involved show discontinuous distribution (for example, tall or dwarf
peas, red, pink, or white flowers in snapdragons, or blood types in the ABO system).
A satisfactory genetic interpretation
of traits with a wide range of expression was in fact first suggested by
Mendel. In addition to his famous
experiments with peas, he performed
crosses between white and purple-red
flowering beans. The hybrids had flowers with less intense coloration than the
purple-red parent. In the second generation resulting from a hybrid cross,
Mendel did not find two phenotypes in
a simple 3:1 ratio. Instead he obtained
a whole series of different colours, ranging from white through pale violet to
purple-red. His tentative explanation was
that more than one pair of genes determined flower colour. Mendel realized
that other possible systems apart from
the complete dominance seen in pea
plants might exist. The hypothesis of
multifactorial inheritance was tested in
the early 1900s in an analysis of seed
pigmentation in wheat crosses. A multigenic model was perfected.
Gene Interactions and the

Effects of Environment
A more complete understanding of the
functions of our genes must include the
role of the environment. You have now
seen that in multifactorial traits several
genes can interact to produce what we
100
Percent phenotype in F2
Research to find examples of

nature/nurture studies that
have been carried out in the
last five years. Briefly outline
the purpose of each study,
the results, and the potential
applications of this information.
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dominant
phenotype
75
50
recessive
phenotype
25
0
aa
AA or Aa
Distribution of phenotype
average
phenotype
Number of individuals
INFOBIT
Previous Section
Distribution of phenotype
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perceive as a single characteristic. Some

genetics studies have identified alleles
that determine the same phenotype
under all external conditions. Other studies have shown that some alleles
produce different phenotypes under different external conditions. These external conditions are termed the
environment. The extent to which a
characteristic is determined by heredity
(nature) or by the environment (nurture)
is a fascinating question which has created a great deal of controversy in recent times. There is no question that the
environment is a key factor in many
multifactorial traits.
The role of the environment in determining some traits is quite obvious.
The genes for tallness will not be fully
expressed in a person who is deprived
of a properly balanced diet during the
growth years. Chemicals such as alcohol or medicines to prevent epileptic
seizures, if taken by a pregnant woman,
The Use of
Identical Twins
Identical twins are often studied to test

the competing effects of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) on
phenotypic expression. Identical twins
usually result when a single fertilized egg separates into two distinct
embryos. The two children resulting
will have identical sets of chromosomes in their cells. These twins with
identical genotypes resemble each
other very closely. Any differences observed between identical twins are
due to the effects of their environment.
Such twins have become a valuable
source of information in assessing the
relative importance of heredity and
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may damage the developing brain of a

fetus and prevent the child from developing its intellectual potential.
Researchers have demonstrated that the
administration of a dietary supplement
of folic acid to women who have a family history of neural tube defects reduces
the incidence of these types of defects in
their offspring. In the absence of the required nutrients and energy, a plant will
not reach its potential size, regardless
of its genotype.
One of the most studied and debated
areas in nature/nurture involves a consideration of intelligence. Is intelligence
genetically determined or is it shaped by
the environment? Most experts have arrived at the conclusion that it is based
on contributions from both our genetic
make-up and environmental influences.
Geneticists realized that such a complex
trait must have a basis in the genetic
make-up of an individual. They define
heritability as the proportion of the total
the environment. Studies first carried

out in the 1930s have shown that
identical twins display a very close
correlation in height (differing by less
than 2 cm) even if they are reared
apart and in different environments.
This implies a heavy emphasis on the
genetic component in the expression
of this phenotype. On the other hand,
most comparisons involving intelligence tests in identical twins seem to
indicate that educational background
can make a significant difference.
Identical twins reared apart are much
more dissimilar (on I.Q. tests) than
identical twins reared together. These
types of studies were intensified in the
early 1980s when a large number of
identical twins who were separated at
birth (by adoption) were reunited and
subjected to extensive comparisons.
This study continues to provide valuable information on the roles of the
environment and heredity in determining phenotype expression.
INFOBIT
The fact that genes work
together in some complex
interaction is illustrated clearly
by the condition known as
tuberous sclerosis. Although
this is a single-gene defect,
people who suffer from this
disease develop benign
tumours in many areas of the
body including the brain, eyes,
heart, kidney and skin. They
are also characterized by their
epileptic seizures and
delayed development. This
non-functioning gene has
influenced the expression of
many other interrelated genes.
When one gene causes many
effects like this, the result is
termed pleiotropy.

FIGURE 6.17 What could produce different phenotype expression in these identical twins?
CHAPTER 6
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variation in the phenotype that is due to

total variation in the genotype. It is not
surprising then that geneticists today are
looking for smart genes, genes that
somehow contribute to the intelligence
of an individual.
Robert Plomin, an intelligence researcher working out of the Institute of
Psychiatry in London, England, was the
first to publish evidence of smart genes
in 1998. His initial studies have raised
many ethical questions about how this
genetic information should be used.
Plomin compared I.Q. scores in twins
that had been raised in the same environment and twins that had been raised
apart. In addition, he compared I.Q.
scores in adopted children with those of
their biological parents and their adoptive parents.
He suspects that intelligence is a complex trait governed by hundreds of
genes. It is probably one of the most
heritable mental attributes known.
Plomin suggests that 50% of the differences among peoples I.Q. scores is a result of a difference in genetic makeup.
He has already identified three genetic
sites on chromosome 4 linked to high
I.Q. scores.
A Gene Today
Since the time of Mendel geneticists have
been working toward a definition of the
gene. Science progresses by defining
units, but these are helpful tools that
may be modified as more information
becomes available. In the 1940s Beadle
and Tatum suggested that one gene determines one enzyme. Today geneticists
know that a sequence of nucleotides on
the DNA may code for a protein chain
that may act as a structural component
of tissues, a regulatory chemical, or an
influence on other structural or regulatory proteins. The role of a protein may
be influenced by many factors in the environment. Many interactions within the
genome remain to be clarified.
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Genetic Continuity
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Thomas Hunt Morgan and

the Concept of Linkage
There are far more genes in a cell than
the total number of chromosomes. It is
estimated that humans possess somewhere between 27 000 and 40 000
genes on our 46 chromosomes in each
body cell. Thus each chromosome must
contain hundreds of different genes. The
genes that are located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together.
When genes occur on the same chromosome we say that gene linkage is in
effect. When two different traits are
determined by genes that are linked, the
linked genes do not assort independently
in the way Mendel suggested in his Law
of Independent Assortment.
The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that
genes (Mendels factors) were carried at
physical locations on the chromosomes
raised the possibility that some genes
would be located on the same chromosome. These genes would be linked together and tend to stay together during
meiosis. Thomas Hunt Morgan was one
of the more important geneticists of
the 1900s. His meticulous studies with
the common fruit fly, Drosophila
melanogaster began in 1904, and eventually won him the Nobel prize in 1934.
Morgan in 1911 considered a cross
between grey-bodied, normal-winged
flies heterozygous GgWw, for the two
dominant alleles, and black-bodied,
small-winged flies homozygous for the
recessive alleles, ggww. This is a test
cross so that the expected ratio of
phenotypes is 1:1:1:1. If the genes assorted independently, we would expect
the results shown in Figure 6.18.
Four different phenotypic combinations are possible in the flies resulting
from this cross. The expectation that the
four types will appear in equal numbers
assumes that the genes for body colour
and wing shape are on separate chromosomes and that during meiosis, random assortment takes place.
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Morgans results were significantly

different, as shown in Figure 6.18. The
majority of the F1 flies showed either
normal wings with grey bodies (41.5%)
or small wings with black bodies
(41.5%). The combinations of normal
wings with black bodies and small wings
with grey bodies each appeared in only
8.5% of the F1.
Morgan concluded that the genes for
body colour and wing type were somehow linked so that they could not assort
independently. He coined the term link-
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age groups to describe these packages

of genes that tended to be inherited together. Today we know that these linkage groups are simply chromosomes. In
any given species the number of linkage
groups is the same as the number of
pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Humans have 23 linkage groups. Gene
linkage reduces the number of sex cell
genotypes possible in a parent organism
and so reduces the variety of phenotypes
observed in the offspring of the next
generation.
GgWw
Gametes
ggww
Gametes
GW
gw
GgWw
Ggww
ggWw
ggww
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
Phenotype
grey, normal
grey, small wing
black, normal
black, small wing
Expected percent
25
25
25
25
1/4
Gw
1/4
gW
1/4
1/4
gw
if independent
Observed
41.5
8.5
8.5
FIGURE 6.18 Morgans

experiment showed linkage
and recombination between
genes for body colour and
wing length.
41.5
percent
chromosomes of parents
gametes possible
If A is linked with B
and a with b
A
B
A
B
a
b
a
b
A
B
A
B
a
b
a
b
A
b
A
b
a
B
a
B
meiosis
If A is linked with b
and a with B
A
b
A
b
a
B
a
B
only two types

of gametes
1/2
AB
1/2
ab
only two types

of gametes
1/2
Ab
meiosis
1/2
aB
CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6.19 Linked genes

do not assort independently.
173
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chromosomes of parents
Aa
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four possible gamete types
a
meiosis
Bb
FIGURE 6.20 If crossing

over occurs during meiosis,
linked genes can be separated. This increases the variety of gene combinations
possible in the gametes.
Linkage with recombination
WEBLINK
Crossing Over Notice that linkage does
Research sites that show gene

maps for the human genome
or for some other organism.
174
UNIT 2
If A is linked with B and a with b and the genes are

far enough apart that crossing-over is possible
not explain all of the results of Morgans

experiment. While 83% of the F1 flies
had gene combinations like one of the
parents, 17% of the F1 had new combinations that could not be accounted for
through linkage. Morgan and his associate Alfred Sturtevant proposed that
these new combinations, termed recombinants, were the result of a process called crossing over. In this process
they suggested that homologous chromosomes somehow exchanged genetic
information, producing recombinants
different from the original linkage
groups. We now know that during the
first meiotic division, when homologous
chromosomes line up in tetrads, the
homologs may exchange genetic information (see sections 5.2, 5.3). This
exchange will result in a greater variety
in the gene combinations of the gametes.
In the absence of crossing over, genes
on the same chromosome will always be
passed on as a unit, no matter how the
chromosomes assort in meiosis. Crossing
over between chromosomes allows the
breaking up of these linkage groups so
that new combinations can occur in
the gametes. Morgans results can now
be completely explained. The 17% of the
flies that were recombinant forms, grey,
Genetic Continuity
2 parental
gametes
A B and a b
2 recombinant
gametes
A b and a B
small wing and black, normal wing were

the result of crossover events.
Gene Mapping
Sturtevant extended his studies of fruit
flies to create gene maps that identified
the location of genes on specific chromosomes. He reasoned that genes at opposite ends of a chromosome are more
likely to be separated by crossing over
than genes that are located close together. The farther apart two linked
genes are, the greater the chance of a
crossover. The frequency with which certain genes turned up together in the fruit
flies enabled Sturtevant to determine the
extent to which these genes were linked.
If two traits always appeared together,
he assumed that these genes were on
the same chromosome and very close together. If these two traits appeared together in 90% of the fruit flies, it would
suggest that although the two genes
were linked, some crossing over had
taken place between them, allowing recombinants to appear 10% of the time.
In 1915, Sturtevant who was a
university student at the time produced
the first gene map outlining the location
of 85 genes on the chromosomes of the
fruit fly. By studying linkage and
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crossover frequencies, geneticists today

have been able to produce maps of chromosomes showing the approximate location and order of genes. These genetic
maps have been produced in detail for
numerous organisms including the common fruit fly (Figure 6.21) and humans.
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Drosophila chromosomes I-IV
III
II
IV
Gene Mapping in Humans

Mapping of genetic characteristics in humans requires a technique different from
the recombination maps of the early geneticists. It is not possible to make experimental crosses in humans. Until the
time that biochemical methods of recognizing particular genes became possible, information was obtained from the
study of pedigrees in families who
showed some recognizable trait.
Sometimes a biochemical characteristic
appeared to be linked to a gene for a
particular genetic disorder. The biochemical characteristic was then used
as a marker in the diagnosis of families
at risk for the disorder.
With the improvements in molecular biological techniques of gene isolation and sequencing, mapping of the
human genome became possible. The
Human Genome Project (See Chapter 7)
began in 1990. The goal of the project
is a complete cataloguing of our entire
genetic makeup. This huge endeavour,
involving hundreds of scientists in labs
around the world, will involve the sequencing of perhaps as many as 35 000
genes. In February 2001, scientists announced that the total number of genes
in the human genome was many fewer
than had previously been believed:
30 000 to 35 000 rather than close to
100 000.
Researchers suggest that a
better understanding of the human
genetic code will allow scientists to
pinpoint defective genes easily. The
knowledge gained could be useful in
developing effective cures. In fact, some
researchers say that the Genome Project
may ultimately make it possible to
perform genetic surgery to replace
WILD TYPE
MAP UNITS
MUTANT
0
long
aristae
short
aristae
13
long
wings
long
legs
grey
body
red
eyes
full
wings
short
wings
31
48.5
54.5
67
short
legs
black
body
purple
eyes
miniature
wings
75.5
straight
wings
curved
wings
FIGURE 6.21 A genetic map of a chromosome. The map units reflect the frequency of recombination between genes not the physical distance between them.
CHAPTER 6
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defective genes in an adult or even in a

developing fetus in the womb.
Since Mendel first studied his pea
plants in 1856, many scientists have contributed to our understanding and explanations of patterns of inheritance.
Their work led to the modern concept
of the gene. Some of the key contributions
are outlined in Table 6.4.
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Geneticists will soon know the loci of

all human genes on the chromosomes
but they will still use crossover frequencies to determine the sequence of linked
genes in other plant and animal species.
Example 4 on page 177 shows how this
information is used.
TABLE 6.4 The History of Genetics
Year
Scientist(s)
Contribution to the Field of Genetics
1856-63
Gregor Mendel
carried out his famous experiments with pea plants
1866
Gregor Mendel
published his work on the principles of genetics
1871
Fredrich Miescher
isolated a substance from the nucleus that he called nuclein (now known as DNA)
1900
Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns,

Erich von Tschermak
independently found the same patterns of inheritance described by Mendel
1902
Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri
proposed the chromosome theory of heredity
1910
Thomas Hunt Morgan
identified the first X-linked gene in fruit flies, where a trait was linked to the sex of the fly;
experimental support for the chromosomal theory of heredity
1911
Thomas Hunt Morgan
described gene linkage where the genes for different traits were on the same
chromosome
1913
Alfred Sturtevant
outlined a technique for determining gene maps
1928
Frederick Griffith
described a substance responsible for giving bateria new hereditary information; called
this agent the transforming principle
1931
Harriet Creighton,
Barbara McClintock
demonstrated that genetic recombination reflects exchange of chromosome segments;

the first cytological demonstration of the chromosome theory of heredity
1944
Oswald Avery
showed Griffiths transforming principle was DNA
1951
Barbara McClintock
described transposition, the first demonstration that a gene could move through the
genome; the forerunner of the concept of transposons
1953
Rosalind Franklin
obtained X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA modules
1953
James Watson, Francis Crick
described a double-helix model for the structure of DNA
1989
Lap Chee Tsui and associates
discovered the genetic site for gene for cystic fibrosis , a fatal autosomal recessive condition
1990
James Watson, many other

scientists
started the Human Genome Project in an effort to map and sequence the entire human
genome
1996
International research group
published the first complete description of DNA sequence in an organism a species

of yeast
2001
The International Human Genome

Mapping Consortium
published the initial sequencing of the human genome
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Genetic Continuity
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EXAMPLE 4
A Mapping Problem
Genes A, B, C, D, E, and F are known to be linked. The following information has
been determined experimentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the chromosome?
B crosses over with A 20% of the time
A crosses over with F 10% of the time
F crosses over with C 15% of the time
B crosses over with D 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 35% of the time
E crosses over with F 20% of the time
C crosses over with B 25% of the time
D is at one extreme end of the chromosome
Given: A combination of crossover frequencies for the six linked genes.
Required: To identify the correct sequence of the six linked genes. Because D is
at one extreme end of the chromosome the final answer will be in the form
D __ __ __ __ __ with the letters A, B, C, E and F being placed in the blanks in the
appropriate sequence.
Analysis: The solution is based on the relationship between crossover frequencies
and linkage. The larger the crossover frequency, the more crossovers occur and
the further apart the linked genes must be.
Solution:
Construct a horizontal line that will represent the length of the chromosome where
these six linked genes are found. Measure off equal units starting with 0 at one end
(0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 ) and up to 55 or 60 at the other end. Place D at 0; its
location has been identified at one extreme end.
D
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Let the crossover frequencies represent a distance on your number line. Start with
genes that can be placed easily on the number line. For example B crosses over
with D 15% of the time. This information places B at 15 on the number line. As
you satisfy each piece of information about crossover frequencies, put a tick mark
beside it. B crosses over with A 20% of the time. This means that A must be placed
at 35 on the line because there is no room to the left on the line. In the same
manner, C must be at 40 on the number line. At this point your line looks like this.
D
0
B
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
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The placement of genes F and E is a little more difficult. A crosses over with F 10%
of the time. This means that F could be at 25 or at 45. Write F at both of these locations below the line.
D
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
F crosses over with C 15% of the time. In order to satisfy this piece of information
F must be located at 25 on the number line. Your line now looks like this.
D
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
In a similar fashion, E crosses over with F 20% of the time. This means that E could
be at 5 or at 45. Write E at both of these locations below the line.
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are
known to be linked. The following information has been
determined experimentally.
What is the sequence of the
genes on the chromosome?
A crosses over with B 10% of
the time
B crosses over with C 20% of
the time
D crosses over with C 10% of
the time
F crosses over with D 15% of
the time
F crosses over with E 10% of
the time
E crosses over with B 15% of
the time
A crosses over with E 25% of
the time
A is at one extreme end of the
chromosome
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Genetic Continuity
45
50
55
60
However, note that C crosses over with E 35% of the time. In order to satisfy
this piece of information, E must be located at 5 on the number line. Your
line now looks like this. Your answer is complete.
D E
0
B
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Keep in mind that your line does not pinpoint the loci for each of the six linked
genes on the chromosome. All you have identified is the correct sequence of
these genes and the relative location of the six. The correct arrangement of
these six linked genes on the chromosome is D, E, B, F, A, C.
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Section 6.3 Review

1. Identify 5 types of inheritance where
simple dominance does not operate.
Briefly outline how each affects
patterns of inheritance.
2. List the genotypic and phenotypic ratios observed in offspring produced by
parents who are heterozygous for different alleles, if incomplete dominance
is in effect.
3. When do geneticists observe a continuous distribution of phenotypes for
a particular trait?
4. What effect do linkage and crossing
over have on gamete variety and
phenotypic expression in the next
generation?
5. Explain why a knowledge of probability is important in the study of
genetics.
Applying Inquiry/
6. Two genes are linked on the same
chromosome. In spite of this, they
assort independently. What can you
conclude about their relative locations
on the chromosome?
7.
What percent of crossing over will produce results identical to independent

assortment? Explain.
8. The colour of feathers in birds is often

determined by genes that exhibit incomplete dominance. For example the
gene for black feathers, B, may be incompletely dominant to the gene for
white feathers, b. The heterozygous
condition produces a bird with blue
feathers. Determine the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios that will result from
each of the following crosses:
a) blue x white
b) black x blue
c) blue x blue
Parent Set
Children
1. O x O
AB
2. AB x O
3. A x O
4. AB x A
10. A farmer crosses two plants with the

genotypes AaBb and aabb and plants
1000 seeds that result from the cross.
How would you explain each of the following phenotypic ratios?
a) 240 show both recessive traits, 255
show the dominant trait A with the
recessive trait b, 245 show the recessive trait a with the dominant
trait B, and 260 show both dominant traits.
b) 490 show both recessive traits, 510
show both dominant traits.
c) 495 show the recessive trait a with
the dominant trait B, 505 show the
dominant trait A with the recessive
trait b.
d) 450 show both recessive traits,
45 show the dominant trait A with
the recessive trait b, 55 show the
recessive trait a with the dominant
trait B, and 450 show both dominant traits.
Making Connections
11. Predict the social, political, and
economic impact of the Human
Genome project.
12. Most nature/nurture studies involve reuniting identical twins that have been
brought up in different environments.
The identification of suitable twins for
this type of study by geneticists requires
a search of personal medical and adoption records. The twins often dont even
know about the existence of their identical sibling until they are contacted by
the researchers. What problems or ethical issues could arise when this type
of research is allowed?
9. Use your knowledge of the inheritance

patterns of the ABO blood types to
match the following parent sets to the
correct child.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 6.1)
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns

The patterns of inheritance outlined by Mendel apply
to many traits observed in a wide range of organisms. Corn is an excellent study subject, as it exhibits
several obvious traits. In addition, each kernel on a cob
of corn represents a single fertilization, where a pollen
grain (male gamete) has fertilized an ovule (female
gamete). As a result, each cob represents a whole
generation of offspring that can be analyzed for their
combinations and ratios of phenotypes.
Problem
To study the inheritance of several traits in corn.
Materials LAL1
3 different cobs of corn: 1) purple and white kernels
(a monohybrid cross) 2) purple with smooth (starchy)
kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a
dihybrid cross) 3) purple with smooth (starchy) kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a dihybrid back cross to the homozygeous recessive)
T pins
Calculator or Graphic Calculator with Lists function
Type of
Cross
Parental Expected Expected Observed

Genotypes Phenotypic Phenotypic Phenotypic
Ratio
Ratio for
Ratio
Number of
Kernels
Counted
#1
#2
#3
Cross #1 This cob illustrates the result of a monohybrid cross involving the trait of kernel colour. Purple
kernels are the result of the production of the pigment
anthocyanin. Purple in kernels is dominant to yellow
kernels. Use the symbols R for the purple allele and r
for the yellow. A homozygous purple plant was crossed
with a yellow plant in the parental cross. Two of the
resulting F1 plants were then crossed to produce the
F2 cob that you will study. Fill in the first three columns
of your chart for this cross.
Cross #2 This cob illustrates the result of a dihybrid

cross involving two characteristics, purple versus yellow and starchy versus sweet kernels. The gene for
starchy kernels is dominant to the gene for sweet
kernels. Use the symbols S for starchy and s for sweet.
Starchy kernels are full and rounded and are often described as smooth, while sweet kernels look wrinkled.
A homozygous purple, starchy kernel plant was crossed
with a yellow, sweet kernel plant in the parental cross.
Two of the resulting F1 plants were then crossed to produce the F2 cob. Fill in the first three columns of your
chart for this cross.
Cross #3 This cob illustrates the result of a test cross.
One of the F1 plants from cross #2 has been crossed
with a plant that had yellow sweet kernels. Fill in the
first three columns of your chart for this cross.
1.
Procedure
Copy the chart below into your notes. Record your observations as you study the three different cobs of corn.
2.
3.
Count at least 400 kernels on each of the three cobs

that you have been given. Work with a partner, one
student counting the kernels and one student
recording the results. Keep a tally of each of the
phenotypes that you expect to observe for each
cross. In cross #1 you will record the number of
purple kernels and the number of yellow kernels.
Use the T pins to keep track of the rows counted.
Add your results for each of the three cobs to a table
of class results on the blackboard.
Use the class results to fill in the expected and observed phenotypic ratios in your chart.

1. Examine your own data and the class data. State
whether the result of each cross fits the expected
result
2. How would you explain any a) small differences between your expected ratios and the observed ratios
b) significant differences between your expected ratios and the observed ratios?
3. Write a clear statement of the Mendelian principles
illustrated by each of the three crosses.

The Mendelian ratios that you have studied in this
lab are predictions based on segregation, independent
assortment, and random fertilization. Because these

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Genetic Continuity
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(continued)
are all influenced by chance, your observed results may

differ from the expected results.
The chi-square test Scientists have a method of evaluating to what degree observed ratios deviate from the
expected ratios (often called the norm). They must
determine if this deviation is by chance or due to
uncertainty in their assumptions. This method is called
a chi-square test and is represented mathematically by
the equation:
2 = (oe)2/e
where o = observed value

e = expected value
(oe) = deviation
= the sum of
If the observed frequencies are close to the expected frequencies, then the chi-square value will be
small, less than a predetermined value obtained from
a chi-square table. In this case, there is no reason to
reject the explanation of the pattern of inheritance suggested. When the chi-square value is higher than the
value obtained from the tables, then there may be reason to reject your hypothesis.
A sample chi-square calculation is illustrated below
for hypothetical monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
a) Monohybrid Cross with 1000 individuals tested
Expected Observed
phenotypic (o)
ratio
numbers
of each
phenotype
3/4
740
1/4
260
Expected
(e)
numbers
of each
phenotype
3/4 1000
= 750
1/4 1000
= 250
Deviation
(oe)
740 750
= 10
260 250
= +10
Total = 1000
(oe)2 (oe)2/e
(10)2 100/750
= 100
= 0.13
(+10)2 100/250
= 100
= 0.40
2 = 0.53
b) Dihybrid Cross with 1000 individuals tested

Expected Observed
phenotypic (o)
ratio
numbers
of each
phenotype
9/16
578
3/16
3/16
1/16
Expected Deviation
(e)
(oe)
numbers
of each
phenotype
563
+15
197
187
167
187
58
63
Total = 1000
+10
20
5
(oe)2 (oe)2/e
225
Interpreting the chi-square value The chi-square value

calculated for the dihybrid cross is higher than the
value for the monohybrid cross. For these two
hypothetical cases, this is as you might expect. The
greater the number of phenotype categories (two for
the monohybrid and four for the dihybrid), the more
deviation is expected due to chance. This factor is taken
into account by determining the degrees of freedom
(d/f). The degrees of freedom are equal to (n1) where
n is the number of different phenotypes that may result from a given cross. The d/f for the monohybrid
cross is 1 and the d/f for the dihybrid cross is 3. The
following critical values obtained from chi-square
tables for p (probability) equal to 0.05. This means that
we would expect a calculated value of deviation for one
degree of freedom to be greater than 3.84 only 1 in 20
times. This is the critical level of deviation often used
when considering a scientific hypothesis. A chi-square
value greater than 3.84 for one degree of freedom
would indicate relatively low probability that the deviation is due to chance and therefore a low probability
that the data support your hypothesis.
Chi-square values
degrees of freedom
Chi-square value
1
3.84
2
5.99
3
4
7.82 9.49
In both of the examples above, the chi-square value

is less than the table value: 0.53 is less than 3.84
(1 degree of freedom for the monohybrid cross) and
3.48 is less than 7.82 (3 degrees of freedom for the
dihybrid cross) As a result, you can accept the hypothesis that the outcome of each of these two crosses
is the result of segregation, independent assortment,
and random fertilization.
4. What was the hypothesis used to explain the outcomes of each corn cross in your investigation?
5. Calculate the chi-square value for results of the F1
crosses represented by each of your three corn cobs.
Are these values greater or less than the table
values given in the example calculations? What
do these chi-square values tell you about your
hypothesis? You might use the Lists function on a
graphing calculator.
6. What explanations would a geneticist use if the
chi-square values exceeded the critical values?
0.40
100
0.54
400
2.14
25
0.40
2 = 3.48
Extending
7. Why did you use the results tabulated for the
class rather than those from your single cob of
corn?
8. Scientists often use statistical methods like the chisquare test to analyze their data. What advantages
are gained by using these types of calculations?
CHAPTER 6
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 6.1)
Human Traits Following Mendels

Patterns of Inheritance
Section 6.1 focused primarily on the transmission of
traits in the common pea plant. Many human traits follow the same patterns as Mendel described. In this investigation you will have the opportunity to study some
human traits.
Problem
What human traits follow the patterns of inheritance
outlined by Mendel?
notebook
LAL1
calculator or graphing calculator
grid papers
PTC test paper
Experimental Design
1.
2.
Produce a chart to record results for yourself and

25 students. You will have to record the traits you
have selected, the dominant and recessive allele for
these traits, the possible phenotypes for each trait
studied, your phenotype, your genotype, and the
number of students in your study.
Two sample traits will get you started.
a) Obtain a piece of PTC test paper from your
teacher. People who can taste PTC (phenylthiocarbamide) in small amounts are called tasters while
those who require a high concentration or totally
lack tasting ability are called non-tasters. Place
the strip on your tongue towards the back of your
mouth where bitterness is sensed. A description of
your phenotype should be clear once the strip is
moist (1015 s). Discard the strip. Record your personal information and data for 25 classmates on
your chart. (The allele for tasting, T, is dominant
over the allele for non-tasting, t.)
b) Clasp your hands together as you normally do
in a comfortable fashion. Record which thumb is
on top. Record your personal information and data
for 25 classmates on your chart. (The allele for
left on top, L, is dominant to the allele for right on
top, l.)
182
UNIT 2
Using Tools, material, Equipment
3.
Research in order to identify five additional human

traits that follow the relatively simple patterns outlined by Mendel. Record information in your chart
for your own phenotype and genotype and for the
phenotypes of 25 classmates.
4.
Develop some graphical method of representing

your data to summarize the results for the 25 study
subjects.
Materials

Genetic Continuity
1. For how many of the traits do you show the dominant phenotype? the recessive phenotype?
2. When is it possible to identify your genotype as a
single specific combination? When is it possible that
you have one of two genotypic combinations but you
cannot specify which one? In the latter situation,
how could you determine your specific genotype?

3. Is it likely that you would show the same seven phenotypes as one of your classmates? Explain. (Hint:
How many different combinations of phenotypes
exist when you describe all seven phenotypes?)
4. Is it likely that you would show the same seven
genotypes as one of your classmates? Explain. How
does your answer here compare to the answer to
question 3 above?
5. Study the class results. Is the dominant trait the
one most frequently observed? Is this what you
would expect? Explain.
6. How effective is your graphical representation of
the results of your student survey for the five traits?
What patterns are conveyed by this representation?
Extending
7. Select any one of the traits that you have studied
and produce a pedigree for this trait covering as
many generations as possible. If your family is small
or this information is difficult to obtain, use the family of one of your classmates.
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Key Terms
allele
co-dominance
continuous distribution
crossing over
dihybrid (cross)
discontinuous distribution
dominant trait
environment
F1 generation
F2 generation
gene
gene map
genetics
genotype
heredity
heterozygous
homozygous
Human Genome Project
incomplete dominance
law of segregation
law of independent
assortment
linkage
linkage groups
monohybrid (cross)
multiple allelism
multifactorial inheritance
phenotype
P generation
pleiotropy
Punnett square
purebred
recessive trait
recombinant

A test cross is a way to determine a genotype. It is

the cross of the individual being tested to a homozygous recessive individual.
Gregor Mendel performed extensive scientific experiments in the mid-1800s on the common pea
plant in order to determine patterns of inheritance.
Mendel formulated two laws of inheritance, the

law of segregation and the law of independent
assortment.
Homozygous parents of differing phenotypes will

produce offspring with an intermediate phenotype
if incomplete dominance is in effect.
A hybrid cross involving dominance produces offspring that have a 3:1 phenotypic ratio and a
1:2:1 genotypic ratio in the F2 generation.
The ABO blood group system exhibits multiple

allelism and co-dominance.
A dihybrid cross involving dominance produces offspring that exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2.
Some traits determined by multifactorial inheritance,

like height in humans, show a continuous distribution in phenotypic expression.
Although Gregor Mendels explanations were not

immediately accepted, they eventually became the
basis of the branch of science called genetics.
Human traits such earlobe shape follow Mendels

laws of inheritance.
Linked genes do not assort independently. As a

result, linkage reduces the number of different
gametes possible in a parent organism and thus
reduces the variety of offspring phenotypes
observed.
Crossing over promotes recombination and variety among offspring.
Knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped

geneticists produce gene maps.

A Punnett square can be used to outline the possible outcomes (offspring) that could result from a
particular cross.
Mendels Law of Segregation and Law of

Independent Assortment are accounted for in the
events of meiosis.

1.
Review your sequence diagram of the scientific process

from page 153. How would you revise it, based on what
you have learned?
2.
Summarize the key concepts in the chapter in a concept

map.
3.
Consider the timeline of scientific discovery in genetics

and the role of women. What impact did society have
on the participation of women?
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CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
1. If A is linked with B and a is linked with b, how
many different phenotypic combinations would be observed
in the offspring resulting from the cross AaBb aabb?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 4
d) 6
e) 8
2. The genotype of an individual that shows the dominant
phenotype can be determined by crossing it with an individual that is:
a) heterozygous dominant
b) heterozygous recessive
c) homozygous dominant
d) homozygous recessive
3. If a male produces 400 sperm cells and his genotype is
AABb, on the average, how many sperm of each kind
will he produce? The A gene and the B gene are not
linked.
a) 200 AB, 200 Ab
b) 300 AB, 100 Ab
c) 100 aB, 100 ab, 100 Ab, 100 AB
d) 100 AB, 300 Ab
4. If a gene b is lethal in the recessive condition bb, then
from a cross AaBb AaBb, how many offspring out of
16 would you expect to die? The genes are not linked.
a) 1
b) 4
c) 8
d) 16
5. Alleles for the same trait separate during:
a) fertilization
b) mitosis
c) meiosis I
d) meiosis II
6. The relationship of a genotype to a corresponding phenotype is sometimes compared to the relationship that
exists between a blueprint and the appearance of the
building produced from the blueprint. Why do you think
this is a good comparison?
7. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a) purebred and hybrid
b) heterozygous and homozygous
c) dominant and recessive
d) phenotype and genotype
8. Explain why it is not necessary to produce a Punnett
square whenever you are asked about the phenotypes
that result from a dihybrid cross.
9. If a trait shows incomplete dominance, what type of
expression is observed in the hybrid?
10. How many different types of gametes would an organism
with the genotype AaBbcc produce? List the different
combinations. What is the probability that one of these

combinations would be passed on to the next generation?
11. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous
female with a light-haired blue-eyed male, given that
dark hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light
hair (a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, what is the correct genotype of the offspring?
12. If a couple has three children, all girls, what is the probability that the next child will be a girl? Explain.
13. Outline how a geneticist would explain each of the following observations.
a) continuous distribution of phenotypes in traits such
as human height
b) intermediate expression
c) identical twins brought up in different environments
are very different for a particular trait.
14. Explain why Mendel suggested that two factors rather
than one determined each of the pea plant traits
studied.
15. Explain the difference in phenotyphic expression between Mendelian inheritance with dominance and
multifactorial inheritance. Illustrate this difference
graphically.
Applying Inquiry/
16. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked. The
following information is provided.
A is at one extreme end of the chromosome
A crosses over with C 35% of the time
B crosses over with C 5% of the time
B crosses over with F 20% of the time
A crosses over with E 10% of the time
B crosses over with E 30% of the time
E crosses over with D 35% of the time
D crosses over with F 25% of the time
What is the correct sequence of the genes on the
chromosome?
17. Determine the genotypes of the parents in each of the
following crosses involving the ABO blood group system.
Parental
Phenotypes
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Types of Offspring Observed

B
AB
O
a) B x A
b) B x A
1/4
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
c) B x O
1/2
d) AB x B
1/2
e) B x B
3/4
f) AB x B
184
1/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
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18. In a certain plant, tall (T) is dominant to short (t) and

red flowers (R) are dominant to white flowers (r).The results of a cross of a TtRr plant with a ttrr plant are shown
in the table.
Phenotype Tall, White Tall, Red Short, White Short, Red
Number of
offspring 415
95
85
405
Is this what Gregor Mendel would have expected? Which

of his laws cant be applied to this situation? How can
these data be explained?
19. Logically, one would expect the dominant trait to
appear in a larger percentage of individuals than the
recessive trait. Discuss the validity of this statement.
20. You have studied the ABO blood group system. This is
just one of many such systems. Two other examples
are the MN system and the Rh system. The MN system
shows co-dominance and the Rh system shows dominance according to the following charts.
MN
Corresponding Rh
phenotypes genotypes
phenotypes
Corresponding
genotypes
MM
Rh (positive)
RR, Rr
NN
Rh (negative)
rr
MN
MN
The identities of 4 babies in a hospital nursery are confused during an evacuation of the hospital. Using your knowledge of the
three blood group systems (ABO, MN and Rh), match the parent
sets to the proper child.
Baby
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and height. Explain how two below average height

parents could produce an above average height child.
22. In studies of a vegetable, plants with crinkled leaves are
crossed. The F1 genotype is raised and two other phenotypes appear in the offspring in the numbers shown
in the table below.
Phenotype of
Plant
Straight
Leaves
Crinkled
Leaves
Curly
leaves
Number of
Offspring
192
410
214
a)
b)
c)
d)
Construct a hypothesis to explain these results.

Outline further crosses that could be made to test
your hypothesis.
How might you use a chi-square table to test the validity of your hypothesis?
Set up a chi-square table, as shown below, to
make the calculation of how far the results observed
differ from what you would expect from your hypothesis.
Expected Observed
phenotypic numbers
ratio
(o) of
each
phenotype
Expected Deviation (oe)2 (oe)2/e

numbers (oe)
(e) of
each
phenotype
2=
Total =
Making Connections
Parental Pairs
A. AB/N/Rh+
1. O/MN/Rh-
B/M/Rh+
B. O/MN/Rh+
2. AB/N/Rh+
AB/MN/Rh+
C. B/M/Rh-
3. A/MN/Rh-
AB/MN/Rh-
D. A/MN/Rh-
4. AB/N/Rh-
A/N/Rh+
21. Polygenic inheritance can be illustrated by a hypothetical inheritance of height. Assume height is determined
by five pairs of genes found at five different loci. Capital
letters(A,B,C,D,E) represent alleles that contribute to
height, while lower case letters (a,b,c,d,e) represent alleles that do not. The table shows the relationship between the presence of a capital letter in the genotype
Height
Number of Capitals in the

Genotype
Example
Above average
610
AABbCcDDEe
Average
AaBbCcDdEe
Below average
04
aaBbccDdEe
23. Measure and record the heights of at least 50 individuals of the same sex in your age group (within one
year). Produce a graph (number of people versus height)
for your data. Explain the shape of your graph in terms
of the genetics involved for this trait.
24. Pretend that you are about to interview Gregor Mendel
in 1866 just after the publication of his work. Design ten
questions to ask him in order to write a news article outlining his thoughts and work. Write an article that could
have appeared in a paper at the time.
25. Studies in human genetics are much more difficult to
carry out than studies in plants or fruit flies. Give five
reasons why this is so.
26. Many scientists including Mendel have had their work
go unnoticed by other scientists of their time. Give an
explanation why new discoveries are often ignored by
the rest of the scientific community.
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CHAPTER 7
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS

explain how the concepts of DNA,

genes, chromosomes, and meiosis
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from
generation to generation (7.1)
explain how the sex of an

individual can be determined
genetically (7.1)
demonstrate an understanding that

the expression of a genetic
disorder linked to the sex
chromosomes is more common in
males than in females (7.1)
describe genetic disorders in terms

of the chromosomes affected,
physical effects, and
treatment (7.1, 7.2, 7.3)
research genetic technologies

using sources from print and
electronic media, and synthesize
the information gained (7.2, 7.3
and Achievement task)
identify and describe examples

of Canadian contributions to
knowledge about genetic
processes (7.1, 7.2, 7.3)
describe and analyze examples

of genetic technologies that
were developed on the basis of
scientific understanding (7.1, 7.3,
hen you look at the world around you, you see a great diversity of different animals and plants. What makes one different from another?
Why is a cat different from a dog, or a worm different from a human? The
biological answer lies in the genes, the chromosomes, and specifically the
DNA. The power of the DNA molecule to self-replicate and to direct the
formation of other cell compounds make genetic continuity possible.
[CATCH GEN 41- figure for chapter

opener - Karyotype of Cri-du-Chat syndrome identical to figure 12.8 b) in
Krogh. P.U. as is.
Caption: Figure 7.x.
FIGURE 7.1 Karyotypes are important diagnostic tools. The karyotype illustrated
here is of a male with a rare condition known as Cri-du-Chat (cry of the cat). This
condition results from the deletion of part of chromosome 5, as indicated by the
arrow.
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Chromosomes carry the genes from generation to generation. Chromosomes

are organized in a particular pattern for each species and any change from
what is standard for the species is usually disadvantageous to the individual.
Research is continuing into the genetic causes of many disorders. This knowledge has allowed geneticists to better understand the stuff of life. Techniques
developed today may someday make it possible to alter hereditary information in order to cure some genetically transmitted diseases. While our knowledge of genetics creates a better understanding, many of the techniques in
genetic engineering challenge society to consider risks and benefits of applying that knowledge and the ethical and moral issues it presents.
Discovering Biology
Advances in Genetics
The media tend to portray each genetic advance today as an incredible landmark in biotechnology. In groups of four to six, identify several examples of
genetic advances that have received a great deal of attention in the media. Is
the impact of these dramatic cases being exaggerated? As a group, come to
consensus about the degree of impact and present your opinion to the rest
of your class in a one- to two-minute presentation.
CHECKPOINT
In groups, brainstorm
genetic advances that are
in the news. Create a web
to summarize your
discussion.
Genetics
CHAPTER 7
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7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

Key Understandings
explain how the number and form of the chromosomes identify a species and how
karyotypes are used
explain how sex is determined in humans
use Punnett squares to explain why a disorder linked to the sex chromosomes is more
common in males than females
describe the history of DNA research and how the understanding of the structure of
DNA led to the modern concept of the gene
explain the key role of DNA replication in mitosis, meiosis, and the transmission of
hereditary characters
WORD ORIGIN
Chromosome from the Greek
chroma, meaning colour, and
soma meaning body, derives
from the fact that chromosomes take up stain quickly
and become obvious coloured
bodies while the other cell
structures remain faint.
Each species of organism has a specific

number of chromosomes in each diploid
body cell. Humans have a diploid number of 46 and these 46 chromosomes are
arranged in 23 homologous pairs with
one homolog of each pair coming from
each parent. The vast majority of
organisms studied to date have a diploid

number between 10 and 50. For example, pea plants have 14 chromosomes,
while the common mouse has 40.
Striking exceptions to this pattern are
the radiolarian (a marine protist) with
1600 chromosomes and a particular
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
centromere position
satellite
FIGURE 7.2 The human karyotype serves as a reference to the draft of the complete map of the
human genome. Each chromosome shows a distinctive banding pattern and centromere position.
Chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 have satellites.
188
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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three types of chromosomes
Sex Determination
satellite
centromere
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.3 The three types of human chromosomes based on centromere placement:
a) metacentric
b) submetacentric
c) acrocentric. The knobs on the acrocentric
chromosomes are called satellites.
species of roundworm that has only 2

chromosomes. Other organisms besides
humans have 46 chromosomes but this
does not mean they share a common appearance with humans. The features of
a particular species are not determined
simply by the chromosome number but
rather by the specific information carried on the chromosomes.
Chromosomes can only be seen in
cells that are actively dividing. During
the other phases of the cell cycle the
hereditary material is not condensed and
appears grainy. In this state it is called
chromatin. Scientists wishing to study
chromosomes stimulate cultured cells to
multiply actively. The cells are then
treated with colchicine, a chemical that
stops mitosis at metaphase. The cells are
then fixed (killed without disrupting the
chromosomes), stained, and prepared
for microscopic examination and photography. Chromosomes that have been
treated in this manner can be counted
and studied easily.
The homologous pairs of chromosomes vary enough to be distinctive. In
humans each homologous pair has a
special banding pattern (resulting from
the stain), length, shape, and knobs or
constrictions. See Figure 7.3.
Once the chromosomes have

been photographed, they can
be sorted into homologous
pairs based on their distinctive features (size, shape, type,
banding pattern). The resulting chart is called a
karyotype. See Figure 7.4.
Karyotypes are useful for
determining whether or not the chromosomes are normal in number and
structure. Early studies of karyotypes revealed that some organisms possessed
one pair of homologs that were not identical in size and shape. This pair was
somehow related to the sex of the individual. The cells of females in many
species possess two identically shaped
X chromosomes, while the males possess a single X chromosome and a
smaller Y chromosome. Human males
therefore have 22 pairs of autosomes
(non-sex chromosomes) plus one X and
one Y, while females have 22 pairs of autosomes plus two X chromosomes. The
male genotype is designated XY while
the female genotype is XX.
In both the male (XY) and female
(XX), only one sex chromosome can
be passed on in a mating. The possibilities for sex of the offspring of any
mating are shown in Figure 7.5 on page
190. Figure 7.6 shows the results in the
form of a Punnett square.

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.4 A normal male
karyotype
INFOBIT
It is interesting to note that the
ratio of male newborns to
female newborns is not 50:50
as most people assume. The
world average for births over
the last 20 years is 106 boys
for every 100 girls, that is,
51.5% of newborns are sons.
However, statistics for Canada
show that this rate has fallen
over the same period with a
decrease of 2.2 males per
1000 births. Studies of this sort
were launched following an
explosion of a pesticide plant
in Italy in 1976 that coincided
with a significant increase in
girls born to families that were
exposed to the pesticide.
Discovering Biology
Preparing a Human Karyotype
A karyotype is a chart of the chromosome makeup of any cell.
1. Obtain a photograph of a colchicine metaphase preparation of
a human cultured cell.
2.
Prepare a karyotype of this cell by arranging pairs of chromosomes side by side in descending size from chromosome
1 to chromosome 22.
Decide the chromosome number and sex of the individual
whose cells were being cultured. Explain whether this is a normal or abnormal karyotype.
CHAPTER 7
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Sex Linkage
MOTHER
FATHER
XX
XY
meiosis I
X
meiosis II
fertilization
XX
XY
DAUGHTER
SON
FIGURE 7.5 Sex determination in humans. Note that the sex of any child is determined by the father. If a sperm cell with the Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, a son
will result. On the other hand, if the fertilizing sperm cell contains an X chromosome, a daughter will result.
Thomas Hunt Morgan, through his

meticulous studies with the common
fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, introduced the idea of sex linkage when
he observed that the inheritance of
certain traits was linked to the sex of the
fruit fly.
The human X chromosome is quite
large and contains many genes while the
Y chromosome contains only a few.
Genes on the Y chromosome are involved
in determining maleness. Any traits controlled by genes on the X chromosome
are called X-linked traits. This form of
linkage gives results contrary to Mendels
Law of Independent Assortment. A gene
on the X chromosome in the male has
no matching allele on the Y chromosome.
Therefore any gene on the X chromosome, whether dominant or recessive, is
expressed in males. The most common
examples of traits illustrating X-linked
inheritance in humans are hemophilia
(bleeders disease, affecting 1 out of
every 4000 males) and colour blindness
(affecting 8 out of every 1000 males).
Males with the most common form of
colour blindness, red-green colour blindness, cannot distinguish between the
colours of the dots in Figure 7.7 in order
to see the number 5.
XY (father)
Gametes
X 1/2
XX (mother)
Gametes
Y 1/2
X 1/2
XX
female
XY
male
X 1/2
XX
female
XY
male
F1 chance female child: 1/2

chance male child: 1/2
FIGURE 7.6 Punnett square to demonstrate

sex determination
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UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
FIGURE 7.7 Test for red-green colour blindness
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These X-linked afflictions have a

readily recognizable pattern of inheritance as affected individuals are almost
PIG-A
Paroxysmal nocturnal
hemoglobinuria
DMD
Duchenne muscular
dystrophy
ATP7A Menkes syndrome
IL2RG
X-linked severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID)
TNFSF5 Immunodeficiency
with hyper-IgM
FMR1 Fragile X syndrome
MeCP2 Rett syndrome
ALD Adrenoleukodystrophy
HEMA Hemophilia A
FIGURE 7.8 Some of the genes mapped on the
human X chromosome, showing their relative
locations. The rare abnormal form has been
indicated. The characteristic banding pattern is
shown and the centromere location is indicated.
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exclusively male. In addition, X-linked

traits like hemophilia that are determined
by a recessive gene tend to appear in
every other generation. The disease skips
generations. This pattern is explained in
the Punnett squares below. Gametes are
highlighted in blue and the allele for
hemophilia is circled.
X Linkage in Hemophilia Look at the pattern of inheritance in the family shown

below. The parental cross was between
a male with hemophilia and a female homozygous for the normal allele for blood
clotting. In such a cross there are three
possible gametes involved, with two
possible genotypes for males and three
possible genotypes for females as shown
in Table 7.1. Hemophilia is expressed
only in the males in this family, and its
expression skipped a generation. It is
not seen in the F1 generation.
Possible gametes involved in
hemophilia are:
X H normal dominant allele
usually simply designated X
Xhrecessive allele for hemophilia
Ylacks the gene for this trait, no
locus for information for this trait
TABLE 7.1 Genotypes and Phenotypes Possible in Inheritance of Hemophilia
Males
Females
Genotypes
Phenotypes
Genotypes
Phenotypes
XY
normal male
XX
normal female
XhY
affected male, hemophiliac
XXh
normal female (carrier)
h h
XX
P cross
affected female (very rare)

Xh Y
Gametes
Xh Y XX
Xh 1/2
XX
Gametes
F1 generation
F1 cross
XY X Xh
X Xh
Gametes
F2 generation
1/2
X 1/2
X Xh 1/4
XY 1/4
X 1/2
X Xh 1/4
XY 1/4
all daughters carriers, show normal phenotype

all sons normal
XY
Gametes
X
1/2
1/2
X 1/2
XX
1/4
XY
1/4
Xh 1/2
X Xh
1/4
Xh Y 1/4
1/4 chance of an affected son
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Genetics problems can involve traits

that are determined by genes on the autosomes (autosomal inheritance) or by
genes that are on the X chromosome
(X-linked inheritance). Care must be
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taken when answering problems that involve a combination of the two types of
inheritance. A model solution and strategy is given below for one of these types
of questions.
EXAMPLE 1
Human Genetics Problem In humans the gene for normal blood clotting is
dominant to the gene that causes hemophilia. This trait is X-linked. The gene for
tasting PTC is dominant to the gene for non-tasting. This trait is autosomal. A
heterozygous taster woman who is also heterozygous for blood clotting is married to a non-taster man who has normal blood clotting. What is the chance that
they will produce a non-taster hemophiliac son?
Given From the phenotypes, you can determine the genotypes of both parents.
The mother is TtXXh and the father is ttXY. Notice that the father cannot have the
recessive Xh allele or he would be affected with hemophilia.
Required These parents must be crossed to produce the F1 generation. Then
you can determine the probability of this couple producing a non-taster hemophiliac son. This son will have a genotype of ttXhY.
Analysis Use the following steps to produce a Punnett square to show the cross
and the children in the F1 generation.
1. Establish the coding you are going to use. Write this at the top of your answer.
2. Outline the genotypes of the parents based on the information given.
3. Determine the number of different combinations that can be passed on in the
egg and sperm cell. The number of combinations will determine the dimensions of your Punnett square. The genes for tasting and blood clotting are on
separate pairs of homologous chromosomes. They will assort independently.
4. Construct a Punnett square showing the parents and the gamete combinations
possible.
5. Carefully fill in the different possibilities for the F1 generation.
Solution
1.
Blood clotting (X-linked)

Tasting (autosomal)
X normal clotting allele on X
T
tasting
t
non-tasting
Xh recessive allele for hemophilia
Y Y chromosome with no allele for blood clotting
2)
Father ttXY
Mother TtXXh
3)
Father, ttXY
two possible combinations in the sperm he produces.

each has a 1/2 chance of being produced.
Mother, TtXXh
four possible combinations in the eggs she produces.
produced.
192
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Genetic Continuity
each has a 1 / 4 chance of being
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4)
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The dimensions of the Punnett square required are 2 4.

ttXY
Gametes
tX
1/2
tY
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1/2
TX 1/4
TtXXh
Gametes
tX 1/4
TXh 1/4
tXh 1/4
ttXY
Gametes
Each of the 8 squares in

the F1 generation has an
tY 1/2
tX 1/2
equal chance of occurTX 1/4
TtXX 1/8
TtXY 1/8
ring. As a result, each of
tX 1/4
ttXX 1/8
ttXY 1/8
the 8 squares has a probTtXXh
Gametes
ability of 1 / 8 . Note that
TtX Xh 1/8
Tt Xh Y 1/8
TXh 1/4
this probability can also
ttX Xh 1/8
tt Xh Y 1/8
tXh 1/4
be calculated for each
square in the F1 by multiplying the probabilities of each type of gamete being
formed (1/2 1/4 = 1/8).
5)
Statement The only square that represents a non-tasting hemophiliac son
is the one in the bottom right of the Punnett square. Therefore the correct answer for this problem is 1/8.
Note Remember this value represents a probability and does not necessarily have to happen. This couple could have 16 children with no nontasting hemophiliac sons.
Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
One of the more important gene loci

to be mapped on the X chromosome
is the locus that can contain the defective allele for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The gene responsible
for this X-linked condition was pinpointed in 1987 at the Hospital for
Sick Children in Toronto by a team
led by Dr. Ronald Worton. The gene
was identified and cloned. The ability to identify the gene locus in cells
allowed doctors to study the inheritance pattern of this trait and to

understand the disease better.
Geneticists are able to identify the
presence of this allele in heterozygous normal females who have the
potential to produce sons with
Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Males with the allele for
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
undergo loss of size, strength, and
activity in muscle. Winnipeg scientist
Dr. Judy Anderson recently discovered a method of triggering muscle
growth. Dr. Anderson discovered that
nitric oxide released from muscle
fibres is the trigger to muscle growth.
She hopes that her research will lead
to a way to make muscles grow as
needed and improve the quality of life
for those with muscular dystrophy.
Use the method outlined to

answer the following practice
problem.
In humans the gene for normal colour vision is dominant
to the gene for colour blindness. This trait is X-linked.
The gene for tasting PTC is
dominant to the gene for nontasting. A non-tasting woman
who is a carrier for colour
blindness is married to a heterozygous tasting, normal
man. What is the chance that
they will produce each of the
following children?
a) a son
b) a non-tasting son
c) a non-tasting colourblind son
d) a tasting colour-blind
daughter

FIGURE 7.9 Dr. Judy Anderson researches

the control of muscle growth.
CHAPTER 7
193
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Dr. Murray Barr and

the Barr Body
Dr. Murray Barr attended the
University of Western Ontario and
received his MD in 1933. He was
responsible for starting a new era
in research and diagnosis of genetic
disorders. In 1948 he was conducting
a clinical investigation to study
whether increased nerve cell activity
produced structural changes in the
nerve cells. A chance examination of
the sections of nerve tissue from cats
revealed that the cell nuclei in some
of the cats contained a prominent
mass of chromatin while the cell
nuclei in other cats lacked this
mass. Further research, which Barr
described as curiosity-driven,
clearly showed that this chromatin
mass was present in the nuclei of
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female cats and absent in those of

male cats. This mass of sex
chromatin, found only in females, is
now known as the Barr body.
Further studies in 1961 by Mary
Lyon and Lillian Russell showed that
the Barr body was an inactive X chromosome in a female XX cell. Cells
in females have two X chromosomes
while those of males have only one.
Females compensate for having two
copies of the X chromosome by
condensing one of them into an
inactive form. Which X chromosome
is condensed is a matter of random
chance in each cell.
The discovery of this extra
information through Barrs studies
resulted in a new area of genetics
called human cytogenetics. The as-
ogy of karyotyping for diagnosis developed from this understanding. For

example, a Turners syndrome female
who has only one X chromosome will
For over 100 years scientists have studied the molecules of the cell in an attempt to reveal some of lifes deepest
secrets. Today molecular geneticists have
a basic understanding of how life forms
are able to reproduce themselves and
produce new cells. The key to this understanding is the molecular structure
of chromosomes. All chromosomes are
made of deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA)
and proteins. Knowledge of the role and
structure of DNA has developed over a
period of time beginning in the 1800s.
In 1869, a German chemist named
Frederich Miescher isolated a substance
from the pus collected from infected
wounds and boils. He called this substance nuclein because he found that it
was concentrated in the nucleus of the
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Genetic Continuity
not have a Barr body despite being

female. This condition is referred to
as X0. A Klinefelters syndrome male
who is XXY, and so has one more X
chromosome that usual, will show a
Barr body despite being male. Today
geneticists use a knowledge of Barr
bodies to improve diagnosis and
treatment of individuals with sex
chromosome abnormalities.

sociation between chromosomal

abnormalities and developmental
defects was shown. The technol-
DNA
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FIGURE 7.10 A typical female cell showing a

Barr body
cell. Later, in 1880, nuclein became

known as nucleic acid because it
exhibited acidic properties. The important role of this substance and its structure were not known at this time.
In 1928, the British scientist
Frederick Griffith performed experiments on several strains of a form
of bacteria called Pneumococcus.
Bacteriologists had identified one strain
of Pneumococcus that lacked a smooth
outer capsule. As a result this rough
form is easily destroyed by a host organisms immunological defences. This
form that cannot cause disease is termed
non-virulent. A second strain, which
does have a smooth outer coating,
is quite capable of producing a lifethreatening form of pneumonia and is
termed virulent. Griffith injected a
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combination of dead smooth bacteria

and live rough bacteria into mice.
Although he suspected that this would
be a harmless combination, all the mice
died of pneumonia. Samples of blood
taken from the dead mice were swarming with virulent smooth bacteria that
were still capable of killing other mice.
Somehow the hereditary information for
a smooth capsule had been passed from
the dead smooth bacteria to the living
rough bacteria.
In 1944, Oswald Avery, and his coworkers, McLeod and Macarty, identified
the transforming principle in Griffiths
experiments as DNA. For the first time,
a glimpse of the key role of DNA had been
obtained. A functional model of the structure of DNA was first proposed by two
scientists, Francis Crick (an Englishman)
and James Watson (an American). Their
outline of DNA structure presented in
1953 earned them the Nobel Prize. In the
early 1960s many studies, including
those of Marshall Nirenberg and Har
Gobind Khorana, resulted in an interpretation of the language of the instructions encoded in DNA. This can be
summed up as DNA codes for RNA and
RNA codes for protein.
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block molecule of DNA is a nucleotide

composed of a sugar molecule, a phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base.
The chemical properties of the possible
nitrogen-containing bases found in
DNA adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
(G) and thymine (T)ensure that if adenine is found on one side of the ladders
rung, then thymine must be found on the
opposite side (or vice versa). See Figure
7.13 on page 196. In the same way cytosine is always matched with guanine
(or vice versa). These matched pairs are
called complements (A with T, C with G).
Investigation
Refer to page 230,
Investigation 2.

restrictions.
The Structure of DNA

The Watson-Crick model has enabled a
better understanding of the roles of genes
and chromosomes. Watson and Crick described DNA as a double helix. See
Figure 7.16 on page 197. They were able
to determine this from photographs produced by Rosalind Franklin using a technique in X-ray diffraction (see Figure
7.12). Photographs using this specialized
technique indicated that the molecule
had a helical structure.
This double helical shape is best
illustrated by imagining a twisted ladder. A computer-generated model of
DNA is shown in Figure 7.14. The two
sides of the ladder are made up of a
repeating sequence of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. The rungs
of the ladder are composed of a pair of
nitrogenous bases. The basic building
FIGURE 7.11 Although we give most of the

credit for the model of DNA to Watson and
Crick, many other scientists, such as Rosalind
Franklin, made important contributions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.12 This image created by Rosalind

Franklin using a technique known as X-ray
diffraction helped Watson and Crick to understand that DNA was a double helix.
CHAPTER 7
195
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WEBLINK
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The complementary base pairing depends on the shape of the DNA molecule
and the ability of the base pairs to form
hydrogen bonds. Modern computer technology allows us to view and manipulate computer-generated, threedimensional models of DNA to observe
the hydrogen bonds linking the two
To find out more about threedimensional molecular models,

go to
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helical chains forming the ladder-shaped

molecule.
If you know the sequence of bases in
the nucleotides on one side of the ladder,
then you also know the sequence on
the other side because of complementary
base pairing. Scientists quickly realized
that the code of life was somehow
NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

sugar
(deoxyribose)
nitrogenous
base
NUCLEOTIDE
P
O
O
P
phosphate
group

restrictions.
P
O
T
P
P
O
P
P
O
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
FIGURE 7.14 Computer-generated models like

this one are useful in helping us visualize the
helical structure of DNA.
O
P
hydrogen bond
O
P
O
P

restrictions.
DNA
double helix
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Genetic Continuity
FIGURE 7.13 The basic

building block in the DNA
molecule is the nucleotide
with its three parts: a phosphate group, a sugar, and a
nitrogenous base. These
nitrogenous bases are linked
together in two separate
chains that are joined in the
middle in a complementary
fashion, A with T, and C with
G. These two chains are then
wound around one another
in a double helix.
FIGURE 7.15 Striking views of replication have

been observed through the electron microscope.
In this micrograph the process of replication is
clearly seen in human DNA in a cultured cell. The
replication bubble increases in length, indicating
that chain growth happens in two directions
from a common origin.
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FIGURE 7.16 The model of

DNA (shown here in the background) constructed by
Watson and Crick is undoubtedly one of the most important advances in biology in
the twentieth century.
reflected in the sequence of nitrogenous bases in the rungs of the double

helix. A long sequence of these nitrogenous bases makes up a gene and the
order of the bases in the gene determines
what product the gene will produce. The
sum of the genes in a cell in turn determines what kinds of proteins a cell will
make. Ultimately, it is the molecular
structure of the proteins that gives each
cell its individual characteristics.
Replication
Copying the Code
Every cell must duplicate its hereditary
information prior to mitosis or meiosis.
The ability of DNA to produce a copy of
itself in the process of replication is
unique among all biological molecules.
This process begins when the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs, forming
the rungs of the ladder, break apart. This
unzipping process produces two halfladders or strands of DNA still held by

their sugar phosphate backbones. Freefloating DNA nucleotides found inside
the nucleus, such as adenine nucleotide
and cytosine nucleotide, now make their
way to these strands and attach themselves to the exposed nitrogenous bases.
These free-floating nucleotides will only
bond to their complementary bases. This
process is shown for a very short piece
of DNA in Figure 7.17 on page 198.
When the process is complete, two
identical helices just like the original are
produced, with each helix containing one
of the original strands. This method of
replicating the hereditary information is
termed semiconservative. See Figures
7.17 and 7.18. If the original molecule
had kept both old chains while a completely new double-stranded molecule
was built, the replication would have
been conservative.
CHAPTER 7
WEBLINK
Investigate the work of
Meselson and Stahl and others
to prove semi-conservative
replication. Prepare diagrams
of all possible types of
replication. Begin your
research at
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DNA to be replicated
G C
T A
A T
G C
C G
T A
Strands separate
OLD
A
T
NEW
Each strand now serves as a template for the synthesis

of a separate DNA molecule as free nucleotides base-pair
with complementary nucleotides on the existing strands.
FIGURE 7.18 As the DNA unwinds, each of the

original strands (shown in red) acts as a
template for a complementary strand (shown in
yellow)
G C
T A
This results in two

identical strands of DNA.
G C
T A
A T
A T
G C
G C
C G
C G
T A
T A
Order of bases
encodes
information
for protein
production.
FIGURE 7.17 The resulting two molecules of DNA are identical to the original.
Transcription and
Translation
DNA material never leaves the nucleus.
Experiments carried out by Joachim
Hammerling on the single-celled alga,
Acetabularia, demonstrated that the
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Genetic Continuity
nucleus of the cell directed development

in the cytoplasm. Investigations in the
1960s clearly showed that a message
reflecting the DNA code in the nucleus was transferred from the nucleus
to the site of protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm.
The production of this message is
termed transcription. This process begins with the unzipping of a segment of
DNA (much as in replication). This segment represents a coding unit (one
gene) determining a specific protein. In
this process it is not DNA nucleotides
that hydrogen-bond to the exposed
bases. Instead, nucleotides of ribonucleic
acid (RNA) complementary base-pair by
hydrogen bonds to one of the exposed
DNA strands. There is one difference
in the case of RNA base-pairing. Each
adenine on the DNA strand pairs with
uracil instead of thymine (as would happen in DNA base-pairing). The other
three pairs, T with A, C with G, and G
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with C occur as in DNA base-pairing. The

RNA nucleotides arrange themselves
along the DNA strand using the DNA
strand as a template. The single-stranded
RNA molecule produced is called messenger RNA or mRNA for short.
The production of mRNA is called
transcription because the information in
DNA has been transcribed into another
complementary form (mRNA) that will be
used in protein synthesis. In this way the
information coded in the DNA has a way
to get out into the cytoplasm without
the DNA ever having to leave the nucleus.
In some insect tissues seen under the microscope, regions of the chromatin that
are actively engaged in transcription appear as puffs in stained preparations
of chromosomes. The puffs indicate
active production of mRNA.
The process of protein synthesis
that occurs on the ribosomes is termed
translation. In this process the language
of the base sequence in the mRNA is
translated into the sequence of amino
acids in a protein. When the various types
of amino acid are linked with peptide
bonds in a particular order, the specific
polypeptide results. This polypeptide will
acquire its secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structure by bond formation and folding of the molecule. The
protein molecule will then take on its specific function as a regulatory or structural
molecule, either within the same cell or
elsewhere in the organism.
You can now see how DNA directs
protein synthesis. The sequence of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in
the DNA of the chromosome is used as a
template to determine the sequence of
bases on the messenger RNA. This messenger RNA then dictates the sequence of
amino acids to be linked together at the ribosome to form the protein product.
Once scientists had produced an outline of protein synthesis, they turned
their attention to explaining several other
difficult puzzles involving the chromosomes. How does the cell know to produce a particular protein at the
appropriate time and in the correct
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OVERVIEW OF TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
(in nucleus)
mRNA
ribosome
mRNA
TRANSLATION
(in cytoplasm)
protein
FIGURE 7.19 In transcription a length of DNA unwinds, ribonucleotides pair with

the bases on the exposed strands, and a length of messenger RNA is formed. This
mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus and moves into the cytolasm where it binds to
a ribosome. In translation at the ribosome, the sequence of bases on the mRNA is
translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
quantity? The chromosomes of all cells

of an organism have exactly the same
instructions (the same genes). How then,
are cells triggered to differentiate in
order to carry out different functions?
Scientists today are conducting research
to learn the mechanisms that must
somehow switch on some genes while
switching off others to allow only
certain information to be used to produce specific proteins in particular cells.
These are the areas of experimentation,
controversy, and active theory construction today. Researchers suggest that
not all genes are structural genes.
CHAPTER 7
INFOBIT
Once a cell has undergone differentiation, it has not necessarily lost its genetic potential.
This is illustrated by organisms
that can regenerate lost body
parts. When a starfish loses an
arm, some cells in the stump
undergo dedifferentiation,
divide and then differentiate
once again to produce a new
arm. In some organisms these
single, isolated differentiated
cells can undergo dedifferentiation and then develop into a
complete organism.
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Current evidence seems to point to the

existence of two other types of genes,
regulator and operator genes, which can
switch structural genes on and off.
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Scientists now have an understanding of

the structure of the hereditary material
and are also beginning to understand
how it is regulated and controlled.
Section 7.1 Review

1. Are two organisms with an identical
diploid number of chromosomes necessarily identical? Explain.
2. How can different homologous pairs of
chromosomes be distinguished from
one another?
3. A couple has four children, all sons.
Does this mean that there is a better
chance of a daughter on a fifth pregnancy? Why? Why not?
4. Under what conditions could a
hemophiliac father produce a
hemophiliac son?
5. Outline the structure of DNA as described by Watson and Crick.
6. Distinguish among the following processes by describing the location of
each and the molecules involved:
a) replication
b) transcription
c) translation
Applying Inquiry/
7.
How has the understanding of the

structure of DNA contributed to current thinking about genes?
8. Red-green colour blindness is inherited as an X-linked recessive trait. If a

man who has normal vision marries a
colour-blind woman, what would be
the expected genotype and phenotype
ratios for this trait in their children?
9. A man and his wife both have normal
colour vision. The woman gives birth
to a daughter who has red-green colour
blindness. The man claims that he
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could not have fathered this daughter.

Does genetics back his claim? Explain
your answer.
10. In the fruit fly Drosophila, the gene for
red eyes, R, is dominant to the gene for
white eyes, r. This trait is X-linked.
Predict the genotypic and phenotypic
ratios that would result from each of
the following crosses:
a) a homozygous dominant female
and a red-eyed male
b) a homozygous dominant female
and a white-eyed male
c) a heterozygous red-eyed female
and a red-eyed male
d) a heterozygous red-eyed female
and a white-eyed male
e) a white-eyed female and a red-eyed
male
f) a white-eyed female and a whiteeyed male
11. A male fruit fly with normal bristles on
his body is crossed with a female fly
that exhibits forked bristles on her
body. This cross produces 125 males
with forked bristles and 131 females
with normal bristles. How would you
explain the inheritance pattern of this
trait?
Making Connections
12. The description of the structure of DNA
provided by Watson and Crick is one
of the most important discoveries in biology in the twentieth century. Name
three legal or social issues resulting
from this discovery.
13. Propose how society would be different today without an understanding of
genes, chromosomes, and DNA.
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7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees

Key Understandings
explain the occurrence of mutations and their importance in genetics
describe the genetic basis of several types of genetic disorders
explain the role of nondisjunction in causing genetic disorders
explain how studies in population genetics demonstrated the relationship between
maternal age and Down syndrome
use the proper coding to construct pedigree charts
identify the type of inheritance illustrated in pedigrees
Mutation
Since DNA directs protein synthesis and
the proteins determine the type of cell,
you might predict that any alteration in
the genetic information would upset the
normal operation of a cell or organism.
You would be correct. Any change in a
gene that is accompanied by a loss or
change in the functioning of the genetic
information is termed a mutation. Many
mutations are harmful. Fortunately, DNA
is normally a very stable substance and
is not easily altered. If a gene is altered,
in most cases the undesirable information is in the form of a recessive allele.
As a result, the harmful effects of the
changed gene will not be expressed in the
heterozygous condition.
Scientists have demonstrated that
mutations can occur spontaneously in
any living organism. Spontaneous mutations do not have any known cause.
Mutations appear to occur at fixed rates
in different species. H.J. Muller in the
1920s developed techniques for measuring the frequency of Drosophila mutation. In later studies Muller showed
that a higher than normal rate of mutation in Drosophila occurred if the flies
were grown at abnormal temperatures
or were bombarded with X rays. Any
factor that can cause mutation is termed
a mutagen. For example, experiments
on mice have confirmed that radiation,
abnormal temperatures, and certain
chemicals can act as mutagenic agents.
Scientists strongly suspect that these mutagens can also affect humans.
Mutations found in the somatic
(body) cells of an organism will usually
go unnoticed unless a significant number of cells are involved. Of course, these
mutations cannot be passed on to the
next generation. The more serious type
of mutation is found in the gametes of a
parent organism. There are two reasons
for concern about mutation in gametes.
This gamete may be passed on to produce an entire organism with this mutation in every cell. Second, this mutation
could be passed on to offspring and continue for many generations.
Aspects of mutation and mutation
rate are important and are of concern
to society. Clinical health problems visible at birth are called congenital
defects. They are caused by mutations
in the genes, environmental agents, or
a combination of the two. Environmental
agents, called teratogens, cause congenital defects by altering the expression
of a gene or genes. For example, a
mother who contracts German measles
(Rubella) in the first three months of a
pregnancy runs a high risk of producing
a child with congenital defects. This is
also true for a mother who abuses alcohol during pregnancy. In these cases, the
abnormalities result from an environmental influence; a virus or alcohol.
Congenital defects like club foot, spina
bifida (an open spine at birth), and congenital heart defects are thought to be
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Mutation:
Incorrect base-pairing
Normal DNA
Mutation:
Incorrect sequence
of base pairs
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restrictions.
A
G
G
DNA with point mutations

FIGURE 7.20 Two examples of mistakes possible during DNA replication. Mistakes
like these occur frequently but may be corrected during replication. Changes like
these point mutations may result in defective proteins.
partly genetic, but the role of each of the

contributing factors is not known.
On the other hand, some mutations
cause genetic defects that are obviously
inherited. Some defects are caused by a
single abnormal gene. Diseases such as
hemophilia, albinism, cystic fibrosis, and
sickle cell anemia are produced by a single recessive gene mutation. In these cases
the undesirable defect is the result of a
change in the DNA code for a single gene.
Sickle Cell Anemia Sickle cell anemia

is a blood disorder inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. People who are
homozygous for this gene have Hb S, an
abnormal form of the oxygen-carrying
pigment, hemoglobin, in their red blood
cells. As a result, their red blood cells
take on a peculiar sickle shape instead
of the normal disc shape. The abnormal
shape leads to blockage of capillaries,
damage to other red blood cells, and severe anemia. This disease, which is often
fatal in early childhood, is caused by a
single amino-acid replacement in the
chains of this macromolecule. This
means just one change in a chain of 146
amino acids. This amino-acid replacement is brought about by a change of
one nitrogenous base along the DNA sequence coding for this protein! The ef202
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restrictions.
FIGURE 7.21 Sickle cells are the result of a

point mutation.
a) Normal red blood cells.
b) Red blood cells containing Hb S become
sickled in shape when oxygen is low.
fect of this seemingly harmless replacement is drastic and often lethal. The solution of this molecular puzzle involved
protein chemists, molecular geneticists,
and physiologists. Physicians and counsellors continue to be involved in the effort to support families who have a
member homozygous for the sickle-cell
allele. Treatment is provided through
transfusion and careful monitoring of the
persons lifestyle to avoid overexertion
and infection. Since 1998 attempts have
been made to treat some patients
through bone marrow transplants, a
treatment that itself carries some risk.
Cystic Fibrosis At the Hospital for Sick

Children in Toronto, in 1989, Dr. LapChee Tsui led a team that discovered the
chromosomal location of the gene
responsible for cystic fibrosis, a serious
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XY
X 1/2
XX

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.22 Lap-Chee Tsui led the Toronto

team responsible for locating the gene for cystic
fibrosis on chromosome 7.
condition inherited as an autosomal

recessive. Cystic fibrosis affects the lungs
due to excessive mucus production. The
mucus builds up and makes breathing
very difficult. Individuals who have cystic fibrosis must take many medications
to help them digest their food and have
daily physical therapy to clear their lungs
of mucus.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
The other major type of inherited
abnormality involves whole chromosomes rather than single genes.
Polyploidy, a condition where the cells
contain an extra whole set of chromosomes, is possible in some plants but is
lethal in humans and most other animals. A more common abnormality in
chromosome number is the result of an
extra chromosome or the absence of a
single chromosome, a condition called
aneuploidy. This type of defect tends to
be more severe than a single gene defect
and is often lethal before birth, due to
spontaneous abortion, or shortly after
birth. An individual possessing an extra
chromosome (that is, three of one kind)
is termed a trisomic while an individual
lacking one of a pair of chromosomes is
termed a monosomic. Trisomics and
monosomics usually arise as a result of an
Y 1/2
O 1/2
Gamete lacking a
sex chromosome
XO
Turners syndrome
YO
Will not survive
XX 1/2
Gamete formed
from nondisjunction
XXX 1/4
XXY 1/4
super female;
usually normal
Klinefelters
syndrome
1/4
abnormal meiotic division in which chromosomes fail to separate. This is termed

nondisjunction.
Down syndrome is one of the more
common abnormalities in chromosome
number observed in humans. Scientists
have been able to identify the cause of
this syndrome from karyotypes. Down
syndrome is caused by a third chromosome 21, an arrangement called trisomy
21. As a result, individuals with Down
syndrome have a total of 47 chromosomes in every body cell. Individuals with
this syndrome have characteristic faces,
eyelids, tongues, and hands, and are developmentally challenged in varying degrees both physically and mentally.
Nondisjunction also can affect the
segregation of the sex chromosomes, producing individuals with extra or missing
sex chromosomes. Nondisjunction may
occur in either the male or female parent
and in either division of meiosis. The outcomes of a mating involving gametes produced by nondisjunction in the female
parent are shown in the Punnett square
in Figure 7.23.
In addition to these numerical
anomalies, parts of chromosomes can
be altered during meiosis due to mistakes in crossing over. These mistakes
result in deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.
1/4
FIGURE 7.23 Nondisjunction

and its effect on the chromosome makeup of offspring.
The 0 indicates the absence of a sex chromosome.
Down Syndrome and

Population Genetics
Down syndrome occurs in about 1 out
of every 700 live births. This is the
average when mothers of all ages are
considered. Trisomies of chromosomes
other than 21 do occur but are not in
high frequency. These conditions have
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more damaging effects than Down syndrome, and therefore the fetus may
abort spontaneously or the child may die
shortly after birth.
Most of what you have learned so
far has been restricted to a consideration of a specific cross or the recurrence

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.24 This girl with

Down syndrome and her
mother learn how to use a
computer.

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.25 The karyotype

of a female individual with
Down syndrome. There are
three of chromosome 21
(arrowed).
TABLE 7.2 Down Syndrome

and Maternal Age
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Mothers age
Probability of Down
syndrome
2024
1 in 1925
2529
1 in 1205
3034
1 in 885
3539
1 in 365
4044
1 in 110
45 or older
1 in
32
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of a trait in a family. In medical genetics involving humans, these considerations are of obvious importance to the
individuals involved in the cross or family under study. Geneticists, however,
have extended their studies beyond this
level to study whole populations in population genetics. Researchers today
study the frequency of a gene in the gene
pool or the frequency of a genotype in
the whole population. The gene pool is
the term used to describe the pooling
of all the alleles for a specific trait in the
whole population.
Population studies, involving data
collected from thousands of births, have
found an obvious relationship between
maternal age and the frequency of Down
syndrome offspring. Dr. Irene Uchida, a
world famous cytogeneticist at the
McMaster University Medical Centre,
studied chromosomal abnormalities and
has conducted much research in this
area.
Table 7.2 shows statistics on the frequency of Down syndrome based on maternal age. The fact that 45-year-old
mothers produce a Down syndrome
child in 1 in 32 births may not appear
particularly abnormal. But if we compare this frequency to 1 in 1925 in 20year-old mothers, the effect of maternal
age is clearly significant. A comparison
of these two groups shows an increase
in the chances of a Down syndrome child
to be 60-fold. This information has been
helpful for counselling older expectant
mothers.
Researchers have recognized the importance of intensive training in Down
syndrome children prior to the age of
two. In many cases Down syndrome
individuals are able to integrate into society by attending traditional schools and
also receiving job training.
Table 7.3 summarizes some human
disorders that are produced by gene mutation or chromosomal abnormalities.
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TABLE 7.3 Genetic Disorders in Humans
Type of Genetic Disorder
Pattern or Means of Inheritance
Symptoms in Individuals Affected by Condition
Sickle cell anemia
autosomal recessive
blood disorder involving abnormal hemoglobin

red blood cells have a reduced ability to carry
oxygen and appear sickle-shaped in low oxygen
Cystic fibrosis
autosomal recessive
.
.
.
syndrome of effects
mucus accumulates in lungs
problems with digestion
autosomal recessive
severe brain deterioration due to improper fat

metabolism
usually causes death by age three or four
autosomal recessive
lack of pigmentation in skin
autosomal dominant
80% caused by a new mutation
abnormal bone growth results in short

legs/arms and prominent forehead
1 in 25 000 to 40 000 live births
Single Gene Defect
Tay-Sachs disease
Albinism
Achondroplasia
Huntingtons disease
autosomal dominant
brain tissue degeneration; onset around thirties

to forties, usually after reproductive years
Hemophilia
X-linked recessive
blood does not clot properly

predominantly in males
Red-green colour blindness
X-linked recessive
inability to distinguish between different

colours
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
X-linked recessive
progressive wasting of muscles

partial deletion of chromosome 5
improperly constructed larynx produces cry of

the cat sound to voice
mentally challenged
Chromosomal Defect
Cri-du-chat syndrome
Fragile-X syndrome
break in the long arm of X chromosome
abnormal facial features; mentally challenged

syndrome of effects
Down syndrome
trisomy 21/47 chromosomes
abnormal facial features, hands and feet, developmentally challenged in various ways
1 in 700 live births
sterile males, tall with long arms
breast development
1 in 800 live births
Klinefelter syndrome
XXY/47 chromosomes
one extra chromosome
Turner syndrome
XO/45 chromosomes
one missing sex chromosome
sterile females, secondary sexual features do

not develop fully
1 in 10 000 live births
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Pedigrees in Human Genetics
predicting the probability of having an affected child in subsequent pregnancies.

The patterns followed by simply inherited genetic traits (single gene defects) are
influenced by several factors. The pattern
within a family will be affected by:
a) whether the gene is on an autosome
(22 pairs in humans) or X-linked (on
the X chromosome)
b) whether the trait is dominant or
recessive
c) the chance of transmission of the
gene from the parents to children
(by way of the gametes)
The simplest patterns can be altered or
confused by many factors, especially
when multifactorial inheritance is involved. The following description considers only the three most common
patterns for simple inheritance. These
are:
a) autosomal recessive inheritance
b) autosomal dominant inheritance
c) X-linked recessive inheritance
A few of the many genetic diseases observed in humans have been described
in Table 7.3. Human geneticists have realized for a long time that these undesirable traits tend to run within family
groups rather than randomly across a
population. Geneticists have developed
a type of chart called a pedigree that is
useful to show the patterns of transmission of a trait within a given family. The
pedigree charts summarize family data
using a set of symbols. Figure 7.26 illustrates some of the more commonly
used symbols.
Pedigrees are usually produced after
an undesirable trait has appeared in a
family. Geneticists collect data on relatives, stretching back for as many generations as possible. The chart produced
may be of use to the geneticist in identifying the way the trait is transmitted or
it may be useful in counselling parents
on the cause of the disease, or in
male
heterozygotes for autosomal

recessive traits
female
carrier of X-linked recessive
mating
death
dizygotic twins (non identical)
marriage between related individuals
monozygotic twins (identical)
sex not specified
parents and children: with method

of identification, affected individual
is II-2
II
1
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number of children of specified sex
affected individuals
FIGURE 7.26 Some of the commonly used symbols in pedigrees
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The pedigrees for each of these three

types of inheritance are distinctive. The
features provide the necessary clues
for geneticists wishing to identify an inheritance pattern. The following stereotype pedigrees illustrate these useful
clues. The distinctive features of each
method of inheritance are also listed.
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FIGURE 7.27 Dr. Margaret

Thompson, a former member
of the genetics team at the
Hospital for Sick Children in
Toronto and an educator in
medical genetics.

Autosomal Recessive Inheritance The features of autosomal recessive inheritance

are:
Both parents of an affected individual must be heterozygous
Affected individuals may not appear
in every generation (that is, the trait
may skip generations)
Males and females are affected in
equal numbers (Figure 7.28).
I
1
Autosomal Dominant Inheritance The features of autosomal dominant inheritance

are:
Half of the children of an affected
parent are expected to be affected
The trait is transmitted only by affected individuals and does not skip
generations
Males and females are affected in
equal numbers
Father-to-son transmission is
possible (Figure 7.29).
II
1
III
1
IV
1
FIGURE 7.28 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal recessive inheritance
I
1
II
1
10
10
11
12
III
1
FIGURE 7.29 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal dominant inheritance
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X-linked Recessive Inheritance The features

of X-linked recessive inheritance are:
No father-to-son transmission
(affected father to carrier daughter
and in turn to half of her sons)
Predominantly males are affected;
affected females are extremely rare
The trait skips generations (Figure
7.30).
I
1
II
1
A famous pedigree is shown in Figure

7.31. This pedigree shows the inheritance of the X-linked genetic disorder of
hemophilia in the royal houses of
Europe.
III
1
FIGURE 7.30 Stereotype pedigree for X-linked

recessive inheritance
Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
III
Albert
Victoria
Empress
Frederick
IV
Kaiser
Wilhelm
II
Elizabeth
II
Edward
Duke of Kent
(17671820)
Victoria
(18191901)
Helena
Princess
Christian
Edward VII
Irene
Princess
Henry
George V
Duke
of
Windsor
VI
VII
Louis II
Grand Duke Hesse
George III
II
George
VI
Prince
Philip
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Waldemar
Earl
Mountbatten
of Burma
Henry
Prince
Sigismund
of Prussia
Alix (Alexandra)
Tsarina
Nikolas II
Frederick
William
Leopold
Duke of
Albany
Victoria
Eugnie, Leopold
wife of
Alfonso XIII
Alice
of
Athlone
Alexis
Anastasia
Margaret
Beatrice
Lady
May
?
Abel
Smith Rupert Alfonso
Viscount
Trematon
Gonzalo
?
?
Lady Prince Anne

Edward
Diana Charles
Andrew
3 Three female
Carrier female
IX
Hemophiliac male
William Henry
? Status uncertain
FIGURE 7.31 This pedigree represents one of the first useful applications of
pedigrees; showing the transmission of hemophilia in the royal families of Europe.
UNIT 2
Juan
Carlos
VIII
208
Maurice
Genetic Continuity
Sophie
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Constructing a Pedigree
A pedigree shows the patterning of transmission of a trait in a family. Choose a

trait that is easy to identify in humans such as tongue rolling or type of ear
lobe. Construct a pedigree for your family or that of a friends, outlining the
inheritance of this trait for as many related individuals as possible.
Section 7.2 Review

1. a) In your own words, define the term
mutation.
b) Distinguish between spontaneous
and induced mutations.
c) What mutagenic agents can induce
mutations?
2. Mutations in the gametes are more critical than those in body cells. Explain.
3. Identify some examples of single gene
defects.
4. Construct a flow chart to illustrate the
effects of the mutation that causes
sickle cell anemia. Demonstrate these
effects at the level of the gene, the messenger, and the protein.
5. What causes chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome where
the affected individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes?
6. What is a pedigree chart and why is
it useful in genetics studies?
7.
List factors that affect the pattern of inheritance for a given trait.
8. What are the three common patterns

of simple inheritance? Describe the
distinctive features of each of these
patterns.
9. Construct a pedigree chart including
the following features:
a) at least 4 generations
b) at least 25 individuals
c) autosomal recessive inheritance
d) 1 relative to relative marriage
e) 1 set of identical twins
10. A man with the genetic defect hiskulphobia marries a woman who does not
have the defect. They have eight children, four boys and four girls. One of
the daughters and three of the sons
have hiskulphobia. The hiskulphobic
daughter marries a normal man and
they have two boys with hiskulphobia
and three normal daughters. One of the
sons with hiskulphobia produces eight
children, four sons with hiskulphobia
and four normal daughters. Another
one of the sons with hiskulphobia produces four normal daughters, two normal sons and two sons with
hiskulphobia.
a) Produce a pedigree for this family
indicating the affected individuals.
Write in the genotypes of individuals where you can determine with
certainty their genetic make-up.
b) What inheritance pattern does this
trait appear to show? Explain your
answer.
11. How are studies in population genetics different from studies of individual
crosses? Why are studies of this sort
often valuable to the geneticist?
Applying Inquiry/
12. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have
been associated with negative effects
on the hatching of birds in Lake
Ontario. Design an experiment to investigate whether these effects are truly
genetic or merely environmental.
13. In the Canadian population, 80% of the
babies born with Down syndrome are
born to women under age 35. How
would you explain this?
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7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics

Key Understandings
explain the relationship between genetics and traditional breeding techniques
evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding
describe several methods of prenatal diagnosis and the use of each of these methods
explain the process and application of recombinant DNA
describe the draft results of the Human Genome Project
describe the steps involved in cloning
describe some uses of DNA typing in society today
describe ethical issues that must be considered when using current techniques in
genetics
The development of the modern concept

of the gene has been an amazing intellectual journey. From the idea of factors,
through that of a position on a chromosome, to a length of DNA that codes for
a particular protein, biologists have continued to learn about the nature of the
gene. Surprisingly, early discoveries had
little effect outside the university or
breeding laboratory. However, the technological developments that have led to
the mapping of the human genome and
the combining of DNA from different, unrelated organisms are bringing genetics
from the laboratory into society. No person today is unaffected by genetics.
Whether it is the possibility of knowing
our own personal genetic makeup or the
chance of being affected by a genetic disorder, applications of genetics are everywhere. As well, there are the ethical
issues such as whether we approve of
cloning or simply whether we will buy
and eat genetically modified foods.
Traditional Breeding
Strategies
Plant and animal breeders realized the
advantages of controlled or selective
breeding long before Gregor Mendel
manipulated pea plants. The earliest
farmers quickly realized the value of saving seeds from the best of the years
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Genetic Continuity
FIGURE 7.32 These Bassett hounds clearly

show the result of many generations of controlled
breeding.
crop. The best milk-producing cattle or

wool-producing sheep were mated while
the livestock of poorer quality was prevented from mating. The result, more
often than not, was a higher production
crop or a better quality herd. In some
cases, growers observed a mutation that
created a new characteristic that was
desirable in a crop. Seedless grapes and
the navel orange originated from these
chance mutations. These plants were
then cultivated using vegetative propagation, a method of asexual reproduction. Today many farmers rely on seed
companies to provide selectively bred
seeds or on skilled livestock breeders to
help them develop a quality herd.
Once a number of desirable traits
have been obtained in a plant or animal,
this set of traits can be passed from generation to generation intact as a result
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of a type of controlled breeding called

inbreeding. In plants, inbreeding
involves the self-pollination of a
desirable plant. This controlled selfpollination maintains a good crop because it prevents the introduction of any
new, possibly undesirable genes into the
plants genotype. In animals, a similar
result is attained by mating close relatives. In cattle, brother-sister matings
are used to maintain a good herd. The
intent of many generations of inbreeding in a plant or animal is to produce a
genotype homozygous for the desirable
traits.
There can be a serious drawback to
inbreeding. All organisms possess some
rare harmful recessive alleles that do not
express themselves in the heterozygous condition. There is an increased
chance that two of these recessive alleles could come together as a result of inbreeding. Two related individuals that
are crossed could have inherited the
same recessive allele from a common
ancestor. A homozygous recessive
individual could show some severe
abnormalities.
Another drawback of this
homogeneity (homozygous genotype) is
seen in the susceptibility of some plants
and animals to disease. The hazard of
losing a whole crop to blight or an insect attack may be increased.
Another method of selective breeding to ensure a quality crop or herd uses
a different approach. In hybridization,
two completely different parents, each
homozygous for a different desirable
trait, are crossed to produce a heterozygous plant or animal. Breeders
hope that the resulting hybrid will exhibit the desirable traits of both parents.
Hybridization or outbreeding has been
used extensively in the production of
high quality corn crops. The drawback
for the farmer is that seed must be purchased from the supplier every season.
In plants or animals when different
strains or species are crossed, the resulting offspring often show combinations of desirable traits (increased size,
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increased yield, quick development, etc.).

This tendency is termed hybrid vigour
to indicate the advantages that the hybrid offspring may gain because of their
genetic variability.
Genetic Screening
Genetic screening is used to identify
those individuals with an increased risk
of inheriting a disorder. This increased
risk is often tied to a group of specific ethnic background because these individuals share a common genetic background.
Screening may involve karyotype studies,
or biochemical tests. In many cases individuals heterozygous for a disadvantageous gene can be determined. Once this
information is obtained, appropriate
counselling or treatment can be given.
Huntingtons disease is a lethal disease inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. The disease does not appear
until after the affected individuals are in
their thirties or forties. When the disease does appear, the affected individual has often produced offspring. The
gene will be passed on to half of the offspring who will grow up with the knowledge that they may develop this
devastating disease. Geneticists can now
identify people who will be affected with
Huntington disease by testing for a genetic marker on the chromosomes.
This genetic screening technique has
advantages and disadvantages for the
families involved. To know that you will
develop a lethal disease at an early age
may have a greater negative effect on a
persons life than to be faced with a 50%
chance of the disease.
INFOBIT
A continuing low level of
thyroid hormone will result in
effects on mental development
in a developing child. Dr. Jean
Dussault and his colleagues
at Laval University have
developed a simple screening
test for newborns that detects
congenital hypothyroidism
and so allows treatment to
prevent developmental effects.
Genetic Counselling
Genetic counselling is offered at regional
genetic centres. The counsellor provides
and explains genetic information to educate patients and family practitioners
about both common and unusual genetic
conditions. This process offers non-directive counselling to many prospective
parents and to families with affected children. These groups can then make
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A Screening
Success Story
Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive trait involving the protein that
controls iron absorption. Scientists
have recognized that 1 in 10 people
of northern European descent are
carriers of this defect. Symptoms appear in adulthood after years of high
absorption of iron in the intestine.
This iron is then deposited in excessive amounts in the liver, heart, pancreas, and other organs. This leads
to tissue damage and, if left
unchecked, death. It was first recognized in 1865 in patients who had
diabetes, cirrhosis, and increased
skin pigmentation (brought on by the
iron deposits). Once the problem is
identified, effective treatment is available, so it is important to test for this
condition.
The gene responsible for this defect was identified on the short arm
Next Section
of chromosome 6 in the mid-1990s.

This discovery has resulted in an
increased accuracy of diagnosis and
the effective use of population screening. In addition, it has helped researchers in their efforts to
understand iron metabolism.
Hemochromatosis is caused by
one of two missense mutations involving simple nucleotide replacements in the DNA. In one case the
nucleotide guanine has been replaced
with adenine at nucleotide 845 and
in the other the nucleotide cytosine
has been replaced with guanine at
nucleotide 187. In either case the alteration results in a non-functional
protein.
In the past, doctors relied on the
measurement of iron levels in blood
serum to identify suspected cases of
hemochromatosis. However, this was
often confusing as other conditions
could cause similar effects. Liver
biopsies (where a small piece of liver
tissue is removed surgically) sometimes led to complications but were
necessary to identify affected individuals. Today, genetic tests done
on a small sample of blood are readily available and allow effective iden-
informed decisions about child rearing or

child bearing. The importance of the genetic counsellor becomes obvious if you
consider that about 5% of all births produce a child with physical or mental problems of varying severity. These problems
could be present at birth or could develop
later in life. Genetic counsellors have received special training in screening and
testing methods and are skilled in counselling and educating.
Today, genetic counselling is often obtained by people in one of the following
risk groups:
Pregnant women, 35 years or older,
because of the increased risk of bear-
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tification for many people, so that only

a few require liver biopsies. In the future, screening of whole populations
may be a cost-effective way to identify individuals prior to the onset of
this disease and subsequent tissue
damage. A population screening program for hemochromatosis has been
started in England because of the high
incidence of the disorder in the population. These types of programs will
most likely spread to other countries.
Once the correct diagnosis has
been established, the patient begins
therapy: a simple, inexpensive, and
safe treatment. Treatment involves
the removal of approximately 500 mL
of blood from the affected individual once a week in a process called
a phlebotomy. This lowers the iron
levels in the blood as this sample
would contain approximately 250 mg
of iron. Over time this decreases
excess iron stores and the frequency
of phlebotomy can be reduced.
Studies of this genetic abnormality will undoubtedly lead to a better understanding of iron absorption
and metabolism in this disease and
others involving iron metabolism.
ing a child with chromosomal abnormalities (especially Down syndrome).

Parents who have already produced
a child with a genetic abnormality.
Parents who have other family members with a genetic abnormality.
Couples from ethnic or racial groups
with a high risk for a specific genetic
disease (Tay Sachs, thalassemia and
sickle cell anemia). Often, carrier tests
can be used to identify two carrier
parents who could have an affected
child. Carrier screening tests have
been developed for the diseases mentioned above.
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The genetic counsellor must obtain

extensive background information about
a given family before appropriate counsel can be given. This background may
include the following:
1. The nature of the birth problem in
question
2. A family pedigree going back two or
more generations
3. Results of the examination of the affected individual (and sometimes
other family members) by a clinical
geneticist, a doctor specializing in
genetics
4. An assessment of the extent of the
role of the environment to clarify the
cause of the disorder. Environmental
influences can sometimes produce
what appears to be a genetic defect.
5. Results of laboratory tests if
appropriate
A diagnosis of the disease and the
probabilities involved must be clearly
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restrictions.
FIGURE 7.33 Genetic counsellors provide a

great deal of useful information to couples who
wish to have children. They are especially helpful
for parents who may be at risk.
identified by the counsellor. When the

genetic studies are completed, the
FIGURE 7.34 These genetic technologists are working in a typical genetics lab.
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WEBLINK
Explore the Web to find out
about genetic services that are
available in your community
and Canada-wide. Identify the
hospitals in your area that have
counselling services. What
genetic problems are screened
for in prenatal tests at
these facilities? Begin your
research at
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counsellor can assist other medical personnel in providing the family with a more
complete and realistic view of the situation. Once the nature of a problem has
been identified and the probabilities of recurrence and other implications have been
discussed, the family can then make more
informed choices about child bearing.
As we gain more knowledge about
genetic conditions and their transmission, the education of family practitioners becomes more important. A
knowledge of genetics and the gathering of family histories from patients by
family doctors becomes critical in recognizing potential problems and helping
families to get appropriate counselling
and treatment. Genetic counsellors at regional genetic centres can help educate
family doctors to make them effective in
this role. For example, most family doctors today monitor families with a
predisposition to cancer. Studies have
shown that some individuals have an increased chance of contracting cancer due
to their heredity. The monitoring of families with a history of breast or ovarian
cancer in women or colon or prostate
cancer in men is useful to identify people who are at increased risk for cancer.
This valuable information is instrumental in the early diagnosis and prevention
of cancer in these individuals.
Clearly, accurate genetic information
is of use in making many significant decisions. Most of the screening performed
today is to identify those at risk during
pregnancy and to outline the reproductive options. However, many scientists
suggest that screening techniques may
someday allow us to construct a
genetic profile of every individual. It has
been suggested that in the future this genetic prophecy may be used in making decisions about occupations or in
avoiding potentially harmful environments that might turn on undesirable genes.
Some groups that provide support
to individuals with genetic problems and
their families have concerns. They fear
that someday funding to support these
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individuals may be cut off or reduced if

society perceives that certain defects
should never occur if proper screening
techniques are used. This would raise a
very sensitive issue. How would an individual with a genetic problem (whose
parents chose not to be screened) feel if
society suggested that their condition
should never have occurred and that
they are financially responsible for their
own care?
Prenatal Diagnosis
Prenatal diagnosis involves the testing
of the fetus to check for a problem for
which the family is at risk.
The most widespread technique of
prenatal diagnosis, amniocentesis, is
usually performed during the sixteenth
week of pregnancy. A small amount of
the amniotic fluid that surrounds the developing fetus in the uterus is obtained
by inserting a needle through the
mothers abdominal wall. This fluid also
contains fetal cells that may reveal a
great deal of information about the fetus.
(Figure 7.36). Doctors use another technique called ultrasound (Figure 7.35) to
locate the position of the fetus and placenta to prevent any injury to the mother

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.35 This image of the fetus was created on a computer screen when high-frequency
sounds from an ultrasound scanner held against
the mothers abdomen bounced off the fetus.
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or fetus when the needle is inserted.

Ultrasound is also useful in visually identifying a large number of physical
anomalies. The technique of amniocentesis has been developed to the point
that it carries very little risk for the
mother or child.
The fluid obtained in the sample is
analysed biochemically. An elevated level
of alpha-fetoprotein may indicate the
presence of a neural tube defect such as
spina bifida. Children with spina bifida
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are born with part of the spinal cord exposed along the backbone. The cells obtained in the sample are grown in tissue
culture for subsequent biochemical and
chromosomal analysis including karyotyping. Problems such as trisomy 21
(Down syndrome) would be identified in
this testing. About half of the tests performed today are for mothers over 35
years of age. About one-third of the tests
performed involve the use of Maternal
Serum Screening. The remainder of the
1. AMNIOCENTESIS
1416 week fetus
centrifugation
DNA testing
amniotic
fluid withdrawn
several
weeks
later
fetal cell culture

placenta
uterus
2. CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING

912 week fetus
1. Results of biochemical tests
2. Karyotype
1
fetal cells
suctioned from
chorionic villi
17
18 19
1 day later
10
20
FIGURE 7.36 Two methods of prenatal testingamniocentesis and chorionic villus
11
21
12
13
22
This fetus has 3 copies

of chromosome 21
(Down syndrome)...
14
15
16
X Y
...and is a male
sampling
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tests are for individual family situations

based on a previous child with a detectable problem or on a family history.
Over 95% of the women at risk who
use amniocentesis find that their unborn
fetus does not have a genetic problem.
Thus in the majority of cases this technique offers reassurance to couples. If a
defect does exist, action may be taken
during pregnancy or soon after birth to
optimize delivery care and medical care
of the child. Although amniocentesis
does not guarantee a normal child, it
has added a new dimension to genetic
counselling.
An alternative to amniocentesis,
chorionic villus sampling, was developed in the 1980s. In this technique performed in the tenth week of pregnancy,
some of the cells from one of the membranes surrounding the fetus are
removed and analysed. Results of this
test can be obtained within one to two
weeks. Inconclusive results and an increased chance of miscarriage due to the
procedure compared to amniocentesis,
have reduced the frequency of use of this
technique. It is used for pregnancies that
have a high risk (greater than 25%) of a
severe genetic condition.
A less invasive testing procedure
known as Maternal Serum Screening
(or MSS) has been available since 1993.
This blood test is done on pregnant
women between the sixteenth and twentieth week of pregnancy and can be arranged through a doctor or midwife.
MSS is used to gain information about
the chance of a baby having Down syndrome, trisomy 18, or an open neural
tube defect. If the fetus has any of these
defects, it will produce abnormal
amounts of certain hormones that will
cross the placenta into the mothers circulation. These unusual levels can be
measured simply by testing a sample
of the mothers blood. In most cases
the levels of the hormones are in the
normal range and so a screen negative
result is produced. If the levels are
abnormal, a screen positive result, then
there is an increased chance that the
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Genetic Continuity
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child may have one of the three defects

targeted. In these cases an amniocentesis or ultrasound is then offered to find
out if the baby really has one of these
problems. MSS has provided yet another
tool for geneticists and prospective parents to gain useful information about a
pregnancy.
As our knowledge of the human
genome expands, prenatal tests will
become more sophisticated and informative. Screening techniques may someday be available to analyze the genetic
makeup of all individuals and not just
those at risk. If this happens, society has
to decide on the most appropriate application of the technology.
Recombinant DNA
One of the most amazing results of our
increased understanding of the gene has
been the development of recombinant
DNA techniques. These techniques allow
scientists to equip an organism with
DNA that is not normally found in that
organism. This new information, which
has been introduced into the host, can

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.37 These small circular segments of

DNA called plasmids that are not part of the bacterial chromosome, have been extremely useful
in recombinant DNA techniques.
Contents
Previous Section
then be used to cause the cell to produce

a specific protein. Simple organisms
used as the host, like bacteria, tend to
reproduce quickly. Thus, the protein can
be produced in large quantities.
Although this procedure was first performed with viral genes being inserted
into a bacterial host, scientists quickly
extended this transfer to inserting
human genes. One of the first successful transfers involved the human gene
for insulin production. Follow Figure
7.38 as you read the outline of this technique.
Next Section
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A segment of human DNA containing the insulin gene is isolated in the lab.
At the same time a circular molecule of
DNA called a plasmid is removed from
an E. coli bacterial cell (see Figure 7.37).
The two strands of DNA are now cut
using a type of chemical scissors called
a restriction enzyme. These sophisticated enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides along the DNA
strand and break the chemical bonds to
snip out a length of DNA. Scientists have
developed over 1000 different restriction enzymes to date. The specific
Human cell containing

gene of interest
Bacterium
protein synthesis
plasmid
DNA
bacterial
chromosome
human protein
of interest
1. Use restriction enzymes
to snip gene of interest
from the isolated human
genome.
Use same
restriction enzyme
to snip plasmid.
2. Insert gene into plasmid

(complementary sticky-ends
will fit together).
recombinant DNA
transformation
3. Transfer the plasmid back

into bacterial cell.
replication
4. Let bacterial cells replicate.
Harvest and purify the
human protein produced
by the plasmids inside the
bacterial cells.
bacterial
clones
FIGURE 7.38 This method

was perfected in 1982 for the
human insulin gene.
CHAPTER 7
217
Contents
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enzyme used in this procedure slices out

the insulin gene from the human DNA
and produces sticky ends on the E. coli
DNA that can recognize the ends on the
insulin gene. The sticky ends of the
two different DNA molecules are now recombined to form a single intact plasmid. This circular plasmid is then
inserted into another E. coli host cell.
When this host cell divides, the recombined plasmid is replicated. A huge number of E. coli cells can be produced, each
capable of producing human insulin.
This technique was perfected in 1982.
Once this gene was inserted into the E.
coli cell it turned the bacterial cell into
a mini-factory capable of producing
a cheap, endless supply of quality insulin
for diabetics.
Insulin was the first of many
important biological substances produced using recombinant DNA. Human
growth hormone (HGH) is produced in
a similar fashion today. This has replaced the traditional expensive technique of extracting this chemical from a
human source. The list of possible
applications of genetic engineering
Dr. Peter St. GeorgeHyslop and

Alzheimers Disease
Dr. Peter St. George-Hyslop is one of
the worlds top neurological researchers on Alzheimers disease.
Head of the Tanz Centre for Research
in Neurodegenerative Diseases, he
has personally discovered two of the
four genes that have been linked to
Alzheimers at his laboratories at the
University of Toronto. Dr. St. GeorgeHyslop is driven in his attempt to
understand and find treatments for
this disease that takes away the
218
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Genetic Continuity
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appears endless. Recombinant DNA is

now used extensively in the chemical,
pharmaceutical, and food processing industries. Many applications of recombinant DNA involve releasing genetically
altered organisms into the environment.
As a result, strict research guidelines
must be developed and enforced.
Recombinant DNA techniques have
been actively used in agriculture for
many years. There is debate continuing
between different sectors of society
and also different countries over the use
of genetically modified (GMO) foods.
Gene Therapy
Direct use of genetic techniques is part
of effective medicine today. Genetic
therapy is accomplished in one of two
ways. A normal gene product can be
given to an affected individual who
shows the symptoms of a disease. This
type of treatment is used extensively
today in treating the disease diabetes
with the normal gene product insulin. A
second method of therapy would be to
actually manipulate the abnormal DNA
ability to think and interact and

remember.
Alzheimers disease (known as
AD) affects approximately 300 000
Canadians today. Dr. St. GeorgeHyslops team of researchers are
striving to identify a gene that produces a protein that is thought to be
responsible for killing brain cells in
AD patients. He hopes that if the gene
can in fact be identified, then researchers can better understand how
it works and develop drugs to interact with the genes to halt the progression of the disease. The
identification of this therapeutic target would allow scientists to identify
potential AD victims in advance and
to begin treatment prior to the onset
of the disease.

FIGURE 7.39 Dr. Peter St. GeorgeHyslop in his lab at the Tanz Centre for
Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Contents
Previous Section
Dr. Barbara McClintock

1902-1992
Mendels work was not recognized at
the time that it was published. The
language that he used to explain
hereditary patterns was foreign to the
scientific community of his day. New
theories often meet with a great deal
of resistance. Another clear illustration of this pattern is seen in the work
of Barbara McClintock.
Geneticists initially thought that
the genome of any species was made
up of a fixed number of genes that
were arranged in unchanging sequences on the chromosomes.
McClintock presented a new view of
genomes. Barbara McClintock received her PhD from Cornell
University in 1927, took a research
position at the University of Missouri
in 1936 and came to the Cold Spring
Harbour Laboratories in New York in
1941. In 1945 she was appointed
president of the Genetic Society of

FIGURE 7.40 Spotted kernels in corn.

This characteristic provided the first
demonstration that genes could move
through the genome.
Next Section
America and was only the third

female member of the National
Academy of Sciences. This was
unusual as university research and
appointments of this type were dominated by males.
McClintocks research focused on
making the connection between the
behaviour of chromosomes in a special type of crossing over and the phenotypic effects on corn kernels. She
was interested in explaining why
some corn kernels had a spotted
appearance even though all of the
cells in a kernel had the same genetic
makeup and so should have had the
same pigmentation. The spotted appearance meant that, in some of the
cells of the kernel, genes for pigmentation were being turned off.
After meticulous experimentation
McClintock reasoned that a controlling element could be transposed
from one place to another on a chromosome. These elements, or jumping genes, would insert themselves
into the chromosomes and influence the activity of the neighbouring genes, turning them on or off. The
influence of these transposable elements caused some of the kernels to
have no pigment or to have spots of
purple on white. McClintock presented her findings at a major
genetics symposium in 1951.
McClintocks elegant model was
based on many years of rigorous
experimentation and data collection
but the suggestion that genes could
move met with great resistance. The
geneticists of the 1950s paid little attention to her theory. A basis for
her explanation was provided as
techniques in genetics became more
sophisticated in the late 1960s and
early 1970s. By that time the genetic
material had been identified as DNA,
the code had been deciphered, and
methods to study individual genes
had been developed. Her jumping
genes, or transposons as they are
now called, had started to appear in
experiments involving other species:
Quit

FIGURE 7.41 Barbara McClintock, a

superb researcher, decades ahead of her
time.
bacteria, insects, and even mammals

including humans.
These transposons are thought
to have many influences in a wide
range of species. They obviously have
a role in gene regulation and help
explain the wide range of variation
seen in certain proteins (like the pigmentation in corn kernels). These
transposons have been linked to the
development of drug resistance in
bacteria. In these bacteria, the transposable elements for drug resistance
can be passed from one bacterium to
another. Transposons help create
genetic diversity and may cause rapid
evolutionary change. They may also
provide a mechanism for genes to
move from one species to another.
Current research is attempting
to make the link between these
elements and human disease. In fact
some geneticists have suggested that
up to 50% of mutations in our
genome may be attributed to transposable elements.
Unlike
Mendel,
Barbara
McClintock lived to see the significance of her work recognized and
received the Nobel prize in 1983 at
the age of 81.
CHAPTER 7
219
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FIGURE 7.42 The effect of traditional gene therapy. Mice that have the gene defect for obesity, as shown on the left, can be injected with the normal gene product, leptin. These mice will eat less, burn more calories, and will not become
obese. This result is shown in the mouse on the right.
WEBLINK
Investigate how recombinant
DNA techniques are applied in
one of the following areas:
pollution control
mineral extraction
plant improvement
animal improvement
transgenics
Write a supported paragraph
on your chosen topic.
220
UNIT 2
in a parent or offspring in order to better treat a disease. Techniques to employ this second approach are no longer
just theoretical possibilities.
One of the most exciting and longterm goals of genetic engineering is to
actually correct some hereditary defects.
This type of gene therapy (human gene
transfer) would involve inserting a
proper working copy of a gene into the
cells that lack the ability to produce their
own protein. In the case of diabetes this
would involve the transfer of the normal
gene for insulin production into the cells
of the pancreas that lack this gene so
that the diabetic could produce insulin.
This technique would involve inserting
the insulin gene into a vector, such as a
virus, that would carry the gene to the
site in the body that requires the correct
copy of the gene. This vector would then
insert itself into these cells and transfer the required gene. These cells would
now have the ability to produce their
own insulin. The key is to get the gene
transferred into the stem cells at the
correct site. Stem cells are capable of di-
Genetic Continuity
Quit
viding and are not yet producing the

product, insulin. For the therapy to be
successful the modified stem cells would
have to divide and the new cells would
have to become differentiated to produce
insulin over the persons lifetime.
To date, scientists have encountered
several difficulties in human gene
transfer.
It is very difficult to get the correct
copy of the gene into enough cells in
the right location in the body. Many
genetic defects affect more than one
organ or one system. Researchers
suspect that our first successes will
involve those defects that are restricted to specific organs or a single system.
Sometimes the immune system of
the human recipient will undergo an
immune response that reduces the
effectiveness of the gene transfer.
There are problems getting the new
cell line to continue dividing and
producing the new protein.
In spite of these roadblocks, researchers
are enthusiastic about the potential of
gene therapy.
Some success has already been
achieved in treating Adenosine
Deaminase deficiency (ADA), a genetic
defect that involves a key protein in the
immune response. Children affected with
ADA cannot survive outside a sterile environment. They must be isolated in an
enclosed and carefully monitored chamber. Several documentaries have dealt
with bubble boy, a term derived from
the plastic chamber in which ADA children used to live. Now there is a partial
treatment of ADA, the first genetic condition to be treated by gene therapy.
Experimental therapies involving the removal of stem cells from the bone marrow followed by gene insertion and
reimplantation have been successful.
Several ADA patients have been able to
live nearly normal lives.
The availability of gene therapy techniques in humans will raise many social
and ethical issues. The greatest challenge
Contents
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will be to decide the extent to which

these techniques are used. Many ethicists feel that once we have the potential to alter human inheritance, these
techniques may be abused.
The Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project will ultimately map the location of somewhere
between 30 000 and 35 000 genes on
the chromosomes of the human genome.
In addition, the sequence of the bases
(A,C,G, and T) in the nucleotides of the
DNA comprising each gene will be catalogued. The project began in 1990 and
now involves the co-ordinated efforts of
at least 40 countries. The development
of specialized sequencing machines
(Figure 7.43) and the input of funds
from companies anticipating the commercial applications of this information
have ensured the progress of the meticulous research. As a result, the completion of the project is ahead of
schedule, with the rough draft of the
human genome published in 2001. The
finished sequence should be available
sometime in 2003.
The rough draft outlines approximately 95% of our genome and has identified many interesting and surprising
facts. The list below outlines some of the
information released in the initial draft.
The distribution of genes on the
human chromosomes is surprising.
Our functional genes are concentrated at specific places in our
genome, with other large regions
simply containing so-called junk
(or non-coding) DNA. These areas
that serve no apparent purpose
comprise 50% of our genome, a very
high percentage when compared
to other organisms like the worm,
C. elegans (7%) and the fly,
D. melanogaster (3%). See Table 7.4
on page 222.
It was originally thought that we had
approximately 100 000 genes in our
genome. Current estimates put this
number at somewhere between
FIGURE 7.43 Sophisticated

sequencing machines have helped
scientists complete the Human
Genome Project ahead of
schedule. The insert shows a computer screen with a sequence of
base pairs forming part of the
human genetic code. Each
coloured band represents one of
the four nucleotide bases.
30 000 and 35 000. This is only

twice as many genes as the worm or
fly. How can we explain human complexity with so few genes? Scientists
are suggesting that individual genes
may be somehow responsible for the
production of more than one protein
and that the interaction of our genes
is more sophisticated than that of
other organisms.
More than 200 genes in the human
genome are similar to genes in
numerous types of bacteria, suggesting that there have been several
different gene transfers from different forms of bacteria during recent
evolution.
Scientists have been able to identify
the ratio of mutations in males versus females by studying the X and
Y chromosomes. They found that the
ratio of mutations in males versus
females is 2:1.
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Different regions of DNA have sequences that are almost identical to

one another even though they may
be far apart on a given chromosome
or even on different chromosomes
altogether. These repeated sequences
are the result of transposable elements that have spread by inserting
copies of themselves in various
places in the genome. As much as
50% of our genome may be derived
from these transposable elements.
The human genome is now estimated to contain 3 164 700 million
code letters (nucleotides).
Recombination rates appear to be
higher towards the ends of chromosomes and also on the chromosomes with short arms. The rate of
crossing over has been estimated as
one crossover per chromosome arm
in each meiosis.
Quit
The completion of this project does not

mean scientists now have a complete
understanding of our genetic traits.
This simply means that we know the
location and code of each gene. The
ultimate goal of the geneticist is to understand the relationship between
genotype and phenotype. This will increase the understanding of disease.
What alterations in the code cause disease and why? Why are some alterations harmless while others are so
detrimental? Using this Book of Life
to find the answers to these questions
is the work of the twenty-first century.
The human genome is not the first
genome to be analyzed. Geneticists have
outlined the gene sequence in numerous
organisms starting with yeast in 1989.
Table 7.4 summarizes the sequencing of
several organisms and the possible
applications of this knowledge.
TABLE 7.4 The Sequencing of Genomes
Organism
222
S. cerevisiae
yeast
E. coli
bacteria
C. elegans
worm
D. melanogaster A. thaliana
fruit fly
thale cress
H. sapiens
human
M. musculus
mouse
Sequencing
1989
process began
1991
1990
1999
1996
1990
1999
Sequencing
process
completed
1996
1997
1998
2000
2000
2003
rough draft
available 2001
2005
Number of
chromosome
pairs
16
single
prokaryotic
chromosome
23
20
Number of
base pairs
12 million
4.6 million
100 million
180 million
119 million
Approx.
3 billion
3 164 700 million
Number of
genes
6 241
4 405
19 000
13 600
25 500
Approx. 30 000 Approx.

35 000
40 000
Possible
applications
Knowledge of
genetic
function
Used in gene
Shows how
splicing to
genes construct
transfer human tissues
insulin gene
Used in more
advanced
methods of
gene
sequencing
Allows us to
improve
nutritional
value of crops
May lead to
ability to
eliminate
genetic
conditions
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
Used as
models for drug
tests on genetic
conditions
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Cloning
There are different levels of cloning. The
production of insulin by bacteria is a
method of gene cloning as all the bacteria have the same new foreign gene in
their cells. Biologists often grow cells that
are identical to each other for studies of
cell processes. These are cellular clones.
Today, biotechnology in combination
with reproductive technology is being
used to produce clones of whole organisms by transfer of a complete nucleus.
This is nuclear cloning. The resulting
clones are identical to each other in
terms of the DNA found in their cells.
One of the more successful groups
headed by Ian Wilmut of Scotland produced the widely publicized Dolly in
1997. Dolly was the first mammal cloned
from the cells of another adult mammal.
Dolly was produced using the following method:
Cells from the udder of a six-yearold sheep were cultured in the lab.
An egg cell of a second sheep was
extracted and its nucleus was
removed.
The enucleated egg was then placed
beside one of the nucleated udder
cells in a Petri dish.
A small electric change was passed
through the egg cell and the two
cells fused.

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.44 Dolly, the first

mammal produced by nuclear
cloning
The egg cell now behaved as if it had

been fertilized by the normal means
and began dividing. The DNA (from
the mature udder cell) was somehow reprogrammed by the proteins
in the egg cell to direct the normal
development of an embryo.
The embryo was put back into a surrogate mother sheep.
Dolly was born 21 weeks later.
Dolly is the identical clone of the sheep

that donated the DNA from the udder
cells. One area of concern with this type
of nuclear cloning is that Dolly is aging
at the same rate as the sheep that donated the nucleus from the udder cell,
surrogate
mother
udder cells
1
DNA
5
2
4
6
egg
3
Dolly
FIGURE 7.45 Cloning Dolly. An udder cell 1 from a white sheep and an enucleated egg 2 from a black sheep were 3 stimulated with an electric current. Fusion
4 occurred. The embyro was implanted in 5 a surrogate mother. Dolly 6 was
born.
CHAPTER 7
223
Contents
Investigation
Refer to page 228,
Investigation 1.
Previous Section
rather than at the rate of a sheep born

on the day Dolly was born.
Since the birth of Dolly, Wilmut has
extended this technique to include
recombinant DNA. He inserted the
human gene for clotting Factor IX, a
chemical missing in one type of
hemophilia, into the sheep DNA donor
cell. The resulting clone that was produced, named Polly, now produces this
human protein. The production of this
type of transgenic clone is thought to
have extensive applications in both the
production of human chemicals and in
DNA Profiling
In the mid-1980s a British geneticist
named Alec Jeffreys developed a new
method of identifying people on the
basis of their DNA. Each person has
nucleotide sequences that are repeated many times at different locations on the chromosomes. These
repeat sequences dont code for any
protein and vary from person to person. The identity process of DNA
profiling or fingerprinting has now
replaced to a great extent the use of
blood types to convict criminals or to
identify fathers in paternity cases.
The steps in this process are:
1. A DNA sample is removed from
some nucleated cells. A very
small sample of semen, saliva,
hair roots, or blood can provide
sufficient DNA.
2. The DNA sample is treated with
restriction enzymes to cut the
DNA into pieces of varying
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Genetic Continuity
3.
4.
5.
6.
Quit
the use of animal organs for human

transplantation. Recombinant DNA techniques could be used to remove the
sheep genes for proteins that would
cause organ rejection in transplantation.
These genes could be replaced with
human genes that would be compatible
with the genes of an organ recipient. The
use of animals for this purpose and the
potential to clone humans raise many
questions about the ethics of such practices. Still more questions will be raised
as more technologies are developed.
lengths. The size of these pieces

will vary with the lengths of the
repeat sequences that the DNA
donor possesses.
The pieces of DNA are run
through a process called gel electrophoresis. This separates the
numerous DNA fragments based
on their length. The smaller fragments migrate further in the gel.
This arrangement of pieces with
the order intact is transferred to
a sheet of nylon.
The nylon is treated with
radioactive probes. These probes
are sequences of DNA that
will recognize complementary
sequences in the segments on the
nylon.
An X-ray film is exposed to the
nylon, with the radioactive probes
showing the location of the different segments. A pattern that looks
like a bar code is produced that is
unique to the individual tested.
Figure 7.46 shows how DNA

profiles are used in forensic investigations. The profile from DNA in the
bloodstain labelled in Figure 7.46 is

compared to a number of profiles
from different individuals. One of
these profiles, number 3, is a clear
match to the bloodstain profile.
FIGURE 7.46 Evidence of a match. Only

one of the DNA profiles matches that of
the bloodstain profile.
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Case
Defining the Issue

Study
What Genes Can Tell Us

Huntingtons disease is a neurological disorder that affects portions of the central

nervous system that regulate movement,
intelligence, and behaviour. Onset of the
disease usually occurs at about age 40, and
the average life expectancy of a person with
Huntingtons disease is 55 years.
Huntingtons is an inherited disease
caused by an autosomal dominant trait.
The gene for the disease is passed from
parents to offspring from one generation
to the next. There is a 50/50 chance that
offspring of a parent with the Huntingtons
gene will manifest the disease. A test is
available that will indicate if an individual
will get the disease by identifying a genetic
marker on chromosome 4. The test cannot indicate when onset of the disease will
occur.
For individuals who are at risk for
Huntingtons disease, the decision whether
or not to take the test may be a difficult one.
They have to consider the impact positive
test results will have on their lives and
the lives of their loved ones. In addition,
the test is very expensive and so cost may
be a factor.
FIGURE 7.47 A lab technician examines a DNA profile. Sophisticated

profiling techniques allow identification of individuals who have the gene
for Huntingtons disease.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Identify the issue presented to a person who is at risk

for Huntingtons disease.
4.
Complete a risk/benefit chart to summarize your

research.
2.
Research Huntingtons disease, focusing on symptoms,

treatment, and the social impact of the disease.
5.
3.
When a person at risk for Huntingtons decides to take

the test, who are the people who will be impacted by the
test results?
Write a personal opinion piece, explaining what you

would advise someone at risk for Huntingtons disease
to do.
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The Ethics of Current

Practices
The techniques and practices discussed
in this section have the potential to alter
and direct the path of evolution in many
species of organisms, including our own.
Genetic manipulation can bring about
sudden and significant changes in an organisms characteristics. Many ethicists
today say that we have no right to alter
the genetic makeup of any species.
There is no guarantee that use of this
technology will produce change that is
in the best interest of the species, or of
other species with which the altered
species interacts. The complexity of the
interactions of genes means that altered
organisms could have the potential to
cause great harm. For this reason, strict
regulations now control the type and extent of recombinant DNA technology permitted in the lab.
Our society has far more information about the genetic makeup of species
than ever before. The Human Genome
Project and the advancement of improved identification techniques may
soon give us a glimpse of individual
humans genetic potential and predisposition to disease at a very early age.
Do people want this information? For
example, although most cancers have no
obvious genetic link, about 10% of
women with breast cancer have inherited a gene that indicates a predisposition to breast cancer. Would these
women behave differently if they knew
they had this gene? Would they seek
more intensive medical monitoring than
if they did not know they had the gene,
or than if they did not have the gene at
all? Difficult questions also arise in relation to Huntingtons disease (an autosomal dominant disease). There is
currently no cure for Huntingtons disease. Most people manifest this serious
illness in their thirties or forties. Would
these people like to know that they will
become ill, or would they prefer to live
their lives without the knowledge of their
future?
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Genetic Continuity
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Human genetic information has

the potential to be misused. People could
be subjected to genetic discrimination or
bias on the basis of their genetic
makeup. Decisions about peoples opportunities are made every day. If peoples access to employment, education,
insurance, or medical treatment, for example, are made in relation to their
genetic makeup, ethical questions will
arise. In the 1960s sickle-cell carriers
were inappropriately denied insurance.
This practice has now been prohibited.
We naturally think of genetic information as private. Most people view the
idea of using genetic information as an
invasion of privacy. Yet the use of genetic
information could benefit society in some
instances. For example, England has
several hundred thousand DNA profiles
of individuals who have criminal
records. Some people believe that these
profiles should be actively used by police to solve crimes and to prevent future crime.
Government regulations do not always keep pace with the advancement
of biotechnology and commercial applications. Several current applications
have been developed prior to any consideration of the legal and ethical ramifications. Many countries are just now
outlining restrictions or bans on nuclear
cloning, well after the development of
this technique. New questions are being
raised every day. For example, a possible decision facing parents in the future
relates to the use of stem cells. Medical
research suggests that stem cells from
umbilical cord blood can be frozen and
used in future cancer treatment. Will the
freezing of stem cells be an option for
future parents? What will be the implications of their decision?
With the laboratory as a classroom,
researchers learn more and more every
day about how to interact with the genetic code to predict, prevent, and treat
disorders and diseases. These new technologies have the power to enhance the
quality of life. They also challenge our
Contents
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ethical beliefs and multiply the choices

we will face in our lifetimes. The view of
the future that genetic research provides
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brings with it the need for responsible

and ethical application of what we learn.
Section 7.3 Review

1. Why is it advantageous to control
breeding in plants and animals?
2. How is inbreeding performed in
a) plants
b) animals?
3. List the problems that can result from
inbreeding.
4. Conduct research to find and describe
an example of hybridization in plant
and animal breeding.
5. Briefly outline three of the roles of
genetics in medicine.
6. What types of individuals are most
likely to consult with a genetic counsellor?
7.
Briefly explain how amniocentesis is

performed.
8. Write a supported paragraph on the

use of recombinant DNA today. How
might this process be used in the future to actually eliminate some hereditary diseases?
9. Outline the steps in each of the
following:
a) DNA profiling
b) recombinant DNA
c) cloning of mammals such as Dolly
Making Connections
10. Each of the following statements concerns an issue that society may have
to deal with as gene therapy and
genetic screening become more

commonplace. Read the four statements and select one. Make a pointform Agree/Disagree chart to consider
both sides of the issue. Once you have
completed this summary chart, write
a position paper outlining your position on one of the issues described. In
order for your work to be persuasive,
you must consider both the legal and
ethical aspects of the issue. In addition,
you should also discuss/dispel some of
the arguments that people with the opposing viewpoint would suggest.
a) Prospective parents who have a
family history of a genetic condition
that can be identified in prenatal
testing and are at risk should be required to undergo genetic screening.
b) Ultimately you would hope all parents would take advantage of
screening techniques in an effort to
reduce the frequency of children
born with genetic abnormalities.
c) As long as there are strict guidelines
controlling gene therapy, society will
not have to be concerned about
abuses of this technology.
d) Private biotech companies that have
invested millions of dollars in the
Human Genome Project have a right
to obtain patents for specific gene
sequences. Other private companies
or research facilities should have to
ask permission or even pay to use
this information in their studies.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 7.3)
Gel Electrophoresis Simulation

The application of gel electrophoresis was described
for the production of DNA profiles. This technique can
also be used to determine the size of fragments from
digested samples of DNA. This type of information has
helped in analyzing DNA and in the ultimate sequencing of DNA. The following exercise is a simulation of this technique.
Gel electrophoresis combines the techniques of chromatography and electrophoresis. DNA samples that
have been treated with restriction enzymes, that split
the DNA into fragments of varying size, are loaded in
wells at one end of a sheet of gel. This gel is usually
made of agarose, a naturally occurring substance
extracted from a type of seaweed. An electric field is
applied to LAL1
the gel, and the DNA fragments migrate
across the gel from the cathode (negative end) towards
the anode (positive end). Macromolecules separate
according to their molecular weight and charge. Small
fragments move farther through the microscopic pores
in the agarose gel. The gel contains a stain that causes
the DNA fragments to show up and a striped pattern
results. This technique is summarized in Figure 7.48.
The movement of a DNA fragment of a specific
size will be constant if the conditions of electrophoresis are the same (that is, voltage applied, gel type and
concentration, and time allowed). Scientists have collected data on DNA markers, samples that have been
digested by restriction enzymes into fragments of
known size. The length of these fragments is described
as a number of base pairs (bp) for small fragments or
kilobase pairs (kb = 1000 base pairs) for larger ones.
Under set electrophoresis conditions, these known
fragments will have the same relative mobility value
(Rf) that is calculated using the following equation.
Rf =
distance that the DNA fragment travels from

the start (at the well in the gel)
distance from the start to the end point of
the gel
Information from these markers is used to plot standard curves on semi-log graph paper. The fragment
size (in bp or kb) is plotted vs. the Rf value of these
DNA segments of known size. The curve is used to
determine the size of unknown DNA fragments.
Using Tools, material, Equipment
Problem
How many base pairs (bp) are present in DNA fragments that have undergone gel electrophoresis?
Materials

ruler
calculator
note paper
scissors
standard curve of fragment size
Procedure
1. On a blank sheet of note paper, construct a scale
down the left-hand margin. Your scale should start
with 0 cm at the top of the margin. This will represent the negative electrode where the sample wells
are located at the start. Run your scale down the
margin to 20 cm, which will represent the end point
and positive end of the electrophoresis process. Place
a horizontal line across your page at the starting
point and at the end point.
2. Cut a strip of paper 1 cm wide and 15 cm long. This
represents your unknown DNA sample. This sample has been treated with a restriction enzyme and
has been split into five fragments. Cut your sample
into five fragments with the following lengths:
Fragment # 1 5.6 cm
Fragment #2 4.4 cm
Fragment #3 2.2 cm
Fragment #4 1.7 cm
Fragment #5 1.1 cm
3. Following gel electrophoresis these fragments have
arranged themselves on the gel the following distances from the start (that is, from the wells at the
top of your page).
Fragment #1 7 cm
Fragment #2 8 cm
Fragment #3 11 cm
Fragment #4 12 cm
Fragment #5 14 cm

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UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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(continued)
mixtures of DNA
fragments of different sizes
FIGURE 7.48 Three samples of DNA have been treated with different combinations of restriction enzymes and have been placed in the wells at the top of the
gel. When an electric charge is applied to the gel, the fragments migrate through
the pores with the smaller fragments travelling farther down the gel. The completed
gel has three different patterns of fragments because different restriction enzymes
have been used on the three samples.
cathode
long fragments
gel
power
source
glass
plates
short fragments
anode
completed gel
Analzing and Interpreting
1. Describe the general trend that you observe for

the arrangement of your fragments on the gel.
2. Calculate the Rf values for each of the fragments.
3. The graph in Figure 7.49 represents the standard
curve plot for the conditions of your gel electrophoresis. Use this graph to determine the size
(number of base pairs) of each of the five fragments
in your unknown sample.
4. How many base pairs were in the original sample
of DNA (your 15 cm strip of paper)? How did you
calculate this value?
5. Describe how this type of information is important

to scientists studying DNA today.
6. This technique can be used to study genetic variation in populations. A specific protein is extracted
from members of the same population and these
samples are subjected to protein electrophoresis.
The different molecular forms of the protein resulting from differences in genotype create bands at
different locations in the gel. By studying variations
at a number of loci, similarities in individuals in the
population can be studied. Describe several uses
of this type of information.
Extending
Fragment size (bp)
100 000
10 000
1 000
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Rf value
0.6
0.7
0.8
7. Research gel electrophoresis to describe the

following:
a) specific details of the process and the equipment
used
b) different types of restriction enzymes and gels
and the type of testing in which they are used
c) applications of these techniques in genetics
8. The technique of gel electrophoresis is so precise
that it is possible to determine if the individual being
tested is homozygous or heterozygous. Discuss how
this fact might be applied in genetic studies.
FIGURE 7.49 Standard curve of fragment size versus Rf
value
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 7.1)
DNA Extraction
Using Tools, Materials, Equipment
Many sophisticated biochemical techniques exist today

for the analysis of DNA. Techniques like DNA profiling
or the production of a karyotype that once appeared to
be quite complicated are now used extensively in society in medical and legal settings. The advent of sequencing techniques used in the Human Genome Project
has raised the level of biochemical analysis to new
heights. Regardless of what DNA manipulation is being
carried out, scientists must have samples of DNA that
have been extracted from the cells under study. In this
lab you will extract a DNA sample from an onion.
7. Insert a glass stirring rod into the tube and spool the
DNA onto the glass rod by slowly twirling the rod.
8. Place some of the DNA fibres on a microscope slide
and observe them under a microscope.
9. Place some of the fibres on blue litmus paper and
observe any colour change.
10. Place 10 mL of water in the third test tube and add
some of the DNA sample to the water using the glass
stirring rod. Stir the contents with the rod.
Problem
1. What purpose is served by cutting the onion into

very small pieces?
2. What effect does the extraction solution have on the
onion sample?
3. What does the filtering process tell you about the
DNA molecules?
4. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA. What
physical features can you observe in the extract that
makes you believe it is DNA?
5. What happened when the isopropanol was added
to the liquid that passed through the filter? What
does this tell you about the behaviour of DNA?
6. What happens when you place some of the DNA
sample in water and stir it? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
7. What happened when you tested the DNA sample
with the blue litmus paper? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
How can we extract DNA from onion cells?
Materials LAL1

120 mL of water
1.5 g uniodized salt
5 g baking soda
5 mL shampoo (no
conditioner!)
10 mL isopropanol
(chilled)
scalpel
1/8 of an onion

filter paper
glass Petri dish
250-mL beaker
3 large test tubes with
stoppers
glass stirring rod
blue litmus paper
safety goggles
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles during the DNA extraction.
Procedure
1. Prepare the DNA extraction solution by mixing
the water, shampoo, salt, and baking soda in a
250-mL beaker.
2. Place the section of onion you have been given in
the Petri dish and cut into small pieces. Gradually
add water as you cut the onion to give the final
product the consistency of applesauce.
3. Place 5 mL of the onion mixture in one of the large
test tubes and add 10 mL of the DNA extraction
solution that you prepared in step 1.
4. Place a stopper in this tube and shake the tube vigorously for 2 minutes.
5. Filter the contents of the tube into another large test
tube. Keep the filtrate and discard the onion residue.
6. Add 10 mL of isopropanol to the liquid in this
tube and gently swirl the contents to mix the isopropanol with the contents of the tube. Long strands
of DNA should now start to appear.
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Genetic Continuity

8. List the characteristics/features of DNA that are
identified in this investigation.
9. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA if it
is heated.
10.Explain the effect of temperature in terms of the
viscosity of the DNA material.
Extending
11.Carry out research to identify the role of each of the
following substances used in this investigation:
shampoo, baking soda, salt, and isopropanol
12.Repeat this investigation with other plant sources
of DNA and compare the results and success rate
to those of the onion extraction.
Adapted with permission from Lets Talk Science, Partners in Science
Newsletter Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2000.
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Key Terms
amniocentesis
autosomes
chorionic villus sampling
(CVS)
cloning
congenital defect
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA profiling
(fingerprinting)
double helix
Down syndrome
genetic counselling
genetic screening
genetic therapy
hemophilia
homogeneity
Human Genome Project
karyotype
Maternal Serum Screening
messenger RNA (mRNA)
mutagen
pedigree
plasmid
recombinant DNA
replication
restriction enzyme
selective breeding
semi-conservative
teratogens
transcription
translation
ultrasound

7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

Chromosomes isolated from cultured cells can be

isolated, stained, and grouped in homologous pairs
in a chart called a karyotype.
Each species has a specific number of chromosomes
in all body cells.
In humans the male genotype is identified as XY
while the female genotype is XX.
X-linked traits like hemophilia affect far more males
than females.
Scientists are attempting to map the loci of specific genes on the chromosomes in gene maps.
James Watson and Francis Crick outlined the molecular structure of the chromosomal chemical, DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
Replication is termed semi-conservative because the
halves of the DNA molecule are conserved, one in
each of the two chains of DNA produced.
DNA can produce a message during transcription
(mRNA) to direct cell activity outside of the nucleus.
The messenger RNA is translated at the ribosome
during protein synthesis.

7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics

7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees

A mutation may occur spontaneously or it may be

induced.
Genetic conditions like hemophilia are the result
of a single gene defect.
Genetic conditions like Down syndrome result from
an abnormal number of chromosomes.
In population genetics researchers study the frequency of a gene in the gene pool or the frequency
of a genotype in the whole population, rather than
in individuals or families.
Population genetics studies have identified an

increased risk of a Down syndrome birth in older
mothers.
Pedigrees are a very useful method of illustrating
family histories for specific traits.
The mode of inheritance of a particular trait can
often be determined by studying a pedigree
involving that trait.

Desirable combinations of traits can often be

obtained in agriculture using inbreeding or
hybridization techniques.
Inbreeding may result in the appearance of a rare
and sometimes severe genetic abnormality.
Genetic counsellors provide a valuable service for
prospective parents.
Amniocentesis, ultrasound, maternal serum screening and chorionic villus testing often provide valuable information about the fetus.
Recombinant DNA techniques are used to splice
together the genetic information of two different
organisms.
Recombinant DNA has allowed scientists to make
bacterial factories useful in the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food processing industries.
One of the long-term goals of genetic engineering
techniques is to cure genetic defects using gene
therapy.
DNA profiles have been extremely useful in convicting criminals.
The cloning technique used to produce Dolly may
have extensive applications in agriculture.
The current and potential applications of our knowledge of genetics raises many ethical issues.

1.
One of your focuses for this chapter is the consideration

of the ethics of genetic technologies that are available
CHAPTER 7
today. Outline five different issues that must be dealt with

when society pursues genetic biotechnologies.
Using Our KnowledgeC HofA Genes,

DNA
P T E R 7 Chromosomes,
Genetics andand
Society
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CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
1. Harmful X-linked traits determined by a recessive gene
a) tend to appear in females only
b) do not skip generations
c) are usually not passed on from father to son
d) are usually passed on by carrier males
2. Which of the following statements about chromosomes
is true?
a) the greater the number of chromosomes, the more
complex the organism
b) different species of organisms have different diploid
numbers of chromosomes
c) the characteristics of a species are not determined
simply by the number of chromosomes but rather
by the specific information on the chromosomes
d) most organisms have less than 10 chromosomes
3. Humans possess
a) 22 pairs of sex chromosomes and 1 pair of autosomes
b) 23 pairs of autosomes
c) equal numbers of autosomes and sex chromosomes
d) 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes
4. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
farther apart linked genes are on the chromosome

the more frequent the crossovers
the less likely they are to be separated by a crossover
the less likely they are to assort independently
the greater the chance of a mutation
5. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
most important job of the genetic counsellor is to

decide if couples should have children
make decisions for prospective parents
decide who should have amniocentesis
provide useful information for parents
6. Which parent ultimately decides the sex of a child?

Explain.
7. Which type of genetic defect is easiest to identify in a
karyotype?
8. In a pedigree how would you recognize that a particular trait is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait?
9. Describe how the structure of DNA leads to its possible
self-replication.
10. List the negative effects of homogeneity.
11. How are inbreeding and hybridization different in terms
of the genotypes produced? When is it advantageous to
use each approach?
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Genetic Continuity
12. Distinguish between the two types of genetic technologies, screening and therapy.
13. How have restriction enzymes been critical in recombinant DNA techniques?
14. Does amniocentesis guarantee a healthy baby? Explain
your answer.
15. What type of parental cross could produce a hemophiliac female?
16. Describe some surprising information that is being
released concerning the Human Genome. How is this
information creating a different view of the genome
when compared to our view prior to the release of this
information?
17. a)
b)
How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in

the cells of a Turner syndrome individual? Explain
your answer.
How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in
the cells of a Klinefelter syndrome individual?
18. Scientists were initially puzzled when studying the function of DNA by the ability of the DNA in the nucleus to
control the activity going on in the cytoplasm. They were
particularly puzzled by the fact that the DNA never left
the nucleus. How is this control feat accomplished?
Applying Inquiry/
19. Colour blindness is inherited as an X-linked recessive.
A heterozygous (for eye colour) brown-eyed normal male
is married to a heterozygous brown-eyed, colour-blind
female. Use a Punnett square to determine the answer
to the following questions. Assume that a heterozygous
brown-eyed individual carries the recessive allele for
blue eyes.
a) What is the probability that they will have a daughter who is a carrier for colour blindness with brown
eyes?
b) What is the probability that they will have a son who
is colour-blind with blue eyes?
c) What is the probability that they will have a colourblind child?
20. A woman, who is a carrier for colour blindness, has 8
children, 4 boys and 4 girls. Each of her children marry
and have 8 children, 4 boys and 4 girls once again. Of
her 64 grandchildren, how many would you expect to
be colour-blind males according to probability? Assume
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that her marriage and her childrens marriages are with

people not carrying the recessive allelle.
21. An old man said to his grandson, One quarter of you is
me. Is this statement correct in terms of the genetics
involved? Explain.
22. In the fruit fly, Drosophila, red eye (R) is dominant to
sepia eye (r), and straight wing (S) is dominant to curved
wing (s). These genes are carried on different chromosomes. If a pure breeding sepia-eyed, straight-winged
fly is mated with a pure breeding red-eyed, curve-winged
fly, what phenotypes and genotypes will appear in the
F1? If two of these F1 flies are allowed to mate, what phenotypes will be observed and in what ratio?
23. Studies have shown that more male babies are conceived
than female. How might this be explained? Eventually
throughout childhood these numbers become the same.
Why is there a higher mortality of male babies prior to
birth and after birth?
24. Construct a model of the DNA molecule showing its chemical makeup. Your model should clearly illustrate how
this molecule contains a coded message.
25. Consider the trait of hitchhikers thumb, with phenotypes of curved and straight thumb. Construct a pedigree for your family outlining the inheritance of this trait
for as many related individuals as possible.
26. A pregnant woman, aged 37, is informed that there is
a 1 in 200 chance of her child having Down syndrome.
Why is this probability significant?
27. Tay Sachs disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive
gene and is a fatal disorder. You have been approached
by a couple who have lost a child to Tay-Sachs. There
was no history of this disease in their immediate family.
They would like to have another child but they are concerned about the appearance of this trait in a second
child. What advice can you give them about the chances
of this disorder appearing in a second child?
28. Produce a graph to illustrate the relationship between
maternal age and the incidence of Down Syndrome in
newborns. Choose the type of graph that will most clearly
illustrate this relationship.
29. A man with a Y-linked disorder has three sons and three
daughters with the same wife. His first son has two sons
and two daughters with his wife and the second son has
three daughters with his wife. Draw the pedigree for this
family. How could you tell if this disorder was Y-linked
or X-linked recessive by looking at the pedigree?
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Making Connections
30. A father has just been informed that his son has muscular dystrophy. The father works at a chemical plant
and suspects he has been exposed to a possibly mutagenic substance during an accident. He has approached
you for advice about the genetics involved. What recommendation would you make to the father if he asks
for advice about suing the chemical plant for his sons
medical costs?
31. Should genetic engineering be done on humans? Write
a paragraph to express your opinion.
32. Many of the biotechnology companies that are working
on the Human Genome Project have applied for patents
on the genetic information. In Britain, authorities have
denied all patent applications on the basis that no one
can have a patent on the information of a living organism. Do you think that companies should be able to
patent this information? Why or why not?
33. Research cystic fibrosis. Write a description of this discease under the headings:
a) cause
b) symptoms
c) rate of occurrence
d) prevention
e) treatment
f) support groups
34. Research one of the plant products listed below in order
to outline how genetic engineering has played a role in
the development of this product.
Canola
Potato
Corn
Soybean
Cotton seed
Squash
Flax
Tomato
35. Some learning disorders can be linked to genetic abnormalities such as fragile X syndrome. Some people
argue that these children would be better to have a karyotype test done to identify the genetic cause of the learning disorder. In this way the cause of the disorder has
been identified and the best path in educating these individuals can be pursued. On the other hand, some people suggest that when we assign a specific chromosomal
cause to the disorder then the classification of this
child may act as a roadblock to their opportunities. Which
argument seems to make more sense to you? Explain
your choice.
CHAPTER 7
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Communicating Your Skills

Genetics to careers in biology is what
the high-speed chip has been to careers
in the computer industry: a source of
incredible growth that seems to gain
momentum with every new discovery or
improvement in technology. There is
already a vast number of careers and
opportunities in biotechnology and
genetics. You can find lists of jobs on the
Internet. There are even glossy print
magazines filled with career advertisements for biologists in all sorts of
specialties.
Jobs. That means application forms
and interviews. Imagine you have graduated from university and are ready to
look for a job. Or youre taking the
co-op program at your university (a

co-op program is one in which you take
academic courses one term, then work
in a related occupation the next). You
can give a prospective employer a list of
your courses and marks, as well as an
up-to-date rsum of any work experience, but what you need is the ability to
talk confidently about your skills and
qualifications.
From Classroom to the

Workplace
Youve been asked to come for an
interview at the local hospital. There are
a wide variety of summer jobs available
for students, from cashier in the cafeteria to assisting in the laboratories to
helping with patients. You would prefer
a job helping with patients because
you are considering a career in
medicine. How could you talk about your
skills in a way that shows you would be
good at this type of job?
1.
Which of the skills listed on the next

page would be most important in
the job you want? (These are skills
you are developing in this biology
course.) Choose five you wish to
emphasize. For each of these skills,
write descriptive statements as if
you are:

FIGURE 1 Dress for success. When you are invited to an interview for any job,
arrive in neat, business-like clothing. The job itself may require you to wear jeans
and a lab coat, but this is not appropriate attire before you are hired. (Hint: If the
interview goes well, you might be offered a tour of the facilities. Depending on the
facilities, it may be wise to wear shoes that can take a little punishment.)
234
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
listing this skill on your rsum.

listing this skill in an email or
cover letter.
putting this skill in the section
titled Any Special Skills on an
application form.
talking about this skill in an
interview.
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Heres an example:
Skill:
communicating procedures and results
On a rsum:
experience using data tables, graphs, and other

formats to communicate technical information
In an email or cover letter:
I can communicate technical information clearly and

concisely, using a variety of formats.
On an application form (if asked):
communicating technical information
In an interview:
Im hoping for a job where Ill be helping with

patients and interacting with medical staff. One of
my strengths is communicating technical information,
which would help me understand instructions from
the nurses and record any observations required. I
have experience writing reports, making presentations,
and talking with others about procedures and results.
Im comfortable using a variety of tables and
graphs, including creating these on computers.
Look over your statements. You are talking about the same skill, but in each case
you had to adapt what you said to suit
how it was being presented. Sometimes,
as on the application form, you wont
have much room. So use clear, meaningful terms. In an interview, its your
opportunity to explain your skill in
detail, pointing out any aspects that will
show how that skill is important to the
job you want.
Looking Outward
2.
Most people find writing about their

skills a great deal easier than
talking about them, yet it is talking
that will make the difference
between getting that job or not. So
practise! Write statements like the
ones here, then practise saying them
out loud. Your family and friends can
be your first audience. Once you are
confident, find a neighbour or family friend who conducts interviews.
Ask this person to listen to how you
present yourself and your skills. Use
any advice to improve your

presentation for next time. This
could be your next job interview!
List of Skills
assembling
and using appa
ratus
communicat
ing procedures
and results
compiling an
d organizing da
ta
coordinatin
g tasks
decision-mak
ing
designing pr
ocedures
identifying va
riables
interpreting
patterns and tr
ends in data
problem-sol
ving
recording ob
servations
researching
topics under st
udy
selecting an
d using instrum
ents effectively
selecting an
and accurately
d using the ap
propriate grap
time manag
hi
ng
technique
ement
using approp
riate techniqu
es for handlin
posing of labo
g, storing, and
ratory materia
disls
working in
a team
working inde
pendently
working with
others
Exploring Carrers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Genetics and Discrimination

It is clear that knowledge of a persons genetic make-up may be useful in
making all sorts of decisions in areas ranging from childbearing to job selection. This genetic prophecy could lead to a new form of discrimination
in a society that places greater emphasis on genetics. It is possible that people could be denied educational opportunities or turned away from jobs
because of their genetic makeup. As our knowledge of genetics increases,
society will have to decide how genetic information will be used.
SCENARIO
You have been appointed to an ethics panel studying the many potential
applications of genetic research. You have been asked to comment on the
current status of one of the following genetic technologies and to provide recommendations to limit the potential for discrimination in future genetic research.
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UNIT 2
The Human Genome Project
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Markers
DNA Profiling
Genetic Continuity
Contents
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Part A: Genetic Disorders

1.
Select one of the following genetic disorders

and describe the disorder according to the
following criteria: (1) chromosomes affected;
(2) physical effects; and (3) treatment.
cystic fibrosis
muscular dystrophy
fragile X Syndrome
Down syndrome
Next Section
Part C: The Future of Research

4.
What are the variables that influence public opinion on the continuation of genetic
research using this technology? Explain.
5.
Using your own research, complete a

risk/benefit analysis of the genetic technology with respect to its potential for
discrimination.
6.
Based on the information you have found,

make recommendations about the future of
genetic research.
Part B: Research Technology

2.
3.
Choose one of the technologies in the

scenario and research it according to the
following criteria: (1) define the technology;
(2) describe the technology involved; (3)
identify its potential uses or applications;
and (4) identify how information gathered
using this technology could be misused.
For the technology chosen, create a historical timeline of the discoveries in genetics
that have led to its development. On the
timeline, identify the individuals who have
contributed to these discoveries.
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Part D: Proposing a Course of

Action
7.
Write a recommendation that outlines

control mechanisms to limit the potential
discrimination that could arise from the use
of this technology. Use the following criteria for your recommendations: (1) include
a range of perspectives, both pro and con;
(2) include recommendations for testing of
future research and technologies; and (3)
look at the social, ethical, and economic
impact of the technology.
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UNIT 2 REVIEW
1. A sex cell that results from meiosis will contain
a) the diploid number of chromosomes
b) any given number of chromosomes
c) one of each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes
d) any combination of chromosomes that is the
haploid number
2. Aneuploidy often results from
a) duplication
b) crossing over
c) translocation
d) nondisjunction
3. The genes located at the same loci on homologous chromosomes are known as
a) autosomes
b) homozygotes
c) alleles
d) heterozygotes
4. Which pair of terms is most alike in meaning?
a) segregation, crossing over
b) heterozygous, hybrid
c) phenotype, genotype
d) recessive, dominant
5. An organism with the genotype AaBbcc would produce
how many different types of gametes?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 4
d) 8
6. If the diploid number of chromosomes is 30 for a given
species, how many chromosomes are present in a gamete of this species?
a) 1
b) 14
c) 15
d) 30
c)
d)
a chain of sugar and phosphate molecules

a sequence of peptide bonds producing a polypeptide
9. A knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped geneticists produce

a) karyotypes
b) pedigrees
c) Punnett squares
d) genetic maps
10. One of the drawbacks to inbreeding techniques is that
sometimes:
a) severe mutations occur
b) abnormal numbers of chromosomes result
c) rare recessive traits can be found in the homozygous condition
d) resulting individuals are sterile
11. Why is meiosis necessary in organisms that reproduce
sexually?
12. In what two ways does meiosis encourage variability?
13. In humans, at the end of reduction division in meiosis:
a) How many cells exist?
b) How many chromosomes exist in each cell?
c) How many chromatids does each chromosome have?
14. How are homologous chromosomes the same? different?
15. Why is it advantageous for females to produce one large
functional egg in the meiotic process rather than four
smaller ones?
16. Why did Mendel propose each of the following ideas
when developing his theory to explain patterns of
inheritance?
a) He suggested that his pea plants possessed two factors for each of the seven traits studied (rather than
one).
b) He suggested that each pea plant passes on only one
of its two factors in its gametes (rather than both).
17. How is the phenotype of a hybrid different when the trait
shows dominance as opposed to incomplete dominance?
7. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous

female with a light-hair blue-eyed male, given that dark
hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light hair
(a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, and the genes are carried on autosomes, which of the following would be the
correct genotype of the offspring?
a) AaBb
b) Aabb
c) AaBB
d) AABb
18. Two parents who have the same phenotype for a given
trait produce an individual with a differing phenotype
for the same trait. How would Mendel have explained
this observation?
8. The Watson and Crick model indicated that the genetic

message is somehow determined by
a) the number of chromosomes in a body cell
b) a sequence of nitrogenous bases in the nucleotides
20. What must be true in order for geneticists to observe independent assortment? Explain why this must be true.
238
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
19. When long radish plants are crossed with round radish
plants, the resulting plants produce oval radishes. How
would you explain this observation?
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21. There is a wide range of continuous shades of skin

colouring in humans. How is this explained?
22. Why are there more men than women with colour
blindness?
23. A farmer has a bull that has a black coat, the dominant
trait inherited as a simple Mendelian trait. In this breed
of cattle white coat is the result of the homozygous
recessive condition. How would the farmer go about
determining the genotype of the bull?
24. There will be nothing left for genetic researchers to
study once the Human Genome Project is completed.
Discuss the validity of this statement.
25. Outline the two general approaches to gene therapy.
Which one of these has been used extensively in the past?
What roadblocks still exist in trying to accomplish the
other method of therapy?
26. In a certain plant grey seed colour (G) is dominant to
yellow seed colour (g). In the crosses shown in the chart
below the phenotype of the parent plants is known, but
their genotypes are not. The numbers of each phenotype
are recorded for the F1 generation. Identify the possible genotype(s) for the first parent given in each of the
following crosses.
Applying Inquiry/
27. Use a series of diagrams to show how crossing over leads
to an increase of variation in genetic recombination.
28. Produce a table comparing sexual and asexual reproduction using the headings listed below.
a) number of parents
b) examples of this method
c) appearance of offspring relative to parents
d) advantages and disadvantages of this process
29. If a mother is blood type AB and produces a child with
blood type AB, list the possible genotypes of the father.
Which genotype(s) is (are) not possible? Explain why.
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30. A species of rabbit that lives in the harsh cold environment of the Himalayas normally has black fur on its ears
and feet. If this black fur is removed and the rabbit is
placed in a warmer environment, the hair that grows in
is not black. How would a geneticist explain this unexpected observation?
31. In fruit flies the genes for wing shape and body stripes
are linked. In a fly with the genotype WwSs, W is linked
to s and w is linked to S. How could this fly produce
gametes with four different combinations of alleles?
Identify which of these combinations would be termed
parental and which would be termed recombinants.
32. A knowledge of probability is important in any analysis
of genetic crosses.
a) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have five sons? (Assume that the
probability of a son in any given pregnancy is 1/2.)
b) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have three sons and then two
daughters?
c) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have a family of three sons and two
daughters? (Note that this probability is different
from the answer to part b.)
33. Use the rules outlined in question 6 on page 167 to answer the following questions.
a) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the genotype AABBCC? (Assume that the genes are not linked.)
b) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the same
phenotype as the first parent given in the cross?
34. In rabbits the allele for black hair (B) is dominant to the
allele for brown hair (b) and the allele for short hair (S)
is dominant to the allele for long hair (s). The genes
are not linked. If a pure-breeding black, short-haired
male is mated with a brown, long-haired female, what
will their offspring look like? What are the genotypes
of the F1 individuals? If two of these F1 rabbits are mated,
what phenotypes would you expect to observe in the offspring and in what proportions?
Cross
Parent #1
Parent #2
Grey in F1
Yellow in F1
grey
yellow
52
52
grey
grey
127
41
grey
yellow
63
grey
grey
86
Genotype(s) of
parent #1?
Unit Review
239
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35. A fruit fly that is heterozygous for both grey body and
red eyes (GgRr) is crossed with a fly having a black body
and purple eyes (ggrr). When this cross is carried out
most of the offspring look like the parents, but 7% have
grey bodies with purple eyes and 7% have black bodies
with red eyes. How would you explain these results?
36. A male fruit fly with normal wings is crossed with a
female fruit fly with miniature wings. The cross produces
165 males with miniature wings and 170 females with
normal wings. How would you explain the inheritance
pattern of this trait?
Next Section
d)
e)
f)
g)
37. Once nerve cells reach maturity, they do not replicate

their DNA. These cells have lost their ability to divide.
Assume that x represents the amount of DNA found in
one of these nerve cells. Four other cells that have
been removed from various parts of the human body are
analyzed for their amounts of DNA. The researcher
obtains the following results:
Cell
Relative Amount of DNA
nerve cell
1.0 x
Cell #1
0.5 x
Cell #2
2.0 x
Cell #3
1.7 x
Cell #4
1.0 x
Match each of the numbered cells to the correct location

in the human body listed below.
Location A cell lining the intestinal tract in the S phase
Location B a sperm cell
Location C a skin cell just beginning interphase
Location D a bone cell beginning mitosis
38. In a high school population genetics study, a student
collects information on the simple Mendelian trait of
tasting in humans. The allele for tasting (T) is
dominant to the allele for non-tasting (t). The phenotype
of 100 students is identified, with 84 being tasters and
16 being non-tasters. Follow the steps outlined below to
calculate the frequency of the two alleles in this gene
pool and the frequency of the genotypes in the population.
a) There are 100 students in the population. As a
result there are 200 genes in the gene pool.
b) Let the frequency of T in the gene pool be represented by the letter p and the frequency of t in the
gene pool be represented by the letter q. p + q must
equal one as these are the only alleles in the gene
pool for this trait.
c) The frequency of tt individuals in the population is
16/100. The chance of two tt alleles coming together
in this gene pool is represented by q2(q x q). Thus
q2 = 16/100. How would you use this equation to
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UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
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determine the value of q? What is this value?

Now use the equation p + q = 1 to calculate the value
of p.
Now that you have values for p and q, you can calculate the frequency of the three genotypes in this
student population using the following calculations.
Frequency of TT individuals = p2
Frequency of Tt individuals = 2pq
Frequency of tt individuals = q2
What does p2 + 2pq + q2 equal? Why does this have
to hold true?
Information of this sort concerning population genetics questions can be summarized in a slightly different version of a Punnett square. The outside of
the Punnett represents the frequency of genes in the
gene pool and the inside represents the frequency
of genotypes in the population.
T=p
t=q
T=p
TT = p2
Tt = pq
t=q
Tt = pq
tt = q2
Make a copy of this Punnett in your notebook and

replace the letters p and q with the actual values for
the students population study.
39. Produce a pedigree chart that would be typical of

X-linked inheritance. Your pedigree should include at
least 4 generations and 25 individuals.
40. Using a knowledge of blood types, match the parents to
their proper child.
Baby
A: AB,MN,Rh
B: O,N,Rh
C: A,MN,Rh+
D: B,M,Rh+
Parent set (father/mother)

1. B,MN,Rh O,MN,Rh+
2. O,N,Rh+
O,MN,Rh+
3. A,M,Rh
AB,MN,Rh
4. AB,M,Rh+ O,N,Rh+
41. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked.

The following information has been determined experimentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the
chromosome?
A is located at one extreme end of the chromosome
A crosses over with C 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 10% of the time
C crosses over with F 20% of the time
F crosses over with E 30% of the time
E crosses over with B 20% of the time
D crosses over with F 5 % of the time
D crosses over with B 15% of the time
42. In fruit flies, red eyes are dominant to white eyes and
long wings are dominant to vestigial (partially formed)
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wings. Two red-eyed, long-winged flies are crossed

and produce offspring according to the results shown in
the chart below.
Females
Males
Red-eyed with long wings
6/16
3/16
Red-eyed with vestigial wings
2/16
1/16
White-eyed with long wings
3/16
White-eyed with vestigial wings
1/16
What are the genotypes of the parents? Produce a

Punnett square that will show the results of this cross.
Making Connections
43. Both competition and cooperation are common in scientific research today. How might competition between
scientists and the corporations that employ them affect
projects like the mapping of the human genome?
44. Researchers have found that the incidence of spina bifida,
a spinal cord disorder, can be reduced if women of childbearing age who are capable of getting pregnant consume
small quantities of folic acid in their diet. One of the easiest ways to ensure folic acid consumption in these women
is to add it to common food sources like cereal grains. Is
it acceptable for an entire population to receive an additive of this type that benefits a small proportion of the
whole population? Defend your point of view.
45. Tests to determine individuals who are genetically susceptible to developing various forms of cancer are currently becoming more sophisticated and widespread in
their use. There are people who think that the day would
come when society will insist that these individuals
must take steps to protect themselves against the development of cancer so that society will not be financially
burdened by the cost of their treatment. Write a paragraph to express your view on this issue.
46. Mendel concluded that some type of inheritable factor
was responsible for the patterns of inheritance that he
observed in his pea experiments. This conclusion was
drawn without ever seeing or knowing about genes. In
a similar fashion Morgan and Sturtevant described the
patterns of inheritance of linked genes without actually
observing the genes that were carried on the chromosome directly. Are these examples of bad science when
scientists suggest the existence of structures such as
genes without actually seeing them? Support your viewpoint with several arguments.
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47. The possibility that a genetic profile of any individual

could be produced in the near future raises many
questions. Express a supported viewpoint in response to
each of the following questions.
a) Should an employer have access to this personal
genetic information?
b) Should an insurance company have access to this
profile?
c) Should the government record and keep these
profiles for all citizens?
d) Should this information be recorded by the law
enforcement agencies for all known criminals?
e) Would some individuals try to avoid having their information recorded for fear of being discriminated
against because of their genetic makeup?
48. Search Internet and media sources to identify commissions that have been established in various countries to
study the ethical, social and legal implications of our expanding genetic knowledge. Describe any suggestions that
these commissions make concerning the impact of human
genetics research on individuals, families and society.
What problem areas have been identified by these groups
and what suggestions or solutions are offered? Are different countries that are dealing with these considerations
producing the same recommendations? Give several examples to support your answer to this question.
49. Experiments utilizing each of the following organisms
has contributed significantly to our knowledge of genetics.
i) Paramecium
viii) thale cress plant
ii) yeast
ix) bacteria
iii) fruit fly
x) worms
iv) mouse
xi) corn
v) humans
xii) chickens
vi) nematode
xiii) Neurospora (bread mold)
vii) Chlamydomonas (a green alga)
Select one of these organisms and research in order to
identify the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
scientist(s) that has(have) worked with this organism (you may need to select one scientist, as your
organism may have been used extensively by many
scientists)
a brief description outlining the steps in their research
some of the results of their work
the conclusions drawn from the experiments using
this organism
the significance/impact of this work in the field of
genetics
Write a supported paragraph to show how the study of

the organism you selected has contributed to our knowledge of genetics.
Unit Review
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UNIT
3
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
describe and explain the major

processes, mechanisms, and
systems, including the respiratory,
circulatory, and digestive systems,
by which plants and animals
maintain their internal environment
illustrate and explain, through

laboratory investigations, the
contribution of various types of
systems and processes to internal
regulation in plant and animal
systems
evaluate the impact of personal

lifestyle decisions on the health of
humans, and analyze how societal
concern for maintaining human
health has advanced the development of technologies related to the
regulation of internal systems
Internal Systems
ll living things require a way to bring nutrients and oxygen into

their bodies and a way to get waste products out. In single-celled organisms like the amoeba, the process is relatively simple: substances
enter and exit directly through the cell membrane. In complex multicellular
organisms, however, more sophisticated methods are required. Multicellular
creatures like humans rely on complex internal systems to get the job done,
among them the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems. Every time
you take a breath, you rely on your respiratory system to absorb oxygen and
deliver it to your bloodstream. Every time you take a bite of food, you rely on
your digestive system to extract nutrients and pass them along to your bloodstream. Every time your heart beats, you rely on your circulatory system to
transport oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to all the cells in your body.
Scanning electron micrograph of a human lung showing a bronchiole surrounded by alveoli
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The quality of the air you breathe and the food you eat affects the smooth
operation of your internal systems. Smokers, for example, risk developing
respiratory illness, such as bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer. An unbalanced diet, like a diet with too many fatty foods, can cause conditions like heartburn and weight gain. A high level of stress or a lack of
exercise can lead to circulatory system disorders such as high blood pressure, stroke, or heart attack.
In order to make good personal choices about your nutrition and lifestyle,
it is important to understand how your internal systems work. In this unit,
you will investigate the structures, functions, and processes of the digestive,
respiratory, and circulatory systems. You will also examine diseases that can
affect these systems, as well as the drugs and technology currently available
to treat them.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Obesity Epidemic Costs Billions

Canada has one of the worst obesity problems in
the world, with almost half of the adult population
being overweight or obese. The problem also affects a large number of children. Statistics indicate
that obesity in young people is growing faster than
in adults. It is estimated that obesity is responsible for about 75% of diabetes cases and about 30%
of cardiovascular problems. Physicians warn that
treating obesity-related medical problems carries
a costly price tag, approximately $15 billion a year.
Puffer Replacement
There may be some relief in sight for children who
rely on inhaled medication to control their asthma.
A new Canadian-developed asthma drug is the first
of its kind to be approved by Health Canada for
use by children. Young asthma sufferers over the
age of six can take the medication in the form of
a chewable, cherry-flavoured tablet. The medication blocks chemicals that constrict the airway. In
one study, 40% of the patients taking the tablet
were able to stop using inhaled corticosteroids,
which over time may hamper growth.
Pessimists Have Higher Higher Blood Pressure Than

Optimists
A recent study has shown that pessimists have
higher blood pressure than their more optimistic
counterparts. In the study, 100 people were given
monitors that recorded their blood pressures every
30 min. After each interval, subjects were asked
to describe their mood. Subjects with pessimistic
outlooks tended to have higher blood pressures
than the more optimistic subjects. Researchers believe that the pessimists in the group did not deal
as well with stress, which is a known cause of high
blood pressure.
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
PREVIEW
At the end of the unit you will demonstrate your learning by completing the task Dissection in Science
Education. As a member of a school board you will be
asked to prepare a position paper on whether the
dissection of animals in the Science classroom should
continue. See page 360.
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CHAPTER 8
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS

describe the importance of nutrients

and digestion in providing
substances needed for energy and
growth (8.1, 8.2, 8.3, Investigation 1,
and Investigation 2)
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of metabolism and of the
cardiovascular and respiratory
systems (8.1)
describe how the use of

prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis (8.2, 8.3)
compare the anatomy of different

organismsvertebrate and
invertebrate (8.4, Investigation 3)
select and integrate information

about internal systems from various
print and electronic sources or from
several parts of the same source
(8.1, 8.2, 8.3)
identify examples of technologies

that have enhanced scientific
understanding of internal systems
(8.3)
provide examples of Canadian

contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (81, 8.3)
analyze and explain how societal

needs have led to scientific and
technological developments related
to internal systems (8.3)
present informed opinions about

how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
personal choices concerning
nutrition and lifestyle (8.1)
n human society, food selection, preparation, and consumption are central activities. The expression you are what you eat sums up the general
understanding that food is important to a persons well-being. At the level
of a single cell, the equation for cell respiration tells us how glucose is
metabolized for the release of energy to the cell.
FIGURE 8.1 The epithelium in the esophagus, false-colour scanning electron

micrograph (SEM). The epithelium is many layers of flattened cells. The microfolds
keep the esophagus moist and lubricate and protect the surface against abrasion.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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How does food selection relate to cellular activity? The answer is the digestive system. Every organism needs a supply of nutrients to fuel the processes that drive cellular metabolism.
The human body requires six types of nutrients in order to function. It
can obtain these requirements from an infinite combination of foods. However,
you need to extract the useful nutrients from the food you eat, deliver them
to your cells, and eliminate wastes.
To take in and use food, the body needs the various organs of the digestive tract. Examination of their unique structures will help you to understand
how they perform the vital functions of mechanical and chemical digestion,
secretion, and absorption. You need to be informed about how to balance
healthy nutrition and exercise to achieve overall fitness. This chapter will describe components in foods that are important for good health, suggest healthy
eating patterns, and discuss some common disorders that arise from a deficiency or an excess of certain nutrients in the diet.
In this chapter, you will study the components of food required to fuel
your body and learn the food groups necessary to ensure a daily supply of
nutrients. By examining the structures of the digestive system and the way
they interact with other structures, you will be able to understand how nutrients are acquired, digested, absorbed, and distributed in order to meet the
needs of your bodys cells. You will consider technologies that enhance
understanding of the digestive system and Canadian contributions to the field
of nutrition and health.
CHECKPOINT
Discovering Biology
Draw a branching diagram

to indicate the components
of a balanced meal.
Food for Thought!

In our society today, people are becoming more aware of what they eat. Think
of what you have eaten over the last 24 hours. List all these items in your
notebook. From your knowledge and experience, attempt to group these items
into the following categories: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Compare your
list and a partners. Discuss with your partner the following:
the make-up, similarities, and differences in your diets over the last 24
hours
the functions of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats within your body

CHAPTER 8
Balanced
meal
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8.1 Nutrition
Key Understandings
describe the importance of proper nutrition and the nutrients needed for energy and
growth
explain how personal choices in nutrition are directly related to health and well- being
appreciate Canadian contributions to the field of nutrition
WORD ORIGIN
Macro from the Greek, makros
meaning big and Micro from
the Greek, mikros, meaning
little; for example, microcosm means a small sample
of society.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Your body is like a machine. To perform

at its best, it needs fuel to supply it with
energy. When you provide your body
with nutritious foods it is able to perform well. However, when you eat foods
with little or no nutritional value, your
body is unable to function to the best
of its ability. Taking care of your body
through a balanced diet will help you to
stay fit, have more energy, and be
healthy.
Every cell in the body must have a
constant supply of energy to remain alive
and perform its particular functions.
Energy comes from the consumption of
nutrients and the circulatory system
plays a key role in delivering these vital
nutrients throughout the body. The
amount of energy that different people
require depends on their level of activity, their specific medical conditions, and
whether they are male or female. As
shown in Table 8.1, males generally have
higher energy needs and therefore must
take in more energy than females to
maintain health. This difference in the
daily energy requirements of men and
women is mainly associated with the difference in average size between the
sexes.
Food not only supplies the energy
vital for life, but it also provides important building materials that allow bodies to grow, develop, and rebuild injured
and damaged cells. In general, a
nutrient is any substance that has a
useful function when taken up by body
cells. The food that provides your body
with the energy it needs to function
properly is measured in joules. A joule
is the metric unit used to measure

energy. The large amount of food energy
required for maintenance, growth, and
repair makes it more appropriate to
measure energy in kilojoules (1 kJ =
1000 J). The joule and kilojoule are the
metric units used to indicate food energy
content but many food companies still
recognize and use the calorie as a unit
of measurement. It is important for
consumers to know that a calorie is a unit
of heat. It is the amount of heat needed
to increase the temperature of one gram
of water by 1C. To convert calories to
joules, the value in calories is multiplied
by 4.1855. A commonly used unit is the
kilocalorie (sometimes called the dietetic
Calorie) with the symbol Cal. A kilocalorie is the amount of energy needed
to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1C (1 Cal = 4.1855 kJ).
Table 8.1 indicates the recommended
daily energy intake.
In human development, there are
times when growth spurts occur. For example, during puberty, both males and
females grow significantly taller. In these
instances certain nutrients may be more
useful than others. Also, a larger total
energy intake may be needed. However,
even after a person reaches adult size,
maintenance and repair are important.
All food substances can be divided
into two general groups: organic foods,
which are produced by living organisms,
and inorganic foods that come from
rocks, soil, and the seas. The organic
components of food include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and vitamins, while
the inorganic components include min-
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INFOBIT
TABLE 8.1 Recommended Daily Energy Intake
Stage of Development
Mass (kg)
Height (cm)
Energy (Cal)
Energy (kJ)
Infants
0.00.5 yrs.
60
__kg 115
kg 481
0.51.0 yrs.
71
__kg 105
kg 439
Children
13
13
90
1300
5 441
46
20
112
1700
7 115
710
28
132
2400
10 045
1114
45
157
2700
11 301
1518
66
176
2800
11 719
1922
70
177
2900
12 138
2350
70
177
2700
11 301
51 +
70
177
2400
10 045
1114
46
157
2200
9 208
1518
55
163
2100
8 790
1922
55
163
2100
8 790
2350
55
163
2000
8 371
51 +
55
163
Males
Females
1800
7 534
Pregnant
300
1 256
Lactating
500
2 093
erals and water. Since carbohydrates,

fats, and proteins are consumed and
needed in large amounts daily, they
are also called macronutrients.
Vitamins and minerals are taken in
minute quantities and are thus called
micronutrients. Roughage (nutritional
fibre) is also an important part of a complete diet. It does not have any nutritional value, but it aids in good digestion.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are
organic compounds made only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
the major source of energy required
for all bodily functions. Common examples of carbohydrates include
starches, sugars, and cellulose. They are
important because they provide a ready
Lactose is a disaccharide present in milk. Eighty percent of

the worlds population cannot
digest lactose after about the
age of two. The condition
results when lactase, the
enzyme that is required to
digest lactose, is absent.
Lactase splits the lactose into
two monosaccharides, glucose
and galactose. The inability to
digest lactose is called lactose
intolerance. It is important to
note that the lack of this enzyme is the normal condition in
adult mammals, though many
people perceive the lack of
lactase to be abnormal. Milk is
really an essential food only for
infants and toddlers.
source of the glucose needed in cellular

respiration. Glucose is a simple, single,
sugar unit or monosaccharide. Other
monosaccharides include fructose and
galactose. Simple sugars do not have to
be digested or broken down. They can
be used directly and are therefore good
sources of quick energy. More complex
carbohydrates, such as disaccharides
(two sugar units) and polysaccharides
(many sugar units) must first be digested
before they can be used by the body.
Good sources of carbohydrates include
breads, cereals, and pasta. Many plants,
such as potatoes, rice, and breadfruit,
store carbohydrates as starch. When
more carbohydrates than your body requires are ingested, the excess amounts
are stored in the short term as glycogen
in the liver, in muscle, or are converted
to fat. Cellulose is a polysaccharide found
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Michael Julius, a researcher
at Toronto General Hospitals
research unit, has shown a
possible link between a protein
in breast milk and the activation, or start-up, of the infants
own immune system.
M AT H L I N K
Remember:
1 g of carbohydrate provides
4 Cal or 16.7 kJ.
1 g of fat provides 9 Cal or
37.6 kJ.
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in the cell wall of plants. It is not digestible by humans and is therefore not
considered to be a human nutrient, even
though it is a carbohydrate. It provides
the human system with roughage.
However, for a herbivore like a planteating rabbit, cellulose would be a very
important part of the diet. Rabbits, unlike humans, are well equipped to break
down cellulose into a useful digestible
form. They have a suitable bacterial flora
in their large intestine. In humans, cellulose remains undigested and passes
through the alimentary canal to be eliminated through the anus as feces.
Fats Fats (also known as lipids), in moderate quantities, are part of a balanced
diet and are important for maintaining
good health. Fats perform several important roles within the body. The phospholipid bilayer in the cell membrane
surrounding all body cells includes lipid
and cholesterol. Fats surround vital organs and joints and act like a protective
cushion. Fats surround nerves and help
them to deliver signals quickly and accurately. As well, a layer of fat just underneath the skin helps to insulate the
body against changes in the external environment. Fats are concentrated
sources of energy. One gram of fat provides approximately 37.6 kJ of energy,
while one gram of protein or carbohydrate provides only 16.7 kJ. However,
fat intake must be moderated since excessive fat intake can lead to obesity.
Fats, like carbohydrates, are organic
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the ratio of
these atoms is different from that in carbohydrates. The basic structure in fats
is the triglyceride, a three-carbon glycerol molecule with three fatty acids
joined to it. Fatty acids are long chains
of carbon atoms with an acid group at
one end. Depending on the hydrogen
atoms present, a fat can be either a liquid or a solid at room temperature. If
every available chemical bond of the
carbons in the chain is holding a hydrogen atom, the chain is described as
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saturated. Generally if a fat is a solid at

room temperature it is a saturated fat.
If it is a liquid at room temperature, it
is an unsaturated fat. Butter, lard, and
animal fat are solid at room temperature and are therefore examples of saturated fats. In contrast, vegetable oil is
an example of an unsaturated fat.
Some fat is a healthy component of
daily nutrition. Our society has led us to
believe that fats cause us to put on extra
weight and are therefore unhealthy and
to be avoided. It is true that an excess
of fat does contribute to weight gain.
However, your body requires a certain
amount of fat each day to function properly. It acquires this fat when you eat a
balanced diet. There are various fatty
acids, such as linoleic, linolenic, and
arachidonic that are considered
essential nutrients. They cannot be supplied by any other food source.
Therefore it is important to include some
fat, even in a low energy diet.
Proteins Proteins are the most important compounds for providing structure within the body. Not only do
proteins make up critical parts of muscles, skin, and internal organs, but they
are also the most abundant of the organic compounds found within body
cells. Some proteins are enzymes that
are vital for cellular function. In specialized cells, proteins act as cell surface
markers that are targets for specific hormones. Cell membrane proteins provide
channels in the phospholipid bilayer of
cells. Without these channels, valuable
nutrients would not be able to enter or
exit body cells.
The body has a variety of proteins
that differ in shape, size, and function.
All proteins are built from a set of 20
amino acids. These amino acids are
joined together by peptide bonds. Of the
20 amino acids, 8 must be obtained in
the diet. These are called essential
amino acids. If necessary, the atoms in
these essential amino acids can be rearranged to form the other 12 amino
acids. However, a well-balanced diet
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ensures that all 20 amino acids will be

consumed. Table 8.2 summarizes common functions of proteins.
Food sources of protein include
meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans,
nuts, and lentils. A lack or inadequate
supply of protein in the diet leads to
disease. See Figure 8.4 on page 253.
Micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients and differ from the macronutrients
in significant ways. Vitamins and minerals are taken in extremely small quantities daily, often in milligrams; they
cannot be used as an energy source.
There are many vitamins and minerals
needed on a daily basis to sustain life
and maintain health, each with a specific role to play in the bodys overall
metabolism.
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amounts of other elements. Most vitamins

act as coenzymes, joining to specific enzymes (proteins) to make sure that biochemical reactions within the cell take
place properly. Table 8.3 lists some key
information about the vitamins that humans require. Vitamins fall into two major
groups, ones that are fat-soluble and ones
that are water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. They are found
TABLE 8.2 Functions of Proteins
Role of Protein
Function Within the Body
Enzyme
Help to catalyze chemical reactions within the body.
Hormone
Substances that influence specific cellular and metabolic

functions. They act at a different location from where they are
formed.
Cell Surface Marker
Proteins on the surface help to identify specific target cells to

which special molecules (for example, hormones) can bind.
Structural
Provide support and structure to the organism (for example,

hair and nails are made of a protein called keratin) and to the
cell (transmembrane proteins).
Transport
Many transport structures, such as channels and pumps, are

made of specialized proteins that help move materials into and
out of cells.
Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds, required in very tiny amounts as

part of a balanced diet. They are vital to
life. They contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small
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TABLE 8.3 Important Vitamins and Minerals Required in the Human Diet
Vitamin or Mineral
Some Common Food Sources
Some Important Functions Within the Body
eggs, butter, and leafy green vegetables
growth and proper vision
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A
D
milk, liver, eggs
growth, helps to absorb calcium from the digestive tract
vegetable oils, milk, leafy vegetables
protects cell membranes
vegetables, tomatoes, soy beans
blood clotting
B1
seafood, meats, grains
growth, proper heart muscle functioning
B2
milk, poultry, vegetables
carbohydrate metabolism
B12
meats and liver
production of red blood cells
citrus fruits, vegetables
growth, healthy gums and blood vessels
Calcium
milk and milk products
tooth and bone formation
Iron
meats, green vegetables
hemoglobin formation
Sodium
salt
muscle contraction; transmission of nerve impulses
Potassium
fruits
regulation of the heart beat; transmission of nerve impulses
Iodine
Iodized salt
thyroid activity
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Common Minerals
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Most vitamins are easily lost or
destroyed by heat, by exposure
to oxygen, or by being dissolved out of food into water.
To prevent the loss of vitamins,
it is recommended that as little
water as possible is used to
cook vegetables and fruits.
Foods rich in vitamins B and C
should be cooked for only a
short time.
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in the fats and oils that you ingest. This

is another reason that a certain amount
of fat intake is part of a healthy, balanced
diet. Vitamins A, D, E, and K cannot be
excreted, but break down over time as
they participate in metabolic processes.
Therefore a regular intake of fat-soluble
vitamins is recommended to replace those
that are metabolized. Reduction of fat intake over a long period of time will result
in the elimination of these vitamins from
your body. Water-soluble vitamins include
the B and C vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins are eliminated from the body relatively quickly and so a daily intake is
recommended. If too much vitamin B or
C is taken in, the excess is excreted in the
urine.
Testing for the presence of vitamins
in food is not a simple matter. It is usually done in a laboratory. These tests are
performed on animals like white mice,
guinea pigs, and monkeys. The animals
are divided into two groupsone exper-
Scurvy and the

Discovery of
Vitamins
The discovery of the chemical food
substances now called vitamins has
an interesting background. History
relates that many of the sailors who
were part of Magellans crew when
he explored the Pacific Ocean in 1519
became ill with an unknown disease.
The sailors lived on salted meats because these foods remained unspoiled
throughout a long voyage. After
weeks at sea, the sailors became listless, their muscles became weaker
and weaker, and finally they suffered
serious nosebleeds. Some died.
Others who had stronger constitutions survived and went ashore when
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imental group and one control group. A

food to be tested for its vitamin content
is fed over a period of time to one group,
and not to the other. Over time, the effects
of the deficiency of the vitamin can be
observed.
Minerals Minerals are inorganic compounds required by the body. Some of

the most important molecules in the
body contain minerals. For example, the
hemoglobin molecule, the protein found
in red blood cells, contains four iron
atoms. This arrangement allows red
blood cells to transport oxygen to body
cells. Calcium is another important mineral and is a major component for
healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also
helps nerve and muscle cells to function
properly and helps blood to clot.
Although the body does not destroy
the minerals that it takes in, it does lose
many of them in sweat and urine. It is
therefore important for these minerals
the ships reached land. Sailors who

ate the fresh fruits that grew native
to the shore on which they landed recovered from the illness later known
as scurvy.
It was discovered that English
sailors who were fond of the juice of
lemons or limes did not experience
scurvy. Or, if they did, they recovered
when fed lemon juice regularly.
Although British Navy officials were
unaware of the reasons for this, they
passed a law that required every ship
to carry a cargo of lemons for the
crews consumption. Of course, it was
difficult in those early days before refrigeration to prevent spoilage of
fresh food. However this precaution
did help to prevent the occurrence of
scurvy, which we now know to be
due to a deficiency in vitamin C
(ascorbic acid).
At about the same time, it was
discovered that Chinese and Japanese
seamen whose diets consisted mainly
of white rice and fish, fell ill to the

disease beriberi (meaning I cannot!
I cannot!) The disease weakens muscles and finally paralyzes them.
Japanese doctors discovered that
beriberi could be relieved and even
prevented by the addition of vegetables, meat, condensed milk, and
whole grain rice to the diet. The
cause of beriberi is now known to be
a deficiency of thiamin (vitamin B1)
in the diet.
After years of study and experimentation, scientists in various countries concluded that there are
chemical substances in foods that are
necessary to regulate all body functions and to prevent disease. These
substances were named vitamins.
The diseases that result from an insufficency or total absence of vitamins
are called vitamin deficiency
diseases. In 1932 ascorbic acid, the
molecule now known as vitamin C,
was isolated from lemons.
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to be replenished. By consuming a
balanced diet we are able to obtain our
requirement of minerals. Plants are
reservoirs of minerals because they
are able to absorb them from the soil
and incorporate them into their tissues.
Fruits, whole grains, meats, and vegetables contain iron, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. These foods also
contain a variety of other trace elements, such as zinc and selenium, that
the body needs in small amounts. Table
8.3 details some minerals, including
iron, that make up an important part of
our diet, and are used by the body in
many ways.
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Water
Although water is not an energy source
it is considered the most important substance for all animals, including humans.
Without food, you could survive for several weeks, but without water you would
die within days. Most of the weight of the
human body is water. Plasma, the liquid
component of the blood, is more than
90% water. Water is the means of transport for all the nutrients. Every living cell
in your body is in contact with water in
which life-sustaining molecules are dissolved. The watery extracellular fluid
bathing each cell also carries away
metabolic wastes.
On hot days, or when you exercise
vigorously, sweat glands remove water
from your tissues and use it to moisten
the surface of your body. As this sweat
evaporates, it cools your body. Each time
you take a breath, some moisture from
the surface of your lungs is lost to the
outside air. Since water is continuously
lost from the body, it must be continuously replenished. It is recommended
that you drink six to eight glasses of
water each day, a volume of about 11.5 L.
Clearly nutrients are important to
the maintenance of health. An organisms diet may vary, but the six basic nutrients that we have discussed are vital
to sustain life. Since organisms have diverse feeding patterns, structural adap-
FIGURE 8.2 The frosty breath in dry, wintry air shows that water is lost from the
lungs.
tations allow them to acquire and ingest

their food in different ways. Scientists
have used these feeding patterns to help
them classify animals as herbivores
(plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters),
or omnivores (plant and meat eaters).
Anorexia nervosa
and bulimia
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are two
different but related medical and psychiatric conditions that are categorized
as eating disorders. Both disorders are
more common in females than males.
Adolescent girls have the highest risk of
developing these two illnesses. Patients
with anorexia nervosa are characterized
by an intense fear of gaining weight and
a poor self-image. They also lack appetite and are very thin and much below
their ideal weight based on their height.
These patients have amenorrhea (a lack
of menstrual periods), and often
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exercise excessively or abuse laxatives.

Bulimia is characterized by periods of
binge eating (often thousands of Joules
at a sitting), alternating with fasting and
self-induced vomiting. Many individuals
with bulimia use diuretics, laxatives, and
substances to induce vomiting. There
is some overlap between these two conditions and bulimic behaviour can be
seen in some patients with anorexia.
The causes of these eating disorders
are thought to be a combination of genetic, social, and environmental factors.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia can lead
to many serious and possibly life-threatening medical complications. Some of
these complications are outlined in Table
8.4 on page 253.
Treatment of these two conditions is
usually a slow process and involves a
combination of medical and psychiatric
interventions. Some patients must be admitted to hospital if treatment is to be
successful.
Benefits of Healthy Eating

Healthy eating is a matter of personal
choice. Canadas Food Guide to Healthy
Eating on page 253, Figure 8.4 recommends the optimal amount and type of
foods that should be consumed daily. A
properly balanced diet and regular exercise are two essentials for maintaining health and fitness. Regular exercise
is one method of building muscle,
reducing fat, increasing metabolism, and
maintaining a healthy body weight. The
metabolic rate is the total of all anabolic
and catabolic reactions going on in the
body at any time. It may be expressed
as joules per hour.
People who are physically fit have a
higher metabolic rate than those who
are unfit. This is because fit individuals
have a higher percent of their body mass
composed of muscle rather than fat.
Muscle cells have a higher rate of
metabolism than fat cells.
istry. In 1994 he was named a

Companion of the Order of Canada.
Canadians Active
in
Nutrition Research
Raymond (Ray) U. Lemieux is a

prominent Canadian organic chemist,
recognized as one of the worlds leading scientists in carbohydrate chemistry. Ray Lemieux was born in Lac
La Biche, Alberta, on June 16, 1920.
During his career, Lemieux has made
contributions that go beyond chemistry and extend into biology and
medicine. He gained international
recognition in 1953 as the first person to synthesize sucrose (table
sugar). This discovery has been called
the Mount Everest of organic chem-
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Drs. Alan Brown, Fred Tisdall, and

Theo Drake invented Pablum in
1930. Their goal was to improve
the nutrition of infants. Pablum was
the first ready-to-use vitamin-and
mineral-enriched baby cereal. These
three experts in their field had recognized the importance of proper nutrition for normal growth and
development, but also noted a lack of
foods available to cater to the special
nutritional requirements of babies.
Following extensive research and numerous trials, they created Pablum
(from the Latin word Pabulum,
which means food), the first thoroughly cooked and dried infant
cereal.
With its high nutrient content
and ease of preparation, Pablum was
quickly adopted by new mothers as
a staple for their babies diets. Before

long Pablum became a household
name, and to this day, many
Canadians use the brand name
interchangeably with infant cereal.

FIGURE 8.3 Pablum, a popular food for

generations of Canadian babies.
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TABLE 8.4 Complications of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
Organ system
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia
Endocrine and
metabolic
amenorrhea, osteoporosis, thyroid

dysfunction, abnormal temperature
regulation
menstrual irregularities
Cardiovascular
bradycardia (too slow heart rate),

hypotension (low blood pressure),
arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythm)
Ipecac poisoning (ipecac is a substance

used to induce vomiting)
Renal (kidney)
renal stones; decreased filtration

properties of the kidney
low potassium (from diuretics)
Gastrointestinal
decreased gastric emptying,

constipation, abnormal liver function
acute gastric dilatation or rupture, parotid

enlargement, inflammation of the
esophagus (esophagitis), low potassium
(from laxatives), esophageal rupture
Hematologic
anemia, low platelets, and low white

blood cells
Ministry of Supply and Services Canada 1990. Cat. No. H39166/1990E, ISBN 0-66217438-0
Respiratory
aspiration pneumonia
FIGURE 8.4 Canadas Food Guide indicates the

importance of a balanced diet.
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Case
Study
Health and the Media
Defining the Issue
Different diet promoters bombard us each day in

the media, each claiming to make us feel healthy
and look better. Celebrity spokespeople work to convince us that their diet is the best. But who is right?
The following are some examples of the variety of
diets that are marketed. Liquid protein diets that
claim to contain all the nutrients you require in a
powdered milkshake you can take at each meal.
Protein diets that consist of protein like chicken,
beef, cheese, and eggs. A fruit and vegetable diet
where you can eat as much as you want for breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks. A back-to-basics diet
that contains all the food groups.
Which diet do you choose?
Liquid protein diets claim to contain all the

nutrients you require in a powdered milkshake you can take at each meal.
Protein diets consist of chicken, beef, cheese,

and eggs.
A fruit-and-vegetable diet allows you to eat as

many fruits and vegatables as you want for
breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks.
A back-to-basics diet contains all the food

groups.
FIGURE 8.5 One type of diet allows unrestricted consumption

of fruits and vegetables.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Behind every fad diet, there is a marketing campaign.

Brainstorm different groups who contribute to the creation of these campaigns.
4.
Why are fad diets so popular in our society? How does

this compare with other societies around the world?
Explain.
2.
Using the Internet, research one of the diets in the scenario or select a fad diet currently in the media. Identify
the claims made by the diet. Compare the daily nutrient
requirements of the fad diet with the recommendations
from Canadas Food Guide. Summarize the comparisons
in a table.
5.
Should marketing influence something as important as

diet and health? Why? Why not? Explain fully.
6.
What are the elements of a healthy diet? Use your research to prepare a promotion piece to highlight what
you believe is the healthiest diet.
7.
Plan a class symposium on fad diets. Share media advertising and decide the most important criteria needed
to assess the value of a fad diet.
3.
254
What are the risks associated with the diet? What are
the potential benefits?
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Section 8.1 Review

1. Runners often have a small snack before competing in a race. Based on
your knowledge of macronutrients,
suggest an appropriate snack for
runners before a race.
2. Your uncle is a heart patient and asks
you to help him decide between two difference salad dressings. The label on
one dressing reads that it has
completely hydrogenated fat and the
label on the other dressing reads that it
has partially hydrogenated fat.
Hydrogenation refers to the number of
single bonds between the carbon atoms.
Which dressing would you recommend?
3. What is the advantage of including
bran in a balanced diet?
4. The table below lists three different
groups of people who have a special
need for a mineral(s) in large amounts.
Suggest reasons to account for their
special dietary requirements.
Group
6. For breakfast, a student eats a bowl of

cereal and milk that provides 175 Cal
of energy. Her walk to school requires
400 kJ of energy. Calculate whether the
energy yield from the breakfast would
be sufficient to meet the students energy requirements for the walk to school.
7. You are trying to maintain a diet that
allows you to consume no more than
430 Cal at lunch. You decide to go to
the local burger shop to buy your
lunch. The table summarizes three possible meal selections. Based on your dietary requirements, explain which
selection would be most suitable.
Meal Type
Carbohydrates (g)
chicken burger 30
Proteins Fats
(g)
(g)
21
18
fish and chips
45
24
32
pizza
38
19
23
Mineral(s) required in
particularly large amounts
youngsters aged 12 to 17
calcium and phosphorus
women and teenage girls
iron
pregnant and breast-feeding women
calcium and phosphorus
Reason
Applying Inquiry/
5. The table below shows the approximate daily energy requirement of
people in different age groups and
occupations.
Group
age 1315
age 1619
adult office worker
adult construction worker
Daily Energy Requirement (Cal)

Male
Female
2870
2400
3350
2200
2400
2100
4300
2870
a) Copy out the table and calculate the

energy requirement in kilojoules
for males and females.
b) Suggest reasons why the caloric intake suggested for a construction
worker is different from that of
an office worker.
c) Explain why an individual has
higher caloric needs during the
teenage years.
Daily Energy Requirement (kJ)

Male
Female
Making Connections
8. In what ways do you think society
influences an individuals perception of
a health body weight?
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atom
(hydrogen)
molecule
(water)
organelle
(mitochondrion)
cell
(muscle)
tissue
(muscle)
organ
(heart)
Key Understandings
describe the digestive process
explain the structure of the gastrointestinal wall
describe how nutrients are absorbed by the body
From a Cell to a System

Hierarchy in Biology
The living world is organized in a series
of hierarchical levels. Hierarchy describes a definite order from less complex to more complex. The first level is
the cellular level. Cells can perform all
the necessary functions that define life.
In considering nutrition and digestion,
a single cell acquires the nutrients it
needs through diffusion, osmosis, and
active transport. Larger organisms contain more cells and are more complex.
With increased complexity, more sophisticated methods are needed to acquire and transport nutrients. Therefore,
cells in multicellular organisms specialize. Muscle cells, nerve cells, and skin
cells are all examples of this specialization. Cells that have similar functions are
grouped together to form tissues. The
tissue level is the second level of hierarchy. There are four main types of tissue that make up vertebrate bodies.
They are connective tissue, epithelial
tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle
tissue.
Building a Digestive System
organ system
(cardiovascular)
FIGURE 8.6 Levels of organization in the human body
256
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Internal Systems
One level of complexity higher than the

tissue level is the organ level. This level
consists of several types of tissues that
come together and coordinate to perform
one overall function. Some examples of
organs in the digestive system include
the stomach, the liver, and the small
intestine. An organ system is a group
of several organs that work together to
perform a vital body function. Your body
is composed of many organ systems,

each of which plays a role in the maintenance of your internal environment or
homeostasis.
As you learn about the digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems, you
will better understand their interdependence. All cells in the body require nutrients and oxygen. These essentials are
provided by the digestive and respiratory systems. The circulatory system ensures that these substances are promptly
delivered to every body cell.
Structures, Functions,
and Processes of the
Digestive System
The digestive tract, also called the gastrointestinal tract or alimentary canal,
is basically a tube that is open at both
ends. This muscular tube that passes
through the body from the mouth to the
anus is the central feature of the digestive system. The inner surface of this
tube is continuous with the outer surface of the body, and so technically, is an
extension of the external environment.
Its structure allows food to enter through
one end, products of digestion to become
absorbed through the lining of the tube,
and waste products to be eliminated
through the other end. This basic design
is present in simpler organisms, such as
the earthworm. With evolution, only the
complexity of the system increases
as each component takes on specialized
structures and performs specific
functions.
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In mammals, the digestive tract consists of a long convoluted alimentary

canal extending from the mouth to the
anus (Figure 8.8). The digestive system
also includes accessory organs: the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Accessory organs provide the
enzymes and other substances that are
essential for digestion to occur. The digestive tract begins with the oral cavity
and includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Each of these areas is
specialized for a particular phase in the
overall process of digestion, but the basic
structure of each is similar.
Structure of the Wall of the

Digestive Tract
The layers of tissue that make up the
gastrointestinal wall, surrounding the
lumen, which is the central space, are:
1) the mucosa; 2) the submucosa; 3) a
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circular layer of smooth muscle; 4) a longitudinal layer of smooth muscle; and 5)

the serosa (Figure 8.7).
The mucosa, or epithelial lining,
consists of a variety of mucus-secreting,
enzyme-secreting, absorptive, and endocrine (hormone-secreting) cells. The
submucosa is a layer of connective tissue that supports blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. The
lymphatic vessels are part of the lymphatic system and serve the role of
transporting lipids that cannot enter the
blood. The circular smooth muscle
forms a ring around the lumen; contraction of this muscle constricts the
lumen. The longitudinal smooth muscle is arranged along the length of the
digestive tract so that its contraction
shortens a segment of the tract. The
serosa is composed of connective tissue;
it forms the covering of the digestive
tract and separates it from the rest of
the abdominal organs.
WORD ORIGIN
Tissue from the French tissue
meaning woven. This is an
appropriate use of the word
since many tissues are woven
together to make organs.
System from the Greek
sustema, which means an
organized whole.
Absorption of
nutrients
microvilli
FIGURE 8.7 The digestive tract is a tube that consists of
VILLUS
various layers of tissuethe mucosa, submucosa, circular

and longitudinal muscle, and the serosa.
epithelium
lymphatic
vessel
capillary
network
SMALL
INTESTINE
Mucosa: highly folded

lining of intestine where
absorption occurs
Submucosa: connective
tissue containing blood
vessels and nerves
Circular and longitudinal
muscle layers: used
for peristalsis
Serosa: connective tissue
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Steps in Digestion
The central function of the digestive system is to change the foods you eat into
chemical forms your body can use.
Anything your body cannot use must be
properly eliminated. The digestive system acquires food through ingestion.
Food is typically in a form that is completely unsuitable for use by body cells.
Food becomes useful only after it has
been converted into diffusible substances
that can pass though the walls of the
small intestine and blood and lymphatic
vessels in the process of absorption.
Therefore, food molecules must be transformed into smaller and simpler units.
This preparation of food for absorption
is termed digestion, and takes place in
the alimentary canal. During digestion
all carbohydrates are converted into
monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose. All proteins are converted into amino acids, and fats are
broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. Two types of digestion are involved:
mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion.
Mechanical digestion occurs mainly
in the mouth and stomach. In mechanical digestion, solid food masses are
shredded, torn, ground, and shaken. All
mammals that eat solid food use their
salivary glands
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teeth to shred, tear, and grind food. This

helps increase the surface area available
for chemical digestion. Incisors are flat,
blade-like teeth used for biting,
canines shred and tear, and premolars and molars grind and crush.
Carnivores have greatly enlarged canine
teeth for biting and tearing. These teeth
are primarily used to shred meat.
Canines are the fang-like teeth located
at the front corners of the mouth.
Herbivores, on the other hand, have incisors specialized for snipping leaves and
flat pre-molars and molars that are used
primarily to grind the tough fibrous plant
food that they eat into a fine pulp. Since
most humans eat both plants and animals, they are omnivores. Therefore,
human teeth resemble the teeth of both
carnivores and herbivores.
Chemical digestion can occur once
food has been broken down into smaller
components that have a high surface
area. The food is mixed with various
juices from the digestive glands and then
enzymes act upon the broken-down food.
The steps of mechanical digestion
occur at several stages, aided by a variety of mechanical activities generated
by the muscular walls of the digestive
system. As a result, a rich, soupy juice
is formed. This soup is not necessarily
in the final form from which food
sphincters
accessory organs
alimentary canal
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
mouth with
teeth
esophagus
stomach
FIGURE 8.8 Components of the digestive system
258
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Internal Systems
small intestine
large intestine
anus
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substances can be properly absorbed.

Absorption occurs primarily in the small
intestine. In the large intestine only
water and some vitamins are absorbed.
Elimination occurs through the rectum
and anus. The nervous and endocrine
systems help the digestive system to
function by providing impulses and
hormones that target and stimulate digestive organs and glands.
Organs of the Digestive Tract
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Close your eyes and swallow.

Analyze the familiar movements in your
mouth and throat. First, the tongue lifts
the bolus to the roof of the mouth and
pushes it back so that it can be swallowed. The bolus passes through the
pharynx and glides over the epiglottis,
a sort of trap door that prevents food
from entering the trachea (windpipe) so
that choking does not occur. Food then
drops into the esophagus, a long thin
tube with muscular walls.
WORD ORIGIN
Peristalsis from the Greek
peri, meaning around and
stellein meaning wrap
The Oral Cavity Food enters the human

digestive system by manipulations of the
mouth (Figure 8.9). Besides taking in
food, the mouth begins to dismantle it,
using lips, tongue, teeth, and jaw muscles. Incisors, chisel-like teeth in the front
of the mouth, cut food into bite-sized
pieces. Canines are used for gripping
and tearing food. The tongue, a slippery,
mobile platform, manipulates food during chewing, pushing it back to the
molars. In the mouth, the chewed food
is mixed with saliva that contains the
enzyme salivary amylase. This enzyme
begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates. The mechanical and chemical
digestion of food results in a moistened
ball-like mass, or bolus, that is easier to
swallow. The bolus is well lubricated
so that it does not scratch the delicate
mucous membranes of the digestive
tract.
incisors
(for cutting)
cuspid
(for tearing)
premolars
(for crushing)
molars
(for crushing)
upper
dental
arch
hard palate
FIGURE 8.9 The oral/buccal cavity

restrictions.
FIGURE 8.10 False-colour scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the

lining of the esophagus. The epithelium consists of many layers of
flattened cells. The microfolds on the cell keep the espohagus moist.
The Esophagus The esophagus is a muscular tube with a diameter of 2 cm that

connects the pharynx and the stomach.
At its point of connection with the stomach there is a ring of smooth muscle
called the cardiac or lower esophageal
sphincter. Constriction of this sphincter prevents reflux, or back flow of food
from the stomach into the esophagus.
When constriction of this sphincter is
weak, reflux of food occurs easily. This
is commonly what causes babies to
spit up after a feeding.
Peristalsis is a series of coordinated
muscular contractions. It is the mechanism that moves food along the digestive tract. Food starts at the mouth
and is moved along the alimentary canal
toward the anus. Peristalsis is independent of gravity and is the main force that
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moves the bolus of food down the

esophagus and into the stomach. When
a bolus of food stretches a segment of
the digestive tract, the smooth muscle
behind the bolus contracts while the
smooth muscle in front of the bolus
relaxes. This coordinated contraction of
the circular and longitudinal muscle
layers produces a wave of constriction
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that propels food forward at a rate that

is appropriate for digestion and
absorption.
a)
bolus of food
tongue
pharynx
epiglottis
trachea
b)

Epiglottis protects
opening to larynx.
esophagus
c)
FIGURE 8.11 A cross-section of the esophagus
Discovering Biology
A Model of Peristalsis
Peristalsis is the mechanism that moves food along the digestive

tract. Take an old nylon stocking and cut off both ends, so that it is
tube-like. Now, take an orange and attempt to pass the orange from
one end of the
nylon tube to the
a)
other.
What kinds of
things do you
have to do to
keep the orange moving
b)
through the
nylon tube?
How is this
model similar
to peristalsis?
d)
esophagus
cardiac sphincter
stomach
FIGURE 8.13 The movement of food down the
How is it different?
UNIT 3
esophagus
bolus of food
esophagus
FIGURE 8.12 A model of peristalsis
260
larynx
Internal Systems
a) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted.

b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed.
c) Bolus of food passes to esophagus.
d) Peristalsis moves bolus of food toward
stomach. Cardiac sphincter still closed.
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The Stomach The human stomach is a

J-shaped stretchable organ that is able
to hold approximately 1.5 L of food. The
stomach acts as a reservoir to receive all
the food at once, before releasing it into
the intestine at intervals. Sphincter muscles regulate the movement of food
throughout the digestive tract. Two
sphincter muscles control the passage of
food coming into and out of the stomach: the cardiac sphincter and the
pyloric sphincter. The contraction of the
cardiac sphincter closes the opening to
the stomach but when this sphincter
relaxes, food is allowed to enter. The cardiac sphincter gets its name from its
location close to the heart. The stomachs muscular walls churn and squeeze
each bolus that enters the stomach from
the esophagus. Thick layers of smooth
muscle, and numerous folds in the stomach, called rugae, enable the stomach
to expand. When expansion occurs, the
smooth muscle stretches and the rugae
gradually disappear. This stretching can
be compared to the coiled cord on a telephone. When the cord is stretched, the
coils disappear, and the wire straightens
out and lengthens.
Within the stomach, food is mechanically digested and mixed with
gastric juices. Gastric glands in the stomach lining contain cells that secrete
hydrochloric acid, and other cells that
secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of
pepsin. In the stomachs acidic environment, pepsinogen is converted into
pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down
protein. Pepsin can actively break down
protein only at a low pH. The pH of the
stomach is 2; therefore, protein digestion is initiated in the stomach. A second enzyme found in the stomach of
children is rennin. This important enzyme slows down the movement of milk
through the digestive tract by clotting
the milk and so allows more time for the
breakdown and absorption of nutrients.
Hydrochloric acid not only provides an
ideal acidic environment for pepsin to
function, but it also sterilizes the upper
digestive tract and destroys invading
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microbes that may be ingested with the

food. Mucus is secreted by mucous cells
within the gastric glands. It lines the
stomach, forming a protective coating
against the corrosive effects of the hydrochloric acid. Approximately 500 mL
of gastric fluid is produced after the consumption of a large meal; about 1500 mL
of gastric juice is secreted daily.
Chemical and physical digestion in
the stomach changes the food bolus into
a liquefied paste called chyme. Muscular
contractions of the stomach wall that mix
food with gastric secretions also propel
the mixture through a ring of smooth
muscle, called the pyloric sphincter, into
the small intestine. The sphincter is usually partly open so that small amounts
of chyme (about 5 mL) squirt into the
duodenum with each wave of gastric
peristalsis. Some chemical digestion, but
no absorption of any significance, occurs
in the stomach.
Stomach ulcers are very common
disorders. They are caused when the hydrochloric acid creates a hole through
the mucous lining of the stomach.
Excessive hydrochloric acid secretion
contributes to peptic ulcers. Beneath the
thin layer of stomach cells lies a rich
INFOBIT
Heartburn occurs when stomach acids reflux into the
esophagus. The esophagus
does not have a mucus lining
to protect it and as a result,
the acid irritates the cells,
causing a burning sensation.
esophagus
muscular
wall
STOMACH
pyloric sphincter
duodenum of
small intestine
rugae
FIGURE 8.14 An internal and external view of the stomach
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INFOBIT
Aspirin and alcohol are two
examples of the few substances that can be absorbed
into the bloodstream through
the lining of the stomach.
This explains why pain relief
occurs soon after ingesting an
aspirin and why intoxication
can happen rapidly.
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Fetal Pig-Dissection
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Absorption through the wall of
the small intestine is the
mechanism by which nutrients
can be taken up by the body.
Research active and passive
cellular transport mechanisms
in absorption and set up a
T-chart. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
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network of capillaries. Acids irritate the

cells of the stomach lining, resulting in
further irritation. Therefore, antacids
usually provide prompt pain relief as
they neutralize excess acid. Recent investigations suggest that many stomach
ulcers are the result of infection by the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori. This infection results in the loss of protective
mucus and so allows damage to the
stomach wall. Many ulcers can be cured
permanently by antibiotics that treat the
underlying bacterial infection.
The Small Intestine Ingestion takes food

into the mouth and alimentary canal, but
not into the body. The small
intestine, the major site of digestion and
absorption, enables food substances to
enter the bodys internal environment.
The small intestine consists of three consecutive sections called the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. Chyme containing
digested food particles enters the small
intestine. The partially digested food is
further subjected to mechanical digestion through segmentation movements.
In these movements, segments of the intestine that are not adjacent alternately
Duodenum:
receives secretions
from pancreas
and liver
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contract and relax. This results in a thorough mixing of the contents with intestinal juices before the chyme is
propelled further along the alimentary
canal. Intestinal juices contain secretions
from the small intestine and from large
accessory digestive glands, the pancreas
and the liver. The ileocaecal valve is an
anatomical landmark that separates the
small intestine from the large intestine.
The small intestine is considerably
longer than the large intestine. The name
small intestine is attributed to its
diameter, which is smaller than the
diameter of the large intestine. The small
intestine is as long as 6 m on average,
but the large intestine is only about
1.5 m in an adult.
Mechanical and chemical digestion
is ongoing as food travels through the
digestive tract. Once the food reaches
the small intestine, it is broken down to
its simplest form and ready for absorption. Almost every nutrient digested is
absorbed into the body through the walls
of the small intestine. Intestinal absorption uses active and passive cellular
transport mechanisms. Some transport
mechanisms are unique to the intestinal
SMALL INTESTINE
Jejunum:
performs most of
digestion and
chemical
absorption
Ileum:
absorption
continues
large
intestine
FIGURE 8.15 The small intestine
262
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Internal Systems
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absorptive cells. After passing across the

mucosal epithelium, the water-soluble
nutrients flow into the blood capillaries
of the villi for transport to the liver and
then to all the bodys cells. The products
of fat digestion are absorbed into the
lacteals, tiny lymphatic vessels in the
villi, that connect to the lymphatic
system. See Figure 8.16.
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The lining of the small intestine has

finger-like extensions of the mucosa
called villi that project into the lumen.
In turn, the surface of each cell in a
villus is covered with a carpet of tiny
microvilli. The net effect of the villi and
microvilli is to increase the surface area
of the intestine to maximize its ability to
absorb food. Approximately 80% of all
INFOBIT
It takes food approximately five
hours to pass through the
human small intestine. The
total surface area available for
absorption of nutrients is approximately 300 m2, about the
size of a tennis court.
FIGURE 8.16 The intestinal wall
a) One fold with many villi

b) The structure of the intestinal wall
one plica or fold
c) The surface cells of a villus carry microvilli
a)
villi
microvilli
epithelium
mucosa
capillary network
lacteal
sub
mucosa
circular
muscle
longitudinal
muscle
lymphatic
vessel
serosa
c)
b)
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absorption occurs in the small intestine.

The remaining 20% of the absorption occurs in the stomach and the large intestine. The possibility of maximizing
surface area to allow for efficient diffusion of substances is an important theme
in biology. Single cells divide to keep the
ratio of cell surface to volume at the optimum for diffusion. In the small intestine the villi and microvilli increase the
surface area available for diffusion of nutrients into the cells of the intestinal wall.
Villi are nestled within a network of capillaries that allows for easy diffusion and
transport from cells in the intestinal wall
to the blood. In this way the products of
digestion of food can be transported and
distributed to all body cells.
WORDORIGIN
Itis, from the Greek it is, indicating sickness or disease; so
appendicitis means an inflammation of the appendix and
colitis means an inflammation
of the colon.
WEBLINK
Using the Internet, research
signs and symptoms that a
person suffering from Crohns
disease might display.
LARGE INTESTINE
Colon:
reabsorption
of water and
vitamins
ileum of
small intestine
Caecum:
receives material
from small
intestine
appendix
Rectum:
end of
digestive tract
ileocecal
valve
anus
FIGURE 8.17 The large intestine
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The Large Intestine The large intestine

consists of consecutive sectionsthe
caecum, colon, rectum, and anus. The
colon is divided into the ascending,
transverse, descending, and sigmoid
colon regions. The main functions of the
large intestine are to reabsorb water and
to hold and compact the unabsorbed
material from the small intestine. The
caecum is the chamber where chyme
passes from the small intestine into the
large intestine. Passage of chyme
between the small and large intestines
is regulated by the ileocaecal valve.
Jutting out from the caecum is the
appendix. The function of the appendix
is debatable, but the presence of a large
amount of lymphoid tissue suggests it
functions as part of the lymphoid system. When the appendix becomes inflamed, appendicitis occurs.
The unabsorbed material moves
slowly through the colon and as water,
salts, and some vitamins are reabsorbed
into the body, the waste products of digestion are accumulated and are prepared for elimination. The solid waste is
called feces or stools. Feces pass
through the rectum and exit the body
through the anus. A subsidiary function
of the large intestine is to assemble
certain vitamins, for example, vitamin K.
Vitamin production occurs due to the
activity of micro-organisms in the large
intestine.
Inflammatory bowel disease is a
common illness that affects the small
and large intestine. There are two main
types of inflammatory bowel disease:
Crohns disease and ulcerative
colitis. Each of these conditions has at
its root an inflammatory process that affects the lining of the small and large intestine. In ulcerative colitis, the
inflammation starts at the rectum and
spreads backward, through the large intestine. In Crohns disease, the inflammation can start anywhere along the
gastrointestinal tract, but is mainly localized in the small intestine.
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Defecation is controlled by two anal

sphincters and occurs usually once or
twice a day in humans. The feces are
about three-fourths water and onefourth solid matter. Of the solid matter,
about 30% is bacteria (normal residents
of the intestine), about 30% is undigested
roughage, about 20% is fat, about 15%
is inorganic matter, and about 3% is protein.
Constipation is one of the most common problems of the digestive tract
and affects approximately 2% of the
population at any given time. Numerous
medical conditions can cause constipation. Regular bowel movements are
important in maintaining health.
Individuals who have constipation often
complain of abdominal discomfort and
bloating. Laxatives, whether purchased
over the counter or through a
prescription, are one method of treating
constipation. Generally, laxatives act to
increase the passage of stool through the
rectum. There are various forms of
laxativestablets, liquids, and powders.
Foods high in fibre also function as
laxatives. Some of these are bran,
prunes, and raw fruits and vegetables.
Other laxatives work by increasing
the water content of the feces, or by
softening the stool.
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FIGURE 8.18 A radiograph of the large intestine
INFOBIT
water
bacteria
undigested roughage
While 1500 mL of watery material arrives in the colon daily,

about 1350 mL are reabsorbed,
leaving only about 150 mL that
are eliminated with the feces.
lipid
inorganic matter
WORDORIGIN
protein
Feces, from the Latin fauces,

pl. meaning dregs or
sediment.
FIGURE 8.19 The percent composition of feces
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Section 8.2 Review

1. Draw a diagram to explain how food
ingested into the digestive tract is really still a part of the outside world.
2. Explain how peristalsis moves a bolus
of food from the mouth to the stomach.
What is the function of the epiglottis?
3. List ways that mechanical and chemical digestion differ.
4. What is the function of hydrochloric
acid in the stomach?
5. Why are villi and microvilli important
to the function of the small intestine?
What would be the result of a reduction in the number of microvilli?
6. Comment on the appropriateness of the
names small intestine and large
intestine.
7.
a) Why is the pH scale appropriate to

measure the effects of an antacid
tablet?
b) What is the normal pH of the
stomach?
c) What acid is responsible for maintaining this pH?
d) Account for the change in pH in the
stomach over the 30 min after a
person has ingested several antacid
tablets.
9. You are a zoologist working at a zoo.
You are studying the ingestion patterns
of various animals. Examine the two
animal skulls below, and create a Tchart that summarizes whether the animals are herbivores or carnivores.
Suggest types of foods that zookeepers
could feed these animals.
Having surgery may require that a

patient does not have anything to eat
or drink for 12 h before the operation.
a) Research the mechanisms that help
the body cope without food for a
long period of time.
b) What happens to the body under
conditions of starvation?
Skull #1
Applying Inquiry/
8. Plot the data below using a line graph.
Time after Ingesting an
Antacid Tablet (min)
266
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
pH of Stomach
1.5
10
1.68
20
1.8
30
2.1
Skull #2
FIGURE 8.20 Skulls #1 and #2
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8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and

Their Associated Enzymes
Key Understandings
explain the functions of enzymes involved in digestion
illustrate a feedback loop as a mechanism of homeostasis
explain how the hormone insulin helps to maintain blood sugar levels
appreciate the work done by Canadian scientists Banting and Best
describe the technology used to examine the digestive system
analyze improvements in liver transplantation in response to societal needs
The accessory organs of digestion are

the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and
gallbladder. Salivary glands secrete saliva
that contains enzymes that initiate the
breakdown of starch. Both the pancreas
and the gallbladder release their secretions into ducts that empty into the duodenum. The pancreas secretes a number
of enzymes that help complete chemical
digestion that has been started in other
regions of the alimentary canal. The pancreas also secretes an alkaline solution
containing sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
that neutralizes the hydrochloric acid released in the stomach. The liver produces bile, a substance that acts like a
detergent in the breakdown of fat. The
bile is concentrated and stored in a sac
called the gallbladder. Since the lumen
of the digestive tract is actually an extension of the outside world, secretions
from these accessory organs are
considered to be exocrine, or outside
the body.
Salivary Glands
The salivary glands secrete saliva, a
fluid made up of two types of secretions.
Some salivary glands (the parotids) secrete a watery fluid that contains salivary amylase. This is an enzyme that
digests starch. Others (the buccal glands)
secrete a thick, slippery fluid called
mucus, which is high in the glycoprotein mucin. The cells that line the
esophagus also secrete mucus. As the

tongue is stimulated by many taste and
tactile sensations, parts of the nervous
system respond to increase the secretion
of saliva.
The Liver and Gallbladder

The liver is the second-largest organ in
the human body, after the skin. It weighs
about 1.5 kg, and its major digestive
function is the synthesis of bile. Bile is
a mixture of bile salts, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids, fatty acids, and
water. The liver is divided into two large
lobes, the left and the right. In
biology, a lobe is a well-defined part of
an organ separated by boundaries.
Lodged within a recess under the right
lobe of the liver is the gallbladder. It is
a muscular sac that stores and concentrates the bile that it receives from the
liver. When fat enters the duodenum, endocrine cells in the duodenum release a
hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK)
into the blood. CCK causes the gallbladder to contract and send bile through the
bile duct into the duodenum. Liver cells
produce approximately 1 L of bile daily.
The liver is an organ with many
functions. It plays a key role in regulating body metabolism. In fact all blood
leaving the absorptive areas of the body,
the stomach, and the intestines, flows
through the liver before entering the
general circulation. This allows the liver
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LIVER
right
lobe
left
lobe
common
hepatic
duct
common bile duct
PANCREAS
cystic
duct
pancreatic
duct
GALLBLADDER
duodenum of
small intestine
FIGURE 8.21 The accessory organs. The liver and pancreas release their secretions into the
small intestine at the duodenum.
Investigation
Refer to page 279,
Investigation 1
INFOBIT
The liver is the largest reservoir of blood in the body, holding about 25% of the cardiac
output at any given time. That
is why, when administering
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR), it is vital to landmark
so that you do not damage the
liver. If you were to compress
on the breastbone without first
landmarking, you might cut the
liver and cause severe internal
bleeding.
268
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Internal Systems
to extract absorbed nutrients or toxins

from the blood. The nutrients continue
into the general circulation, while the
toxins are properly disposed of. Catalase,
an enzyme found in almost all body cells,
but in highest concentration in liver cells,
plays a key role in decomposing toxins
like hydrogen peroxide into the safe
products of water and oxygen.
Additionally, when people use substances like drugs and alcohol, the liver
detects these as toxic to the body and
tries to eliminate them. People who
abuse alcohol and drugs experience liver
damage over time.
Alcohol and the Liver The relationship between excessive alcohol use and liver
damage has been known for many years.
In fact, in the western world, alcohol is
the most common cause of liver disease.
Heavy alcohol consumption for many
years can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
Cirrhosis is a condition where the liver
is scarred and contains fibrous tissue.
Cirrhosis hinders blood flow through the
liver and so hinders metabolic processes.
It depresses all functions of the liver.
In this way, excessive alcohol consumption disrupts the homeostasis of the
individuals internal environment. The

development of alcoholic cirrhosis is correlated with the duration and quantity of
alcohol consumption. There are many
ways in which alcohol can damage the
liver. It causes direct damage and eventual death of hepatocytes (liver cells). It
also changes the fat composition of liver
cells, resulting in a fatty liver. Some of
these changes are reversible if the
person stops drinking alcohol.
Individuals with alcoholic liver
disease may show a variety of symptoms.
The most common complaints in people
with alcoholic hepatitis, a condition
causing inflammation of the liver, are
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Some people experience weight
loss, fever, and jaundice which causes a
yellow discoloration of the skin. Ascites,
a condition where fluid collects in the
abdomen, is also common in liver
disease.
The mainstay of treatment for
alcohol-induced liver disease is complete
abstinence from alcohol. Other forms of
therapy include a combination of dietary
changes, vitamins, and steroids. In
severe cases, liver transplantation may
eventually be necessary.
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The Pancreas
The pancreas lies behind the stomach
and extends laterally from the duodenum. It is a finger-shaped organ and
measures about 15 cm in length. It is
specialized for secretion and is the
source of a number of substances essential to the digestive process. When
chyme leaves the stomach through the
pyloric sphincter it is slightly acidic. The
chyme must be neutralized so that this
acidic mixture does not corrode and irritate the cells that line the small intestine. Once acid enters the small intestine,
a hormone called secretin is released
from the cells in the duodenal wall. This
hormone is absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the pancreas.
Here, it signals the release of bicarbonate ions from the pancreas. Bicarbonate
ions not only help to neutralize the
hydrochloric acid, but also increase the
alkalinity in the duodenum to a pH of 9.
This is significant, because in an alkaline environment, the enzyme pepsin
(from the stomach) becomes inactive.
The pancreatic secretions also contain enzymes that continue the breakdown of the three major components
of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids. Lipases work on lipids, carbohydrases digest sugars and starches,
and proteases break apart proteins.
Regulating Blood Sugar

an Example of Homeostasis
To maintain health, your body must keep
certain conditions constant or within an
acceptable range. Examples of these conditions are blood pressure, respiration
rate, body temperature, and blood sugar
levels. Homeostasis means the maintenance of a steady internal state.
Negative feedback is an important concept associated with homeostasis and
can be summarized in three steps:
1.
A variable is identified that has

changed by either rising above or
falling below its normal range, called
the norm or set point.
2.
3.
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Receptors detect the change and signal other parts of the body to respond
in order to restore the steady state.
Organs receive the signal and
respond accordingly. The responses
restore the body to its normal condition. Sometimes, the response is accomplished by the release of
hormones.
The response of the organ to correct

the problem and restore balance is called
negative feedback. Many organ systems
in your body help maintain homeostasis. The pancreas, for example, is the
most important organ responsible for
blood sugar control.
The body has a well-defined system
for dealing with fluctuations in blood
sugar. The overall goal of homeostasis as
it relates to blood sugar is to maintain
blood sugar at approximately 46 mmolL1.
This range is considered the bodys set
point under normal conditions. After a
meal, as simple sugars are absorbed into
the bloodstream, there is a direct rise in
blood sugar level. This rise is detected by
specialized receptor cells that then stimulate the release of insulin from the betacells found in the pancreas. The release
of insulin, which promotes the uptake of
glucose from the blood will ultimately restore the blood sugar level to its normal
range of 46 mmolL1. At this point the
receptor cells respond to the normal conditions and the release of insulin stops. If
blood sugar levels fall below the set points,
the hormone glucagon from the alpha
cells of the pancreas stimulates reactions
to mobilize energy reserves so that
glucose is released from the liver. See
Figure 8.22b).
Homeostasis is an important concept
in biology and involves other body systems. However, it is not exclusive to biology. A thermostat is another example
of a negative feedback loop. Heat flow
through a house is controlled to keep
room temperature at a constant level, the
set point. The thermostat is a device that
helps to monitor and regulate room temperature. It consists of a thin coil made
CHAPTER 8
WEBLINK
Estimates suggest that obesity
is responsible for 75% of
diabetes cases and 30% of
cardiovascular problems.
Lifestyle changes can reduce
these risks. Research the
information on one of these
diseases and prepare a
summary chart to indicate
ways to prevent these diseases.
www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
INFOBIT
Diabetes affects millions of
Canadians. There are two
types: Type 1 and Type 2.
Generally, Type 1 diabetes
occurs when there is destruction
of the specialized pancreatic
cells that make insulin. These
beta () cells are within structures called the Islets of
Langerhans. As a result there
is no insulin produced in the
body and individuals with Type
1 diabetes must take insulin
from an external source, by
injection. Type 2 diabetes is
usually age dependent, though
other factors like poor diet,
high blood pressure, obesity,
and infections can help bring it
about.
269
Contents
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The Discovery of Insulin

In 1921, two Canadians, Frederick
Banting, a physician, and Charles
Best, a science summer student, isolated insulin. Their ground-breaking
physiological studies were conducted
in the laboratory of John J.R. Macleod

at the University of Toronto. Banting
and Best tied the pancreatic duct of
experimental dogs. They waited for
seven weeks for the pancreas to
shrink. From the remaining pancreas
tissue of these dogs, they collected the
hormone insulin produced by the
beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans.
They isolated the hormone and
then injected it into other dogs made
diabetic by the removal of their
of two different metals fastened together.

Because the different metals expand and
contract at different rates, the coil bends
and unbends with changes in air temperature. The moving coil pushes on an
electric switch that turns the heat source
on or off. When the temperature falls
below the normal range, the metal coil
responds to switch the heat source on.
This response results in the temperature
rising back to normal. If the temperature
overshoots the normal temperature
range, the coil responds by switching the
heat source off. This response results in
the temperature falling back to normal.
See Figure 8.22a).
M AT H L I N K
The concentration term mmol L1
relates the molar mass of a
substance to a volume of a
liquid. Since the molar mass
of glucose is 180, 46 mmol L1
means 0.721.08g L1.
WORD ORIGIN
Thermostat from two Greek
words, therm meaning heat
and statos meaning steady.
Thermostat switches
heating OFF.
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pancreases. When the diabetic dogs

were injected with the isolated hormone, their symptoms of diabetes
disappeared. The replacement therapy was successful.
Banting and Best wanted to call
the hormone isletin after the cells
that produce it, the Islets of
Langerhans. However, it was agreed
that the hormone would be known as
insulin which is derived from the
Latin word insula meaning island.
Human Digestive Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins found in both
plants and animals. They act upon other
substances called substrates. Enzymes
speed up all chemical changes in the
body, not only those connected with digestion. They speed up reactions without themselves becoming changed in the
process and are therefore known as biological catalysts. Enzymes are produced
by two kinds of glands: those with and
those without ducts. The pancreas and
salivary glands have ducts, while ductless glands line the stomach and small
intestine. The entire gut is also lined
by millions of mucous gland cells.
no heating
insulin release
response/s
Heating continues.
Temperature rises
above set point.
response/s
Temperature
falls to
set point.
result
return
to norm
stimulus
Glucose
level in
blood rises.
heating
Temperature
falls below
set point.
Thermostat
switches heating ON.
a) a thermostat
b) regulation of blood sugar in human
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Glucose
level rises to
set point.
result
stimulus
Glucose
level in
blood falls.
response/s
FIGURE 8.22 Negative feedback loops
270
Glucose
level falls to
set point.
result
stimulus
return
to norm
response/s
a)
result
Blood Glucose
4-6 mmol L-1
Norm or Set Point

Temperature
rises to
set point.
stimulus
b)
glucagon release and other reactions

to convert storage products to glucose
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Previous Section
The lock-and-key model is an aid to

understanding the relationship between
the enzyme and the substrate. This
model implies that the enzyme and the
substrate fit together in a specific manner so that the enzyme can carry out its
function.
Digestive enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler units by adding water. Water can
break the bond holding two monomers
together. This is called hydrolysis, which
literally means destruction by water.
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the
mouth. Salivary amylase breaks down
starch, a complex carbohydrate, into
H 20
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disaccharides. Further digestion of carbohydrate occurs in the duodenum.

The enzyme pepsin works only in
a very acidic environment. Protein digestion occurs in the stomach where the
acidic environment allows pepsin to
work optimally to break proteins into
shorter chains of amino acids. Most enzymes involved in completing the digestion of macronutrients are produced
in the pancreas and empty into the duodenum of the small intestine. Pancreatic
enzymes work best in a pH of 7 to 8.
Therefore, the bicarbonate ions that the
pancreas secretes provide the ideal conditions for these enzymes to function.
H 20
INFOBIT
You have three pairs of salivary
glands. The sublingual glands
in the floor of the mouth, the
submandibular glands just
below the jaw, and the parotid
glands deep to the cheek.
Saliva is an alkaline, watery,
mucus solution. It contains
potassium, chloride, and
bicarbonate ions as well as
amylase, a digestive enzyme
that begins starch digestion.
H 20
Chemical
digestion
Absorption to
blood
a) Carbohydrate digestion
b) Protein digestion
c) Lipid digestion
Absorption to
lymph
vessel
FIGURE 8.23 Activity of enzymes in regions of the digestive system
a) Areas of carbohydrate digestion

b) Areas of protein digestion
c) Areas of lipid digestion
CHAPTER 8
271
Contents
Investigation
Refer to page 281,
Investigation 2
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Pancreatic juice is a mixture of several

enzymes. Protein-digesting enzymes or
proteases are made and stored in inactive forms, so they do not digest the pancreas itself. The inactive enzymes become
active only after they have reached the
intestine. For instance, trypsinogen is released and becomes activated in the intestine as trypsin, an enzyme that
completes protein digestion by splitting
dipeptides into amino acids. Other pancreatic enzymes include pancreatic
amylase, lipases, and nucleases. All of
these enzymes require particular conditions for their most efficient action.
FIGURE 8.24 An endoscope

restrictions.
FIGURE 8.25 The inside of the small intestine

as photographed by an endoscope.
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UNIT 3
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Bile
Food in the small intestine is mixed, not
only with pancreatic fluid, but also with
bile. Recall that bile is made by the liver
and stored in the gallbladder. Bile enters
the intestine through a duct. Though it is
not an enzyme itself, bile has two functions in the intestine.
It acts in the same fashion as a
detergent. While detergents help to
emulsify fatty substances in your kitchen
sink, bile emulsifies fat in your small intestine by breaking the fat down into
small globules. It is important to note
that the chemical structure of the fat is
not changed even though it has been
physically broken down. The globules
are kept separate from each other within
the watery environment. Bile salts also
help in the absorption of lipids from the
intestine.
Gallstones sometimes develop when
large amounts of water are absorbed
from bile, leaving behind solids, which
block the bile duct. Removal of the gallbladder because of gallstones sometimes
results in difficulty with fat absorption
later on.
Endoscopy
An endoscope is a device consisting of
a tube containing an optical system
composed of a light-emitting glass fibre.
It is used for observing the inside of a
hollow organ or cavity. These observations may be made through a natural
body opening or through a small incision. When the endoscope is used to examine the digestive system, it can be
inserted through the mouth to investigate the upper digestive tract. A
colonoscopy can be performed in a similar manner by inserting the optical system through the anus to investigate
the lower digestive tract. The endoscope
is used to view such things as stomach
ulcers or polyp formation in the colon.
Tiny forceps, fitted into the endoscope,
can even extract small pieces of tissue
for further testing.
Contents
Previous Section
Frontiers in Liver
Transplantation
Of all the wonders of modern medicine,
none has captured the public imagination more than organ transplantation.
Today, organs such as the heart, kidney,
lung, pancreas, and liver are being transplanted with increasing success around
the world. The first successful human
liver transplant was performed in the
mid-1960s by Dr. Thomas Starzl in
Denver, Colorado.
The liver is the second-largest organ
in the body, and is vital to life. It performs many essential functions. The liver
breaks down and removes harmful
chemicals and drugs. It changes nutrients into energy for growth and activity.
It produces bile, a substance that helps
the body absorb vitamins and metabolize fat. The liver also produces proteins,
particularly proteins responsible for
blood clotting and balancing body fluids.
For liver transplants, the only requirements are that the donor and recipient are approximately the same size,
and of compatible blood types. Donors
and recipients do not have to be
matched by tissue type, sex, or age. The
donor and recipient of the transplant
must also be free from any chronic infections or untreatable cancers.
Very often livers are donated, with
the consent of the next of kin, from individuals who are brain dead, usually as
a result of a head injury or brain hemorrhage. When such a donor is identified, a computer network contacts
transplant centres and arrangements are
made to retrieve whatever organs may
be donated. Frequently this involves a
team from a transplant centre flying to
the donor hospital to remove the organs,
and returning with them for the transplant operation.
Transplant using liver from a living
donor is also possible, especially for pediatric patients. Liver cells are unique
because they have the ability to regenerate quickly. Therefore, some pediatric
patients receive only a small portion of
a liver from a larger donor. This liver
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segment will grow as the child grows,

and will provide satisfactory liver function. Donors with a compatible blood
type can donate part of their liver to another person. Within three months, the
donors liver grows back to its previous
size and shape.
In any organ transplant, it is important
to create conditions so that the new organ
and the patients own body cells communicate properly. If the organ is not properly
matched to the recipient, then the recipients body cells will reject the organ. There
are drugs called immunosuppressants
that help to suppress the recipients
immune system, and fight the rejection
of the transplanted organ. Transplant
recipients must take immunosuppressants
for the rest of their lives.
There is, however, a paradox in organ
transplant success and advancement. The
greater the success in human-to-human
organ transplantation, the more demand
there will be for such procedures. This
will undoubtedly create longer and longer
waiting times for organ recipients. Already
in Canada alone, thousands of frustrated
and desperately ill candidates are waiting for donor organs. In March 2001, pediatric cardiologist and transplant
immunologist Dr. Lori West at Torontos
Hospital for Sick Children reported successful heart transplants between newborns of incompatible blood types.
Because the infants immune system is
not fully functional, the rejection problems
seen in older people have not occurred.
In this way precious donated organs were
able to be used rather than wasted.
With modern medicine, physicians
can keep critically ill patients awaiting
transplantation alive. Surgeons are also
successfully transplanting organs into
patients who are sicker and older. The
number of patients awaiting transplants
continues to climb. To deal with these escalating numbers, medicine is exploring
a variety of alternative solutions, including xenotransplantation, meaning the
use of organs from animals as transplants
in humans. Biotechnology initiatives are
studying designs for drugs to prevent the
rejection of these transplanted organs.
CHAPTER 8

FIGURE 8.26 Dr. Lori West

showed that heart transplantation between newborns of
incompatible blood types was
possible.
273
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Section 8.3 Review

1. Draw the alimentary canal to show
where the accessory organs are located. Why does the digestive tract
need accessory organs?
2. What is the role of the liver in
digestion?
3. What is the role of the gallbladder?
4. Define an enzyme and indicate why
shape is important for enzyme
function.
5. What digestive enzymes does the
pancreas produce?
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
Time of day
Blood sugar reading
8:00 a.m.
4.6
10:15 a.m.
7.8
6:15 p.m.
3.2
11:00 p.m.
13.0
10. There are differing opinions about the

practice of organ donation and organ
transplants. Describe the ethical considerations that might influence how
decisions about these practices are
made.
Examine the table below.
7.
Internal Systems
8. Crohns disease is a condition in which

the small intestine becomes inflamed
and the absorption of food through the
small intestine is affected. What social
implications might there be for a
teenager suffering from Crohns disease?
9. In a chart, show the pros and cons of
using animals in health care research.
a) Which value represents her blood

sugar in the fasting state?
b) She finishes her soccer game after
school and comes home feeling
very hungry. Why do you think that
her blood sugar is low at 6:15 p.m.?
What could she have done to prevent low blood sugar?
c) As a celebration of her soccer victory, she has a hot fudge sundae
after dinner with her friends. How
will this affect the amount of insulin
in her next dose?
UNIT 3
a) In test tube #1, Benedicts test

shows an orange precipitate. What
substance in the test tube accounts
for this precipitate?
b) Tubes #2 and #5 are controls in
this experiment. Why do you think
these controls are necessary?
c) What does boiling saliva do to its
activity and its effect on starch?
How can you know this from the
information in the table?
Making Connections
6. A diabetic must test her blood sugar

several times during the day. Below are
her blood sugar readings for the past
24 h. Recall that a normal blood sugar
reading is 46 mmolL1.
274
Note that a () indicates that the item

is present in the test tube and a ()
indicates that it is not present in the
test tube. Note also that iodine turns
dark blue in the presence of starch.
Tube
Starch
Saliva
Iodine Test
Benedicts test
no change
orange precipitate
boiled
dark blue
no change
dark blue
no change
no change
no change
no change
no change
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Key Understandings
compare the anatomy of different organisms
understand how the components of digestive systems have been modified to suit the
unique digestive needs of different organisms
Amoeba
As a one-celled organism, the amoeba
does not have a complex system for digestion. Its means of acquiring and storing food are very simple. The amoeba
surrounds its food by extensions of the
cytoplasm called pseudopods. This process of engulfing and ingesting food,
called phagocytosis, requires energy
from ATP. Once inside the amoeba, food
can be stored in a food vacuole. Food
vacuoles can move within the amoeba.
Enzymes that break down the food are
released into the food vacuole. Within
the food vacuole the specific pH allows
enzymes to work at their optimum.
FIGURE 8.28 The jellyfish is

able to absorb nutrients from
its gastrovascular cavity. It can
acquire its nutritional needs
through diffusion.
it. Only the lining cells have direct access to nutrients, but the nutrients have
only a short distance to diffuse to other
body cells.
Earthworm
FIGURE 8.27 An amoeba. Since the amoeba is

unicellular, the basic means of acquiring food
(diffusion, active transport, and phagocytosis) are
sufficient to meet its nutritional needs. Excess
food is stored in vacuoles.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish have a gastrovascular cavity
with branches that radiate outward from
a central circular canal. Digestion occurs
within this cavity and in the cells lining
The regions of the alimentary canal in

the earthworm differ according to their
function in the digestive process. The
earthworm burrows through the ground
and uses a shovel-like prostomium to
scoop up soil. The muscular pharynx
then sucks soil into the worms mouth.
The nutrient-containing soil passes
through the esophagus and is stored and
moistened in the crop. Since the earthworm lacks teeth, the muscular gizzard
is equipped with small grains of sand
and gravel, allowing food from the crop
to enter and mechanical digestion to
occur. Organic matter in the food is
chemically digested and nutrients are
absorbed in the intestine. The indigestible material is eliminated through
the anus.
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softens and helps break down plant

fibres, making them more accessible to
the bacteria, and thereby more
digestible.
esophagus
crop
mouth
intestine
anus
pharynx
Plants
gizzard
interior
of intestine
wall of
intestine
FIGURE 8.29 The earthworm exhibits all the main components of an alimentary
canal. Some added features include the crop where food is stored and the gizzard
where pebbles help to mechanically break down food.
Bird
Birds have an alimentary canal with organs similar to the earthworm. Birds are
able to eat a variety of foods, including
insects, worms, berries, and seeds. Like
the earthworm, birds have both a crop
for storing food and a gizzard for mechanically digesting food. Gravel pieces
in the gizzard help grind the food into
digestible pieces. Most chemical digestion occurs in the birds stomach.
Nutrients are absorbed in the intestine.
Cow
Ruminant mammals, such as cattle,
sheep, and deer, have a more elaborate system with a stomach that has four
chambers. This is because they digest
cellulose, a substance that is undigested
in humans. When a cow first chews and
swallows a mouthful of grass, the food
enters the rumen. It later travels to a region called the reticulum. Bacteria found
in the rumen and reticulum start to
break down the cellulose. The cow helps
in this process by regurgitating and rechewing food from time to time. This
rumination or chewing the cud
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In most ways, plants are organized differently from humans. However, there
are mechanisms within plants that are
similar to human digestive processes.
For example, plants need to have a high
surface area to allow for proper nutrient absorption. This is accomplished
through their root system, which absorbs water and inorganic nutrients
from the soil. Important minerals include
potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen.
Each root has many root hairs that increase the absorption capacity of the
root. Compare this situation to humans
where villi in the small intestine have
microvilli that also increase surface area
to enhance absorption.
Of course plants are very different
in that they manufacture sugars through
photosynthesis. However, they do require
a transport system to carry water and
inorganic nutrients to the site of photosynthesis in the leaves and to carry manufactured nutrient products (sugars) to
other tissues for use and storage. These
two aspects are kept separate. The xylem
transports water and minerals from the
roots to the leaves, and the phloem carries sugars away from the leaves to other
tissues. Compare this to the human
where the transport system, the circulatory system, receives the products of
digestion and carries them to the liver
and the rest of the body tissues.
Xylem and phloem are discussed in
detail in Chapter 16.
A third similarity between plants
and people is the importance of homeostasis. Just as humans regulate their
blood sugar, breathing rate, temperature, and so on, plants control the release of water through their stomata.
Stomata are the site of gas exchange in
plants and also the sites of water release
through the process of transpiration. For
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these purposes the stomata are open.

If the external humidity drops so that the
plant is losing water faster than it can
be replaced from the xylem (conditions
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move away from the norm), responses

occur in the leaf so that the stomata
close. Transpiration is reduced and internal conditions return to normal.
mouth
gizzard
esophagus
intestine
crop
stomach
anus
FIGURE 8.30 The digestive system of a bird
intestine
four-chambered
stomach
reticulum
esophagus
rumen
FIGURE 8.31 Ruminants, such as cows, have four stomachs. As herbivores, their
diet requires that they break down cellulose, a very complex carbohydrate. This requires that they chew the cud to break the fibrous material into small pieces.
CHAPTER 8
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Section 8.4 Review

1. How does the single-celled amoeba ingest its food?
2. Which structures in the earthworms
alimentary canal are similar to those
in humans? Which are different? A
Venn diagram may be useful to compare these two organisms.
3. What is the purpose of a cow chewing the cud?
4. a) Why do you think that organisms,
such as earthworms and birds,
might find a storage device like the
crop useful?
b) Study the food web that includes
these animals and predict how the
web would be affected if some of
these organisms did not have the
ability to gather food and store it
in their crop for later use.
wolf
bird
snake
frog
worm
insect
grass
FIGURE 8.32
278
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Applying Inquiry/
5. In a paragraph compare mechanical
and chemical digestion in the earthworm, the bird and the cow. Include
the role of muscle contraction in each
species digestion.
6. Construct a table to show the various
organs and components of the digestive tract. Identify the structures common to all of the organisms discussed
in this section. Explain why each is
vital to the proper functioning of the
digestive system.
Making Connections
7.
Animals in captivity do not hunt for

their food.
a) Research how the dietary needs of
the animals are determined.
b) Describe the impact this has on
their ability to survive if returned
to the wild.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 8.3)
What Effect Does Temperature Have

on an Enzyme?
A catalyst is something that speeds up a chemical reaction while itself remaining unchanged. An enzyme
is a biological catalyst. Enzymes work best under
specific conditions, and these conditions can vary for
each enzyme. Each enzyme acts specifically on a substance called the substrate. This investigation will enable you to explore the role of temperature in enzyme
activity. The enzyme will come from a homogenate of
fresh liver. The substrate used will be hydrogen peroxide. Remember that one of the roles of the liver is
detoxification. One way that the liver accomplishes
detoxification is through oxidation.
How does temperature affect the function of enzymes

present in fresh liver?
safety goggles
100150 g liver per
group
hot plate
water
6 test tubes
250-mL beakers
beaker tongs
test-tube tongs
3.

blender
ice
knife
test-tube rack
tape
black marker
hydrogen peroxide
(3% H2O2)
non-latex gloves
TABLE 8.5 Set-up of Test Tubes for Investigation
Test tube #1
Liver at room temperature

Substrate: water
Test tube #2
Liver at room temperature

Substrate: H2O2
Test tube #3
Liver in an ice bath

Substrate: water
Test tube #4
Liver in an ice bath

Substrate: H2O2
Test tube #5
Liver in a hot water bath

Substrate: water
Test tube #6
Liver in a hot water bath

Substrate: H2O2
Problem
Materials
4.
5.
6.
Plug in the hot plate. Add about 150 mL of water

to a 250-mL beaker and place it on the hot plate.
Set the temperature gauge on the hot plate high
enough to allow the water in the beaker to boil.
Add approximately 2 mL of liver homogenate to
each of the 6 test tubes so that the homogenate
occupies about 1 cm from the bottom of the test tube.
Take test tubes #3 and #4, and place them in the
ice bath for approximately 15 min.
Take test tubes #5 and #6 and place them in the hot
water bath, after it has come to a boil. Leave these
test tubes in the hot water bath for 15 min.
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles when adding the hydrogen peroxide substrate and observing the reaction. The
test tubes in the boiling water bath will be very hot. Use
beaker tongs to handle the glassware.
Procedure
1.
Use the knife to chop the liver into fine bits. Place the
chopped liver into the hand blender. Add about
50 mL of water. If the homogenate is too thick and
stringy, you can add a little more water (1020 mL).
Blend the liver until it is homogenous. Pour this into
a 250-mL beaker and label it liver homogenate.
Place the 6 test tubes in a test-tube rack. Use the
tape and black marker to label each of the test tubes
as in Table 8.5.
FIGURE 8.33 Set-up for enzyme investigation

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(continued)
While test tubes #3#6 are in the hot water bath,

add the substrate to test tubes #1 and #2. Add
2 mL of water to test tube #1 and record your observations. Similarly, add 2 mL of H2O2 to test tube
#2 and record your observations. Using a data table
like Table 8.6, record the rate of reaction on a scale
of 04 as in Table 8.7.
7.
TABLE 8.6 Observations of enzyme activity
Test tube #1
1. From your observation chart, suggest how temperature affects the functioning of the enzyme.
Test tube #2
2. Account for the differences in the rates of reaction.
Test tube #3
Test tube #4
3. Based on your observations, why were both water

and H2O2 used in this investigation?
4. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the
ice bath?
Test tube #5
5. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the

hot water bath?
Test tube #6
6. What was the purpose of repeating the addition

of H2O2 to test tube #2 at the end of the investigation?
7. Considering your observations from test tubes 5
and 6, how might this experiment be compared to
the changes that occur when frying an egg?
TABLE 8.7 Rates of Reaction
Scale Number
Rate
No reaction
Extending
Slow
Moderate
8. If large chunks of liver were used as a source of

enzyme instead of homogenizing the liver, what
might you have observed? Explain your answer.
Fast
Very fast
8.
280
Similarly, take test tubes #5 and #6 from the hot

water bath. Turn off your hot plate. Add 2 mL of
water to test tube #5 and 2 mL of H 2 O 2 to test
tube #6. Record your observations.
10. As an addition, take test tube #2, and when it has
settled, add another 2 mL of H2O2. What do you observe? Repeat this step for test tubes #4 and #6.
9.
After 15 min, take test tubes #3 and #4 from the

ice bath and add 2 mL of water to test tube #3 and
2 mL of H2O2 to test tube #4. Record your observations.
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
9. If potato had the same enzyme as liver, at what temperature would the enzyme work best? Why?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 8.3)
Enzyme Activity in Fruit
Food breaks down into different sub-units through the

action of specific enzymes. Some fruits contain an
enzyme that breaks down gelatin or prevents it from
forming into a matrix.
Problem
Which common fruits contain an enzyme that prevents
gelatin from forming?
Materials

gelatin
hot water
cold water
pineapple
other fresh fruits
a number of bowls or beakers of uniform size
stirring rods
Experimental Design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In groups develop a hypothesis to answer this problem. Design your investigation.

Describe the purpose, materials, and methods that
you plan to use. Decide how you are going to record
and report your observations and conclusions.
Select the control you will use for the presence of
enzyme activity.
Design a procedure to test for enzyme activity.
Suggest variables that you could manipulate to test
for effects on enzyme activity in fruits.
Have your teacher approve your investigative design before you carry out the experiment.

1. Which fruits contained an enzyme that breaks down
gelatin?
2. Why do you suppose that there are only certain
flavours of Jell-O?
3. What are some limitations of your study?

4. How could you apply your results to food
preparation?
5. How is this investigation comparable to the conditions in your stomach?
6. What is meant by protein denaturation? Suggest
advantages and disadvantages of this property.
7. Write a lab report to summarize your procedure
and observations.
Extending
8.
Research whether pineapple has any therapeutic

benefits in losing weight or in maintaining good
health.
9.
A meat tenderizer (available as a powder in most

grocery stores) has a chemical effect that helps to
tenderize meat. Hypothesize the mechanism by
which this occurs and predict whether meat tenderizers would also prevent gelatin from solidifying and forming a matrix.
10. Conduct an investigation to show whether the enzyme papain, from fruits like the pineapple, can
be successfully used as a meat tenderizer.
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TABLE 8.8 Structure and Function in the Human

Digestive System
Organ
Function
Mouth
Mixes food with saliva and

forms a bolus; begins the
process of mechanical and
chemical digestion
salivary
gland
mouth
Esophagus
(oral cavity)
Passageway to allow the bolus

of food to travel from the mouth
to the stomach
Stomach
Continues mechanical and

chemical digestion of food;
protein digestion begins in the
acidic environment
Small Intestine
Major site of absorption of

nutrient molecules through
specialized villi
Liver
Synthesizes bile; remove toxins

from the blood; many metabolic
functions
Gallbladder
Stores bile produced by the

liver; releases it to duodenum
Pancreas
Secretes insulin that helps

sugar to enter cells; releases
bicarbonate ion to
make duodenum alkaline;
secretes pancreatic enzymes
salivary
glands
tongue
pharynx
esophagus
liver
gallbladder
stomach
pancreas
Large Intestine
Absorbs some vitamins;

absorbs water from feces and
stores feces before elimination
Rectum and Anus
Site of elimination of feces
colon
duodenum
caecum
jejunum
large
intestine
intestine
appendix
ileum
rectum
anus
FIGURE 8.34 Use this figure and information in Table 8.8 to summarize what
you have learned in this chapter.
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Key Terms
absorption
alimentary canal
bolus
Calorie
carbohydrate
chemical digestion
chyme
circular smooth muscle
elimination
homeostasis
immunosuppressants
ingestion
kilojoule
lipase
longitudinal smooth muscle
macronutrient
mechanical digestion
micronutrient
mineral
mucosa
negative feedback
organ system
peristalsis
protease
serosa
submucosa
villi
vitamins
xenotransplantation

8.1 Nutrition

There are six main types of nutrients: carbohydrates,

fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Macronutrients are needed in large quantities,

micronutrients in small quantities each day.
Humans require a well-balanced diet to ensure

proper growth, repair, and function of body tissues.
Many diseases result from too much or too little

nutrient intake.

The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube that is

open at both ends.
Proper digestion is a result of both mechanical

and chemical digestion.
Digestion is the result of many different organs that

work together along the digestive tract.
8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their Associated

Enzymes

Accessory organs help to complete the digestion of

food molecules by secreting enzymes into the alimentary canal.
Human digestive enzymes are catalysts that speed

up chemical reactions; there are three main types:
carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.

Organisms have developed specialized structures

to help them digest food in their respective
environments.

1.
Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 245 and review

the branching diagram you made to show the components of a balanced meal. Revise your diagram based on
what you learned in the Chapter.
3.
Research the employability skills and educational requirements necessary to become a nutritionist. In what
businesses can a nutritionist expect to find employment
opportunities?
2.
Construct a concept map to explain the process of

digestion.
4.
Reflect on your learning. Describe the impact of society

on the way many individuals define nutrition.
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CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
1. The salivary glands produce an enzyme that begins the
digestion of
a) starches
b) lipids
c) proteins
d) monosaccharides
2. Bile is stored in and released from the
a) pancreas
b) gallbladder
c) duodenum
d) liver
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
function of bicarbonate in the duodenum is to

digest protein
neutralize acid from the stomach
combine with the bile to dissolve food
activate the production of intestinal enzymes
4. The large intestine functions mainly in

a) absorption of water and the synthesis of some
vitamins
b) digestion of fats and proteins
c) absorption of nutrients
d) recycling of digestive enzymes
5. This enzyme breaks down fats:
a) amylase
b) bile
c) glycerol
d) lipase
6. What is the function of a sphincter in the body? List four
different sphincters along the digestive tract.
7. What is an ulcer?
8. Why are you able to eat an orange while standing on
your head?
Applying Inquiry/
14. Exposed photographic film has black silver salts bonded
to it by a thin layer of gelatin (a protein). An experiment
was conducted to better understand the digestion of
gelatin by the enzyme trypsin. The end point of the experiment is shown by the clearing of the film as shown
in the diagram below.
pH Time to clear (min)
Exposed
film
clear
film
silver
salts
start
finish
6.0
32
6.5
20
7.0
13
8.0
9.0
9.5
20
10.0
35
FIGURE 8.35
Seven test tubes, each with a different buffered pH solution and 1 mL of 1.0% trypsin solution, were placed in
a water bath at 37C for 5 min. Small pieces of exposed film were placed in each test tube simultaneously,
and the time taken for the film to clear was recorded.
The results are shown in Figure 8.35.
a) Plot a graph of time to clear versus pH. Include all
the graphing conventions that you have learned.
b) At what pH does trypsin work most effectively?
c) Explain why it was necessary to place the seven test
tubes in the water bath for 5 min before inserting
the film into each.
15. Reflect and write a short paragraph on the importance
of biological hierarchy. Suggest a non-biological example of when hierarchy might be useful.
9. Why does pepsin not remain active in the duodenum?

10. What is heartburn and how is it caused?
11. What is an enzyme and how does it work?
12. Complete the following chart on digestive enzymes and
their substrates.
Enzyme
Substrate
maltase
maltose
sucrase
Product(s)
glucose and fructose
lactase
glucose and galactose
peptidase
polypeptides
lipase
lipids
13. Distinguish between a crop and a gizzard. Name two

animals that have these structures.
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16. Generalize why surface area is an important concept in

biology. Use a mindmap to brainstorm some specific
examples of the importance of surface area in a living
system. (Note: There are many examples, and using an
encyclopedia or the Internet may be helpful.)
17. Explain why homeostasis is vital in a living organism.
Use one concrete example of homeostasis that you
learned in this chapter to help support your explanation.
18. Sketch a diagram of the topography of the wall of the
alimentary canal in your notebook. Label the various
tissue layers starting from the lumen and working outward. Explain why each tissue layer is important.
19. An experiment was conducted to better understand the
properties of fats. The results of the experiment are summarized in the table on the next page.
a) What conclusion can be made about the relationship between oil and water?
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b)
Tube Procedure
Result
Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with

4 mL of water and let stand for
2 min.
The oil separated

from the water.

4 mL of detergent solution and let
stand for 2 min.
A milky mixture
formed.

4 mL of alcohol and let stand for
2 min.
A milky mixture
formed.
b)
c)
Account for the milky mixture that was formed in

tubes #2 and #3.
In your digestive system, what substance behaves
similarly to the detergent in test tube #2?
20. Study the table.

Location in the digestive tract
pH
mouth
6.8
stomach
2.0
duodenum
9.0
a)
b)
Next Section
Based on this information, would a bolus of carbohydrate be acidic or basic?

How does the pH of chyme change from acidic to
alkaline once it leaves the stomach?
Making Connections
21. Dieting is very common in our society. One diet entails
eating only proteins and avoiding the consumption of
carbohydrates, yet Canadas Food Guide to Healthy
Eating recommends that we eat a balanced diet daily.
a) How has the popular media influenced the way that
people decide to diet?
b) What is problematic about omitting entire food
groups from ones diet?
c) Some areas of the world rely only on carbohydratebased diets to live. Propose a plan of action whereby
our affluent society can help developing countries
meet their daily nutritional requirements.
22. Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which patients see
themselves as overweight and stop eating almost completely. Food in fact becomes distasteful to them. They
never feel hungry, deny their condition, and remain
unconcerned for themselves. Although anorexia is an
eating disorder, anorexic patients are cared for by a psychiatrist (a doctor who specializes in mental disorders).
Society does a lot to impose certain images on youth, especially girls.
a) Discuss some of the ways that society ushers girls
into a frame of mind that may cause them to become anorexic.
c)
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Suggest ways that the media can prevent this kind

of imagery from affecting impressionable youth.
What are some support systems that your local community provides to help girls experiencing anorexia?
23. Obtain a community newspaper and clip out five ads pertaining to weight loss and dieting. Paste these ads on a
page and critique them. There is a big market for weight
loss. You will find ads ranging from pills, hypnosis,
diet maintenance, and liposuction, to tummy tucks and
diet shakes.
a) Rank the techniques in the ads that you chose in
order of most effective to least effective.
b) Evaluate the pluses and minuses of each method
of weight loss.
-You may wish to include cost in your appraisal.
-Contact some of the agencies to make specific inquiries if necessary.
c) Since these esthetic procedures require the use of
specialized technologies, they can be costly. This restricts them to only some sectors of society. Should
these procedures be covered by a provincial health
plan?
24. The Canadian Diabetes Association has a code that helps
diabetics to make healthy food choices.
a) Contact a local branch of this society and inquire
about the symbols that they have in place to help
their members make good food choices.
b) With the information you gather, visit your local grocery store and select five different items that have
these symbols on their packaging.
c) Make a chart that outlines the products that you
have chosen and the smart food choice symbols associated with each item.
d) Using your five items, make some recommendations
to a diabetic friend who wishes to choose a healthy
snack.
25. Vegetarianism is becoming increasing popular in the
western world. Advocates for vegetarianism cite nutritional, ethical, and environmental reasons for this lifestyle
choice.
a) Research the environmental impact of cattle raising
versus agriculture and the various costs that are incurred in farming plants versus farming animals.
b) Meat eaters argue that a vegetarian diet does not
provide enough protein. To what extent is this statement true?
c) Animal rights groups maintain that it is cruel to raise
and kill animals for human consumption.
Furthermore, they protest against the injection of
hormones into animals to make them gain weight
and thereby become more marketable. Construct a
risk/benefit analysis chart to decide whether
animals should be used for human consumption.
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UN
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
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CHAPTER 9
Respiration

describe the process of ventilation

and gas exchange from the
environment to the cell (9.1)
efficiency of the respiratory system
(9.2, Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
describe how the use of prescription

or non-prescription drugs can disrupt
or help maintain homeostasis
(9.1, 9.3)
compare the respiratory anatomy of

different organismsvertebrate and
select and integrate information

about the respiratory system from
various print and electronic sources
or from several parts of the same
source (9.1, 9.2)

that have enhanced understanding
of internal systems (9.1, 9.2,
Investigation 1)

to the respiratory system (9.1, 9.3)

how scientific knowledge of the
respiratory system influences
nutrition and lifestyle (9.2, 9.3)
ll life is lived on the edge! You could live for a few weeks without food,
and for a few days without water. But, if you were without oxygen for
more than four minutes, irreversible brain damage and death could result.
FIGURE 9.1 The bronchial tree. Each bronchus divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi
and then into bronchioles.
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To stay alive and function, your cells need energy. You have learned that
energy can be obtained when glucose is broken down during cellular respiration as shown in the equation for energy release.
Oxygen is a necessary reactant in this equation and without it energy in
the form of ATP cannot be generated in the mitochondria. Carbon dioxide is
a product of ATP formation and must be disposed of. We live in a sea of air
that contains a variety of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Oxygen represents approximately 21% of air. The challenge is to bring
the oxygen to all the bodys cells and to remove the carbon dioxide. In multicellular organisms, a specialized system is required to ensure that adequate
amounts of oxygen are available for body cells. This is the respiratory system. In your consideration of the human respiratory system you will
explore the anatomy of the organs and their function. You will consider some
of the basic requirements for efficient oxygen diffusion and investigate the
concepts of vital capacity, lung volumes, and reserve volumes. You will also
explore the relationship of exercise to breathing and overall good health. You
will also consider the effects that smoking and medications have on various
components of the respiratory tract and the techniques and technology
designed to maximize respiratory function.
Discovering Biology
Wait a Minute, Breathe!
Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. When your teacher gives the signal, take a deep breath. Try to hold your breath for as long as possible.
When you can no longer hold your breath, let it out and immediately put
your head down on your desk to indicate that you have let your breath
out. How long were you able to hold your breath?
What do you think causes you to let your breath out and inhale a fresh
breath?
Work with a partner. Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. Have your
partner count the number of times that you breathe in and out in one
minute. How many breaths do you take on average in one minute?
CHECKPOINT
Using a K-W-L chart, list
what you know about the
respiratory system in the
first column, as well any
questions about the respiratory system you have in
the second column.
Know
Wonder
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Respiration
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Key Understandings
explain the differences between external, internal, and cellular respiration
describe the pathway of oxygen from the atmosphere to a tissue cell
describe the anatomy of the respiratory system
explain how the structure of different parts enables them to perform their functions
explain the roles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiration
INFOBIT
SCUBA gear first allowed
humans to breathe successfully
and move freely under water.
In fact the name SCUBA means
self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus.
Respiration can be defined as the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between an organism and its external
environment. Cells need oxygen to live,
but as a consequence of living they generate carbon dioxide. The respiratory
system supplies oxygen to the cells and
removes carbon dioxide. When the level
of carbon dioxide in the blood rises
above normal, chemoreceptors detect
this increase and relay the information
to the brain. As a result, the breathing
rate increases so that more oxygen is
brought into the body and more
carbon dioxide is removed.
Additional functions of the human
respiratory system include defending the
body against invasion by micro-organisms,
producing sounds for speaking, and
assisting in the control of body fluid pH.
The respiratory system, in combination
with the circulatory and nervous systems,
works to maintain homeostasis, through
the operation of negative feedback
mechanisms.
The Components of
Respiration
Respiration can be divided into several
components (Figure 9.2).
dioxide, a waste product of cellular

activities. Reptiles, birds, mammals, and
some amphibians exchange gases in
specialized structures called lungs. In
humans, as in other organisms, the
respiratory structure must have a large
surface area so that it can take up
enough oxygen to supply every cell in
the body.
External Respiration External respiration is the exchange of gases across the

respiratory surface between the air sacs
or alveoli and the blood. The respiratory
surface is where the oxygen diffuses into
the organism and the carbon dioxide diffuses out. This surface must be moist to
function so that diffusion can occur. The
circulatory system functions as a link
between the different components of respiration. The blood carries the oxygen
from the lungs to all the cells of the body.
Internal Respiration Internal respiration
is the exchange of gases between the
blood in capillaries and individual cells
in the tissues. Oxygen diffuses out of the
blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in.
This exchange at the level of individual
cells makes it possible for cellular respiration to occur.
Ventilation or Breathing Breathing is the

process by which oxygen is taken in from
the external environment. Breathing involves both: inhalation and exhalation.
These movements allow the body to take
in the oxygen it needs for cellular
activities and to dispose of carbon
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Cellular Respiration This process occurs

at the cellular level, in the mitochondria.
It involves the use of oxygen to help in
the harvesting of energy from food
molecules. Cellular respiration needs
to occur in every cell. To support cellu-
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external
respiration
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internal
respiration
respiratory system
circulatory system
tissue cell
O2
O2
O2
CO2
CO2
CO2
cellular
respiration
atmospheric
air
alveolar capillary
membrane
mitochondrion
capillary tissue
interface
FIGURE 9.2 The relationship of external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration, and
the interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The circulatory system connects the lungs
and the tissues of the body and transports the gases to and fro.
lar respiration the digestive system provides the reactant glucose to the cell.
smaller conducting passageways, and

lungs.
The Anatomy of the

Respiratory System
The branches of an upside-down tree
can be considered a good analogy to describe the human respiratory system.
Many parts of a tree, such as its trunk,
branches, twigs, and leaves, nicely correspond to the components of the human
respiratory system (Figure 9.3). A
respiratory system is a group of organs
working together to bring about the efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between an organism and its environment (Figure 9.4). The entire
human respiratory tract can be visualized as one long tube that starts with the
nasal and oral cavities and ends in many
sacs called alveoli where the actual exchange of gases takes place. The human
respiratory system consists of the nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,

restrictions.
FIGURE 9.3 This inverted model of the respiratory system shows why a tree is a good analogy
for the respiratory system.
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The Nasal and Oral Cavities Air containing oxygen can enter the body through
the nose or mouth. Approximately 21%
of every inhaled breath is oxygen. If air
enters through the nose, it has the added
benefit of being warmed, moistened, and
filtered. In order to be efficiently utilized
by the body, oxygenated air must be
warmed to body temperature (37C). The
nose is rich in blood capillaries that help
to warm the air. The nasal cavity is also
lined with mucus-secreting cells; the
mucus helps to moisten and filter the incoming air. Cilia that line the nasal
cavity beat back and forth together like
the oars of a row boat (Figure 9.5). Cilia
and nose hairs both act to filter out debris and large particles from the air.
When air is inhaled through the oral
cavity, some of these vital steps are
missed.
sinuses
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
left lung
right lung
left bronchus
bronchioles
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FIGURE 9.5 False-coloured scanning electron

micrograph (SEM) of cilia on the nasal epithelium.
The cilia beat to remove debris from the respiratory system.
The Pharynx After the oxygen molecule

passes the nasal cavity and the oral cavity, it encounters the muscular pharynx.
The pharynx is a common path for both
air and food. It has two branches: the
trachea, or windpipe, and the esophagus. There is a tiny flap of connective
tissue called the epiglottis that goes back
and forth between the larynx at the top
of the trachea and the esophagus. When
you are eating, the epiglottis covers the
opening of the trachea to prevent food
from entering the windpipe. If you place
your finger at the top of your Adams
apple (larynx) and swallow, you feel your
larynx moving up against your epiglottis. When air accidentally enters the
esophagus, it collects and is removed by
the process of burping. When food accidentally goes into the windpipe instead
of the esophagus, coughing occurs. If
coughing does not dislodge the food
item, choking may result.
The Larynx At the top of the trachea is

diaphragm
FIGURE 9.4 The anatomy of the respiratory
system
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the larynx. The larynx is made up of several pieces of cartilage, the largest piece
being the Adams apple. Because the larynx produces sound, it is sometimes
known as the voice box. Inside the larynx are two highly elastic folds called
the vocal cords (Figure 9.7). Air being
released from the lungs rushes past
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pharynx
bolus of food
vocal cords
larynx
epiglottis folded over the
entrance to the larynx
(airway closed)
cartilages
glottis
tracheal cartilages
trachea
FIGURE 9.7 Posterior view

of larynx and vocal cords.
Sound is produced by air
vibrations that result from the
contraction of the vocal cords.
epiglottis
upright
(airway open)
trachea
FIGURE 9.6 The epiglottis helps to direct traffic
into the respiratory and digestive systems.
the vocal cords and causes them to vibrate. When muscles cause the vocal
cords to contract, the air passing between them vibrates and produces
sound.
The Trachea The trachea, or windpipe,

is a hollow tube that allows air to pass
from the pharynx into the lungs (Figure
9.8). The trachea functions much like a
drinking straw. Its straw-like structure
provides a passageway that air can use
as it journeys from the pharynx to the
bronchi. Tough, flexible, C-shaped
cartilage rings surround the trachea,
prevent it from collapsing, and provide
it with support. The trachea also contains some smooth muscle. Some of
the cells that line the trachea produce
mucus. This mucus is swept out of the
air passageway by cilia on other cells.
In this way, particles trapped in the
mucus are carried to the upper part of
the trachea. This upward beating of the
cilia in the trachea can be compared to
an upward-bound escalator. Dirt and debris are directed upward toward the
pharynx. The pharynx is common to the

digestive and respiratory systems, so
when the dirt and debris reach the pharynx, they can easily be swallowed.
Respiratory Structures
Within the Chest Cavity
Within the chest cavity, the trachea divides into two branches, the right and
left bronchi (singular: bronchus).
Following the tree analogy, the trachea
is like a trunk and the bronchi are the
a)
b)
larynx
esophagus
trachea
lumen of
trachea
mucous
glands
tracheal
cartilage
bronchi
right lung
left lung
FIGURE 9.8 The trachea. The

C-shaped cartilage rings keep
the trachea open to allow air to
pass to the lungs: a) Anterior
view b) Cross-sectional view of
trachea and esophagus
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WORD ORIGIN
Alveolus, from the Latin alveolus
meaning the cell of a honeycomb. This is the diminutive of
alveus meaning a beehive.
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Research the effect of air
pollution on childhood respiratory illnesses. Compile a list
of illnesses, symptoms, and
suspected causes. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
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main branches. The left bronchus leads

to the left lung. The right bronchus leads
to the right lung.
The lungs are the main organs of
the respiratory system. The bronchi, like
the trachea, are lined with cilia that beat
upward towards the pharynx. Filtering
of air can still occur here if some of the
debris gets past the nasal and tracheal
cavities. Bronchi branch into smaller
tubes called bronchioles. Both the
bronchi and the bronchioles are lined
with smooth muscle. The bronchi and
bronchioles branch, ensuring that
oxygen-rich air that has been inhaled is
delivered to all regions of the lungs. Cilia
and a thin layer of mucus line the larger
bronchioles but are not present in the
very small bronchioles. The cilia and the
mucus sheet help to trap dust and foreign particles and prevent them from
reaching the alveoli.
The essential role of the bronchioles
is demonstrated if anaphylactic shock
occurs. Anaphylactic shock results when
a person is severely allergic to a foreign
substance. Some common causes of anaphylactic shock include nuts and bee
stings. When the allergic person comes
in contact with the harmful substance,
their body reacts to it by causing the
smooth muscles in the bronchioles to
swell. As a result, the muscles have a
pinching effect on the brochioles. If the
person is not treated quickly, the brochioles can become completely blocked,
and air can no longer travel to the lungs.
An epi-pen is a portable treatment device. The epi-pen is used to inject
epinephrine into the person experiencing the anaphylactic shock. The
epinephrine causes the muscles to relax
and enables the person to breathe more
easily. Most people who have severe allergic reactions carry an epi-pen with
them at all times.
The Alveoli The bronchioles continue to

branch until they end in a cluster of tiny
hollow air sacs called alveoli (singular:
alveolus). The alveoli are the ends of the
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smallest bronchioles. Each lung contains

approximately 150 million alveoli.
Alveoli occur in grape-like clusters. In
the tree analogy, the alveoli might be
compared to the trees leaves since they
actually allow gas exchange to occur. The
alveoli, in combination with an extensive network of capillaries, are the site
of gas exchange. The wall of the alveoli
and the wall of the capillaries come
together to form the respiratory membrane. The alveoli and the capillaries are
each only one cell thick so that the
inhaled air and the blood are separated
by a membrane only two cells in

restrictions.
FIGURE 9.9 Each bronchus divides into smaller

and smaller bronchioles that supply alveoli with
inspired air.
vein
artery
alveolus
capillary network
FIGURE 9.10 The alveoli. The alveoli and the
surrounding capillaries are the site of gas
exchange.
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thickness. Gas exchange occurs across

this respiratory membrane and the
alveoli must be moist to assist the diffusion. The respiratory system as a whole,
from the nose to the lungs, brings clean,
fresh air into the alveoli. The alveoli are
the functional units of the respiratory
system, where gas exchange happens.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must diffuse across the delicate membranes of
the alveoli, so the membranes must be
very thin. Recall that diffusion is the
spontaneous movement of a substance
from an area of higher concentration
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to one of lower concentration without

the use of energy. For diffusion to occur
in the respiratory system, a thin
membrane that can filter and moisten
air is essential for the maximum amount
of diffusion to occur. The total surface
area of the alveoli must be very large. In
humans the respiratory surface is equal
in size to half the area of a tennis court.
Foreign substances that reach the alveoli, like inhaled smoke, may damage the
delicate membrane, decrease the surface area, and reduce a persons ability
to obtain oxygen by diffusion.
Section 9.1 Review
1. Compare the properties of air that

enters the respiratory tract through the
nose with air that enters through the
mouth.
2. What do you think would happen if the
alveoli became much thicker than normal? Explain how gas exchange would
be affected.
3. There are certain conditions that
result in a decrease in production of
cartilage. Why might these conditions
cause difficulty breathing?
4. Cilia line the inside of the respiratory
tract and play a key role in trapping
dirt and foreign objects. If the cilia beat
abnormally, what other mechanisms
would there be to prevent debris from
entering the respiratory tract and causing an infection?
5. When an inhaled molecule of oxygen,
enters your lungs, it is still a part of the
outside environment. Explain the
validity of this statement.
6. Construct a Venn diagram to compare external and internal respiration.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
The graph shows the partial pressures

of oxygen and carbon dioxide in different locations within the body. Decide
which structures points A, B, and C
depict.
Partial pressure
B
Oxygen
C
Carbon dioxide
FIGURE 9.11
Making Connections
8. Use various print and electronic
sources to research household perfumes and analyze their positive and
negative effects on health.
9. a) Describe the impact of local industries on air pollution.
b) Propose strategies to ensure that
the emissions in these industries
are properly regulated in order to
protect the encironment.
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Key Understandings
explain the process of ventilation and describe the structures involved
compare the anatomy and physiology of breathing to a mechanical model
understand how gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
explain how breathing rate is regulated in humans
understand the influence of fitness on respiratory efficiency
Efficient gas exchange can only occur

if the alveoli are regularly flushed with
fresh air. Every time a breath is taken,
or air moves in and out of your lungs,
two major actions occur. During
inhalation or inspiration, the
thoracic cavity enlarges and the lungs
fill with air. During exhalation or expiration, air is pushed out of the lungs
and the thoracic cavity decreases in size.
Breathing is the cyclic repetition of inhalation and exhalation (Figure 9.12). It
requires the coordinated effort of many
rib cage
muscles. Breathing delivers oxygen to

the alveoli and removes carbon dioxide.
The average adult takes 12 to 16 breaths
each minute.
When you breathe, you might think
that your lungs are expanding. In fact,
your lungs are not able to expand on
their own. They are connected to a large
dome-shaped muscle called the
diaphragm and to the walls of the thorax by the pleura. The diaphragm is
located along the bottom of the rib cage
and separates the chest cavity from the
air
exhaled
air
inhaled
Muscle
contraction
expands
rib cage.
lung
Muscle
relaxation
contracts
rib cage.
diaphragm
contraction of
diaphragm
(moves down)
relaxation of
diaphragm
(moves up)
a) Inhalation
b) Exhalation
FIGURE 9.12 The mechanism of breathing
a) In inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down, and the intercostal muscles contract,
moving the rib cage out and up. These activities increase the volume of the chest cavity.
b) In exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, and the intercostal muscles relax, moving the rib
cage in and down. These activities decrease the volume of the chest cavity.
294
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Contents
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abdominal cavity. The pleura contain a

lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to
move smoothly as they passively expand
and recoil. The diaphragm contracts and
relaxes in response to stimulation from
the nervous system.
Pressure differences between the atmosphere and the chest cavity determine
the quantity and rate at which gas is exchanged. To properly understand the
mechanism of breathing, it is necessary
to understand some basic principles
about how gases behave. Gases move
from areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure. Therefore, when the internal pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure, gas is drawn inwards in inspiration. When the opposite is true, gas
moves outwards, resulting in expiration.
Inhalation
Internal pressure decreases.
rib cage
air
lung
balloon
diaphragm
Exhalation
Internal pressure increases.
air
Next Section
To gain a better understanding of

the mechanism of breathing, consider
the bell jar model in Figure 9.13. In this
model, the jar represents the thoracic
cavity, and a stopper with a tube represents the trachea. The tube opens into
the neck of a balloon just like the trachea opens into the bronchi. The balloon suspended inside the jar represents
the lungs. Bell jars are unique because
they have a flexible bottom. When the
flexible bottom of the bell jar moves
down, it parallels what happens when
the diaphragm in humans moves down.
That is, the volume of the jar (chest cavity) increases and the pressure inside it
decreases. The air outside the jar remains at atmospheric pressure. To
equalize the pressure inside and out, the
air rushes through the tubing (trachea)
into the jar, thus inflating the balloon
(lungs).
When the diaphragm relaxes, it returns to its curved position. This action
causes the volume of the chest cavity to
decrease. As the volume decreases, the
pressure in the chest cavity outside the
lungs increases. This increased pressure
causes the lungs to deflate. This pushes
the air out of the lungs. Carbon dioxide
leaves the body with each exhalation.
During breathing, the body relies on
the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles. The sequence of inhalation and
exhalation brings air into the body.
Rapid and deep breathing brings in
more air. When a person is short of
breath, the person can call upon other
muscle groups to help inhale and exhale.
One example of a time when other
muscle groups might aid in breathing is
during strenuous activities like running
and swimming.
Quit
INFOBIT
Lungs have a total capacity of
about 6 L and the more fit a
person is, the greater the
exchange of air. In a normal
breath (at rest), we exchange
only about 0.6 L. While exercising,
a person can consume up to 20
times the amount of oxygen
consumed at rest.
Regulation of Breathing
Movement
FIGURE 9.13 The mechanics of inhalation and

exhalation. The bell jar models the relationship
between the diaphragm and lungs.
When a child, in a temper tantrum,

holds his or her breath, the medulla
oblongata in the brain eventually takes
over the control of breathing and the
child is forced to breathe. Breathing is
an involuntary activity. It is controlled
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Respiration
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Contents
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brain
breathing control
centres
medulla
oblongata
contraction
of muscles
triggered by
nerve signals
CO2 increase/pH
decrease in blood
O2 sensor in
artery
rib muscles
O2 decrease
in blood
diaphragm
FIGURE 9.14 Control centres in the brain that regulate the rate and depth of
breathing
INFOBIT
Homeostasis is
at set point.
The human body functions best

at sea level. Above sea level
the air we breathe decreases
in pressure and there is a
gradual decrease in oxygen
content. An inadequate supply
of oxygen in an area of low
atmospheric pressure is one of
the causes of altitude sickness.
Increase in blood
CO2 concentration
Increase in the concentration
of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Increase in the concentration of
H ions in the blood (lowered pH)
Stimulation of chemoreceptors
in the brain
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by a negative feedback loop that keeps

the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in the blood relatively constant
(Figure 9.14). Oxygen is vital to all parts
of the body, but the brain is especially
sensitive to a low level of oxygen. If the
brain is deprived of oxygen for more
than four minutes, irreversible brain
damage occurs. Possibly for this reason,
the medulla oblongata controls vital
mechanisms like breathing and heart
rate.
The body continuously tries to maintain a steady state, or homeostasis.
Recall that negative feedback is one way
your body responds to imbalances and
attempts to restore normal balance.
Breathing movements are involuntary.
The mechanism of breathing is coordinated by chemoreceptors that detect
changes in the pH of the blood. These
special receptors are sensitive to the levels of gases in the blood, especially the
level of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide when mixed with
water forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid
then breaks down into bicarbonate ion
(HC0 3 ) and hydrogen ion (H + ). When

the concentration of hydrogen ion in a
solution increases, the pH is lowered.
Blood that is high in carbon dioxide has
a pH lower than the norm of 7.4. The
drop in pH (moving away from the norm)
causes the medulla oblongata to relay
messages to the muscles of the diaphragm and rib cage to stimulate
breathing. Breathing helps to expel excess carbon dioxide, and so restores the
pH of the blood to normal; this inactivates
the chemoreceptors. See Figure 9.15.
_
Activation of respiratory
centre in the brain
CO2 + H20
Message is sent to
increase breathing rate.
Gas Exchange in the Alveoli
Decrease in
CO2 concentration
FIGURE 9.15 A flowchart
to show how breathing rate
is regulated to maintain
homeostasis
Next Section
Homeostasis is restored.
H2CO3
+ HCO3
There are nearly 300 million alveoli in

the healthy lung. It is at the alveoli that
the respiratory and circulatory systems
interact (Figure 9.16). Deoxygenated
blood is directed from the heart to the
lungs where it flows through the network
of capillaries that surrounds each alve-
Contents
Previous Section
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION
air breathed
in
O2
alveolus in
lung
CO2
EXTERNAL
RESPIRATION
capillary
tissue
cell
O2
CO2
INTERNAL
RESPIRATION
FIGURE 9.16 External and internal respiration.

External respiration occurs at the alveoli. Internal
respiration occurs at the tissue cells. The
circulatory system connects the two.
olus. This blood contains a large amount

of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen.
The air in the alveolus has a high oxygen content, but a low carbon dioxide
content relative to the surrounding
blood. These conditions are ideal for diffusion. After the alveoli are ventilated
with fresh air, the next step in the respiratory process is diffusion of oxygen
from the alveoli into the blood and diffusion of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. The process of diffusion
is simply random motion of molecules
intertwining their ways in both directions through the respiratory membrane.
The oxygen-rich blood then returns to
the heart for transport to the bodys cells.
Lung Volumes and Vital

Capacity
The average adult breathes once every five
seconds, about 12 breaths per minute. If
the function of breathing is to fill the alveoli with fresh air, and we understand the
mechanism behind breathing, it is natural to wonder how much air is moved with
Next Section
each breath. Air is a gas, and has the capacity to flow. Air moves into and out of
an organism much like the ebb and flow
of the ocean tide. It is fitting that the
amount of air that passes in and out of the
lungs with each breath is known as the
tidal volume. It ranges from 250 to 500
mL for most adults. The depth of each
breath and the rate of breathing can vary
greatly, depending on the bodys needs.
The total lung capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be held in
the lungs at any given time. At rest, the
tidal volume is only a small fraction of the
total lung capacity, and even the deepest
expiration cannot expel all the air in the
lungs. The volume of air that can be
forcefully exhaled, after a normal tidal
volume is exhaled, is called the expiratory reserve volume. During a deep
breath, an extra volume of air up to 2 L
can be taken into the lungs. This is known
as the inspiratory reserve volume. In
normal people, 4.5 L of air can be inhaled
and exhaled with effort. The maximum
amount of air that can be moved into
and out of the respiratory system is
called the vital capacity. The vital capacity is always about 1.01.5 L less
than the total lung capacity because if
the lungs became completely deflated,
they would collapse. Therefore, biologists call the air that remains in the lungs
after maximal expiration the residual
volume. See Figure 9.18 for the relationship of the respiratory volumes. The
space occupied by conducting airways,
the trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchioles is termed anatomical dead
space. That is, 150 mL of the air in the
airways is stale. It is always the last
bit of air to be exhaled from the
previous exhalation and is therefore
depleted of oxygen. When 500 mL of air
is inhaled, and 150 mL occupies anatomical dead space (and does not even reach
the alveoli), only 350 mL of the inhaled
air is available to be exchanged.
Your vital capacity is greatly affected
by your daily activities. Regular exercise
increases the bodys need for oxygen.
Strenuous exercises like swimming help
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INFOBIT
Carbon monoxide is an
odourless, colourless, and
potentially fatal gas. It is
commonly found in car
exhausts and cigarette smoke.
When inhaled, carbon
monoxide competes with
oxygen to bind to hemoglobin,
the molecule in the red blood
cell that normally carries
oxygen. However, carbon
monoxide is more than 200
times more efficient at binding
hemoglobin than oxygen is.
High levels of carbon monoxide
in the blood therefore deprive
the body of oxygen.
Investigation
Refer to page 309,
Investigation 1

FIGURE 9.17 The air within

the swimmers snorkels does
not enter the lungs for gas
exchange. Like the 150 mL of
air that remains in your
trachea with each breath, a
snorkel adds to the volume of
anatomical dead space.
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6000
tidal volume
residual volume
expiratory reserve volume
inspiratory reserve volume
total lung capacity
vital capacity
5000
3300
mL
4000
4800
mL
6000
mL
3000
Volume (mL)
Volume (mL)
4000
1900
mL
3000
3100
mL
500 mL
2000
2000
1000
mL
500 mL
4200
mL
700
mL
1000
1000
1200
mL
1100
mL
a) Lung capacity in males
b) Lung capacity in females
FIGURE 9.18 Lung volumes a) in males b) in females
WEBLINK
Explore the benefits to the
respiratory system of time
devoted to regular exercise.
Design an exercise program for
a healthy teenager. Begin your
research at
to increase vital capacity. Some swimmers have a vital capacity of over 6 L.

However, other lifestyle choices, like
smoking or inactivity, dramatically decrease the vital capacity by reducing the
ability to exchange oxygen for carbon
dioxide. Vital capacity can be measured
with a device called a respirometer.
Breathing In Outer Space

Inside the crew compartment of the
space shuttle, the life-support system
maintains an atmosphere of 79% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and an atmospheric
pressure of 100 kilopascals (kPa). This
is identical to Earths atmosphere at
standard sea-level conditions. The
shuttles oxygen and nitrogen supply are
carried in separate tanks. The nitrogen
is stored in gaseous form while the
oxygen is stored as a super cooled
liquid and is heated to a gas before being
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Internal Systems
released to the cabin. A five-person crew

uses about 3.5 kg of nitrogen and 4 kg
of oxygen per day. In cellular respiration
the astronauts use the oxygen and produce carbon dioxide, which they expel
each time they exhale. Carbon dioxide
could be fatal if allowed to build up in
the cabin. To get rid of the carbon dioxide, the cabin air is continuously filtered
through replaceable canisters that contain lithium hydroxide and activated
charcoal. These two substances remove
carbon dioxide and any other contaminants from the air. One of the biggest
dangers astronauts face while in space
is a fire inside the cabin, because smoke
could quickly overwhelm the life support
system and poison all on board. For this
reason, no flammable materials are allowed on board and fire extinguishers
and smoke detectors are placed around
the cabin.
Contents
Previous Section
Norman Bethune,
Physician, Inventor,
Humanitarian
Norman Bethune who was born in
Gravenhurst, Ontario, in 1890,
became world-renowned as a
humanitarian. Bethune was also a
gifted innovator. As a physician, he
Next Section
contracted tuberculosis (TB) in

1928, at a time when the chance of
a recovery was very small. He
insisted on having the then-experimental technique of pneumothorax
in which one of the patients lungs
is collapsed to allow it to heal. He
recovered and returned to Montreal
where he developed new surgical
techniques and designed more than
a dozen new instruments for thoracic surgery. While treating patients
with tuberculosis, Bethune became
convinced that access to medical
care was the right of every person.
Quit
As a result, he operated free clinics

for the poor.
Bethune fought the Fascists in
Spain in 1936 and it was there that
he developed the first mobile bloodtransfusion unit, which allowed
wartime wounded to have transfusions in the field. This saved many
lives. Arriving in China in 1938, he
set up the first mobile medical unit
and by the time of his death in
November 1939 he had established
more than 20 teaching and nursing
hospitals.
Section 9.2 Review

1. Copy the data table into your notebook.
Complete the table to summarize the
major differences between inhalation
and exhalation.
Inhalation Exhalation
Volume in the lungs
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of a bell jar

as a model of the mechanism of breathing. Draw a T-chart, like the one shown
below, in your notebook. Brainstorm
the advantages and disadvantages of
the model.
Advantages of
Using a Bell Jar
Disadvantages of
Using a Bell Jar
Position of the
diaphragm
Position of the rib
cage
2. Draw a typical alveolus surrounded by
a capillary bed. Indicate on your
diagram whether oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels would be higher or lower
after an inhalation. What passive process occurs during gas exchange in the
alveoli? Explain why this process takes
place.
3. Define anatomical dead space. How
would wearing a snorkel affect your
anatomical dead space?
4. Draw a diagram to illustrate the role
of chemoreceptors in maintaining
homeostasis in the respiratory system.
7.
Study the following set of data.
Patient
Breaths/Min
10
18
12
a) From the data, decide which of the

patients has a respiratory rate in
the normal range.
b) From the data, which patient(s)
might have a respiratory condition?
c) Suggest factors that might cause a
person to breathe faster, resulting
in more breaths per minute.
d) Assess whether the number of
breaths a person takes per minute
is sufficient to determine the health
of his or her respiratory system.
Are there other factors that need
to be considered?
Applying Inquiry/
Making Connections
5. The average human takes about

1 breath every 5 s. Calculate how many
breaths the average human would take
in 20 min.
8. Technology has allowed us to prolong

life. What ethical and moral considerations are involved in deciding whether
or not to sustain life on a ventilator?
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Key Understandings
understand how adverse conditions within the respiratory system may lead to disease
states
explain the causes of respiratory diseases
describe how puffers and bronchodilators function
describe the impact of smoking on respiratory health
Investigation
Asthma
Refer to page 311,

Investigation 2
Asthma is a condition that results in the

contraction of the smooth muscle that
surrounds airways. This reaction is
thought to be partly allergic in nature.
This narrowing of the airways makes
breathing much more difficult. People
with asthma are prescribed puffers
that contain drugs that act as
bronchodilators. That is, they cause the
narrowed bronchi and bronchioles to increase in diameter, or dilate, which
makes breathing easier. A puffer is an
artificial way to restore bronchi and
bronchioles to their normal diameter.
Each puffer is designed based on the respiratory health of its user. In addition to
specific health issues, puffer medication
is adjusted for the persons mass.
The flow chart in Figure 9.19 summarizes the homeostatic mechanisms
that occur during an asthma attack.
Homeostasis at set point
Asthma attack
Decrease in airway diameter

due to bronchoconstriction
Decrease in the air that

enters the lungs
bronchioles to facilitate delivery of air to

and from the alveoli.
Emphysema
Emphysema is another respiratory disorder often associated with chronic
bronchitis. Like bronchitis, emphysema
makes it difficult for air to pass through
the respiratory system to reach the alveoli (Figure 9.20). When cilia, lining the
bronchi and bronchioles, become damaged, they no longer effectively filter dirt
and debris or channel it up towards the
pharynx to be swallowed. Consequently,
the debris builds up in the air tubes. In
Intervention by the use of a puffer
Bronchitis
Bronchodilation
Increase in amount
of air that enters the lungs
Homeostasis is restored.
FIGURE 9.19 The flow chart

shows how puffers act to
restore homeostasis
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Bronchitis is an inflammation of the

bronchial lining and is characterized by
an overproduction of mucus and
sputum and frequent coughing. This
condition is commonly related to
cigarette smoking, but it can also result
from other environmental irritants, such
as chemical vapours, and air pollutants.
Over time, the increased mucus
production can block smaller airways
and reduce respiratory efficiency, creating discomfort when breathing.
Bronchodilators may be prescribed to
increase the diameter of the bronchi and

restrictions.
FIGURE 9.20 This emphysema patient breathes

with the support of a portable air delivery system
enriched in oxygen.
Contents
Previous Section
Emphysema leads to a decrease

in alveolar surface area.
Decrease in oxygen delivery

to the blood
Increase in respiration rate
Oxygen delivery to the blood is

improved.
FIGURE 9.21 The flowchart shows how the

respiratory system attempts to compensate in
emphysema.
turn, the bronchioles become constricted. Less air is then able to get to
the alveoli. The air pressure that builds
up as a result of these hindered airways
causes the lung to appear inflated. The
alveoli, and their very thin membranes,
are unable to support increased pressure. The alveoli try to accommodate
to increasing pressure, but eventually
their walls tear and become damaged.
Damaged alveoli result in decreased surface area for gas exchange and some
cells may become deprived of oxygen.
To accommodate for this decreased gas
exchange area, the breathing rate increases. The heart, therefore, has to
work harder than normal. This attempt
to maintain normal oxygen levels is not
true homeostasis because extra stress is
put on the heart (Figure 9.21).
Next Section
The excess mucus leads to recurrent

lung infections. The person usually has
a persistent cough and may wheeze
asthmatically. The first signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis typically occur in
childhood. The condition is detected in
approximately one in 2500 live births in
Caucasians.
This is a multi-system disease that
affects the respiratory and digestive
tracts. In the respiratory system it causes
destruction of the airways. At the present time there is no known cure for this
disease. However, with improvements in
antibiotics, pancreatic enzymes, and
chest physiotherapy, many people with
CF live into adulthood.
Treatments Available for the

Respiratory System
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WORDORIGIN
Emphysema, from Greek
emphusaein meaning to puff
up. Emphysema means
over-inflated lung.
WEBLINK
Research the availability in
Ontario of programs that
promote respiratory health and
support groups for people with
respiratory diseases. Begin
your research at
Nasal Sprays One common respiratory

medication is nasal spray. The most
common reason for using a nasal spray
is to clear blocked nasal passages. Nasal
passages become blocked when there is
inflammation in the passageway. This
can impair normal breathing because it
narrows the airway. Nasal sprays are
effective because they contain a steroidbased chemical that helps to reduce the
swelling. Nasal sprays come in different
strengths based on the amount and type
of steroid chemical they contain.

restrictions.
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder in which abnormally thick mucus blocks airways and
other passages. The mucus is not easily
removed so the normal processes to
remove dirt and debris are not sufficient.
FIGURE 9.22 The use of a puffer assists this

person to breathe by opening the airway.
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Bronchodilators A bronchodilator is a
medication usually taken with a puffer. It
works by targeting the bronchioles that
sometimes become constricted and cause
respiratory difficulty. This difficulty is typically found in people with asthma. Some
common triggers that can narrow the airway include pollution, smog, cold air, and
exercise. For this reason, people with
asthma may use their puffers more frequently during the winter, on smoggy
days, and before they exercise. Recent developments suggest that a chewable tablet
may be able to replace puffers for some
asthmatic conditions in young children.
Respiratory Health
WEBLINK
Miners have a higher risk of
lung disease than the general
public. Research the specific
technologies needed in mines
to protect the respiratory
health of the miners. Write a
paragraph on this topic. Begin
your research at
There are many ways to maintain good

respiratory health. Regular exercise
helps to strengthen all body muscles including your heart. The lungs are not
muscles, but they are governed by the
muscular diaphragm. Regular exercise
increases your lung volume and allows
your body to utilize oxygen effectively.
Environmental Hazards
Asbestos In the last few decades, society has become more aware of the
harmful effects of environmental and
workplace chemicals. For many years,
asbestos was a material used to insulate
buildings and schools. It has been shown
that asbestos can cause diseases of the
pleura (the lining surrounding your
lungs), which can ultimately lead to lung
cancer. This can occur even as many
as 20 years after exposure to asbestos.
Asbestos exposure is likely in occupations such as mining or the manufacturing and installation of materials that
contain asbestos, such as brake linings, roofing shingles, and insulation.
Silica Silica is a substance that can irritate the respiratory tract as a result
of exposure over many years. Silica is
a major component of rock and sand.
Exposure is a problem in the occupations of mining, sand blasting, and
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ceramic and glass manufacturing. Silica

damages the lungs, causing them to become fibrotic. This means that the lungs
become less elastic and more rigid, causing lung volume to decrease.
Recycled Air Sick building syndrome is

a condition that results from indoor pollutants such as cigarette smoke and
volatile organic compounds evaporating
from furniture and carpeting. The recirculation of air may also contribute to
the syndrome. People with sick building
syndrome suffer from various complaints,
including nausea, headaches, fatigue, and
mucous membrane irritation.
Smoking and
Second-hand Smoke
Smoking is one of the leading contributors to impaired respiratory health. More
and more data are emerging to indicate
that being exposed to the cigarette
smoke of others also causes damage.
Second-hand smoke is known to cause
lung cancer and contribute to respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema (Figure 9.23). The
exposure of individuals to second-hand
smoke is now a public health problem that
poses significant health risks to both children and adults.
Tobacco smoke contains a mixture
of gases, liquids, and particles. Almost
4000 chemicals have been found in tobacco smoke. Dozens of these are toxic
or known to cause cancer (carcinogenic).
Some of the more common compounds
in tobacco smoke include carbon monoxide, nitrates, ammonia, nitrosamines,
hydrogen cyanide, cadmium, sulfur
compounds, vinyl chloride, hydrocarbons, volatile alcohols, urethanes,
formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrazine.
Second-hand smoke is the mixture of
smoke from a burning cigarette as well
as the smoke that a smoker exhales.
Many toxic substances are found in
greater concentrations in second-hand
smoke. Tar (the most carcinogenic component) is 70% more concentrated in
Contents
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FIGURE 9.23 Lung disease

causes obvious changes in
the structure of the lung.
a) A healthy lung
b) A lung from a person who
smoked
second-hand smoke than in smoke taken

in by the smoker. These substances also
linger in the air for a long time. Studies
have shown that many of these pollutants are found in higher concentrations
indoors than outdoors. Second-hand
smoke is known to be a leading workplace health hazard.
Second-hand smoke is particularly
harmful to infants and young children.
Studies have shown that children whose
parents smoke have a higher risk of
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).
They are also at a higher risk for developing bronchitis, pneumonia, recurrent
ear infections, frequent colds, asthma,
and allergies. They also have more frequent hospitalizations for bronchitis and
pneumonia. Also, children whose parents
smoke are more likely to smoke themselves as they grow older. Pregnant
women who smoke endanger their unborn fetus. Babies born to mothers who
smoked during pregnancy are more likely
to be born prematurely and/or have a
lower birth weight. Second-hand smoke
also increases the risk of developing
cancer. By law, tobacco and cigarette
companies must warn their patrons
about the risks associated with smoking.
Many cigarette brands claim to have
built-in filters. Though these might trap

some particles that would enter the
smokers lungs, non-smokers who inhale
second-hand smoke do so without a filter.
There are many things people can
do to decrease exposure to second-hand
smoke. They can limit the time spent in
environments where others are smoking.
They can also lobby for smoke-free
environments at work and school and
for laws that protect the rights of
non-smokers to breathe clean air. Cities
are establishing local laws to encourage
a smoke-free atmosphere in public
places. In fact, many restaurants already
have smoke-free environments. If you
avoid smoking and second-hand smoke,
you will help to keep your respiratory
system healthy.
INFOBIT
Teenage girls represent the
fastest-growing population of
smokers.
Products that Help Improve

Air Quality
Air filters are usually industrial devices
that decrease the amount of suspended
pollutants released into the air. A
humidifier is a household device that
helps restore moisture to dry room air.
Moist air is easier to breathe than dry
air because it is less irritating to the air
passages.
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Section 9.3 Review

1. Discuss how poor air quality and pollution may affect a child with asthma.
Patient
Name
Blood
pH
Carbon
Dioxide (mm Hg)
7.42
34
2. What is a bronchodilator?
7.37
50
3. How does smoking contribute to bronchitis?
7.40
38
Study the data and answer the following questions:
4. What does emphysema do to the surface area within the respiratory tract?
a) Assuming that 7.4 is the normal arterial blood pH, which patient is in
a state of acidosis?
b) What is the relationship between
blood pH and the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood?
Applying Inquiry/
5. The following table describes the frequency with which a person with
asthma uses a puffer from summer to
winter.
July
August
September
October
November
December
2/week
2/week
3/week
3/week
daily
daily
a) What is the relationship between

puffer use and the outside temperature?
b) What other factors can influence
the frequency of puffer use by an
active child?
6. An arterial blood gas is a measurement
of the pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
content of the blood. Usually, the radial
artery is used to obtain a sample of
blood. The blood gases of three patients
were taken by the hospital respiratory
therapist and the pH values and CO2 values are summarized in the following
table.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Making Connections
7.
Smoking is one of the leading causes

of lung cancer and contributes to other
respiratory ailments. Another known
fact about smoking is that it is an appetite suppressant.
a) Design and deliver a survey on
smoking to your class.
b) Summarize the reasons why some
teenagers feel the need to smoke.
c) Hypothesize what impacts teen
smokers might have on your communitys future health care system.
8. What are some substances currently

being mined in Ontario that might have
broad implications for the respiratory
health of citizens living near the mining site?
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Case
Study
Health and the Global

Community
Defining the Issue
As the world becomes a global society, economics,

tourism, and families spread around the world, link
countries and people together as never before. This
can pose a challenge to health organizations. In
many developing countries, diseases that have long
been eradicated elsewhere, are still common.
Malaria, cholera and tuberculosis (TB) are all common ailments in developing countries. Canada has
been free of these illnesses, but as Canadians return
from countries where these diseases do exist, and
more immigrants and visitors enter Canada from
around the world, they bring with them the risk of
re-introducing diseases into Canadian society.
The media have recently given attention to the
increasing numbers of people in Canada being infected with TBa bacterial infection that usually
targets the lungs. The World Health Organization
reports there are 8 million new cases of TB worldwide every year, and only 16% of those who contract the disease receive the available treatment. In
1990, there were approximately 1 billion people in
the world infected with TB. In Canada, there are approximately 2000 new cases reported every year
and more than 100 deaths. The tuberculosis bacteria can be contracted when an infected person
FIGURE 9.24 Air travel links all parts of the world.
coughs or sneezes, releasing the organism into the

environment.
TB is a major disease within the global community. Health regulations and health actions, at a
national and international level, require ongoing review.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Define the issue regarding the reappearance of a disease

like TB in Canada.
4.
What social conditions contribute to the contraction and

spread of TB, especially in urban centres?
2.
Speculate who are the people most concerned about the

rising number of cases of TB in Canada? Explain your
reasoning.
5.
3.
Research the history of TB in Canada and North America.

What is the risk of TB becoming a serious epidemic? In
what ways could those risks be avoided?
If you were working with the World Health Organization,

what actions would you propose to stop the international
increase in cases of TB? Prepare a 1or 2 page report to
justify your actions. Include social, environmental and
economic considerations in your proposal.
The Origins
law
C H A P T of
E R the
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9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various

Organisms
Key Understandings
compare the respiratory systems of different organisms
understand how an organisms respiratory structures contribute to its internal
regulation
Earthworm
Some animals use their entire outer skin
as an organ for gas exchange. Generally,
for an organ to be effective in gas exchange, it must be thin, moist, and have
a large surface area. The earthworm
breathes through its skin. It has no specialized gas-exchange surfaces. Oxygen
diffuses into a dense net of thin-walled
capillaries that lie just beneath the
worms skin (Figure 9.25). Earthworms

and other organisms that breathe using
their skin must live in damp places or in
water, because their whole body surface
must remain moist. Animals that breathe
only through their skin and lack gasexchange organs are generally small,
and many are long and thin or flattened.
By remaining small and flat, all the body
cells are in relatively close proximity to
the respiratory surface, so that oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged efficiently by diffusion.
Insect
skin
capillaries
FIGURE 9.25 The earthworm.

The volume of the earthworm is
sufficiently small that the entire
outer skin can serve as a
respiratory surface. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged
directly by diffusion through the
skin and capillaries just beneath
the surface of the skin.
air sacs
FIGURE 9.26 The grasshopper.
The grasshopper exchanges
gases through a tracheal
system of branching tubes that
bring air directly to body cells
without the involvement of the
circulatory system.
306
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Insects like grasshoppers have a tracheal

system that consists of a network of
branching tubes. The tubes transport air
directly to body cells that are always in
close proximity to a tracheal tube. Being
close to a tracheal branch allows oxygen
to reach the body cells by diffusion
(Figure 9.26). Recall that diffusion is a
passive process, and so this method of
gas exchange enables insects to conserve
the energy that would be expended if they
had to circulate gases using a circulatory
system.
Grasshoppers have enlargements at
the end of their tracheal tubes, called air
sacs. These work like bellows. When the
grasshopper contracts its muscles, air is
forced out of the insect through tiny
openings called spiracles.
Fish
opening
for air
tracheae
In fish, gills are feather-like extensions

of the body surface specialized for gas
exchange. Fish exchange gases with
the water that they live in so that they
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do not have to spend energy to keep

the respiratory surface moist. On the
other hand, the amount of oxygen available in water is substantially less than
that in air. Gills need to be very
efficient to obtain enough oxygen from
water. The architecture of fish gills
allows them to efficiently exchange gases.
There are four gill arches on each
side of the fishs body. Two rows of
gill filaments project from each gill arch.
Each gill filament contains many flat
structures called lamellae, which are the
actual respiratory surfaces of the fish.
A fish inhales water by opening its
mouth. As it does this, the gill coverings (opercula) on the sides of its body
close tightly over the gills. The animal
exhales water by closing its mouth and
pumping water from its mouth cavity out
the sides of its body. The gill coverings
open during exhalation, allowing the
water to escape. These special ventilation movements enhance the gills gasexchange efficiency by keeping the water
around the gills from stagnating and becoming deficient in oxygen (Figure 9.27).
Blood flows in an opposite direction to
the water. This is called a countercurrent flow. As blood flows by the incoming water, it is able to efficiently pick up
the oxygen it needs to supply the fishs
body cells. This system also minimizes
the use of energy.
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FIGURE 9.27 The fish. The flow of

water across the lamellae of the gill
arches allows the efficient exchange
of gases with the blood.
gill
oxygenpoor
blood
lamellae
of gill
waterflow
bloodflow
oxygenrich
blood
nostril
glottis
lungs
Frog
The evolution from water to land depended largely on the ability to retain a
moist surface for gas exchange. Living
on land meant that evaporation could dry
out the respiratory surface. The solution
was to internalize the respiratory surface, and through this lungs came to be.
The amphibians are the group of organisms that bridge water and land
animals. Amphibians are able to exchange
gases through their moist skin and their
moist lungs. Depending on the environment, they might use one or both of these
methods. The frog is interesting because
it is able to rely on its moist skin, its lungs,
and the moist lining of its mouth as
FIGURE 9.28 The frog. The frog combines the ability to exchange gases through
the skin and the mouth lining with the presence of lungs to maximize gas exchange.
surfaces for gas exchange. To help serve

all body cells, frogs have their blood capillaries located just underneath their skin
surface.
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Bird
Birds exchange gases differently from
humans. In contrast to the in-and-out
flow of air in the human alveoli, birds
have a one-way flow of air through the
lungs. Birds have several large air sacs
in addition to their lungs. The air sacs
ventilate the surface of the lungs. During
inhalation, both sets of air sacs expand.
The posterior sacs fill with fresh air from
the outside, while the anterior sacs fill
with stale air from the lungs. During
exhalation, both sets of air sacs deanterior
air sacs
air
lungs
posterior
air sacs
air
lungs
trachea
Inhalation
air sacs fill
Exhalation
air sacs empty;
lungs fill
FIGURE 9.29 The bird. There

is one-way flow of air through
the birds lung as air sacs act
as reservoirs for fresh and
stale air.
1. How does the earthworm incorporate

all the necessary criteria for effective
gas exchange in its simple structure?
2. Why are a fishs gills not suitable for
air breathing?
The organ of gas exchange in the plant

is the leaf; its role is similar to the lung.
In humans, a large surface area of the
lung is assured by the presence of alveoli. Plants can increase the surface area
available for gas exchange by growing
more leaves. In the respiratory systems
in animals moisture is essential for
proper gas exchange. Many multicellular animals have internalized their
respiratory systems in order to keep
them moist.
Plants have evolved a number of
strategies to minimize water loss. Many
plants have their stomata in pits on the
under surface of the leaf and have a
waxy cuticle. In others like Eucalyptus,
the leaves hang downward to cut water
loss from evaporation. In Canadas coniferous forests leaves are reduced to needles so surface area for water loss is
reduced. In desert plants like cacti and
other succulents, leaves are reduced almost completely and form sharp spines.
7.
Rank the respiratory systems of the following organisms from most efficient
to least efficient.
Insect __________
Worm __________
Frog ___________
Fish ___________
Applying Inquiry/
4. What are the three ways that a frog can

exchange gases?
8. Many fish live in watery environments

that contain very little oxygen.
Assuming that air is 760 mm Hg, what
percent of air does oxygen represent?
How does this compare with the
amount of oxygen present in some bodies of water? See values below.
6. After rain, it is common to see earthworms on the surface of lawns and

even on sidewalks. Hypothesize why
this is so.
Internal Systems
Plants
3. What is meant by countercurrent

flow?
5. Compare the ways grasshoppers and

birds exchange gases. How are they
similar? How are they different?
UNIT 3
flate. Air from the posterior sac is forced

into the lungs, while air from the anterior sac exits through the birds trachea.
Section 9.4 Review

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Oxygen Present in
Air
Oxygen Present in
Water
160 mm Hg
4 mm Hg
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 9.2)
Measuring Lung Capacity

A Comparative Approach
There are three ways that you might measure lung
capacity in a school lab. Each requires the calculation of lung volume under conditions of normal and
deep breathing. The water displacement method depends on measuring the displacement of water as
the subject exhales through a straw into the experimental set-up. The balloon method measures the
changes in the volume of a balloon as calculated
from its circumference. The respirometer method
depends on using the technology of the respirometer to gauge the volume of air exhaled into it.

water
bucket or dishpan
1 balloon per student
1 measuring tape
calculator
funnel
CAUTION: If you have a latex allergy, do not use balloons

unless you are sure they are non-latex balloons. Do not
share straws, balloons, or disposable mouthpieces. Allow
a few minutes between tests of maximum exhalation,
otherwise you might feel weak or even faint. If you have
health concerns about this investigation, discuss them
with your teacher.
Set up your data tables as shown in Table 9.1.
2.
Pour 250 mL of water into an empty 2-L bottle. Mark

the water line on the bottle with a permanent marker
and write 250 mL. Add 250 mL more, mark it and
write 500 mL. Continue until the container is full.
Write the numbers upside down on the bottle.
3.
Add water to the bucket or dishpan until it is 1/4

full. The container must be deep enough to
accommodate the added height of the inverted soda
bottle.
4.
Hold your hand tightly over the mouth of the bottle and turn it upside down in the dishpan. Remove
your hand when the mouth of the bottle is below
the water level.
5.
Put a clean straw into one end of the plastic hose

and place the other end of the hose into the mouth
of the bottle (to about 10 cm). Keep the hose
pinched or air may leak into the jug and water may
leak out. Have a partner hold the bottle so that it
does not fall over.
6.
Pinch your nose closed and exhale normally into the

straw through your mouth. What is the volume of
water displaced? That is your tidal volume. Repeat
this step two more times. Record the values in Table
9.1. Average the values.
7.
To get a measure of your vital capacity, repeat the activity but this time exhale a deep breath into the hose.
Repeat this step two more times. Average the values.
8.
To set up for the next student, carefully pour water

through a funnel from the tub back into the emptied 2-L bottle. Reposition the bottle below the water
level with the plastic hose in place as before. Insert
a fresh straw. Repeat steps 46.
Materials
respirometer
disposable mouthpieces
stopwatch
drinking straws
2-L soda bottle
black permanent
marker
1.
Problem
Which method of measuring lung volumes is the most
useful and practical in a school setting?
LAL1
Procedure
Method 2: The Balloon
Method 1: Water Displacement
9.
2-L bottle filled

with water
250
500
plastic hose
750
1000
Stretch the balloon to make it a little more pliable.
10. Breathe in normally and put the balloon to your

lips. Exhale normally into the balloon.
straw
1250
500
1750
11. While keeping the balloon pinched at the neck, have

your partner take the tape measure and measure the
balloon at its widest part, or circumference. Record
the circumference in your notebook in Table 9.2.
2000
water
FIGURE 9.30 Experimental set-up for water displacement
investigation.
12. Repeat steps 910 twice more and calculate the average circumference.
13. Repeat steps 912 three times but exhale a deep
breath into the balloon. Calculate the average circumference.
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(continued)
Volume is measured in cubic centimetres. To calculate your tidal volume, substitute the average circumference value, represented by the variable C,
into the formula below.
V 1/6 1/2 C3
Method 3: The Respirometer
14. Obtain a respirometer and adjust it so that the
gauge reading is zero. Most hand respirometers are
calibrated in litres.
15. Place a new disposable mouthpiece onto the
respirometer and then inhale and exhale normally
into the mouthpiece.
16. Record the volume that the respirometer reads, and
then zero the device. Repeat this for two more trials. Take the average volume over the three trials
and record it in Table 9.3 in your notebook .
17. Repeat the series of measurements for deep breathing and record the values.
18. Record observations for each member of the group
in tables similar to those shown below.

1. Which of the three methods is the most practical
for determining vital capacity?
2. What is the significance of vital capacity? Account
for any differences between the measured VC using
the three methods.
3. Which person would be more physically fitan individual with a normal expiratory reserve volume
and extremely high vital capacity, or an individual
with an extremely high expiratory reserve volume
and a rather normal vital capacity? Explain the reasoning behind your choice.
4. Who do you think would have a shorter recovery
time after exercisinga well-conditioned student
athlete or an out-of-shape teacher? Explain your
answer fully.

5. Copy and complete the following using your results.
The tidal volume is _________ cm 3 and the vital
capacity is _______ cm3 using the water displacement method. The tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the balloon
method and the tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the respirometer method.
Extending
6. What were some possible sources of error in this
experiment?
7. How would you improve the design of the experiment if you were repeating it?
8. Is this investigation accurate in assessing a persons
tidal volume and total lung capacity? Explain your
answer.
TABLE 9.1 Water Displacement Method
Tidal volume
Vital capacity
TV
Water displaced in trial

#1
#2
#1
#2
VC
Average TV
#3
Average VC
#3
TABLE 9.2 Balloon Method
Tidal volume
TV
Vital capacity
VC

#1
#2
Average TV
#3

#1
#2
Average VC
#3
TABLE 9.3 Respirometer Method
310
Tidal Volume
TV
Reading #1
Reading #2
Reading #3
Total
Average TV
Vital Capacity
VC
Reading #1
Reading #2
Reading #3
Total
Average VC
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
The Effect of Airways of
Different Diameters
The respiratory system is an interconnected system of
air passages of different sizes. In this investigation you
will examine why it is important for the respiratory
system to have airways of different diameters and how
the diameter of the air passage affects the flow of air.
Problem
Why should the respiratory system have airways of different diameter?
Materials
This investigation
can be performed using simple
LAL1
household items. Find at least three objects of different diameters. You can use, for example, a straw, an
empty toilet roll, and a piece of narrow rubber tubing.
Experimental Design
1.
Place each object individually to your lips and blow

air through each one.
2.
Set up a data table and note your observations,

specifically how easy it is to blow air through
each object.
3.
For the second part of the investigation, obtain three

small elastic bands and three small sandwich bags
of the same size. Using the elastic band, attach the
sandwich bag to each of the above three objects.
4.
Again breathe through the three objects, noticing

how many breaths it takes to inflate the sandwich
bag.
5.
Attempt to obstruct the flow of air through the three

objects. Record your observations.
(Section 9.3)

1. What do you notice about how easy it is to get air
to move through each object? How does this relate
to the diameter?
2. What part of the respiratory system can the sandwich bag represent?
3. Did the number of breaths needed to inflate the
sandwich bag change for each of the three objects?
4. Explain the concept of resistance as it applies to
air flow and how the resistance relates to the
diameter.
5. What problems do you think could arise if the diameter of the airways were to become too narrow?
6. What common respiratory illnesses affect the diameter of the airways?
7. Some people with respiratory illnesses use puffers
to help them breathe. Discuss the technology of
puffers. What do they do to the airways?
8. Choose three respiratory disorders and complete
Table 9.4.
TABLE 9.4 Respiratory Disorders
Respiratory disorder
Symptoms
Causes
Treatment
9. Prepare a presentation using Bristol board, or prepare a pamphlet to suggest how a person with one
of the respiratory disorders listed in Table 9.4
might improve, or at least maintain, his or her
respiratory health.
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Summary Table of the Respiratory System
TABLE 9.5 Organs of the respiratory system
Organ
Function
Nasal Cavity
Filters, warms, and humidifies the air; detects smells.
Pharynx
Chamber shared with digestive tract; conducts air to larynx.
Larynx
Protects opening to trachea and contains vocal cords.
Trachea
Filters air; traps particles in mucus; rings of cartilage help keep airway open.
Bronchi
Airways in lungs; two main branches from the trachea (left and right bronchi); are lined with
cilia.
Bronchioles
Smaller airways formed as main bronchi divide.
Alveoli
Sites of gas exchange between air and blood; very thin membrane to allow for efficient diffusion.
Lung
Organ that forms the foundation of the respiratory system in humans.
Diaphragm
Muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity; during inspiration, the
diaphragm contracts and moves downward increasing the volume of the chest cavity; during
expiration the muscle relaxes, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal Muscles
Muscles that surround the ribs and help expand the thoracic cavity during inspiration.
sinuses
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
left lung
right lung
left bronchus
bronchioles
FIGURE 9.31 Use this figure and

the information in Table 9.5 to
summarize what you have learned
in this chapter.
312
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
diaphragm
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Key Terms
abdominal cavity
air sacs
alveoli
anatomical dead space
bronchi
bronchioles
bronchodilators
chemoreceptors
countercurrent flow
diaphragm
epiglottis
epi-pen
exhalation or expiration
expiratory reserve volume
external respiration
gill arches
gills
inhalation or inspiration
inspiratory reserve volume

internal respiration
lamellae
larynx
lung
nasal cavity
opercula
oral cavity
pharynx
residual volume
respiratory system
respirometer
thoracic cavity
tidal volume
total lung capacity
trachea
tracheal tube
vital capacity

Respiration is necessary to allow efficient exchange

of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism
and the external environment.
Respiration can be broken down into external respiration, the actual gas exchange between the alveolar air and the blood; internal respiration, the
gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells;
and cellular respiration at the level of the mitochondria.
Specialized structures in the brain help to control

breathing in response to information from chemoreceptors. This maintains the internal environment.
Different lung volumes describe the different aspects

of breathing.

Some respiratory diseases are caused by constriction or blockage of the airways.
Some respiratory diseases are caused by damage to

the structure of the alveoli.
There are specialized structures that help with the

efficient exchange of gases.
The passage of air starts at the oral and nasal cavities and ends at the alveoli.
Medications may restore homeostasis by creating

conditions similar to a normal response.
Smoking is a preventable cause of lung damage.
9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various Organisms
Muscles such as the diaphragm help with inhalation and exhalation.
Organisms have developed a variety of special organs to help with gas exchange.
The alveolus is the structure where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
The type of organ developed for respiration is associated with the organisms environment.
The large surface area of the alveoli allows efficient

diffusion of gases to occur.

1.

your K-W-L chart for the respiratory system. Complete
the third column of your chart based on what you learned
in this chapter.
2.
Draw a concept map to describe how the respiratory system functions.
3.
Reflect on your learning. Explain why surface area and

a moist environment are essential for efficient exchange
of respiratory gases to take place.
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CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
1. The order of air movement within the lungs is best described as
a) bronchi to alveoli to bronchioles
b) bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli
c) bronchioles to bronchi to alveoli
d) trachea to bronchi to alveoli
2. Which statement about the respiratory surface in animals is not true?
a) The respiratory surface must be moist.
b) The respiratory surface must be thin.
c) The respiratory surface must be in touch with a proportionally large blood supply.
d) The respiratory surface must be external.
3. Which of the following is not a structure located within
the lung?
a) bronchi
b) bronchioles
c) larynx
d) alveoli
4. What component of the human respiratory system traps
suspended particles and humidifies the air?
a) nasal hairs
b) mucus
c) cilia
d) epiglottis
5. The amount of air always present in the lungs is called
the
a) tidal volume
b) alveolar capacity
c) residual volume
d) total capacity
6. What term describes gas exchange between alveolar air
and the blood?
7. How is sound produced?
8. What is the function of mucus in the nasal passage?
9. What is the relationship between the level of body
activity and the rate of breathing?
15. What physical problems can produce a cough? Why is

the ability to cough an important one?
16. What is the purpose of a filter on a cigarette?
17. Write a supported paragraph to discuss the contributions of Norman Bethune or Banting and Best to
innovations for use in internal systems.
Applying Inquiry/
18. Study the following data:
Oxygen Consumption (cm3/kg/h)
Animal
earthworm
75
butterfly
500
frog
120
hummingbird
11 000
mouse
3000
person
200
a)
b)
Suggest why the earthworm has the lowest oxygen

consumption rate.
Why do you think the butterfly would have a higher
oxygen consumption rate than the frog?
19. Examine Figure 9.32, depicting oxygen concentration in

the vessels of two organisms, one undergoing concurrent flow, and the other countercurrent flow. You may
recall that countercurrent flow is a gas-exchange mechanism found in fish. Refer to Figure 9.27, page 307.
a) For both systems, how does the oxygen concentration between the water and the blood change as one
travels toward the body?
b) In a concurrent flow system, what happens to
oxygen diffusion when there is no concentration
gradient? How does this differ in a countercurrent
system?
10. Explain how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the

blood can affect the breathing rate.
Concurrent Flow
Water
100% 90%
70%
50% O2
30%
50% O2
11. Why is the tidal analogy appropriate for inhalation and

exhalation of air?
12. What happens if your brain does not receive oxygen
for more than 4 min?
Blood
0%
10%
to body
Countercurrent Flow
13. What do you think happens inside your body when you
hold your breath? Why are you unable to hold your
breath forever?
14. Describe the journey of a carbon-dioxide molecule
from an alveolus to the outside world. What structures
does it pass along its way out of the body?
Water
100%
Blood
90%
to body
FIGURE 9.32
314
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
70%
40%
15% O2
60%
30%
5% O2
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20. Bronchcoscopy is the name of the procedure whereby

a long tube is inserted into a patients trachea and
used to look at different parts of the respiratory tract.
Based on your knowledge of the anatomy of the respiratory system, propose what essential characteristics a
bronchoscope must have.
21. One of the basic principles of first aid is to ensure that
the airway is unobstructed. Based on the anatomy of the
upper respiratory tract, suggest why a head tiltchin
lift is the initial step to ensure that an airway is clear.
22. The average adult takes about 12 breaths each minute.
Poor fitness results in breathing shallower breaths more
frequently. If an unfit person took 15 breaths each
minute, how many breaths more than the average person would he or she take in one hour?
23. Consider the data in the following table.
Student
Breathing Rate
(breaths/min)
O2 content in the Blood

(mL/100 mL)
15
20
19
14
12
22
24
a)
b)
Which student is probably a smoker? Explain.

Which student is probably an athlete? Explain.
24. Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by each gas in

a mixture. It is directly proportional to the percent of
each gas in the mixture. The partial pressure of oxygen
and carbon dioxide changes as blood flows through
different vessels in the circulatory system. A lab technician took several measurements at different vessel points,
and her results are summarized in the table below.
a) Draw a diagram to depict how these partial pressure values for oxygen and carbon dioxide might
come about. Include the following components:
lungs, heart, body tissues, major blood vessels.
(Hint: Take into account your knowledge of
diffusion.)
b) Account for the difference in the partial pressure of
oxygen between inspired and expired air.
Vessel
inspired air
blood leaving alveolar capillaries
blood entering tissue capillaries
tissues
blood leaving tissue capillaries
blood entering alveolar capillaries
alveoli of lungs
expired air
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Making Connections
25. A stoma is a hole created at the base of the trachea to
facilitate breathing. Gather some information about
stomas, and outline some of the daily lifestyle changes
that a person with a stoma might be faced with.
a) Often patients with oral or throat cancer will have
a stoma. Yet, many of these patients continue to
smoke through their stoma. Design a program that
would help to wean some of these individuals
from their smoking practice.
b) Compare the concept of a stoma in humans to the
stomata of a green plant. How are they the same?
How do they differ?
c) Design a plan of action to educate people with
stomas to maintain good respiratory health.
26. Recent legislation requires that carbon monoxide detectors be installed in all Ontario homes and buildings. This
is in response to deaths due to carbon monoxide poisoning.
a) Research why these devices are crucial to saving
lives.
b) What is carbon monoxide and what properties does
it have that are similar to oxygen? What properties are different from oxygen?
c) Why is an elevated level of carbon monoxide a threat
to the human respiratory system?
27. Humidifiers are popular electric devices in homes during the winter. They can help to relieve symptoms such
as cough and dry skin.
a) Perform a product analysis on a humidifier.
Investigate exactly what it is used for, how much it
costs, and so on.
b) Suggest reasons why a family might invest in a
humidifier for their home. Are humidification systems included in the specifications for new homes
and buildings? Why or why not?
Partial Pressure of Oxygen (mm Hg)

160
104
104
< 40
40
40
104
120
Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide (mm Hg)

0.3
40
40
> 45
45
45
40
27
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Respiration
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C H A P T E R 10
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
explain the role of transport or

circulatory systems in the transport
of substances in an organism (10.1,
10.2, 10.4)
efficiency of the cardiovascular
system (10.3)
describe how the use of

prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis in the cardiovascular
system (10.2, 10.3)
compare the anatomy of different

organismsvertebrate and/or

that have enhanced the scientific
understanding of internal systems
(10.1, 10.2, 10.3, Investigation 1)
design and carry out, in a safe and

accurate manner, an experiment on
feedback mechanisms, identifying
specific variables (Investigation 2)

to internal systems (10.2)

how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
nutrition and lifestyle (10.3)
provide examples of Canadian

contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (10.2, 10.3)
Circulation
A
ll cells require nutrients and oxygen to survive, function properly, and

carry out cellular respiration. In multicellular organisms, diffusion becomes an inefficient means of meeting an organisms demands for nutrients
FIGURE 10.1 A normal cardiac angiogram. This technology demonstrates the coronary circulation. Blockages or
reduction in vessel diameter produce a pattern different
from that shown in a normal heart.
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and oxygen. The circulatory system and its billions of red blood cells transport oxygen and nutrients such as glucose to even the most remote body cells. It also
carries away the waste products of cellular respiration including
carbon dioxide. The components of the human circulatory systemthe heart, the
blood vessels, and the blood itselfact to integrate the functions of the
digestive, respiratory, and other body systems and maintain the internal
environment. If we consider the central equation for cell respiration, the circulatory
system provides the reactants and carries away one of the products.
In this chapter, you will consider several characteristics of the circulatory system.
The four-chambered human heart is a unique double-pump system that supplies the
blood with the energy it needs to travel through two distinct circuits. One circuit carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. The second circuit carries oxygenated blood to all the body tissues.
You will also learn about blood pressurehow it is developed, what factors affect
it, and how it is measured. Finally, you will become aware of risk factors that predispose someone to diseases of the circulatory system, including coronary heart disease and heart attacks. In examining wider relationships, you will compare circulatory
systems in a range of animals and also compare them with circulation in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining Your Body Mass Index
Your Body Mass Index (BMI) is important in determining whether you are
at risk for cardiovascular disease. You can calculate your BMI using the
simple formula below. First you need to know your mass in kilograms and
your height in metres.
BMI =
mass in kilograms
(height in metres)2
For example: If you have a mass of 70 kg and are 1.7 m tall,

Calculation of BMI:
70 kg
BMI =
(1.7 m)2
= 24.22 kg/m2
Generally, a BMI of 2025 kg/m2 is considered to be in the optimal range. A
BMI of over 30 kg/m2 is considered obese and is associated with multiple
health problems such as Type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
CHECKPOINT
List the factors you know
that prevent heart disease.
Prevention Factors
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the

Components of Blood
Key Understandings
describe the role of the circulatory system in complex organisms
explain how the circulatory system functions as a transport system
understand how the circulatory system works with other systems to deliver materials
needed for energy and growth
identify and describe the components of the blood
identify diseases that result if a component of blood is not functioning properly
The circulatory system interacts with

many other body systems, including the
digestive system and the respiratory
system to maintain the bodys internal
environment (Figure 10.2).
The cardiovascular system delivers
vital nutrients, such as oxygen, to all cells
in the body, and eliminates waste products and carbon dioxide. It transports
chemical messengers, such as hormones,
FIGURE 10.2 Transport and
exchange in the bodys
systems. The cardiovascular
system is the central system
of the body, which moves
materials into and out of
the other systems. The
respiratory system brings
oxygen into the body and
takes carbon dioxide out.
The digestive system
transforms the food you eat
into a form that can be used
and moved throughout the
body. The urinary system
clears wastes from the bodys
fluids, conserving water and
other essential nutrients.
For good health all the
systems must work smoothly
together.
THE TRANSPORT AND EXCHANGE SYSTEMS
Respiratory
system
(O2 in, CO2 out)
Urinary
system
(wastes
out)
318
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
from one part of the body to another. It

also helps to maintain a constant body
temperature and plays an active role in
blood pressure control.
The three essential components in
any circulatory system are:
a pumpthe heart
fluidblood
vessels along which blood travels
arteries, veins, capillaries
Digestive
system
(nutrients in)
Cardiovascular
system
(transport)
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The bodys principal extra-cellular

fluid is the blood. The average human
adult has 4 to 6 L of blood in the circulatory system. Females are generally
smaller than males, so they tend to have
less blood in their bodies. The blood contains many individual components that
serve different functions. If blood is
placed in a test tube and spun in a
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centrifuge, it separates into these components. Heavier, solid, particles sediment to the bottom of the test tube. The
liquid component or plasma of the blood
remains at the top. Plasma accounts for
approximately 55% of the blood volume.
Plasma is 90% water. As shown in
Figure 10.3, many constituents are dissolved in plasma. These include salts,
centrifuge
withdraw
blood
place in tube
blood
sample
plasma
55%
Formed elements
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets
Red blood cells
Plasma
99.9%
45%
formed
elements
0.1%
White blood cells
water
92%
plasma proteins
7%
other solutes
1%
Platelets
FIGURE 10.3 The composition of the blood. Blood is 55% plasma and 45% formed
elements. The formed elements include erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets.
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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INFOBIT
Proteins on the surface of the
red blood cell determine blood
type. Humans are divided into
four major blood groups based
on the presence of two different glycoproteins (agglutinogens A and B) on the surface
of their red blood cells.
Individuals with type A blood
have agglutinogen A on their
red cells. Type B blood has agglutinogen B, type AB has both
agglutinogens A and B, while
type O has neither. Each blood
type is also associated with
specific proteins in the plasma,
called agglutinins. The plasma
of type A blood has agglutinin
B, plasma of type B blood has
agglutinin A. Plasma of type AB
blood has neither, while plasma
of type O has both agglutinins.
WEBLINK
The thalassemias are a group
of genetic conditions that affect hemoglobin. Research the
origins, symptoms, and treatment of the thalassemias.
Begin your research at the
Pearson Education Web site at
2
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proteins, hormones, nutrients, waste

products, and gases. The second major
component in your blood is the formed
elements: erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leucocytes (white blood cells), and
platelets. The elements account for 45%
of the blood volume.
Red blood cells are the most abundant cells in the blood. They are manufactured in the bone marrow and stored
in the spleen. Their primary function is
to carry oxygen. The average persons
bloodstream has approximately 25 trillion
red blood cells. These cells are constantly
being destroyed and replaced. In fact,
about two million red blood cells are
destroyed every second.
Red blood cells are unique because
they do not have nuclei or mitochondria.
The cytoplasm of red blood cells consists
of a watery solution containing
hemoglobin molecules that bind oxygen
(Figure 10.4). Each red blood cell contains about 250 million molecules of
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex
protein-based molecule made of four
protein chains, with iron at the core of
each. Iron is a key component of a red
blood cell and gives blood its bright
red colour when exposed to oxygen.
When a red blood cell is destroyed, the
iron is recycled in the red bone marrow
and is incorporated into a new red blood
cell.
As shown in Figure 10.5, red blood
cells have a biconcave shape that gives
320
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
flexibility and allows them to move

through vessels of different shapes and
sizes. As red blood cells pass through
the lungs, oxygen diffuses in and binds
to the hemoglobin molecule. In this way
the blood becomes oxygenated. Each
hemoglobin molecule can bind four
oxygen molecules. In the systemic
circulation at the level of the tissues, the
oxygen is released from the hemoglobin
molecule. The oxygen then diffuses
into tissue cells and the blood becomes
deoxygenated. The total surface area
for diffusion in all your red blood cells
is greater than the area of a football field.

restrictions.
FIGURE 10.5 Red blood cells. Mammalian red

blood cells have a life span of approximately
120 days.
Anemia occurs when there is a decreased amount of hemoglobin in the

blood. This shortage may result from the
production of too few red blood cells
or from reduced amounts of hemoglobin
in each cell. Genetic disorders like sickle
cell anemia or thalassemias, or conditions resulting in blood loss can cause
this decrease.
White blood cells called leucocytes
are responsible for helping to defend the
body from disease and infection. There
FIGURE 10.4 The four

chains of the hemoglobin
molecule. The heme groups
are shown in red.
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are fewer white blood cells than red

blood cells. These amoeboid-shaped cells
destroy and consume invading bacteria
and damaged body cells. There are an
estimated five to nine million white
blood cells in one cubic centimetre of
blood. Like red blood cells, many leucocytes are manufactured in the bone marrow. When blood is tested, the presence
of an elevated number of white blood
cells may indicate an infection within the
body. If you get cut, bacteria have a gateway into the body. White blood cells will
localize at the cut to fight bacteria. Pus
sometimes forms at the site of cuts and
scrapes. Pus is primarily a combination of living and dead white blood cells,
along with dead bacteria.
Platelets are important agents in
the blood for clotting. Platelets are actually cell fragments that have broken
off from special cells in the bone marrow. There are about 250 million
platelets per cubic centimetre of blood.
When platelets encounter damaged
blood vessels, they break open. The
broken platelets then release chemicals
called clotting factors into the blood.
These factors help platelets to stick together to form a platelet plug. After that,
a more complicated sequence of biochemical reactions takes place that results in the formation of a strand-like
molecule called fibrin. Fibrin helps to
form a scaffold so that repair can be initiated. Many strands of fibrin gather at
the ends of cut vessels, forming a mesh
or clot (Figure 10.7). Clots trap blood
cells and prevent them from passing
through the damaged blood vessel. A
scab occurs when fibrin, platelets, and
blood cells mesh together to seal a
wound until new tissue can grow and
repair the broken skin.
The blood of some individuals does
not clot properly because it does not have
the necessary proteins to form blood clots.
These individuals continue to bleed for
longer periods of time than normal individuals. Hemophilia, one such blood
condition, is inherited as an X-linked
recessive condition (see Chapter 7).
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Discovering Biology
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Leukemia
Leukemia is a cancer of white blood cells. In this disease, leucocytes divide out of control. Therefore, large numbers of leucocytes
build up in the circulatory system.
1.
Examine the photomicrographs of blood smears in Figure 10.6.
2.
Devise a method of comparing the number of leucocytes in

the samples.
FIGURE 10.6 What conclusions could you draw?
FIGURE 10.7 Clot formation. In the process of

clotting, red blood cells become enmeshed in a
protein called fibrin. This prevents further blood
loss from a damaged vessel.
Shock is a medical condition that results when the circulatory system cannot meet the needs of vital organs like
the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain.
When red blood cells that carry oxygen
are unable to reach these vital organs,
the organs begin to shut down. In order
to prioritize the delivery of oxygen, the
INFOBIT
Aspirin is called a blood thinner since it alters the process
of clotting by preventing
platelets from adhering to each
other. H.J.M. Barnett at McMaster
University in Hamilton conducted the first randomized
trial to evaluate the use of
aspirin to prevent vascular
disease and stroke. Results
published in 1976 indicate that
aspirin treatment reduces the
risk in stroke-threatened
patients by 25%.
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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body reduces blood flow to the extremities (arms and legs) and reserves the
blood for the bodys core. Shock can
occur as a result of severe blood loss. It
can also occur when a person is emotionally disturbed or frightened. The best
treatment for shock is to encourage the
person to rest in a semi-sitting position.
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Keeping the person warm and reassuring him or her are also important.
Severe bleeding can be controlled by
applying direct pressure. It is important
to remember that shock can be life
threatening if overlooked and so
medical attention should be sought
immediately.
Section 10.1 Review

Normal values for hemoglobin: male

(140-180 g L1); female (120-160 g L1)
1. If 20 mL of blood is spun in a
centrifuge, approximately how many
millilitres of plasma can be extracted?
Normal values for white blood cells:

4.8 10.8 103 leucocytes mL1
2. What special property of red blood

cells allows them to pass through
capillaries?
6. Survey your class to find out the

different blood types of students.
Record known blood types in a chart.
3. Explain why blood that is exposed to

oxygen has a bright red colour.
a) What is the advantage of knowing

your own blood type?
b) Determine the percent distribution
of the different blood types in your
class. How does this compare with
the distribution in the Canadian
population?
c) Explain what is meant by the terms
universal donor and universal
recipient.
4. Compare the number of white blood

cells present in the blood of a leukemia
patient to the number of cells in a person without leukemia.
Applying Inquiry/
5. You are a summer student working in
a blood laboratory. Blood samples from
three patients have arrived and you are
to analyze them. The names on the
labels are smudged and you are unable
to determine which test tube belongs
to which patient. On the hospital
database, you learn Patient A is a
healthy 40-year-old man; Patient B is
an 18-year-old girl who has a history
of chronic lung infections; Patient C has
a history of anemia. Using the following table, match the tubes to the right
patients.
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Making Connections
7.
In recent years blood donation has

diminished. Propose a course of
practical action that can be taken to
promote the safe donation of blood.
Hemoglobin (g L1)
Leucocyte ( 103 mL1)
Tube 1
122
14.4
Tube 2
151
6.2
Tube 3
88
10.0
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Case
Study
Fair Testing for Athletes?
Defining the Issue
In 1999, world-class cyclist Marco Pantani was

disqualified from the Giro Italia for having a hematocrit level of 52%. He was accused of enhancing his
performance by using Erythropoetin or EPO, a
synthetic compound that increases the number of
red blood cells in the body.
EPO is taken by injection, and stimulates the
body to produce more red blood cells. This allows
the blood to carry more oxygen to the muscles. It
can also be risky. Athletes with artificially high
hemoglobin levels are at a greater risk of strokes
and heart attacks.
Pantani denied the charge against him, but it is
difficult to determine whether he was lying or telling
the truth. Since EPO is a naturally occurring hormone, it is present in everyone. Therefore it is not
easy to identify doped athletes. There is no test to
measure EPO itself; a surrogate test that measures
the density of red blood cells in the blood must be
used. This measurement is called the hematocrit.
A study from the 1980s, before the invention of synthetic EPO, showed that the average hematocrit in
the blood of cyclists was 43%. Given that there is a
variation in this number among cyclists tested, it
was decided that anyone with a hematocrit above
50% would be disqualified for taking EPO.
FIGURE 10.8 Training at high altitudes can increase the number

of red blood cells.
Pantani is known to be one of the best hill

climbers in the sport, and is known to train at high
altitudes. This training regimen can also increase
the number of red blood cells. I am a clean rider,
the 29-year-old rider told the press. My conscience
is clear. I have nothing to do with doping. I dont
need doping to win races. I need hills to climb.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
2.
Identify the issue that is implied in this case study.
3.
In a web set out the different perspectives that might

influence an athletes decision to use performance
enhancing drugs.
4.
Consider the analysis of Pantanis hematocrit levels.

Based on your experience with experimental testing,
what are the factors you might consider when reviewing Pantanis hematocrit levels to confirm his innocence
or guilt?
5.
Consider different kinds of media available. What would

be the most effective way to convey Pantanis point of
view on his situation and the issue of blood doping to
his fans?
6.
Draft a press release that Pantani would release to the

media outlining his case and the scientific evidence to
support it.
7.
Plan a class role play of the jury that must deliberate

whether Pantani was innocent or guilty. Members of the
jury include: a little league baseball coach; a manufacturer of sports equipment; a news reporter; the widow
of a heart attack victim; a dietician; a hematologist.
Create a T-chart to list the pros and cons that relate to

this issue.
The Origins
law
C H A P T Eof
R the
1 0 periodic
Circulation
323
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10.2 The Structure and Function of the

Human Heart and Blood Vessels
Key Understandings
explain the anatomy of the human heart
describe how the heart functions
identify the three types of vessels that are found in the human circulatory system
understand how the structures of arteries and veins differ
explain how technology has improved scientific understanding of the circulatory
system
give examples of ways Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
WORD ORIGIN
Myocardium: from the Greek
mus or muos meaning muscle and kardia meaning a
heart
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The heart is a muscular organ that functions primarily as a pump. To do so, it

must have chambers that receive blood
and chambers that deliver blood, and
valves that direct the flow of blood
through the chambers. It must also be
capable of contracting strongly to force
the blood out of the heart and through
the vessels. Since the heart is an organ,
it is composed of various tissues.
Epithelial tissue called endocardium
lines the inside of chambers of the heart.
This provides a smooth surface that minimizes friction as blood flows from one
chamber to another.
The heart is made of muscle tissue
and has the ability to contract. The
propulsive force of the heart is made
possible by the myocardium. This heart
wall is made of cardiac muscle. The
heart contains its own intrinsic pacemaker but also contains nervous tissue
that responds to stimuli to increase or
decrease the heart rate. It contains
connective tissue that protects and
encases it.
Your heart is about the size of your
clenched fist and is the hardest-working
muscle in the body. The ribs and sternum
(breastbone) protect it at the front and
the spine protects it at the back.
Deoxygenated blood is brought to the
right side of the heart and is pumped to

the lungs to pick up oxygen. The oxygenated blood returns to the left side of
the heart and is pumped to all parts of
the body. The heart contains four chambers: right and left atria, which serve as
receiving chambers, and right and left
ventricles, which serve as delivery
chambers. The left and right sides of the
heart are separated from each other by
a muscular septum.
The Pulmonary Circuit and

the Systemic Circuit
The pattern of blood flow in the human
heart is complex. However, the flow of
blood in the human circulatory system
can be divided into two distinct patterns.
The pulmonary circuit is a lowpressure system. Deoxygenated blood
enters the heart at the right atrium. It
then flows to the right ventricle. The
right atrioventricular valve (AV-valve),
also known as the tricuspid valve,
located between the atrium and ventricle on the right side of the heart, prevents
blood from flowing back into the right
atrium. From the right ventricle the
blood passes through the cup-like
pulmonary semilunar valve and enters
the pulmonary trunk. From the
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PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
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superior
vena cava
lungs
The right side

of the heart
pumps
de-oxygenated
blood to the
lungs.
aorta
The left side of

the heart pumps
oxygenated
blood to the
rest of the
body.
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
pulmonary
veins
left
atrium
b)
pulmonary
arteries
right
atrium
a)
inferior
vena cava
left
ventricle
right
ventricle
FIGURE 10.9 A double circulation system
a) Blood returns from the systemic circulation, through the veins, to the right side
of the heart. The pulmonary circulation pumps the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated,
and then returns it to the left side of the heart. The blood is then pumped back out
of the left side of the heart, into the systemic circulation and through the arteries of
the body.
b) The right atrium of the heart (1) is filled with deoxygenated blood by the superior
and inferior vena cavae. The right atrium pumps the blood into (2) the right ventricle,
which contracts and sends the blood through (3) the pulmonary arteries to the
lungs. After picking up oxygen in the lungs, the blood is transferred back to the
heart, through (4) the pulmonary veins, and moves into (5) the left atrium. The left
atrium pumps the blood into (6) the left ventricle, which contracts and pumps the
blood out through (7) the aorta, and into the rest of the body
pulmonary trunk, blood is pumped

to both lungs by way of two pulmonary
arteries. As the blood travels through
the lung capillaries, it picks up oxygen
and releases carbon dioxide. The oxygenated blood now travels from both
lungs through the four pulmonary veins
to return to the heart at the left atrium.
From the left atrium, the blood
enters the left ventricle through the left
atrioventricular valve (also known as the
bicuspid or mitral valve) and then is
pumped to the rest of the body through

the systemic circuit.
The systemic circuit is a high-pressure system. It must propel the blood
with enough force for it to travel to all
of the body parts. For this reason the left
ventricle of the heart is more muscular
than the right ventricle.
When the oxygenated blood leaves
the left ventricle it travels through the
aortic semilunar valve and enters the
aorta, which is the largest artery in your
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Circulation
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Contents
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3
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body. The aorta has many branches

throughout the body called arteries. Each
artery branches into arterioles that in
turn branch into capillaries. It is at the
level of the capillaries that oxygen is released to individual body cells.
Capillaries rejoin as venules that then
form veins.
Oxygen-poor blood from the upper
body returns to the heart through the
superior vena cava. Oxygen-poor blood
from the lower body reaches the heart
by way of the inferior vena cava. These
two large veins empty into the right
atrium.
The circulatory system acts as the
conduit between the alveoli in the lungs
and the the tissues of the body. Without
an efficient circulation system the tissue
cells would be starved of the reactants
needed for cellular respiration.
superior
vena cava
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aorta
pulmonary
artery
right
coronary
artery
left
circumflex
artery
left anterior
descending
coronary
artery
FIGURE 10.10 The coronary circulation. Damage

or blockage in the coronary arteries brings about
many heart attacks. Blockage of the left anterior
descending coronary artery, which supplies blood
to the heart muscle of the left ventricle, is involved in almost half of all heart attacks.
Blood Supply to the Heart:

The Role of the Coronary
Circulation
The heart is no different from other muscles in your body; it constantly requires
a fresh supply of oxygen. Therefore, in
order to receive nutrients, the heart has
a special circulation called the coronary
circulation that delivers oxygenated
blood directly to the heart muscle. This
mini-circulatory system consists of a left
and right coronary artery as shown in
Figure 10.10. The left coronary artery
has two major branches, the left circumflex artery and the left anterior descending artery. Disease in the coronary
arteries prevents the heart from receiving enough oxygen. If heart muscle
tissue does not get enough oxygen, it
dies. If too much tissue dies, the heart
cannot pump effectively. The sudden
blockage of a coronary artery leading to
death of heart muscle is called a heart
attack. A heart attack can also cause an
irregular heartbeat and prevent the
heart from filling and contracting normally.
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Humans are born with all the muscle and nervous tissue they will need
over their lifetime. This means that cardiac muscle, once damaged, is not replaced. Sometimes when some cardiac
muscle dies, part of the heart may stop
functioning properly. However, other
parts of the heart take over that function. For example, if part of the left ventricle is damaged by a heart attack, the
remaining functioning muscle in the left
ventricle will work overtime to make up
for the loss. This process is called compensation. In people with advanced
heart disease compensation may no
longer be sufficient because so much of
their heart muscle has been damaged.
Heart disease continues to be a
major cause of death in Canada.
Contributing factors include smoking,
stress, lack of exercise, and a highcholesterol diet.
Contents
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The Valves of the Heart

The human heart has four valves that
work to ensure that blood flows in the
proper direction. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and right ventricle and the bicuspid or mitral valve
separates the left atrium and left ventricle. The pulmonary valve is between
the right ventricle and the pulmonary
trunk and the aortic valve is between
the left ventricle and the aorta. Valves
open and close at different times to ensure blood flows in the proper direction.
Scientists have been able to harvest
valves from animals, such as pigs, and
to replace defective valves in humans. In
recent years, scientists have also designed synthetic valves made of a special
type of plastic that can be implanted into
humans.
The Heart Cycle

and Heart Sounds
Your heartbeat is a result of the coordinated contraction of heart muscle. There
is a specialized region of heart muscle in
the right atrium called the sinoatrial
node or pacemaker that maintains the
hearts intrinsic pumping rhythm. In fact,
heart muscle is unique because nerves
that carry impulses to the heart do not
initiate the heartbeat. As a part of the
homeostatic mechanism, they merely
influence the rate and strength of the
hearts contractions.
The heart works in a continuous
cycle of relaxation and contraction called
the cardiac cycle (Figure 10.11). During
diastole, when the heart is in relaxation,
blood flows into all four chambers. Blood
enters the right atrium from the systemic
circulation via the inferior and superior vena cavae. Blood enters the left
atrium from the pulmonary veins. Also
during diastole, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, allowing blood
to flow into the right and left ventricles. Diastole ends with the contraction
of the atria to further fill the ventricles
with blood. In total, diastole lasts for
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approximately 0.4 s. During this phase

of the cardiac cycle, blood pressure is
reduced and is referred to as diastolic
pressure.
Systole, the other major component
of the cardiac cycle, begins with the contraction of the ventricles, which lasts for
approximately 0.3 s. At this time blood is
expelled forcefully from the heart. Blood
from the right ventricle goes through the
open pulmonary semi-lunar valve into the
pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries. Blood from the left ventricle goes
through the open aortic semi-lunar valve
into the aorta. During this time, your tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed so
that blood does not flow back into the
atria. During systole, blood pressure is increased and is referred to as systolic pressure. The average adult has a systolic to
diastolic pressure ratio of 120 mm Hg
over 80 mm Hg.
INFOBIT
Your heart strings are not
just the stuff of romance. The
chordae tendinae are fibrous
connective tissue structures
inside the ventricles that stabilize the atrio-ventricular valves
during systole and allow the
valves to function properly.
WORDORIGIN
Systole, from the Greek sun
meaning together and
stellein meaning to put;
therefore sustole, meaning
a putting together or a
drawing in.
Diastole, from the Greek, dia
meaning apart and stellein
meaning to put; therefore diastole meaning a pulling apart
or a letting out.
1 Heart is
relaxed. AV
valves are open.
Blood flows into
all four chambers.
0.1 s
0.3 s
2 Atria
contract.
0.4 s
Systole
Diastole
3 Ventricles contract.
Semilunar valves
are open.
FIGURE 10.11 The cardiac cycle
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INFOBIT
A heart murmur is a sound
made when one of the valves is
not opening or closing properly
or when the diameter of the
open valve is less than normal.
When a valve only partially
opens or closes, some blood
may spill back in the direction
opposite to blood flow. The actual sound of a heart murmur is
due to turbulent blood flow.
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Heart Sounds At the beginning of systole, when the ventricles start to contract, the pressure generated forces the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to close.
This produces the first heart sound. At
the end of systole, when the pressure in
the ventricles falls, the aortic and pulmonary semi-lunar valves close. This
produces the second heart sound.
Cardiac Output The volume of blood
pumped from the left ventricle into the
aorta per minute is called the cardiac output. It is the product of stroke volume and
heart rate. The stroke volume is the
amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle each time it contracts. The heart
rate is the number of contractions per
minute. Both heart rate and stroke volume vary depending on factors such as
exercise and level of fitness.
Increased carbon dioxide in the blood
results in a lowered pH. This sets up a
negative feedback loop. The heart rate
is increased so that more blood is sent
to the lungs per minute. This results in a
more rapid release of carbon dioxide from
the lungs and so carbon dioxide concentration and pH return to the norm.

restrictions.
INFOBIT
oles/ules many terms in
biology have this endingfor
example, bronchioles, arterioles, and venules. Think of
oles implying smaller than
the adjoining structure. For
instance, the arteries are the
structure that come before
arterioles, therefore, arterioles
are smaller than arteries;
similarly, venules are smaller
than veins, and bronchioles
are smaller than bronchi.
328
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Internal Systems
FIGURE 10.12 When a patient is attached to a

heart monitor the traces show the conditions at
points in the heart as well as blood pressure and
other vital signs.
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Blood Vessels
Blood vessels transport the blood from
one part of your body to another and
connect all the body systems. Blood is
pumped away from the heart in thickwalled blood vessels called arteries.
Arteries then branch out to form
arterioles, which branch out further to
form capillaries.
Arteries must withstand the pressure of the blood within them. The
biggest artery in the body is the aorta.
The major function of arteries and
arterioles is to transport blood under
pressure throughout the body. The
arteries are structurally suited for this
task. They consist of three distinct
layers: an inner layer of epithelial cells,
a middle layer of smooth muscle, and
an outer layer of connective tissue containing elastic fibres that allow the vessels to stretch.
Having muscular and elastic tissue
enables the walls of the arteries to
handle the high pressure of the pumped
blood. In fact, when the heart empties,
the blood moves in a pulselike wave
throughout the circulatory system. As
blood travels through your arteries it
pushes on the artery walls, causing
them to stretch. Just as a stretched rubber band will store potential energy, an
artery will also store some energy when
stretched. When the bulge of blood flows
past a given section of artery, the artery
relaxes and releases some of the stored
energy. This helps to move blood along
farther. Branching in the circulatory system allows the blood to be channelled
into different areas.
Arterioles are smaller than arteries.
They have a smaller diameter and are
a little less elastic. The contraction and
relaxation of arterioles is the major
determinant of the overall blood pressure in the body.
Capillaries are the narrowest of all
blood vessels. Red blood cells must
squeeze through capillaries in single file
and so they slow down. This slower
pace allows them to pick up carbon
dioxide and unload oxygen by diffusion
Contents
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into tissue cells. It has been estimated

that nearly every tissue of the body is
within 0.1 mm of a capillary. Branching
in the capillaries means a great increase
in the surface area available for diffusion, and this makes transport within
the body more efficient. Because capillaries are tiny structures and despite
the slow pace of movement through
capillaries, each red blood cell remains
in a capillary for only one to three seconds. Capillaries also provide a bridge
between the arterial and venous systems. Capillaries merge to form venules.
Venules in turn merge to form veins.
Veins act as a reservoir and collectively
hold about half of the total blood volume. Veins have thinner walls, larger
diameters, and less muscle than arteries. These features help them to readily receive blood from the capillary
network.
Veins transport blood back to the
heart. Because most veins are below the
heart, they must work against gravity. To
facilitate the movement of blood towards
the heart, veins have valves that allow
the blood to flow in only one direction.
Contraction of your skeletal muscles also
keeps blood flowing towards the heart.
Skeletal muscles surround veins and
squeeze blood when they contract. In this
way, blood is pushed farther along on its
heart-bound journey.
ARTERY
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Blood flow to the heart is also affected by physcial activity. If you stand
or sit for long periods of time, this prevents skeletal muscles from squeezing
blood back to your heart. As a result the
veins distend as the blood accumulates
in them. If veins are stretched constantly,
they lose their elasticity and the bulges
may become visible as varicose veins.
The Anti-Gravity Suit

The Anti-Gravity suit or Anti-G Suit is
a device worn by aircrew to counteract
the effects of positive acceleration on the
human body. Fighter pilots experience
extreme G-forces when flying. During
acceleration, the blood is pushed into
the lower half of the body and the shift
in blood volume away from the brain
can cause the pilot to black out. In response to this problem, during World
War II, Dr. Wilbur R. Franks of the
Banting and Best Institute designed the
first anti-gravity suit. This special pressurized suit stopped pooling of blood by
boosting blood pressure and peripheral resistance. This prevented the pilot
from passing out at the controls. The
suits worn by astronauts and jet pilots
today are still based on Franks original
design. However, a new type of customfitted liquid-filled suit is now being
tested.
CAPILLARY
connective
tissue
VEIN
connective
tissue
valve
muscle
muscle
endothelium
endothelium
capillary bed
FIGURE 10.13 Branching in the systemic system. In the arterial system the aorta branches
into arteries and arterioles. In the tissues arterioles branch into capillary networks that increase
the surface area available for diffusion. In the venous system capillaries merge to form
venules and venules merge to form veins.
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TABLE 10.1 Comparison of the Anatomy of Blood Vessels
Capillary
Artery
Vein
connective tissue
connective tissue
smooth
muscle
smooth
muscle
capillary
epithelium
valve in
epithelium
epithelial cells
has 3 layers: epithelial cells,

smooth muscle and connective tissue
is able to stretch
thick, muscular
carries blood away from heart
thin with a very narrow diameter

one cell thick
abundant
site of gas exchange with tissue cells
elastic
wall thinner than artery
has valves
carries blood towards heart
Cardiac Contractions

restrictions.
FIGURE 10.14 Varicose veins. Damage to

valves in veins results in a loss of elasticity and
a bulging of veins that may become obvious.
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Internal Systems
The sinoatrial node is a small patch of

specialized tissue that controls the rhythmic pumping of the heart. It generates an
electrical signal that travels through the
heart to the atrioventricular node (AV
node) and then to the ventricles by way
of special fibresthe Purkinje fibres and
the Bundle of His. The electrical signal is
delayed for about 0.1 s at the atrioventricular node, so that the atria contract simultaneously, before the ventricles
contract.
The rhythmic contractions of the
heart are the result of special characteristics of the cardiac muscle cells.
Cardiac muscle cells are unique because
they can contract rhythmically even in
isolation. If a cardiac muscle cell is isolated and placed in a Petri dish, it begins
to beat. If another cardiac muscle cell
from the same heart is extracted and
placed beside the cell in the Petri dish, it
will at first have its own beat. Soon, the
two cells will syncopate their contractions and beat in unison.
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AV node
Quit
Contraction of
ventricles begins in
heart apex.
Electrical signal
delayed at
AV node.
Wave of
contraction
begins.
SA node
Next Section
Contraction of
ventricles complete.
bundle
branches
Purkinje
fibres
FIGURE 10.15 The control of the hearts rhythm. The sequence of excitation is associated with the waves shown on an electrocardiogram.
An electrocardiograph is a device
used to detect the hearts electrical activity. The heart produces current that
radiates through the surrounding tissue
to the skin. When electrodes are attached to the skin, they sense these electrical currents and transmit them to the
ECG machine. A graphic record, the
electrocardiogram or ECG, is produced.
It shows the different waves that represent the various parts of the cardiac
cycle. The appearance of the ECG varies
with the positioning of the electrodes.
Comparison of information from different placements of the electrodes allows
you to check the performance of different parts of the heart. ECGs are useful
because they are a non-invasive way of
diagnosing cardiac and non-cardiac illnesses and enable monitoring of the
effects of many medications.
FIGURE 10.16 a) An electrocardiograph is an

instrument that monitors the electrical activity of
the heart,
b) A normal ECG trace. The P wave shows depolarization of the atria. The QRS complex shows
depolarization of the ventricles.The T wave shows
repolarization of the ventricles.

restrictions.
a)

restrictions.
b)
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Artificial Pacemakers
In 1951 researchers at Torontos
Banting Institute, W.G. Bigelow and
John C. Callaghan reported on experiments with the first electrical cardiac pacemaker, which was designed
by John C. Hopps of the National
Research Council. Since that time and
with the development of transistorized circuitry, thousands of people
have benefited from this technology.
Over 7500 patients in Canada alone
receive new pacemakers each year.
WEBLINK
Research artificial pacemakers
on the Internet. Construct a
time-line of pacemaker development. Begin your research at
Investigation
Refer to page 345,
Investigation 1
332
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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A pacemaker is an artificial device that electrically stimulates the

heart to contract. These devices are
used to correct abnormal electrical
activity in people who have had problems with their heart, such as a heart
attack. These devices may be temporary or permanent, depending on
the patients condition. A pacemaker
consists of three components: the
pulse generator, the pacing leads, and
the electrode tip. The pulse generator contains the pacemakers power
source and circuits. The pacing leads
carry the electrical stimulus from the
pulse generator to the electrode tips.
Depending on the type of pacemaker,
the electrode tips can be placed in the
atria, ventricles, or both.
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted
on the walls of the arteries. It is generated as your heart ejects blood into the
aorta with every beat. The aorta and
other arteries have muscular walls that
allow them to expand and passively
recoil as the ventricles contract and
relax. During systole, the aorta expands
to accept the blood from the heart and
a wave of pressure is generated throughout all the arteries. During diastole, the
aorta recoils, propelling blood along the
arteries into the arterioles and capillaries. This elastic property of vessels
allows for continuous blood flow
throughout the circulatory system.
Arterial blood pressure is directly
related to the amount of blood pumped
by the heart per minute and the resistance to blood flow through the arterioles. The systolic pressure is the
pressure that blood exerts on the wall of
the aorta during systole when blood
leaves the heart. The diastolic pressure
is the pressure that the blood exerts on
the wall of the aorta during diastole
when no blood leaves the heart. The difference between your systolic pressure
Quit

FIGURE 10.17 A pacemaker consists of a

pulse generator, pacing leads, and an electrode tip.
and your diastolic pressure is called your

pulse pressure.
The average normal systolic blood
pressure for adults is around 120 mm Hg
while normal diastolic blood pressure is
80 mm Hg.
Blood pressure is highest in the aorta
and then falls gradually. Blood pressure
and velocity both decline as blood enters
the arterioles (Figure 10.19). The pressure
drop results from the resistance to blood
flow caused by friction between the blood
and the inner walls of the arterioles.
FIGURE 10.18 A sphygmomanometer is a

device to measure blood pressure.
Contents
Previous Section
Regulation of blood pressure is essential. Low blood pressure reduces your

capacity to transport blood. High blood
pressure also creates serious, but different problems. High blood pressure can
weaken the walls of an artery and this
can cause the vessel to rupture.
Next Section
Discovering Biology
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Pulse rate
One easy way to measure your heart rate is to take your pulse. Pulse
is generated when arteries stretch during systole. What you actually feel is an artery bulging during systole. Between heartbeats
(during diastole), the arteries recoil due to their elastic properties.
Two areas where your pulse is easy to detect are the radial pulse
(at your wrist) and the carotid pulse (at the side of your neck).
The Sphygmomanometer The arterial

blood pressure is determined using a
sphygmomanometer. This device consists of an inflatable cuff connected by
rubber hoses to a hand pump and to a
pressure gauge graduated in millimetres of mercury. The cuff is wrapped
around the upper arm and inflated to
a pressure that will temporarily stop the
flow of blood through the brachial
artery. As the pressure in the cuff is
lowered slowly, the examiner listens for
the sounds of blood flow in the brachial
artery by placing the bell of a stethoscope in the elbow crease.
1.
Take your pulse at the radial pulse. To feel your pulse, place
your index and middle fingers on an artery and feel it stretch
and relax as a volume of blood flows past it. Record your heart
rate (beats/min).
2.
Take your pulse at the carotid pulse. Record your heart rate.
Compare the strength of the two pulses. Explain your
observations.
Investigation
Refer to page 346,
Investigation 2
venae cavae
veins
venules
capillaries
arterioles
diastolic pressure
arteries
50
40
30
20
10
0
systolic pressure
aorta
Pressure (mm Hg)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Velocity (cm/s)
Comparison of
blood vessel size
FIGURE 10.19 Blood pressure and velocity in the blood vessels
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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Section 10.2 Review

3. Describe how structure and function

are related in a capillary.
a) Graph the data of vessel type versus total cross-sectional area.

b) What is the trend in cross-sectional
area?
c) Explain this trend.
d) How might the cross-sectional area
of a single vessel influence the velocity of blood flow?
e) How might the total cross-sectional
area of vessels affect velocity of
flow and pressure in vessels?
4. Draw a diagram to show why the

human heart is considered to be a
double pump system.
8. Examine the following pie graph,

which shows the distribution of blood
in the various vessels.
1. How does deoxygenated blood enter

the heart?
2. Calculate the cardiac output if the
stroke volume is 80 mL/beat and the
heart rate is 75 beats/min. Cardiac output is the product of the stroke volume
and the heart rate.
5. The sinoatrial node is the hearts pacemaker. and has an intrinsic rate at
which it generates impulses. This rate
can be modified by many different factors. From the heart rates given below,
Select the one that corresponds to each
of the following scenarios.
Heart rates (beats/min):
72
186
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
54
a) Someone sleeping
b) Someone playing squash
c) Someone, at rest, watching television
FIGURE 10.20
6. What is the most important determinant of the overall blood pressure?
Applying Inquiry/
7.
The following table shows the total

cross-sectional area of the different
types of blood vessels at various points
along the circulatory tree.
a) From the data, which vessels contain the largest volume of blood?
b) Suggest why capillaries have such
a low blood volume.
c) What percentage of the blood is
contained in the venous system?
Making Connections
Blood Vessel
Type
aorta
20
arterioles
40
venules
veins
venae cavae
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
2.5
small arteries
capillaries
334
Total Cross-Sectional
Area (cm2)
2500
250
80
5
9. High blood pressure, or hypertension, is a common problem in the general population. It is a strong risk factor
for the development of heart disease
and stroke. Propose the economic and
social impacts of hypertension.
Contents
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10.3 The Circulatory System

in Health and Disease
Key Understandings
relate fitness level to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system
describe common disorders that affect the cardiovascular system
provide examples of drug treatments to restore homeostasis
present scientific reasons for following an exercise program
explain how Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
for internal systems
Hypertension or high blood pressure

is a disease that affects many Canadians.
Although a substantial number of
Canadians are diagnosed with this condition, many others do not realize they
have high blood pressure. Blood pressure
for a healthy adult varies anywhere from
100140 mm Hg systolic and between
7090 mm Hg diastolic. High blood pressure is usually defined as a consistent
blood pressure greater than 140/90.
Prolonged high blood pressure can damage the heart and other blood vessels. It
can be the cause of cardiovascular disorders, such as coronary heart disease
and stroke.
Hypertension can be treated by diet,
exercise, weight control, and medication.
This will decrease cardiac output,
lowering pressure in the arterioles,
and restore the persons blood pressure
to the norm. Most anti-hypertensive
medications lower blood pressure and
restore homeostasis by decreasing the
cardiac output. Medications acting as
vasodilators decrease the resistance of
blood vessels. Diuretics are also
commonly used to help lower blood
pressure. Diuretics cause the body
excrete more urine. This reduces the
volume of liquid in the body, and so
reduces the high pressure that excess
fluid can create.
Atherosclerosis
This condition occurs when fatty deposits containing cholesterol and lipids
accumulate in the lining of blood vessels.
The plaques (sticky regions) decrease
the diameter of the blood vessel and the
elasticity of the vessel wall. This process
may occur in all arteries in the body, but
the coronary arteries are especially susceptible. Areas distal to the narrowing
of an artery can be deprived of blood
and nutrients. High-cholesterol diets
combined with other risk factors for
heart disease may result in abnormal
blood circulation and eventual heart
attack or stroke.
Angina
Like all muscles in the human body, the
heart requires a constant and steady
supply of nutrients. In a healthy heart
this is supplied by the coronary circulation. Coronary artery disease means
that there are parts of the heart that do
not always receive enough oxygen. When
the heart is deprived of oxygen, an individual may complain of chest pain or
chest tightness called angina. Usually
this pain is felt behind the sternum,
but may also radiate to the jaw, back,
and arms. It can occur during periods of
exertion, during exercising or eating, or
when under emotional stress. Angina
can usually be relieved by rest or by a
medication, such as nitroglycerine.
WEBLINK
Research the reasons that high
blood pressure is often called
the silent killer. Create a
pamphlet that outlines the prevention and treatment of this
condition. Begin your research at
M AT H L I N K
Blood pressure is an example
of a value for which non-metric
units continue to be used.
Blood pressure is usually
reported as mmHg. Normal
blood pressure for an adult is
120/80, systolic/diastolic. To
report blood pressure in metric
units (kPa), use the conversion
1mmHg = 0.13332 kPa.
Therefore 120 mmHg
= (120 x 0.13332) kPa
= 15.998 kPa
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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Heart Attack
A heart attack is a more severe form of
angina. During a heart attack, a clot
completely blocks a coronary artery and
there is death of cardiac muscle cells.
After the death of these cells, scar tissue
forms. After a heart attack, the damaged
heart may be weakened and may not be
able to pump blood as efficiently. Heart
attacks have many associated symptoms
including fatigue, dizziness, and indigestion. The chances of a heart attack
increase with age. Some other factors
that influence the likelihood of having
a heart attack include smoking, poor
diet, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, a
family history of heart disease, and diabetes. Fortunately, many of these factors can be controlled. Frequent exercise
and healthy food choices can help to
prevent the occurrence of heart attacks.
Stroke
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel
(usually one going to the brain) is damaged. A clot forms within the blood vessel, or the blood vessel bursts due to high
blood pressure or a weakness in the vessel wall. Symptoms depend on the vessel
involved and the part of the brain affected. Usually the patient experiences
signs and symptoms on the opposite side
of the body to which the blood vessel is
located. Thus a damaged blood vessel
feeding oxygen to the right side of the
brain would result in a patient having
symptoms on the left side of the body.
Common symptoms of a stroke include
weakness, speech slurring, and numbness. Some of these symptoms are reversible with time while others may be
permanent.
Drugs and Treatments

Relating to the Circulatory
System
Nitroglycerine is one drug used routinely to treat angina and works by dilating the coronary arteries. Typically it
is taken in a pill form or as a spray taken
336
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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under the tongue. Nitroglycerine is readily absorbed and acts to dilate coronary
blood vessels almost instantly. This allows more blood to reach areas of the
heart that are being deprived of oxygen.
The treatment acts to restore the blood
vessel diameter and oxygen availability
to the heart. It mimics a normal homeostatic response to oxygen deprivation.
Nitroglycerine is also available as a patch
that individuals can stick on their skin.
The medication slowly dissolves upon
contact, passes through the skin, and is
absorbed into the bloodstream. In this
form, the nitroglycerine will maintain
homeostasis by providing a continuous
stimulus to dilate the blood vessels.
Nicotine is the active ingredient in tobacco. It is second only to caffeine as the
most widely used stimulant, and second only to alcohol as the most abused
drug. It is also highly addictive. Nicotine
is toxic, and in combination with the tars
and carbon monoxide found in cigarette
smoke, it is a serious risk factor for lung
disease, various cancers, and heart disease. The effects of nicotine are complex
and include a rise in both blood pressure
and heart rate. Recently, a special chewing gum containing 2 mg of nicotine has
been shown to reduce nicotine withdrawal symptoms and help smokers stop
smoking. The blood concentration of
nicotine after chewing the gum is about
one half of the level it would be after
smoking. Therefore, chewing gum with
nicotine is one way that smokers can
try to quit smoking. Nicotine is also
available in patch form.
Technology and the

Circulatory System
Exercise Stress Test An exercise stress
test is a useful and non-invasive way to
check for the presence of coronary artery
disease. This test involves walking or
running on a treadmill that moves at
an increasing speed and incline. The
individual has continuous ECG and blood
Contents
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Bypass Surgery
If the arteries that supply the heart
with oxygen become narrowed, certain parts of the heart may become
deprived of oxygen and the cells may
ultimately die. Coronary artery
bypass surgery is one of the most
common types of surgeries performed
in North America. Surgeons extract
a vein from the patients leg and use
it to redirect blood flow around the
diseased artery in the heart. Think of
a traffic jam. The new blood vessel
acts like a detour route allowing
blood to get around the traffic or in
this case, the blockage. More than
one blockage in the coronary circulation may be treated in the same operation: you may have heard of
people having triple, quadruple or
even quintuple, bypass surgeries.
In September 1999, cardiac surgeon Douglas Boyd at the London,
Ontario Health Sciences Centre
Next Section
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performed a landmark procedure: a

repaired. During this process Dr.
Boyd relied on a videoimage of the
closed-chest bypass without the use
moving heart to direct his work as he
of a heart-lung machine. Research by
repaired the bleeding vessel in the
Boyd and a colleague, cardiac anesconfined space made by his incisions.
thesiologist John Murkin, had indiThe advantages for the patient
cated problems for patients after
are
obvious:
tiny incisions, ribs not
being hooked up to the heart-lung
damaged, and no need to stop and
machine. Strokes affect 3%, another
start the beating of the heart. The
30% show significant loss of higher
result is a much shortened convalesmental functions immediately after
cence period. Dr. Murkin has demonthe operation, and even after six
strated that these patients also show
months 20% still experience lapses
much less loss of memory and other
that are cause for concern, such as
higher mental functions after sugery.
difficulty doing a crossword puzzle or
forgetting familiar names.
Using a Zeus system
with computer assistance
as well as a robotic
endoscope and tools, Boyd
attempted the first
closed-chest, beatingImage omitted due to copyright
heart surgery. Working
restrictions.
through incisions without
opening the chest cavity,
Boyd slowed down the
movement of the heart,
cut a slot in the blocked
artery, and inserted a
shunt so that the blood
FIGURE 10.21 Drs. Douglas Boyd (right) and John
could flow even while the
Murkin
(left) with the robot used in bypass surgery.
blocked artery was
pressure measurements taken. The length

of time the individual can perform on the
treadmill combined with ECG changes and
the patients symptoms (for example, shortness of breath, angina) help the physician to determine whether coronary artery
disease is present.
Cardiac Catheterization Cardiac catheterization is a method to detect the presence of coronary artery disease.
Individuals who have abnormal exercise
stress tests often go on to have cardiac
catheterization and an angiogram. A
catheter is inserted into the femoral
artery (located in the groin area) and
guided through the arterial system of the
body and into the heart and coronary
arteries. A dye is then injected through
the catheter into the bloodstream. The

dye enters the coronary arteries and
X-rays are taken of the blood vessels.
The angiogram can show the degree of
arterial blockage and how much blood
is actually flowing through the arteries.
Depending on the degree of narrowing,
the health care team may recommend
further intervention. In some cases,
individuals undergo bypass surgery or
angioplasty. With this procedure, a
small balloon is inserted through a
catheter and inflated in order to reduce the narrowing in the artery. During
cardiac catheterization, blood samples
may be withdrawn and pressures within
the heart can be measured to detect
valve problems and heart deformities.
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Nuclear Medicine Another method of diagnosis for patients who have an abnormal stress test involves radioactive
decay. The substance used is radioactive
thallium (thallium 201). This material is
injected while the person is undergoing a stress test and the subsequent
decay of radioactivity in the circulation
of the heart is recorded. Normal coronary arteries will show a regular pattern
of radioactive disintegrations. Diseased
coronary arteries will show a different
pattern.
How the Circulatory System

Responds to Exercise
The circulatory system adjusts in various ways to changes in physiological
conditions. For example, muscles that
are exercised produce more carbon dioxide and lactic acid than muscles at rest.
The blood then becomes more acidic
as it passes through the muscles. The increase in acidity makes the blood give
up more of its oxygen and dilates the
blood vessels. It also stimulates the nervous system to increase the secretion of
adrenaline. This causes breathing and
Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk,

Pioneer in Nuclear
Medicine
Nuclear medicine is an important aspect of diagnosis and treatment in internal systems. The methods of
diagnosis involve nuclear screening
devices to record radioactive decay
within the tissue being studied.
Radioactive iodine is used to test thyroid function; radioactive thallium
is used to show cardiac artery function; and radioactive phosphate is
338
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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heart rates to rise. A continuing

exercise program increases the bodys
capacity to use oxygen.
The Benefits of Regular

Exercise
Regular physical exercise is one of the
best things that you can do for your
body.
Think back to how good you have
felt after finishing some sort of physical
exercise, for example, a bike ride, a long
walk, or a game of tennis. The benefits
of regular exercise are numerous and
in this small section we hope to convince
you that exercise is one of the best ways
to improve your health. Exercise improves the functioning of many body
systems. Exercise is good for the heart
moderate exercise for 30 min, three to
four times per week, significantly
reduces the risk of coronary heart
disease. This is in part because exercise
improves the blood supply to the heart
muscle. It also helps a person to maintain an ideal body weight and therefore
reduces stress on the heart. The level of
good high density lipoprotein (HDL)
used to indicate bone structure.

Various forms of radiation are also
used in the treatment of cancer. The
objective is either to kill the cancer
cells directly or to affect cell division
in the cancerous tissue to slow the
growth of the cancer.
Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk was deeply involved with the development of both
aspects of nuclear medicine for the
treatment of cancer. She was Chief
Medical Physicist for Saskatchewan
and developed the first nuclear scanning machine for diagnosis. She was
a member of a University of
Saskatchewan team led by Harold
Elford Johns. This team developed
the first non-commercial Cobalt-60
therapy unit for cancer treatment in
1951. Later in her career she developed the Dosimeter, a machine that
allows regulation of the dose of radiation received by the patient.

FIGURE 10.22 Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk, a pioneer in nuclear medicine, served as

LeiutenantGovernor of Saskatchewan
from 19881994.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 10.24 The normal angiogram on the left shows patent (open) left and
right coronary arteries. The abnormal angiogram on the right shows blockages in
diseased coronary arteries.
FIGURE 10.23 Exercise on a treadmill is a form

of cardiovascular workout, but can also be used
for diagnosis of heart disease.
cholesterol is raised and the level of

bad low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol is lowered. A high level
of bad cholesterol is one important
risk factor in the development of
atherosclerosis.
In addition to the benefits on the
heart, exercise helps to strengthen the
lungs, tone the muscles, and maintain
bone strength. If you have diabetes,
exercise is important to help keep blood
sugar in the normal range and maintain
control of the disease. Finally, exercise
helps to improve self-esteem, concentration, and mechanisms for coping with
stress.
In general the more exercise a person is accustomed to, the higher his or
her ability to use oxygen during exercise
and the lower the oxygen debt built up
through accumulation of lactic acid. The
rate of oxygen used by most athletes
is 10% higher than that of a sedentary
person.
Even though the benefits of exercise

are proven, many people fail to exercise
on a regular basis. Many people choose
to play the passive role of spectator. In
many high schools there is little time
scheduled for sports activities. Also,
many people lead such busy lives, it is
difficult to find the time to exercise.
INFOBIT
Cholesterol is transported in
the body bound to small lipidprotein complexes called
lipoproteins. High-density
lipoproteins (HDLs) transport
cholesterol to the liver for
breakdown. HDLs are often
referred to as good
cholesterol in comparison to
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
that may release cholesterol
deposits into the walls of
arteries.
WEBLINK
restrictions.
Research the effects of

microgravity on the circulatory
system. Write a supported
paragraph. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
FIGURE 10.25 Aerobics can provide

cardiovascular workout.
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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Section 10.3 Review

1. Medications that decrease cardiac output, vasodilators, and diuretics are all
used to treat hypertension. Explain the
different ways these medications act to
lower blood pressure.
2. What responses in a normal individual
are mimicked through the use of nitroglycerine by an angina patient?
6. The respiratory and circulatory systems work closely together during exercise. The table below gives the
oxygen consumption (L/min) and the
total ventilation (L/min) for three different athletes.
Oxygen
consumption
(x-axis)
Athlete A Athlete B Athlete C
3. What is the purpose of bypass surgery?

4. What effect does nicotine have on the
heart?
Applying Inquiry/
5. A person has been taking an antihypertensive medication for the past
six months. He has been monitoring
his blood pressure at home with a kit
he bought from the drugstore. The
table shows his blood pressures over
the past six months (mm Hg).
Graph the blood pressure to show how
it has changed over time. Analyze the
data and recommend a course of action for the future.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
Total ventilation
(y-axis)
23
17
41
31
18
60.0
47.5
34.5
78
63.2
46
a) Graph the data. Draw the line of

best fit for each of the three
athletes.
b) What happens to the oxygen consumption as the total ventilation increases?
c) From the data, which athlete
appears to be the most fit? What
physical activities are best known
for their ability to increase
cardiovascular fitness?
Blood Pressure
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Systolic
166
160
150
156
144
138
Diastolic
98
98
90
92
94
88
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10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various

Organisms
Key Understandings
compare the anatomy of the circulatory systems in different organisms
explain the role of transport systems in different organisms
understand how the structures in transport systems are suited to their functions
Single-celled or very small organisms

rely on diffusion to supply oxygen from
their surroundings. As multicellular organisms become larger and more complex, an efficient transport system is
essential.
Open and Closed Circulation

In the animal kingdom, there are
two different types of circulatory systems: opened and closed. An open
circulatory system consists of a body
sinus that contains all the vital organs.
This system is called open because blood
is pumped through open-ended vessels
to flow out among the cells. In fact, blood
is pumped into this body sinus and literally bathes all the body organs.
Imagine a bathtub being filled for a bath;
this is similar to an open system. When
the organs have been bathed in oxygenated blood, the blood is drained
from the body sinus, making space available for new blood to bathe the organs.
This bathing and draining follows
a continuous cycle. Open circulatory systems are most common in insects. In
contrast, a closed circulatory system
consists of vessels containing fluid and
a pumping mechanism to circulate the
fluid.
The Earthworm
The earthworm has a simple but highly
efficient closed circulatory system.
Earthworms have blood that travels
through vessels. The two main blood
vessels in the worm are the dorsal
vessel and the ventral vessel, while
smaller vessels serve the cells in each
individual segment. The earthworm does
not have a heart. Instead, it has five
muscular pseudohearts that pump
blood around its body. The primary
dorsal vessel
ventral vessel
5 pseudohearts
FIGURE 10.26 The earthworms blood system transports nutrients absorbed from
the worms small intestine.
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Circulation
341
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function of blood in the earthworm is to

deliver nutrients absorbed in the worms
small intestine to all its body cells.
Earthworms can exchange gases
through their moist skin so they do not
need lungs and the transport of gases in
the blood is of little importance.
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The heart is tube-shaped and the pumping is facilitated by muscle contractions.

Nutrients diffuse directly from the blood
into the body cells. When the heart relaxes, blood returns to the heart through
several pores. Each pore has a valve that
closes when the heart contracts, to prevent backflow of the blood.
Grasshopper
In an insect, such as the grasshopper,
the heart is located toward the posterior.
tubular
heart
pores
FIGURE 10.27 The pumping of the posterior

heart moves blood toward the insects head and
the rest of its body. Blood returns to the heart
through pores.
The Fish
The cardiovascular system of a fish illustrates the main features of a closed circulatory system. The heart has two main
chambers. The atrium receives blood
from the veins, and the ventricles pump
blood to the gills via large arteries.
In Figure 10.28, red represents oxygenated blood and blue represents
deoxygenated blood. After passing
through the gill capillaries, the oxygenrich blood flows into other large arteries that carry it to all other parts of the
body. The large arteries branch into
arterioles, small vessels that give rise to
capillaries. Networks of capillaries infiltrate every organ and tissue in the body.
capillary beds
arteriole
artery
(O2-rich blood)
venule
vein
heart
atrium
ventricle
artery
(O2-poor blood)
gill
capillaries
FIGURE 10.28 In the fish, blood becomes oxygenated in the gill capillaries. It flows to all
parts of the body through arteries. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins.
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right
atrium
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left
atrium
pulmonary
vein
right
atrium
left
atrium
spiral
fold
ventricle
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
FIGURE 10.29 The frogs three-chambered

heart allows only partial separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
FIGURE 10.30 The four-chambered heart of

birds and mammals separates oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
The thin walls of the capillaries allow

chemical exchange between the blood
and the interstitial fluid. The capillaries converge into venules, which in turn
converge into veins that return blood
to the heart.
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood

completely separate in the pulmonary
and systemic circulations.
The Frog
In amphibians, the heart has three chambers, two atria and one ventricle.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left atrium through the pulmonary
vein. It mixes with oxygen-poor blood
in the single ventricle. The mixed blood
is then pumped to the body tissues and
lungs. Mixing is not complete because
of the spiral fold in the heart, so the brain
and upper limbs tend to receive blood
that is higher in oxygen. However, some
deoxygenated blood is recirculated to the
body. This system is somewhat inefficient
compared to the double-pump, fourchambered heart of birds and mammals.
It is sufficient for the frog because frogs
are generally in active and can absorb
oxygen by diffusion into the blood as
the blood circulates through the mouth
and skin.
The four-chambered mammalian
heart is an efficient system that has allowed mammals to exploit opportunities
for life on land. This system keeps
Plants
Plants have an internal transport system
with some similarities to the human system. The human cardiovascular system
consists of a heart, blood vessels, and
blood fluid. Plants also have vessels that
allow them to transport fluids: in this case,
water and nutrients. Like the
vessels in humans, plant vascular tissue
provides a continuous internal conduction system between the roots, stems, and
leaves. Vascular bundles consist of xylem
and phloem tissue, and together, they
branch out to form veins. You can observe these veins in a plants leaves. The
circulatory system in humans also transports hormones, for example, insulin.
Plants also have hormones and these are
also transported through vascular tissue.
A notable difference is that plants
have separate systems for water and for
nutrient transport. Xylem tissue transports water that flows from roots to
leaves while phloem tissue transports
nutrients. Nutrients flow from the leaves
to the roots or to other parts of the
plant that need them. Another important difference is that plants lack a
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
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pump. For this reason, processes such

as osmosis and diffusion are critical.
Flow is important to the function
of any circulatory system. You have
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learned about atherosclerosis in humans

and how flow is diminished. In plants,
when vascular tissue is blocked by waste
products, flow of liquid is prevented.
Section 10.4 Review

1. Distinguish between open circulatory
systems and closed circulatory systems.
2. Describe how blood circulates in an
earthworm.
3. What are some unique features of the
circulatory system in a fish?
4. Describe the three-chambered heart
found in amphibians.
5. Birds exhibit remarkable circulatory
and respiratory systems.
a) Describe the structural features
birds have that allow them to transport oxygen to their body cells while
in flight.
b) Explain how the lungs of birds are
adapted for flight.
Applying Inquiry/
6. Research the differences between the
circulatory system of the shark, dolphin,
jellyfish, and eel. How have these different organisms developed specialized
structures for circulation?
7.
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What are some unique features about

mammals like seals that allow them
to survive in ice-cold waters and also
hold their breath for prolonged periods

while they travel from one breathing
hole to another?
8. The bends are a pain that deep sea
divers experience when they rise from
ocean depths too quickly. Predict why
the bends occur, and suggest ways to
ensure that acute pain is not experienced by a diver after a dive.
Making Connections
9. Xenotransplantation is the new area of
medicine that deals with the science of
transplanting animal organs into humans.
a) Research this growing area of
medicinespecifically research
what obstacles must be overcome
before these types of surgeries will
be successful.
b) What ethical considerations must
also be considered with respect to
xenotransplantation?
10. Global warming is a serious environmental issue. Patterns of bird migration are based on the season and the
outdoor temperature. What effect does
global warming have on bird
migration?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 10.2)
Exercise and Pulse Rate

You can measure how fast your heart is beating by taking your pulse. Each time your heart squeezes blood
out into the aortic artery, blood is forced along in a
pulse wave. One place that you can easily find your
pulse is your wrist.
Problem
What is the effect of exercise on pulse rate?
CAUTION: If you have a medical concern that might prevent
you from performing exercise to gather data for this laboratory, consult your teacher.
Experimental
LAL1 Design
1.
Predict how your pulse rate will be affected by exercise.
2.
Write down the variables that you think would alter

your predictions about pulse rate while exercising.
3.
Make a hypothesis for each variable concerning its

effect on pulse rate.
4.
Design a procedure to test how pulse rate is affected

by exercise and how this effect can be properly
measured.
5.
Remember to include your materials, measuring

instruments and list any safety considerations. If
you have probe technology available for your use,
you may want to use it to gather pulse data.
6.
Have a teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your lab.
7.
Show the results of your investigation in a clear and

well-organized manner.

1. What criteria did you apply to developing your
procedure?
2. Describe which observations you felt provided evidence that exercise affects pulse rate.
3. Graph your observational data: How Exercise
Affects Pulse Rate.
4. What is the dependent variable? What is the independent variable? Explain.
5. Account for any experimental errors that could have

6. Besides your wrist, what are other sites on the body
where one can take a pulse?
7. Should the intensity of the pulse be the same at
each different site? If not, explain why.
8. When one takes a pulse, is one feeling an artery or
a vein?
9. What special properties of blood vessels allow one
to feel a pulse?
Extending
10. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
on the persons pulse rate six months after beginning the exercise program. What aspect of cardiac output would you expect to be most affected?
Explain your reasoning.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 10.2)
Measuring Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is an important measurable aspect of
the circulatory system. When the ventricles of the heart
contract, pressure is increased throughout all the arteries. Arterial blood pressure is directly dependent on
the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
and the resistance to blood flow through the arterioles.
The arterial blood pressure is determined using
a device known as a sphygmomanometer. This device
consists of an inflatable cuff connected by rubber hoses
to a hand pump and to a pressure gauge graduated
in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). The cuff is wrapped
around the upper arm and initially inflated to a pressure that will shut off flow through the brachial artery.
The examiner listens for the sounds of blood flow in
the brachial artery by placing the stethoscope on the
inside of the elbow below the biceps (approximately
one inch above the elbow crease).
At rest, the blood normally goes through the arteries so that the blood in the central part of the artery
moves faster than the blood in the peripheral part.
Under these conditions, the artery is silent when one
listens.
When the sphygmomanometer cuff is inflated to a
pressure above the systolic pressure, the flow of blood
is stopped and the artery is silent again.
As the pressure in the cuff gradually drops, the
blood is pushed through the compressed walls of the
Arm is
relaxed.
artery in a turbulent
manner. This results
in a loud tapping
sound that increases
in intensity as the cuff
is deflated. The pressure at which one can
first hear sounds is
termed the SYSTOLIC
blood pressure.
As the pressure
in the cuff drops, a
point is reached
where the artery is
silent again (no sounds
can be heard) this is
termed the DIASTOLIC
pressure.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 10.31 Measuring blood
pressure
Materials
sphygmomanometer
stethoscope
student subject
prepared tables for

recording data
Steps to follow in measuring blood pressure.

a) cuff is inflated to a pressure greater than 120
mmHg, cutting off blood flow through the brachial
Pressure
in cuff is
120 or over.
Pressure
in cuff drops.
120
120
Pressure
in cuff
is 70.
70
Rubber cuff
is inflated
with air to
above systolic
pressure.
artery
Sounds are
audible at
systolic pressure.
Sounds stop
at diastolic
pressure.
Artery is closed.
FIGURE 10.32 Steps in measuring blood pressure

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(continued)
TABLE 10.2 Normal Blood Pressure for Men and Women at Different Ages
Systolic Pressure
Diastolic Pressure
Age in Years
Men
Women
Men
Women
10
103
103
69
70
11
104
104
70
71
12
106
106
71
72
13
108
108
72
73
14
110
110
73
74
15
112
112
75
76
16
118
116
73
72
17
121
116
74
72
18
120
116
74
72
19
122
115
75
71
20-24
123
116
76
72
artery. This stops any audible sounds coming from

the artery since there is no blood flow.
b) the pressure in the cuff is released until a loud continuous tapping is heard this occurs at the systolic pressure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32,
the systolic pressure is 120 mmHg.
c) the pressure in the cuff is decreased slowly until
the tapping can no longer be heard and the artery
is again silent. This represents the point where the
pressure in the cuff is equal to the diastolic pressure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32, the diastolic pressure is 70 mmHg.
4.
Close the valve of the bulb by turning it clockwise.

Pump air into the cuff until the pressure gauge goes
past 180 mmHg.
5.
Turn the valve of the bulb counterclockwise and

slowly release the air from the cuff. Listen for heart
sounds.
6.
When you first hear the heart sounds, note the pressure on the gauge. This is the systolic pressure.
7.
Continue to slowly release air and listen until the

clear thumping sound of the pulse becomes strong
and then fades. When you last hear the full heart
beat, note the pressure. This is the diastolic
pressure.
8.
Repeat the measurement one more time. Record

the average systolic and diastolic pressure, and
pulse in your notebook in Table 10.3.
9.
Have your partner stand up for at least two minutes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.
Procedure
1.
Work in pairs. Those who are to have their blood

pressure measured should be seated quietly for at
least one minute with both shirt sleeves rolled up.
Before attaching the sphygmomanometer, take the
pulse of the person who is having his or her blood
pressure measured. To measure the pulse, you place
your index and middle finger on the radial pulse
and count the number of beats in one minute.
2.
Attach the cuff of the sphygmomanometer snugly

around the upper arm.
3.
Place the stethoscope directly below the cuff in

the bend of the elbow joint.
10. Have your partner lie down for at least two minutes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.

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(continued)
Observation Table
TABLE 10.3 Blood Pressure
Position
Systolic Pressure #1
(mm Hg)
Systolic Pressure #2
(mm Hg)
Average Systolic Pressure

(mm Hg)
Diastolic Pressure #1
(mm Hg)
Diastolic Pressure #2
(mm Hg)
Average Diastolic Pressure

(mm Hg)
Pulse Rate #1
(beats/min)
Pulse Rate #2
(beats/min)
Average Pulse Rate

(beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Position
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Position
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Complete Table 10.4 using the data from Table 10.3. For blood pressure, put the
systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. (BP = SP/DP)
TABLE 10.4 Blood Pressure Summary Table
Average Systolic
Pressure (mm Hg)
Position
Average Diastolic
Pressure (mm Hg)
Average Blood
Pressure (SP/DP)
Average Pulse
Rate (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Extending
1. Would you expect the blood pressure readings to

be the same in all arteries? Explain.
5. With reference to Table 10.2, why is there a variation in systolic and diastolic pressure among members in different age groups and different genders?
2. In what position did you record the lowest systolic pressure? Why do you think this is so?
3. How do the measurements compare to the expected
average for the persons sex and age?
4. How would exercise affect systolic blood pressure?
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6. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person

begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
on the persons blood pressure six months after beginning the exercise program.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 3
(Section 8.2,
9.1, 10.2)
Fetal Pig Dissection
Animals used for scientific research and dissection help

us to understand our own bodies and how they function in health and disease. The fetal pig will be used
as a representative mammal. As a fetus, the pig
receives nutrients and oxygen from its mother through
the umbilical cord. Read the safety and dissection
directions carefully.
CAUTION:
read through the entire activity before you begin.
wear protective goggles for the entire dissection.
wear plastic gloves when dissecting; if your skin comes
in contact with the preservative, rinse your hand under
cold running water.
know where to find the eye wash station and first aid
kit; check that the eye wash station works and that the
first aid kit is stocked.
work near an open window or in a well ventilated area.
scrub your hands and fingernails using the antibacterial
scrub. Wipe your counter clean with paper towels. Ensure
that no bits of dissected pig wash down the sink.
properly clean the dissection tray and dissection tools;
dispose of the fetal pig according to instructions.
Procedure
Part 1
External Anatomy
1.
The fetal pig has four main body segments: the

head, neck, trunk, and tail. You will also be able to
identify four appendages and an umbilical cord.
2.
Use the string to measure your pig from the tip of

its snout to the base of its tail. Lay the pig flat on
the dissection tray and stretch the string between
the nose and the tail. Measure the section of string
against a ruler and match your measurement in
Table 10.5 to determine the age of your pig.
Purpose
To study the external and internal anatomy of the fetal
pig to gain perspectives on the following:
the relative positions and sizes of organs
the interrelations between organs and organ systems
the scientific process of dissection and its applicaLAL1
tions for anatomy and physiology.
TABLE 10.5 Relationship of Fetal Pig Length to Age in Utero
Length of String (cm)
Age of Pig
010 cm
20 days
1020 cm
3035 days
2030 cm
4550 days
4050 cm
55 days
100 cm
70 days
150 cm
80 days
200 cm
100 days
300 cm
120 days
trunk
transverse plane
neck
dorsal/superior
head
tail
Materials

safety goggles
non-latex gloves
plastic lab apron
preserved fetal pig
dissecting tray
string
scissors
scalpel
ruler
caudal/
posterior
cranial/
anterior

dissecting microscope
magnifying hand lens
blunt probe
frontal plane
dissecting pins
antibacterial soap
paper towel
ventral/inferior
appendages
FIGURE 10.33 Body segments and planes of section in a
fetal pig.

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(continued)
3.
Place the fetal pig on its back (dorsal surface) and

locate the pairs of nipples along the ventral surface.
Both male and female fetal pigs have these nipples.
Notice the umbilical cord.
a)
b)
4.
What is the function of the umbilical cord?

How many blood vessels do you see within the
umbilical cord?
tions carefully and to only remove those organs that

you are specifically asked to remove. Proceed carefully.
One simple technique to ensure that you do not make
any wrong incisions is to make superficial incisions
first and then to follow those with deeper incisions.
7.
Use the diagrams to determine the sex of your pig.

In females, the urogenital opening is located slightly
ventral to the anus. A small, spiked tissue often
called the genital papilla projects from the urogenital opening. See Figure 10.33 (a). In males, the
scrotum containing the testes can be located just
ventral to the anus. The urogenital opening of the
male is found immediately posterior to the umbilical cord. See Figure 10.33 (b). What is the sex of
your pig?
5.
Examine the feet of the fetal pig. Indicate the position and the number of toes.
6.
Examine the head of your fetal pig. The flaps of skin

surrounding the ear are called pinnae. The fetal pig
has a snout and nostrils. Examine the chin of
your fetal pig. Do you notice any hair? Does your
fetal pig have eyelashes? Does your fetal pig have
a tongue?
Part 2
Exposing the ventral surface: With the pig still on

its dorsal surface, attach one piece of string to each
of the pigs ankles and another to its opposite wrist.
Pull the strings from an opposing wrist and ankle
under the dissecting pan and tie. Repeat the procedure for the other wrist and pull again to explose
the ventral surface. (See Figure 10.34.)
To effectively expose the inner organs of your
fetal pig, make five incisions.
The first incision cutting the ventral surface:
(Hint: because the pig may be rubbery from
being preserved, sharp dissecting scissors are
better than a scalpel for this incision.)
Make a 1015 cm incision just in front of the
umbilical cord and cut towards the head.
Follow incision 1 in Figure 10.34. Sketch the
incision first using a black marker on the
surface of the fetal pig. This will ensure the
accuracy of your incisions.
The second incision cutting toward the posterior surface. Use a scalpel to make an incision
toward the posterior of the pig. Follow
incision 2 in Figure 10.34.
The third incision cutting toward the lateral
surface. Use scissors to make lateral incisions
following incision 3 in Figure 10.34.
Internal Anatomy
Abdominal Cavity and the Organs of Digestion

You will be directed to examine various organs as they
become visible. It is important to follow the direcumbilical
cord
umbilical
cord
urogenital
opening
tail
nipples
tail
nipples
anus
genital
papilla
scrotal sac
urogenital
papilla
ventral view
female
a)
FIGURE 10.34 a) Female pig b) Male pig
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Internal Systems
anus
scrotal
sac
posterior view
female
b)
ventral view
male
posterior view
male
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(continued)
liver
(lifted
forward)
stomach
gallbladder
spleen
small intestine
4
large intestine
LAL1
urinary bladder
FIGURE 10.35 Incisions for dissection of a fetal pig
8.
9.
The fourth incision cutting towards the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity. Use a
scalpel to make incisions following incision 4
in Figure 10.34.
The fifth incision cutting between the thoracic
and abdominal cavities. Use scissors to make an
incision starting at the midline, and extend the
incision laterally on both sides of the pig. Follow
incision 5 in Figure 10.34. This incision runs
parallel to the diaphragm and separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Hint: You may want to feel for the ribs while
making this incision.
Exposing the abdominal cavity: The abdominal cavity is best exposed by pulling apart the flaps at incision 5. Notice the layer of connective tissue called
the peritoneum that holds the abdominal organs
in place. You may need to tease this layer away before starting your detailed examination of the internal organs. The posterior portion of the
abdominal cavity is best viewed when the flaps on
incision 4 are pulled apart and secured by pins.
Refer to Figure 10.35 for the digestive organs.
Locating the liver and the gallbladder: The liver is
easily seen in the anterior aspect of the abdominal
FIGURE 10.36 Organs of the abdominal cavity
cavity. The gallbladder is located underneath the

liver. Identify the gallbladder. Look carefully to
see the thin duct that connects the gallbladder to
the small intestine. The liver appears a dark red or
brown colour, because it is engorged with blood.
The liver contains 20% of the total blood supply in
the fetal pigs body at any given time. Which portion of the small intestine does the gall bladder
connect to?
10. Locating the stomach: Beneath the liver, on the left
side of the fetal pig, is the stomach, which is normally a hollow organ. The anterior portion of the
stomach is joined to the esophagus. The posterior
junction is attached to the first part of the small
intestine, called the duodenum. With your dissection tool, try to lift the small intestine. What do you
notice? A thin, transparent film covers the small
intestine. This is called the mesentery. This film or
layer of connective tissue is around other organs.
What is the advantage of having such a
film? Observe the blood vessels running in the
mesentery.
11. Locating the pancreas: The pancreas is located
toward the back wall of the abdominal cavity. It is
a finger-shaped gland that is typically creamy white
in colour. It is best reached by lifting the junction

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Circulation
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(continued)
between the stomach and the small intestine. As

an accessory organ in digestion, what vital substances does the pancreas provide?
thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the area

between incisions 3 and 5. Refer to Figure 10.36
for the heart and major blood vessels.
12. Locating the spleen: Look toward the left side of the
fetal pig to see the spleen, found near the outer curvature of the stomach. What is its function?
16. Locating the heart: The heart is found between the

two lungs and is protected by the rib cage. In the
adult human, gaining access to the heart is very
difficult, and involves the sawing of the sternum
and spreading of the ribs. In the fetal pig, one does
not need much force to access the heart. In fact,
simple scissors are enough for this task. Can you
explain this?
13. Remove the stomach by cuts at the junctions with

the esophagus and the small intestine. Cut along
the midline of the stomach, rinse the stomach with
water, and examine it under the dissecting microscope. Observe the lining of the stomach.
14. Locating the small and large intestines: Carefully
use your scissors to snip away the mesentery tissue. Unravel the small intestine. Locate the large
intestine and compare its structure and length with
those of the small intestine. How is the small intestine different from the large intestine? How long
is your pigs small intestine?
Thoracic Cavity and the Organs of Respiration

and Circulation
15. Exposing the thoracic cavity: Using dissecting pins,
fold back and pin the flaps of skin that cover the
Ventral View of Heart and Major Blood Vessels
trachea
brachiocephalic trunk
superior
vena cava
left common
carotid artery
left
subclavian
artery
aortic arch
pulmonary
trunk
right atrium
left atrium
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
inferior
vena cava
left lung
right lung
coronary vessels
FIGURE 10.37 Ventral view of heart and major blood vessels
in the fetal pig
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
The heart is surrounded by a thin and transparent

film called the pericardium, similar to the mesentery of the small intestine. Remove the pericardial
membrane that encases the heart. Why might forceps be the best tool to accomplish this?
17. Locating each of the major vessels of the heart.
inferior vena cava: runs from the liver and
lower part of the body to the right side of the
heart; empties into the right atrium.
superior vena cava: runs from the upper body
of the pig to the right side of the heart; empties
into the right atrium.
pulmonary trunk: starts at the right ventricle;
transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
aorta: the largest artery in the circulatory system; starts at the left ventricle; branches to
transport blood to all major organs. Passes
through the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
aortic arch: the part of the aorta that arises
from the left ventricle. Two major vessels come
from the aortic arch; the brachiocephalic trunk
splits to send vessels to the right forelimb and
the head, the left subclavian artery supplies
the left forelimb.
18. Discovering the four chambers of the heart. Using
your blunt probe, locate the right atrium.
Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart
here. Separate the inferior and superior venae cavae
from the right atrium using scissors.
Locate the left atrium and notice that several vessels enter it. These are the pulmonary veins from
the lungs. Separate the pulmonary veins from the
heart using scissors.
Find the aorta coming off the left ventricle and separate it from the heart using scissors.
Find the pulmonary trunk arising from the right
ventricle and separate it from the heart using scissors.
Review the flow of blood through the heart. The
pulmonary circulation begins at the right atrium;
blood flows to the right ventricle, pulmonary trunk
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(continued)
and pulmonary arteries and then to the lungs. The

blood returns to the left atrium by way of the pulmonary veins. The systemic circulation begins at
the left atrium; blood flows to the left ventricle, aorta,
and to all systems of the body. Blood returns to the
heart by way of the superior and inferior venae
cavae, which enter the heart at the right atrium.
Remove the heart from the thoracic cavity. You may
need to tease away any connective tissue. Hold the
heart in your hand and orient it as it would appear
in the fetal pig. Note the large vessel that traverses
the ventral surface of the heart. This is the coronary artery and it provides oxygenated blood to
the heart itself.
19. The dorsal surface of the heart. Turn the heart over
and observe the dorsal surface. Refer to Figure
10.37 and observe the entry of the venae cavae and
pulmonary veins into the right and left atria.
superior
vena cava
left atrium
left
ventricle
aorta
dorsal surface
of heart
21. Locate the spongy lungs on either side of the heart

and the trachea leading into the lungs.
Why do the lungs feel spongy?
22. Place your index finger on the trachea and push
downward. Describe what happens.
What function do the cartilaginous rings of the trachea serve?

1. Write a lab report on your dissection. Include the
following sections.
Abdominal cavity
Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
abdominal cavity.
Describe the structure and function of each organ.
a) esophagus
b) stomach
c) liver
d) gallbladder
e) small intallestine
f) large intestine
Thoracic cavity
Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
thoracic cavity.
inferior
vena cava
FIGURE 10.38 Dorsal view of the heart in the fetal pig
20. Dissection of the heart: Make an incision that separates the left side from the right side of the heart.
Note the inner walls of the heart and their texture.
Look at the thickness of the left and right ventricles. Compare the size of the wall of a ventricle and
an atrium. What do you notice?
21. Locating the lungs: The lungs are closely associated
with the heart. They oxygenate the blood received
from the right ventricle via the pulmonary arteries,
and deliver oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
via the pulmonary veins. The lungs are relatively
large because the bronchial tree is contained within
them. Do you notice any difference in the size of
the two lungs?
20. Make a lateral incision across the heart and explore
the heart chamber. Compare the size of the wall
of a ventricle with that of an atrium. Why does
the left ventricle contain more muscle than the right
ventricle?
g) Describe the structure of the lungs.

h) Describe the structure of the heart.
i) State the functions of the diaphragm.
2. You have just learned more about various internal
systems through dissecting a fetal pig. There are
other methods of learning about systems. For example, there are computer software packages
that allow students to conduct virtual dissections.
Using a T-chart, outline the pros and cons of dissecting fetal pigs.
Why Dissecting the Pig Is
Valuable
Why Dissecting the Pig Is

Not Valuable
3. After the dissection, the specimens need to be

disposed of safely. This can be an environmental
hazard, since fetal pigs are bathed in a preservative. Investigate what preservatives were used on
the fetal pigs you dissected. How might these harm
the environment if the pigs are not disposed of
properly?
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TABLE 10.6 Structures and Their Function in the Mammalian Heart
Structure
Function
Superior and inferior venae cavae
Bring deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulatory system to the heart
Right atrium
Receives deoxygenated blood
Tricuspid valve
Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right atrium
Right ventricle
Pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulatory system
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right ventricle from the pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary artery
Brings deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Pulmonary veins
Bring oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Left atrium
Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
Bicuspid or mitial value
Prevents the back flow of oxygenated blood into the left atrium
Left ventricle
Pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation
Aortic semilunar valve
Prevents oxygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta
Aorta
Largest artery in the body; accepts blood from the left ventricle during systole
PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava
lungs
The right side

of the heart
pumps
de-oxygenated
blood to the
lungs.
aorta
The left side of

the heart pumps
oxygenated
blood to the
rest of the
body.
FIGURE 10.39 A double circulation system. Use this figure and

the information in Table 10.6 to summarize what you have learned
in this chapter.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
pulmonary
arteries
pulmonary
veins
right
atrium
left
atrium
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
inferior
vena cava
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
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Key Terms
anemia
aorta
atherosclerosis
atria
bypass surgery
cardiac catheterization
cardiac cycle
compensation
coronary circulation
diastole
dorsal vessel
electrocardiogram
erythrocytes
exercise stress test
fibrin
gill capillaries
hemoglobin
hypertension
inferior vena cava

leucocytes
myocardium
plasma
platelets
pseudohearts
pulmonary circuit
septum
sinoatrial node
sphygmomanometer
superior vena cava
systemic circuit
systole
ventral vessel
ventricles

10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the Components of

Blood

The circulatory system consists of three main

components: the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen and also carbon dioxide and waste.
The circulatory system interacts with many other
body systems (for example, respiratory, digestive).
Blood has two main components: the plasma portion (55%) and the cellular portion (45%) composed
of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Red blood cells transport oxygen; white blood cells
fight infection; platelets help in blood clotting.
Genetic conditions affect the make up of hemoglobin
and the performance of red blood cells.
10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and Disease

10.2 The Structure and Function of the Human Heart and

Blood Vessels

The heart consists of four chambers: two atria and

two ventricles.
Coronary arteries supply the heart with oxygen and
nutrients so that it can function properly.
The human heart is a double pump: the right side
leads to the pulmonary circulation while the left side
leads to the systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation carries blood between the
heart and the lungs. Systemic circulation carries
blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
The heart beats regularly and this cardiac cycle consists of systole (a period of contraction) and diastole
(a period of relaxation).
Arteries carry blood from the heart, and veins carry

blood to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries
and veins.
Arteries and veins consist of three layers of tissue.
Arteries are more muscular, veins are more elastic.
Veins have valves for unidirectional blood flow.
Hypertension: high blood pressure; if prolonged, it

can damage the heart and other blood vessels.
Angina: chest pains that occur when the heart is deprived of oxygen.
Heart attack: a more severe form of angina where
some of the hearts muscle cells die.
Stroke: a blood vessel is damaged or has a blood clot
within it, preventing oxygen from reaching the brain.
Nitroglycerine: a drug used to treat angina by
dilating the coronary arteries.
10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms

The earthworm has a closed circulatory system consisting of the dorsal vessel and the ventral vessel,
and five tiny arches called pseudohearts.
The fish has a closed circulatory system consisting
of a two-chambered heart with one atrium and one
ventricle; oxygen is obtained through the gill
capillaries.
The amphibian has a closed circulatory system consisting of a three-chambered heart with two atria
and one ventricle. Blood that enters the ventricle
is mixed (oxygenated and deoxygenated).

1.

the factors you listed that prevent heart disease. Revise
your list based on what you learned in this chapter.
3.
Create an analogy that can be used to explain the

relationship between the digestive, circulatory, and
respiratory systems you have studied.
2.
Draw a concept map to describe how the circulatory

system functions.
4.
Reflect on your learning. Explain why analogies are used

in teaching and learning.
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C H A P T E R 10 R E V I E W
1. Which one of the following is not a component of a circulatory system?
a) artery
b) valve
c) vessels
d) tongue
2. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
circulation involving the heart is called

renal
coronary
pulmonary
systemic
3. A site of exchange of materials between the circulatory

system and the body cells is the
a) artery
b) vein
c) arteriole
d) capillary
4. The backward flow of blood in the veins is prevented by
a) muscles
b) valves
c) the heartbeat
d) epithelial tissue
5. Where is blood pressure the lowest?
a) arteries
b) arterioles
c) capillaries
d) veins
6. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
liquid portion of blood is called

blood
lymph
plasma
serum
7. What is found at the core of each chain of a hemoglobin

molecule?
a) Oxygen
b) Iron
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Water
8. This heart chamber receives oxygen-poor blood.
a) right atrium
b) left atrium
c) right ventricle
d) left ventricle
9. The function of the pulmonary semilunar valve is to
a) prevent blood from flowing back into the right
atrium
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
b)
c)
d)
prevent blood from flowing back into the left atrium

prevent blood from flowing back into the lungs
prevent blood from flowing back into the right ventricle
10. A sphygmomanometer gives you a reading of 120/80.

The number on top represents the:
a) systolic pressure
b) cardiac pressure
c) diastolic pressure
d) blood pressure
11. Why is your carotid (neck) pulse stronger than your radial (wrist) pulse?
12. Define pulse and pulse pressure.
13. Describe the structure, function, and origin of platelets.
14. List some of the risk factors for coronary heart disease.
Referring to your list, underline the ones that are preventable.
15. What is the effect of nicotine on the circulatory
system?
16. What causes varicose veins?
Applying Inquiry/
17. You are conducting a taste test to gather data on how
caffeine and decaffeinated beverages affect the heart rate.
You have just concocted three new spritzer drinks. You
collect the following data about the effect of the consumption of 355 mL of your product on consumers heart
rate. You surveyed 100 people who taste-tested your
products. The average effects on heart rate are summarized below.
Beverage
Before
consuming the
beverage
Immediately
after
20 minutes
later
spritzer A
70 bpm
75 bpm
85 bpm
spritzer B
70 bpm
70 bpm
70 bpm
spritzer C
70 bpm
70 bpm
78 bpm
a)
b)
c)
Which drink do you think is decaffeinated?

Explain why it is important to take the heart rate
before and after a trial.
From the data, suggest reasons why spritzer C only
elicited an increased heart rate sometime after
consumption.
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18. The concentration of red blood cells and white blood cells
is given below:
Red blood cells: 4.6 x 106 per mL
White blood cells: 6.0 x 103 per mL
In one litre of blood, what is the ratio of white blood cells
to red blood cells?
19. Why do you think athletes are recommended to elevate
a wounded area and apply direct pressure to the injury
with a cold compress?
20. The heart is the hardest working muscle in your body.
The heart masses of three different humans are given
below.
Description of Human
Newborn
Adult
Athlete
Heart Mass
20 g
300 g
500 g
a)
b)
Calculate how many times greater the heart mass

of an adult is when compared to that of a newborn.
You are born with all the muscle cells that you will
have in your entire life. Account for the difference
between the heart mass of an adult versus an
athlete.
21. A stress test is a technology that can help detect coronary artery disease. This involves having an individual
walk and/or run on a treadmill while attached to electrodes that monitor the heart rate and rhythm. Below
are the stress test results of two individuals:
Age
Heart
rate
before
test
Maximum
heart
rate
during
test
Heart
rate
30 min
after
test
Symptoms
Person
A
48
68
192
82
Slight pain in
the knees
during the test
Person
B
62
80
118
110
Feeling of chest
tightness five
minutes into the
test
a)
b)
c)
Based on the above information, which person probably has heart disease?
What other questions would you like to ask this individual to determine his or her other risk factors?
How does ones level of fitness relate to ones heart
rate 30 min after completing exercise?
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23. The human heart pumps blood at an average rate of

92 mL/s. How much blood is pumped in one day?
Express your answer in L/day.
Making Connections
24. In recent years, there have been many reports of blood
tainted with infections being transfused into individuals.
Biotechnology companies are now looking into fabricating a synthetic blood product.
a) Research new developments in the pursuit of a synthetic blood product.
b) What impacts might such a product have on
society?
c) What are some ethical considerations that must be
investigated before such a product could be used for
human transfusion?
25. A high percentage of the Canadian population fall victim to strokes each year.
a) Research the frequency of strokes in the Canadian
population.
b) Which sector of the population is most likely to be
at risk of having a stroke? Explain.
c) What impacts do people with strokes have on the
health care system?
d) What medical professionals contribute to the care
and maintenance of stroke patients?
26. Many areas in health care require the handling of blood
and blood products that may harbour serious infections.
a) What are three common infections that can be found
in the blood?
b) What precautions can be taken to properly handle
and dispose of blood and blood products?
c) What safety training programs and symbols can help
in dealing with blood products?
27. Aspirin is a drug therapy that is now the cornerstone
of treatment for individuals with many types of heart disease. For heart patients, there is a saying: An aspirin
a day keeps the doctor away. This statement is based
on the fact that aspirin is an effective blood thinner.
a) Research the mechanism by which aspirin thins the
blood.
b) From the digestive system, recall where aspirin is
absorbed.
c) What are the important complications of aspirin
therapy?
22. Using your knowledge of the structure of arteries and

veins, what would you expect a serious arterial bleed
to look like? How would a serious venous bleed appear?
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Preparing for a Career in Biology
As youve seen, biology is a fast-growing and changing area in which to work;
it is full of opportunities. Within biology,
there is a wide range of topics, or fields,
to match with your interests as you
explore career options. Keep in mind
that within all of these, there will be people working as technicians, researchers,
teachers, administrators, and so onin
fact, there will be an array of choices.
Term
Meaning
Bachelor of Science
(B.Sc.)
This is the degree in science granted by a university.

It is called an undergraduate degree because you need
a B.Sc. before you can apply for graduate degree
programs or to professional schools, such as medicine.
It is similar to a high school diploma, since you need
a certain number of credits to complete your B.Sc. and
some of these are required courses.
Many universities offer a variety of three- or four- year
B.Sc. programs, but all start with a common first year
in which students take introductory courses in the three
sciences plus calculus. Each year after that,
students choose courses to specialize in a particular
field or take a variety of science and other courses to
gain more general knowledge.
Master of Science
(M.Sc.)
Doctor of Philosophy
(Science) (Ph.D.)
Faculty and Department
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UNIT 3
These are graduate degrees taken by a person who

wishes to become an expert in a particular field. Usually,
a student takes a B.Sc., then an M.Sc., then the Ph.D.
Most graduate students receive funding to cover the
cost of their studies by working in their fields as
research or teaching assistants at the university.
These are major divisions within a university. A faculty
of science, for example, would include several
departments, such as biology, chemistry, and physics.
These departments may be split into more specialized
ones, such as the department of zoology or microbiology. (Note: A large or very distinct faculty within a
university may be called a college or a school. For
example, the University of Guelph contains a College
of Biological Science. McMaster University contains
a School of Medicine.)
Internal Systems
What they have in common is that almost all require at least an undergraduate degree from a university. But how
do you choose the university you wish
to attend? While there are many factors,
the most important is to find out which
universities offer the undergraduate
degree you need in the field that interests you.
Understanding University
Jargon
Every area of human endeavour has
its own specialized terms. Just think of
the music industry, sports, or even your
biology class. Youll encounter a lot of
terms as you start considering a university education, some familiar, some
new. Whenever you are unsure of what
a term means, ask. A few of the more
common ones are shown to the left.
FIGURE 1 University calendars are like

catalogues. They list all of the courses available
to undergraduate students as well as information
about the university and degree programs.
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Comparing B.Sc. Programs

1.
Obtain at least two university

calendars from your guidance
department, university students you
know, or by contacting the universities directly. On-line? Universities
maintain Web sites with information
from their calendars. They are easy
to search and provide specific
contacts to email with questions. (An
excellent list of university links is at
www.uwaterloo.ca/canu/index.html.)
Locate and compare the following
information:

a list of faculties

the faculty of science (Hint: How
many professors are listed
compared with other faculties
in the university?)

the department of biology (Hint:
This could be called a college or
school, or could be broken
further into fields within biology.)

the section on degree programs listing B.Sc. options
(Hint: You will find several.
Remember, first year is essentially the same for all, so theres
time to find out more about
these options and talk to
undergraduate advisors on
campus. Many students make
changes as they go through
their degree program.)

the section describing the courses
offered by this department
While all Canadian universities offer

an excellent B.Sc. degree, each one has
its particular emphasis. For example, a
university with a School of Medicine will
likely offer a wide choice of human
biologyrelated B.Sc. degrees. Use this
emphasis to help you decide which
universities might best suit your needs.
At this point, dont think of a specific
career, but rather of a field that
interests you.
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For example, if you are interested

in human biology or medicine, you could
take a B.Sc. in biology at any university,
but some universities offer a B.Sc.
(Medical) program. Such a program will
let you specialize further by adding a
major, such as genetics, physics,
gerontology, biochemistry, microbiology,
and so on. (A major is when most
courses focus on a particular area.)
2.
Using the information from the calendars, answer this question: Which
university offers B.Sc. programs that
most closely match my field of
interest?
Looking Outward
Do you enjoy biology, but you arent sure
which field interests you the most?
University calendars can help!
3.
Read through the course descriptions. Write down the titles of any
that really grab your attention. Dont
worry about what they are or
whether your list makes sense.

Make a separate list for each
university you are considering.

Look at your lists for any
patterns or trends. They could
be a good indicator of what
youd enjoy doing.

Which lists had the greatest
number of grabbers? This
may mean you should consider
those universities. Keep your
lists handy as you continue
preparing for your future.
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Dissection in Science Education

Traditionally students in secondary school biology classrooms have dissected frogs, fetal pigs, and other vertebrates and invertebrates to learn
about and compare the different internal systems. Dissection has been generally accepted as a standard way to learn science, but today there are differing opinions on whether or not dissection in the classroom is acceptable.
Technology now makes it possible to approach dissection in alternate
ways. Virtual dissection on computer allows students to see, on the computer screen, the same results they would see when performing the
dissection in their school lab. Some teachers believe that the first-hand
experience with the dissection procedure is the best way to learn.
SCENARIO
You are a member of a School Board in Ontario. Your committee is reviewing a proposal to discontinue dissection in biology courses. You will write
a letter to the School Board Trustees expressing your opinion on the issue.
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
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Part A: Selection of Specimen

1.
Explain why vertebrates, such as the fetal

pig are used for classroom dissection.
2.
Research the internal systems of other vertebrates, such as a bird, frog, or fish.
Compare and contrast them with the internal systems of a pig.
Part B: Technical Skills of

Dissection
3.
Describe the technical skills that a biology

student learns from performing a dissection, and why those skills are important.
4.
Fetal pigs, as well as other animals used for

dissection, are preserved in formaldehyde.
Research this chemical and describe the
safety procedures that should be followed
during the dissection and when the dissection is completed.
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Part C: Perspectives
5.
Brainstorm and then research the cultural,

ethical/moral, social, economic, political,
and environmental perspectives on dissection at different levels of education (i.e.,
high school, college/university). Display your
research using a visual graphic organizer.
6.
Brainstorm and then research alternatives to using dissection in education

(e.g., computer simulation).
7.
Prepare two cost-benefit analyses for (a)

using fetal pigs for dissection in the classroom and (b) using alternative methods of
dissection.
8.
Write a letter outlining your position on

whether or not dissection should be discontinued in biology courses. In your letter
you should consider the varied cultural
background of students, the costs involved,
and any relevant safety or environmental
issues.
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UNIT 3 REVIEW
1. All of the following are examples of structures that increase surface area, except
a) villi
b) alveoli
c) capillaries
d) valves
2. Venules are to veins as the
a) trachea
b) bronchioles
c) alveoli
d) cilia
are to bronchi.
3. After the right ventricle, blood flows to the

a) pulmonary artery
b) right atrium
c) pulmonary vein
d) vena cava
4. Red blood cells are responsible for which one of the
following:
a) carrying oxygen throughout the body
b) carrying hormones throughout the body
c) fighting infection throughout the body
d) getting rid of unwanted wastes
5. The correct sequence of structures in the respiratory system from outside to inside is:
a) nostrils, larynx, trachea, pharynx, bronchioles
b) nostrils, bronchi, bronchioles, trachea, alveoli
c) nostrils, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
d) nostrils, bronchi, larynx, bronchioles, alveoli
9. Which of the following is not an accessory organ of the

digestive system?
a) stomach
b) liver
d) pancreas
d) gallbladder
10. All of the following are components of the small intestine except the:
a) ileum
b) colon
c) duodenum
d) jejunum
11. What key feature do the alveoli in the lungs share with
the villi in the small intestines?
12. What are the dietary recommendations regarding foods
high in fats? How does eating fatty foods affect cardiovascular health?
13. How are the structures of arteries and arterioles in the
circulatory system similar to bronchi and bronchioles in
the respiratory system?
14. Some infants are born with a small hole in their heart.
This hole can be either between the atria or between the
ventricles. Explain how this situation will affect the infant. How do you think this problem could be corrected?
15. The air that patients who are breathing on a respirator
receive must be filtered and humidified externally. A respirator is a tube that provides air directly into the trachea. Explain why this is so.
6. The esophagus is to the digestive system what

is to the respiratory system.
the
a) epiglottis
b) lung
c) cilia
d) trachea
16. Hypoxia is a condition caused by a shortage of oxygen

in the body tissues. Explain why the bone marrow in
such a patient would produce more red blood cells.
7. Consider the three systems that we studied in this unit.

The following structures are common to the digestive
and respiratory systems, except the:
a) pharynx
b) epiglottis
c) oral cavity
d) nasal cavity
18. A stroke occurs when a blood vessel travelling to the

brain is damaged. Often, patients who have had a stroke
lose the ability to swallow properly and lose control over
some muscles that control the epiglottis. How might this
affect their airway?
8. Which of the following vessels is narrower than an

arteriole?
a) aortic artery
b) capillary
c) artery
d) vein
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UNIT 3
Internal Systems
17. The heart and lungs are very close to each other. Suggest
reasons why this is beneficial.
19. You have just had a peanut butter and jam sandwich for
lunch. Identify the various macronutrients in the sandwich and outline where they would be digested.
20. Often in the winter the air is more dry, making it difficult to breathe. Also, when exercising, individuals
increase their ventilations per minute. What recommendations would you make to an athlete who has
asthma but would like to exercise in the winter months?
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21. A doctor was examining fluids from different parts of the

digestive tract. Based on your knowledge of pH and the
different organs in the digestive system, match up the
pH of the fluid with an answer in column 2. Explain
your reasoning.
pH
Organ
2.0
Saliva
9.0
Stomach
7.2
Duodenum
22. Orthostatic hypotentsion is a condition whereby you feel

dizzy if you go from a lying-down to a standing position too quickly, for example, when you get out of bed in
the morning. Using your knowledge of blood vessels and
the structural differences between arteries and veins,
account for dizziness. Why might this be more problematic in the elderly?
23. The first-aid for a severe bleed is to apply direct pressure to the wound. You notice that a child has fallen off
a swing and has started to bleed. You also notice that
the blood is spurting from the childs arm. Take safety
into account.
a) What type of vessel do you think the child has
injured?
b) What safety precautions should you take before helping the child?
c) Why is it standard first-aid practice to apply direct
pressure to a bleed?
Applying Inquiry/
24. Vomiting can be caused by numerous factors, including
motion sickness, food poisoning, and unpleasant smells.
a) Vomiting is a mechanism that begins in the brain.
Research how this mechanism works to induce vomiting from the stomach.
b) Often, vomiting can lead to severe dehydration.
Brainstorm the effects of dehydration on the circulatory system.
25. Mrs. Smith is a 45-year-old lady who comes to you because she has decided to make exercise a new part of
her daily regimen. When you speak to her, she tells you
that she has a history of asthma, diabetes, and angina.
You also note that her BMI is 32 kg/m 2 . From your
knowledge of the digestion, respiration, and circulatory
systems, design an exercise regimen for Mrs. Smith,
taking into account her current illnesses.
26. What is the mass of an individual who is 6 feet tall and
has a BMI of 28.5 kg/m2? [1 cm = 0.39 inches]
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27. What volume of air would an individual at rest breathe

in during one minute if he has a tidal volume of 500 mL
and takes a breath every 5 s? Express your answer in
litres per minute.
28. Jay and Lea are exercising. After 20 min of rigorous
exercise, they both decide to take their pulse. They both
take their carotid pulse (at their neck). In a 10-s
period, Jays pulse is 27 and Leas pulse is 33. Assuming
that these pulse rates remained constant during the
20-min exercise period, how many more times is Leas
heart beating than Jays?
29. You have been placed on a carbohydrate-reduced diet
and you are only allowed to consume 260 Cal at
lunchtime. Assuming that you will only have crackers
for lunch, and each cracker is 50 kJ, how many can you
have? (Hint: 1 Cal = 4.18 kJ).
Round your answer to the nearest cracker!!!
30. The heart rate for an average-sized healthy adult is 72
beats per minute. The heart pumps an average of 80 mL
of blood during systole. How much blood does the heart
pump in one minute, in litres?
31. Examine the following data:
Activity
Pulse Rate (bpm)
sleeping
56
eating
80
running for the bus
150
a)
b)
How many times would a persons heart beat if he

or she slept for 2 h?
How much time would a person have to spend running in order for his or her heart beat to be equal
to 30 min of sleeping?
32. Mountain climbing places an enormous demand on the

cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Below you can
find the respiratory rate and the heart rate for an individual who is embarking upon a strenuous climb.
Day
Altitude (m)
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
1000
1500
2500
3000
3500
4000
Respiratory
Rate
(breaths/min)
13
14
17
24
28
30
34
Heart Rate
(beats/min)
52
55
68
92
108
112
116
Unit Review
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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Construct two graphs: one that plots Respiratory

Rate against Altitude, and the other that plots Heart
Rate against Altitude.
What is the trend between heart rate and respiratory rate as altitude increases?
What do you suspect would happen to the heart rate
and the respiratory rate if the individual stayed at
the same altitude for several days?
How many more times does the climbers heart have
to beat in one minute at 4000 m than at sea level?
Making Connections
33. Osteoporosis is a systemic disease that affects the mass
and density of bone. Generally, from the age of approximately 30 to the time of menopause, a womans bone
density is relatively constant. It begins to decrease
once the woman becomes menopausal and decreases
rapidly in the first five to ten years after menopause.
a) What technology is used to make the diagnosis of
osteoporosis?
b) What risk factors place older women at a higher risk
for developing this disease?
c) There are several dietary and lifestyle changes that
can affect bone mineral density. Research the role
of calcium, vitamin D, alcohol, and caffeine on bone
density.
d) Design a nutrition and exercise regimen that you
would recommend to a woman who already has
osteoporosis.
34. When someone is undergoing surgery, he or she is
usually given an anesthetic. However, during surgery it
is very important to monitor a patients blood pressure,
heart rate, and temperature.
a) Research the effects of anesthetics on the cardiovascular system.
b) Are there any individuals that may not be able to
benefit from this type of treatment?
c) Many individuals are part of the health care team
during a surgery. Brainstorm the role of five of these
individuals, and summarize in a chart some of the
educational qualifications that these individuals
require.
35. Pregnancy is associated with many changes in nutrition
and health.
a) According to the Canada Food Guide to Healthy
Eating, how do the nutritional requirements during
pregnancy differ from those of someone who is
not pregnant?
b) Hypothesize why pregnant women need more iron
than non-pregnant women.
c) Describe the prenatal care that is important to ensure that both the mother and the fetus are healthy
during pregnancy.
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Internal Systems
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36. Individuals who are selected for space travel must

have a high level of cardiovascular fitness. Some hypothesize that the microgravity environment found in
space places a large physiological stress on the cardiovascular system.
a) Research the phenomenon of microgravity and describe its effects on the circulatory system.
b) Do you think it would be possible for humans to live
in a microgravity environment for an extended period of time? Write a position paper to justify your
views.
c) With the increase in global population, construct a
PMI chart as to whether space habitation is a viable
alternative.
37. Improvements in fleets of airplanes have enabled individuals to travel for long periods of time in comfort.
However, some passengers still complain of leg cramping and indigestion. Based on your knowledge of the
blood vessels in the venous system, how do you think
that sitting for long periods of times affects blood in this
system?
a) Airline companies are designing their meals to be
more nutritious. Contact a local airline and ask about
the nutrition options available for passengers.
b) What are some special dietary considerations that
airplanes provide for? Why is this consideration important to patrons?
38. Allergies to bee stings and certain foods, especially
peanuts, are fairly common in the general population.
Many individuals with such allergies carry around an
Epi-pen, which contains epinephrine.
a) Research the role of epinephrine in anaphylactic
shock. Why might it be important for a daycare
worker to be skilled in using an Epi-pen?
b) Rescue breathing is something that might have to
occur if the airway becomes completely obstructed.
Consult your local Red Cross society to learn more
about when rescue breathing should be performed.
c) What does the term Do Not Resuscitate mean?
Contact your local hospital to learn when this is observed in patient care.
39. Eating disorders in the general population are common,
especially in adolescent girls. Some say that the popular media is partly to blame for promoting an unhealthy
body image. A local teen magazine has approached you
to write an article on what constitutes a healthy body
image.
a) Brainstorm what you think a healthy body image
entails.
b) How has body image changed through time? It might
be helpful if you look at the views of women through
the ages (Medieval, Elizabethan, Victorian,
Contemporary).
c) There are dolls available on toy store shelves whose
body frames are more realistic representations of
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d)
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Canadian women. Do you think that these dolls are

effective in promoting healthy body images among
pre-teen girls who play with them?
What are some ways in which a healthy body image
can be promoted to adolescent girls?
40. Your uncle has recently been experiencing chest pain

while going for his morning walk. He also smokes and
has high blood pressure. After consulting with his family doctor, he tells you that he is going for an exercise
stress test at the hospital. He is not really aware of what
this test involves. Being an expert biologist, you decide
to help him out.
a) Phone a local community agency, such as the Heart
and Stroke Foundation, and find out more about
this test.
b) Design a pamphlet that would educate people like
your uncle about undergoing such a test.
c) What strain do patients with heart disease place on
Ontarios health care system?
d) Account for why heart disease is so prevalent in
North American society as compared to fish-eating
communities.
41. Susan has not been feeling well for almost two months
now. She goes to the doctor and complains of aches and
pains, a cough, and difficulty breathing. Although the doctor thinks that this sounds like a simple cold, he orders
blood work to rule out any other problems. Later that
same day, the lab urgently phones the doctor, and reads
the results to him over the phone. They are as follows:
Hemoglobin
127 (g.L1)
(Normal female:
120 160 g.L1)
Platelets
340 000/mL
(Normal:
150 000 400 000 /mL
White Blood Cell Count
58 103/mL
(Normal:
4.8 10.8 103/mL)
a)
b)
What is the apparent abnormality in the blood from

Susans blood test?
Based on this information, what important condition must the doctor now consider?
42. The following is a list of different blood pressures

taken at various points along the circulatory tree of the
same individual.
Vessel 1: 70/40 mm Hg
Which point likely represents the blood pressure at the
aorta? Based on what you have learned in this chapter,
how does blood pressure change as one moves further
away from the heart?
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43. The cardiac output is the amount of blood that is pumped

out by the heart per minute. It is the product of the stroke
volume and the heart rate. Refer to the table below
that describes changes in stroke volume and heart rate
during exercise.
Stroke volume Heart rate
(mL)
(beats per minute)
At rest
75
80
During maximum exercise
110
195
a)
b)
c)
What is the cardiac output at rest?

What is the cardiac output during maximum exercise?
If a person desired a cardiac output of 10.8L, and
had a heart rate of 120 beats per minute, what
would the stroke volume have to be?
44. Stress is one of the leading contributors to heart disease.

Our society, though more efficient, seems to be more
stressed out!
a) Design a survey to assess the stress level of your
classmates. Ask them specifically to report what factors make them feel stressed.
b) Analyze the results of the survey and rank which
items cause people the most stress.
c) As a society, what can be implemented in the workplace to help people maintain healthy stress levels?
d) Why might a company want to invest money in
educating its employees about stress management?
45. Major surgery can often be associated with significant
blood loss requiring transfusion. Sometimes when patients know that they are scheduled for a major operation, they opt to bank their blood prior to surgery. Then,
if required, they receive their own blood back during the
operation.
a) Where is blood banking currently being done?
b) How much does it cost to bank your own blood?
c) What are some ways that blood is preserved at a
blood bank?
d) What are the societal and ethical implications of
banking your own blood?
46. Each year, thousands of Canadians learn cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) through a first aid course.
a) What are some agencies in your local community
that offer such a course?
b) How might knowing CPR help improve the health
of the population?
c) Survey your class to determine the number of people who are certified in CPR.
d) How is CPR different when helping an infant, a
young child, or an adult?
Unit Review
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UNIT
4
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
the diversity of living organisms
through applying the concepts of
phylogeny and taxonomy to the
kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
and viruses
use techniques of sampling and

classification to illustrate
the fundamental principles of
taxonomy
relate the role of common

characteristics and diversity within
the kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
to the importance of maintaining
biodiversity within natural
ecosystems, and explain the
use of micro-organisms in
biotechnology
Diversity of
Living Things
n ecosystems across the planet, from the lush tropical rain forest to the
park in your own community, the vast diversity of living things is
astounding.
To manage, comprehend, and record biodiversity, biologists collect
organisms and study their similarities and differences. Some organisms
are radically different: plants are very different from animals. But sometimes, the differences between organisms are small. The scarab beetles
pictured here are just a few of the beetle species found in a remote region of Costa Rica. They look very similar in many ways, but they are each
A small sample of the scarab beetles found in Costa Rica. They are similar to one another in
some ways, but different in others.
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subtly different from one another. The vibrant coloration of these beetles
represents only one characteristic that varies among their species. No two
members of a species are identical, and this diversity within a species is
important to the species survival.
For centuries, humans have depended on Earths biodiversity for food
and other useful products. Today, scientists are producing new genetically
modified organisms. These modifications would be impossible without bacteria and viruses to produce the DNA needed for genetic engineering.
In this unit, you will investigate the diversity of living things from each
of the life kingdoms, comparing their cells, anatomy, physiology, and life cycles. You will also use a key to classify organisms from each of the kingdoms.
You will investigate the importance of sexual reproduction in creating variability within a population and the importance of variability in species survival. Finally, you will discover the role that viruses and bacteria play in the
field of biotechnology.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Bacteria reawaken after 25 million years
Researchers at California Polytechnic State

University reported reviving bacteria spores from
the gut of a bee stuck in amber. The bee was estimated to be 25 to 30 million years old.
U.S. researchers announced they have created

ANDi, the first genetically modified rhesus monkey. The researchers say this monkey could help
accelerate research into human diseases such as
Alzheimers. Others wonder if scientists have gone
too far, manipulating the genes of a primate, one
of humankinds closest relatives.
Vaccine could reduce E. coli outbreaks

Canadian scientists have developed a cattle vaccine that could reduce the spread of E. coli 157
the deadly bacteria that contaminated the water
supply in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000.
Transgenic salmon pose threat to wild stocks

According to the environmental group Greenpeace,
transgenic salmon pose a threat to North Americas
remaining stocks of wild salmon. They are much
bigger and faster growing than their wild counterparts and, if they escape into the wild, wild
salmon might not be able to compete against them.
Wild salmon may ultimately face extinction.
Scientists create first genetically modified monkey
Scientists engineer a killer virusby mistake

An Australian research team accidentally created
a virus that wipes out part of the immune system
of every one of its victims. To try to control mice
infestations, researchers were attempting to modify a mousepox virus so that it would make infected
mice sterile. However, the researchers modifications made the virus deadly, raising fears that similar alterations could be made to human viruses to
make them just as deadly.
PREVIEW
Canadian superbugs on the wane

Efforts to convince doctors to prescribe fewer antibiotics in recent years have significantly reduced
the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across
Canada.
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learning by writing a position paper on the role of reproductive technologies in saving endangered species.
See page 486.
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C H A P T E R 11
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Classification

define the fundamental principles

of taxonomy and phylogeny (11.1,
11.2)
explain the importance of sexual

reproduction to variability within a
population (11.2)
demonstrate, through applying

classification techniques and
terminology, the usefulness of
the system of scientific
nomenclature in the field of
taxonomy (11.1, Investigation 1)
demonstrate an understanding
of the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(11.2)
FIGURE 11.1 A sample of butterflies found in Peru.
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rganisms have diversified over evolutionary time into every part of Earths
biosphere. The diverse shapes, sizes, and structural and functional characteristics of the life forms that populate natural ecosystems could be overwhelming. To organize and catalogue this diversity, biologists apply the
fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life.
Biologists use a common system of classification and terminology to identify, name, and group organisms into meaningful categories. The modern system of classification groups organisms according to their cell structure,
structural characteristics, method of obtaining nutrients, and, more recently,
the degree of genetic similarity. Most biologists today recognize six life kingdoms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Biologists use dichotomous classification keys to classify organisms into the
appropriate group. Phylogeny is the evolutionary grouping of organisms based
on their degree of relatedness. Organisms share common ancestry if they
show similar stages of embryological development and similar anatomical
structures.
Sexual reproduction (including the reshuffling of genetic material during
meiosis) maintains genetic variability. Genetic variability among individuals
provides a greater diversity of genotypes that can survive environmental
changes. Biologists apply the concepts of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life to organize and understand the connection between biodiversity,
genetic variability, and species survival.
CHECKPOINT
These animals have been
classified as mammals by
biologists. In your notebook,
make a chart listing the
reasons why you agree or
disagree with this classification.
Agree
Disagree
Discovering Biology
Observing the Variety of Life
Carefully observe the cats in

Figure 11.2 and select two cats
to compare.
Record the similarities and differences you observe in a Venn

diagram.
Why do you think these closely

related organisms have developed differing characteristics?
FIGURE 11.3 Mammals

FIGURE 11.2 Five purebred cats
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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11.1 Taxonomy:
Organizing the Diversity of Life
Key Understandings
define the fundamental principles of taxonomy
explain how the system of scientific nomenclature is useful to the field of taxonomy
The Biosphere:
The Envelope of Life

Look out the window or take a walk in

a park. There may be hills or open fields,
rocks, soil or pavement under your feet.
Wherever you are, you are in the
biosphere. The biosphere is that part of
the Earth inhabited by living organisms.
It is found wherever there is life: under
the surface of the Earth, on its surface,
or in the atmosphere above it. It is like
an envelope that encircles the core of
Earth (Figure 11.4).
The biosphere, with all its living

organisms, makes up only about one
part in 10 billion of Earths mass. The
biosphere is distributed through a layer
of soil, water, and air. This layer is estimated to be 16 kilometres thick around
the outside of the Earth, stretching over
one-half billion square kilometres
of Earths surface. Yet, as many as
10 million different kinds of living
organisms exist in this thin layer
enveloping the planet (Figure 11.5).
FIGURE 11.4 This photo of

the planet was taken about
68 000 nautical miles from
Earth.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.

restrictions.
Coral fungus
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Paramecium

restrictions.
Trillium
Muskox
FIGURE 11.5 There is an amazing variety of organisms on Earth.
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Diversity of Living Things
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A Catalogue of Life
The numbers of different kinds of organisms in Earths biosphere are unknown.
The first listing of all the known living
things was made in Greece by Aristotle
2300 years ago. He identified about 1000
different kinds of organisms. Today, biologists estimate 30 million to 100 million
kinds of organisms exist in the biosphere.
Of the many kinds of organisms, biologists
have described only 1.75 million, just a
tiny fraction. Many of these organisms look
so similar that it may be difficult to determine whether certain populations belong to the same species, or to two closely
related species.
If each of the estimated 30 million

kinds of organisms was described on
its own page in the Encyclopedia of
Life, and if each volume was 500 pages,
this reference work would have 60 000
volumes.
Early Attempts at Classification To understand the diversity of life, a system of biological classification that names and
groups organisms into meaningful
categories is needed. When Aristotle
conducted his study of animals in the
fourth century B . C . , he grouped them
according to habitat. There were landdwellers, water-dwellers, and air-dwellers.
St. Augustine, in the third century A.D.,
classified animals as useful, harmful, or
superfluous. In the Middle Ages, herbalists classified plants according to what they
produced: fruit, vegetables, or wood. These
systems of classification worked well for
people of the time. Limited numbers of organisms were known and people often
spent time observing locally found species.
However, in the 1400s and 1500s,
European explorers set off on voyages
around the world and returned with extensive collections of plants and animals
never seen before on the European continent. In 1665, with the discovery of the
microscope, many varieties of micro-
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organisms were discovered. As the number of known organisms increased, the

need for a more effective classification system was required.
Naming Organisms In the middle of the

17th century, a member of the English
clergy, John Ray, set out to systematically catalogue all the organisms in the
world. He was the first to use the word
species to describe a kind of organism.
A species, according to Ray, was made
up of organisms that were similar in
shape and structure, and that reproduced with one another (Figure 11.6).
The offspring, in turn, have to be able
to reproduce. By the time Ray had completed his lifes study, his list had grown
to include 19 000 species of birds, fishes,
and four-footed animals.
FIGURE 11.6 Two separate species. These two owls look

very similar, but the northern spotted owl a) cannot breed with
the barred owl b), so they are two different species.
a)
b)


CHAPTER 11
Classification
371
Contents
FIGURE 11.7 The Linnean

system of classification.
Kingdoms contain many
different types of organisms.
Each taxon contains progressively fewer types of
organisms. The taxon
species is the narrowest
category, containing only
one type of organism.
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KINGDOM
(Animalia)
PHYLUM
(Chordata)
CLASS
(Mammalia)
ORDER
(Carnivora)
FAMILY
(Felidae)
GENUS
(Felis)
SPECIES
(sylvestris)
The Linnean System of

Classification
INFOBIT
Linnaeus was actually called
Carl von Linn. Carolus
Linnaeus is the Latinized form
of his name.
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UNIT 4
A species may be known by several

different names. For example, the North
American cougar is also known as the
panther or the m ountain lion.
The system of naming and classifying organisms was simplified by the 18thcentury Swedish naturalist Carolus
Linnaeus. Linnaeus is often considered
to be the father of modern taxonomy because his system, known as binomial
nomenclature, is still in use today. He
grouped organisms according to their
structural similarities.
Using this system, scientists throughout the world refer to the same organisms
by the same names. Linnaeus named the
organisms in Latin, which was the language of scholars in Europe at the time.
The first part of the name referred to
the genus (plural: genera) of the organism, which is a relatively small group of
related species to which the species
belongs. All the varieties of species in the
same genus have many common characteristics. The second part of the name is
the species name and usually describes
an important characteristic of the
organism. For example, Felis sylvestris
is the scientific name for the domestic cat.
Felis is the genus to which the species
belongs, and sylvestris identifies the
species.
Canis familiaris is the scientific
name for dog. Quercus rubra is the name
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for the red oak tree. The generic name

is always capitalized and the species
name is not. Rather than repeating a
generic name when it is used several
times in a discussion, biologists often
spell it out only once and use only the
initial letter thereafter. For example,
E. coli is the abbreviated form for
Escherichia coli.
Classifying Living Things

All biological classification systems are
designed to express relationships among
organisms. Even in recent times, many
systems of classification have been used.
In India, plants and animals used to be
classified according to their taste, ease
of capture, and the type of edible parts
each organism possessed.
The groups to which Linnaeus
assigned organisms are called taxa
(singular: taxon) and the science of naming organisms and assigning them to
these groups is called taxonomy.
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The taxon species is the smallest

group, and it contains only a single
species. The organisms in a species
are the most like one another. As mentioned earlier, organisms within a
species can interbreed. The species in
the taxon genus, the next grouping,
are related. All the species are quite similar to one another (Figure 11.7).
Broadening the classification further,
similar genera (the plural of genus) are
grouped into a family. (The names of
animal families end in the suffix idae,
plant families end in -aceae. Thus,
Formicidae is the family that contains
all ant genera.) The family Hominidae
contains humans, chimpanzees, and
gorillas. Family names are based on the
name of a member in the genus.
Formicidae is based on the genus
Formica, and Hominidae is based on the
genus Homo. Similar families, in turn,
are grouped into an order, similar
orders into a class, similar classes into
a phylum, and similar phyla (plural of
phylum) into a kingdom (Figure 11.8).
WORDORIGIN
Taxonomy from the Greek word
tasso, to arrange and nomos,
law or art.
Kingdom
Phylum/Division
Phylum/Division
Class
Class
Order
Order
Class
Order
Family
Genus
2
Species
Genus
2
Species
Phylum/Division
Family
Genus
Order
Family
Genus
FIGURE 11.8 Taxonomic

levels. The modern classification system is like a large box,
which contains smaller boxes,
which in turn contain even
smaller boxes, and so on.
A kingdom contains phyla,
which contain classes, which
in turn contain orders, which
contain families, which contain genera, which contain
species. In the plant and fungi
kingdoms, phyla are known
as divisions.
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Classification
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WEBLINK
Another taxon called a domain
is becoming widely used.
Research why scientists have
created domains, and what
these domains are. Draw a diagram relating domains to the
six kingdoms. Begin your research at
WORD ORIGIN
Protista from the Greek word
protista meaning the very first.
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How Many Kingdoms?

Linnaeus created his taxa in the 18th
century based on the accumulated
knowledge of his time. His system separated living things into two kingdoms:
plant and animal. However, as the discovery of more types of living things
grew and microscopes became common
tools to observe even smaller organisms,
his two-kingdom system proved inadequate. By the mid-1800s, a third kingdom, called Protista, was added. All
one-celled organisms that were clearly
neither plants nor animals were placed
in this category. Moulds and yeasts were
originally included in the plant kingdom,
but are now considered very different
from plants. Unlike plants that produce
their own food, moulds depend on other
organisms for their food. Moulds and
yeasts are placed in the kingdom called
Fungi.
Further study of single-celled
organisms showed that bacteria were
also distinct enough to have their own
kingdom. This kingdom was called
Monera. Until recently, the five-kingdom
system was widely accepted. However,
as scientists studied bacteria further,
they found that one group of bacteria
was genetically very different from other
bacteria. This has led to the splitting of
the kingdom Monera into two new kingdoms: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
The six-kingdom system of classifying
organisms is now widely used, but scientists continue to debate whether this
six-kingdom classification system is the
most accurate.
Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria

consist of a group of ancient bacteria
that live in harsh habitats of extreme
saltiness, low oxygen concentration, high
temperature, or extreme acidity. They
are often found inside the vents of volcanoes and are believed to be among the
first life forms on Earth. They are
prokaryotes, meaning they do not have
cell nuclei and other organelles surrounded by membranes.
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It was not until the gene mapping of

representative prokaryotes in 1996 that
it became apparent that these bacteria
vary genetically from the bacteria of the
kingom Eubacteria.
Kingdom Eubacteria Biologists estimate

that up to 4 000 000 Eubacteria species
may exist. As of 1998, only 4000 species
have been discovered and classified.
Eubacteria species have been found
everywhere in the world and in the
strangest of habitats. The task of discovering and classifying them has only
begun. These organisms are often
called true bacteria and, like the
Archaebacteria, they are also
prokaryotes. Due to their diverse genetic
make up and metabolism, members of
the Eubacteria do not fit well into a clear
phylogenetic pattern.
Kingdom Protista Members of the kingdom Protista are mostly single-celled and
are eukaryotes. They have a nucleus
and other organelles surrounded by
membranes. Some protists also have
chloroplasts. It is believed that all protists evolved from prokaryotic bacteria.
Like the kingdoms Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria, the kingdom Protista
contains very diverse species. Protists
include all the eukaryotes that are not
plants, fungi, or animals.
Kingdom Fungi Fungi are eukaryotes and
build cell walls similar to plants.
However, unlike plant cells, these walls
are not made of cellulose. Fungi are also
unable to carry out photosynthesis.
Examples of fungi include moulds,
yeasts, and mushrooms.
Kingdom Plantae Members of the kingdom Plantae are multicellular. They

have cell walls containing cellulose, and
also have chloroplasts. Examples of
plants include mosses, ferns, and seed
plants.
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Kingdom Animalia Members of the kingdom Animalia are multicellular, heterotrophic, and have cell membranes
without cell walls. Their cells are often
organized into tissues, organs, and organ
systems. Animals are divided into invertebrates and vertebrates. Vertebrates
are animals with an internal backbone,
whereas invertebrates lack an internal
skeletal structure.
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Archaebacterium
Fungi
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Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Eubacteria
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Dichotomous
Classification Keys
Dichotomous classification keys are
used to help place organisms into the
appropriate classification group.
Classification keys include two choices
for each characteristic. No two keys for
the same set of items will necessarily be
the same.
Figure 11.10 provides a structure
for developing a classification system to
sort a group of organisms.
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Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Protist
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Plant
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Animal
FIGURE 11.9 Representative species of the six kingdoms.
Investigation
Refer to page 384,
Investigation 1
Specimen
Does your specimen have... ?
Yes
(subgroup #1)
No
(subgroup #2)
Yes
(subgroup #3)
No
(subgroup #4)
Yes
(subgroup #5)
No
(subgroup #6)
FIGURE 11.10 How a dichotomous classification key

works.
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Classification
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Discovering Biology
Housefly
Whats the Difference?
Robin
Flying fish
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Mosquito
Flying squirrel
Bat
Mallard
Dragonfly
FIGURE 11.11
All the organisms in Figure 11.11 can fly. However, when they are studied more carefully, they have many different characteristics that allow them to be classified into
groups. Your task is to classify these animals. One grouping may include three
organisms, another only two, and so on.
Once you have developed your key, compare it with those of your classmates.
Section 11.1 Review

1. List, in order, from the most inclusive
to the least, the seven groups into
which organisms are classified.
2. Define the following and give examples:
a) binomial nomenclature
b) taxon
c) species
3. Explain why Linnaeus system of binomial nomenclature is still used today.
4. Outline at least two classification systems used in the past. Explain why the
thinking on how to sort organisms has
changed over time.
5. A single-celled organism could be
placed in the kingdoms Eubacteria,
Archaebacteria, or Protista. What characteristic would be the most important
for determining in which kingdom this
organism should be placed?
6. Trillium grandiflorum is the scientific
name for Ontarios provincial flower.
Explain what each part of the name
represents.
7.
376
UNIT 4
Two groups of organisms are in different genera but are of the same
family. What does this information tell

you about the two groups?
8. Suppose every living organism on
Earth is known and classified. Do you
think the study of taxonomy will end?
Explain.
9. An organism has one common name
in Canada and a different common
name in the United States. How might
these different names lead to confusion? How has the modern system of
classification overcome this problem?
Applying Inquiry/
10. You are told that species A and B belong to the same kingdom but to different phyla; and species C and D
belong to the same phylum but to different classes. What conclusions can
you make about species A, B, C, and
D? Explain your answer in terms of
common characteristics shared between the groups.
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11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and

Natural Selection
Key Understandings
define the fundamental principles of phylogeny
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to variability within a population
demonstrate an understanding of the connection between biodiversity and species
survival
The Principles of Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species is referred to as its phylogeny. Phylogeny looks
at the ancestor-descendant relationships
among organisms, and phylogenies are
determined on the basis of developmental, structural, and molecular traits.
First, organisms likely share common ancestry if they show similar stages
of embryological development. It has
been observed that the early stages of
embryo development are similar in
closely related species (Figure 11.12).
For example, all vertebrate embryos go
through a stage in which they have gills
similar to those of fish. This provides indirect evidence that vertebrates, such as
frogs and snakes, may have had a fishlike common ancestor.
Second, organisms likely share
common ancestry if they have similar
anatomical structures, regardless of
function. Structures of different organisms that are similar in form are
homologous (Figure 11.13). For example, the wing of a bat and a whales flipper are both homologous structures
because their skeletal structures are
similar. It does not matter that they look
different in the fully developed adult
animal, or that they are used for different purposes.
Third, organisms likely share common ancestry if they are genetically similar. Like the sizes and shapes of their
body parts, the molecules of organisms
are inherited characteristics that also
demonstrate evolutionary changes over
time. The molecular characteristics of
organisms are controlled by the struc-
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
FIGURE 11.12 Different embryos, same gill slits. The blue patches mark the gill
slits on each of the embryos of five different animals: a) a sea lamprey, b) a turtle,
c) a chicken, d) a domestic cat, e) a human.
whale
cat
bat
gorilla
FIGURE 11.13 Homologous structures. These animals all descended from a common ancestor. As a result, even though each animal uses its forelimbs for different
functions, the bone structures of each are similar. The homologous bones are
colour-coded for comparison.
tures of proteins that often function as

enzymes regulating chemical reactions
in cells. Protein structures are in turn
controlled by the genetic make up of
cells. As genes change, so too do the
molecules of cells.
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Classification
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Contents
Present
dogs
raccoons
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sea
bears lions
Next Section
Groups of organisms based on the

principles of phylogeny can be represented by a phylogenetic tree.
The phylogenetic trees in Figure
11.14 illustrate the evolutionary relationships among major groups of organisms. The branch points on each of
the trees represent common ancestors.
Each time a branch divides into a
smaller branch, it shows the emergence
of a new group of organisms.
seals walrus weasels
10
20
Millions of years ago
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30
Kingdom
Plantae
40
Kingdom
Animalia
Kingdom
Protista
vertebrates
50
Kingdom
Fungi
flowering
plants
amoebas
evergreens
vertebrates
60
ancestral
carnivores
b)
Kingdom
Archaebacteria
mushrooms
Kingdom
Eubacteria
ferns
flagellates
grampositive
methaneproducers
mosses
sponges
salt-lovers
yeast
hot acid-lovers
cyanobacteria
a)
universal
ancestor
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choanoflagellates
diatoms
FIGURE 11.14 Phylogenetic

trees. These trees show the
evolutionary relationships
between kingdoms a) and
certain families of carnivores b).
378
dinoflagellates
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Biodiversity and Natural

Selection
Discovering Biology
Almost all the species that ever lived over

lifes 3.9 billion years of existence are
extinct and yet it is believed that anywhere from three million to 10 million
exist today. Why do some species die off
and new species appear? Charles
Darwin was aware that not all animals
of one kind were identical. He knew that
animal breeders selected animals with
certain characteristics and bred those
animals to create offspring with those
same characteristics. This process is
known as artificial selection. Darwin
also observed finches, turtles, and other
reptiles while living on the Galapagos
Islands. This led Darwin to propose a
new theory to explain why some species
die out and others appear. In Darwins
theory of natural selection, he proposed
that organisms that reproduce are selected not by the breeder, but by the environment. In the process of natural
selection, organisms with characteristics unsuited to the environment would
either die or be unsuccessful finding
mates to reproduce. Individuals with
characteristics well suited in some way
to environmental conditions would survive longer, have better chances of finding mates, and produce more offspring
likely to have similarly well-suited features. It is believed that the many species
existing today are descended from just
a few ancestral species. As these ancestors adapted to different environments,
this great diversity of species resulted.
Individual organisms adapt to changing
conditions, resulting in the evolution of
the species over time.
The theory of natural selection
proposed by Darwin includes four
assumptions.
Diversity and the Beaks of Birds
1.
2.
All members of a species display a

variety of characteristics in their
appearance and behaviour, and
many are inherited.
The number of offspring produced
by individuals in a species exceeds
Observe the bill of each bird in Figure 11.15. Discuss how the structure of each beak is adapted to each birds way of life.
Crossbill
Spoonbill
Eagle
Pelican
Robin
FIGURE 11.15
3.
4.
the number of offspring that will survive to adulthood.

Some offspring, because of their individual differences, are better able
to adapt to the conditions of the environment than others.
The better-adapted organisms pass
on their characteristics to their offspring and, as a result, the population changes.
If none of the individuals in a species

can adapt to changing conditions, eventually, the species becomes extinct.
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Reproduction, Genetic
Diversity, and Species
Survival
Asexual reproduction allows individuals
to reproduce without the need for a
mate. Why then have some organisms
developed the alternative method of sexual reproduction? In asexual reproduction, which involves only one parent,
CROSSING OVER
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.
duplicated
maternal
chromosome
duplicated
paternal
chromosome
tetrad
sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids
FIGURE 11.16 Crossing
over. Genetic material gets
exchanged between homologous chromosomes. This
exchange is the first source
of genetic variation.
Random alignment of
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
FIGURE 11.17 Random

assortment. Whether a gamete gets a maternal or paternal chromosome depends
on how the homologous
chromosomes line up at the
metaphase plate.
UNIT 4
the offspring are identical to the parent.

There is no genetic variation, except for
possible chromosome mutations. Sexual
reproduction, on the other hand, provides for a great deal of variation in
the offspring because two parents are
involved. Each parent produces gametes
(either eggs or sperm) through meiosis.
Meiosis creates genetic diversity in
two ways. In the early phase of meiosis,
homologous chromosomes link to form
tetrads. When they link, they exchange
parts of chromosomes. So parts of maternal chromosomes become parts of paternal chromosomes. This process can
also be reversed. This exchange is called
crossing over (Figure 11.16). The
reshuffling of genes on chromosomes
adds to genetic diversity.
The second way of producing
genetic diversity is through random
assortment of homologous chromosomes. One member of each chromosome
pair is inherited from the father, and
the other from the mother. But all the maternal chromosomes do not stay together.
The chromosomes align randomly at the
metaphase plate. Therefore a gamete
could have either a maternal or paternal member of any given chromosome
(Figure 11.17). Most gametes have a
RANDOM ASSORTMENT
METAPHASE I
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
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... but they could have

lined up this way, yielding
a different outcome.
METAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
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mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes. This random assortment

explains how traits from a mother and
father can appear in the offspring.
The number of combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes depends on the number of chromosome
pairs a species has. In a species with
only three chromosome pairs, the number of possible combinations is 23 or 8.
Humans have 23 chromosome pairs and
so the number of genetic combinations
is 223 or 8 388 608. When random assortment and crossing over are combined, the odds of having two humans
with the same genetic make up is about
1 in 14 trillion.
Each individual produces gametes.
In sexual reproduction, gametes from
two separate individuals fuse to form a
new, genetically different, offspring.
The Importance of
Genetic Variation
Genetic variation among individuals is
important in an unstable environment.
For example, under one set of conditions
a certain genetic combination, or genotype, may be favoured while
another meets with limited success. As
conditions change, however, the second
genotype may be favoured while the first
cannot survive. As a result, with a
genetically variable population, the
interaction of genotype and environment
results in a greater chance for survival
for at least some members.
The greater the amount of variation
among individuals of a population, the
greater the chance that some individuals will survive if the environment
changes.
Environmental changes arent just
changes in the climate. They can be, for
example, toxins in the environment,
changes in food supply, changes in predators, new diseases, or new predators.
Variability can help species survive. For
example, rats and mice are common
pests. Rat and mice poisons are often
used to exterminate them. However, some
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of these pests have always been resistant

to poison. These individuals survive and
pass on their poison resistance to their
offspring. As the poison-resistant individuals multiply, the poison soon becomes
ineffective on that population as a whole.
Discovering Biology
One Species or Many?
In this activity, you will look at variability as it relates to species.

In the 1830s, Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands, a
small group of islands off the coast of South America. He noticed
that there were a large number of finches on the islands. They looked
very similar, but their beaks varied in size. Are these birds members of the same species or are they several different species?
For any given trait, there is a considerable amount of variation
between individuals in a species. This variation normally produces
a bell-shaped curve when graphed. In 1939, biologist David Lack
measured the beak widths of the ground finches on the Galapagos.
Some of his data are plotted in Figure 11.18. Analyze the data in
Figure 11.18. What does the graph tell you about the variability in
the beak width? What can you conclude about the finches?
Number of birds
with particular
beak widths
50
normal expected
bell curve
40
30
A
20
C
10
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Beak width (mm)
FIGURE 11.18
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Case
Study
Biodiversity and
Aquaculture
Defining the Issue
Fish farms mainly in New Brunswicks Bay of Fundy

and off the B.C. coast produce more than 72 000
tonnes of salmon a year. The federal government
is a strong supporter of fish farming and recently
made available $75 million for research and development. Government estimates suggest that by
the year 2025, the world will need 55 million tonnes
more seafood than wild stocks can provide. To meet
that demand, fish farming as an industry will have
to grow by 350 percent.
But is the advance of fish farming practices coming at the expense of stocks of wild salmon? Why is
the wild species still facing extinction? What impact
does the farming have on wild populations?
Tests are under way to selectively breed for bigger and faster growing salmon as well as to genetically modify the fish against common parasitic
diseases. Researchers in the federal department of
fisheries have now developed 20 new transgenic
breeds of salmon that grow seven times faster than
wild salmon.
FIGURE 11.19 These pens contain hundreds of farmed salmon.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Research the positive and negative impacts that fish

farming may have on wild populations.
2.
What other factors may be affecting the survival of the

wild salmon population?
3.
What are the costs and benefits of fish farming and commercial fishing to meet the short- and long-term food
needs of society?
382
CH
1 The Periodic
U
N AI TP T4E R Diversity
of LivingTable
Things
4.
In groups, have a round table discussion about fish farming. Comment on (a) the worlds need for adequate
seafood supply; (b) the imprtance of sustainability of wild
salmon stocks; and (c) preservation of wild fish habitats.
Contents
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The peppered moth (Biston bitularia) provides a very well known example of how genetic variability helps a
species survive. In England, some individual moths are lighter coloured than
others. Normally, the lighter-coloured
moths are more common because they
are camouflaged against lichen-covered
tree trunks. The darker forms of the
moth are more easily spotted by predators and eaten. During the Industrial
Revolution, pollution increased, and the
lighter form of the moth became more
visible against sooty, polluted environments (Figure 11.20). The lighter form
was less well adapted to its environment, and was more heavily preyed
upon. Thus the darker form of the moth
became more common. If all the moths
had been light coloured, it would have
been harder for the species to have survived the changing conditions. Many
more moths would have been eaten,
increasing the chances of extinction.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 11.20 Light and dark forms of the

peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Notice how one
form is camouflaged and one stands out. If
conditions change, however, the other form may
stand out more and be more vulnerable to
predators.
Section 11.2 Review

1. Define the following terms:
phylogeny
natural selection
species
2. How is a phylogenetic tree constructed?
Illustrate with an example.
3. Explain how the theory of natural selection allows for the development of
new species from the existing species
over time.
4. Do you think that a butterflys wing and
a bats wing are homologous structures? Explain your reasoning.
5. Sexually reproducing organisms are
more likely to adapt to changing environments than asexually reproducing
organisms. Explain.
6. Describe the relationship between biodiversity and species survival.
Applying Inquiry/
7.
Your teacher has scattered 600
coloured toothpicks over a five-metresquare patch of grass. There are equal

numbers of yellow, red, green, and blue
toothpicks. You are given 30 s to pick up
as many of the toothpicks as possible.
Predict which colour of toothpick you
would pick up most of and propose how
this information might help to explain
the process of natural selection.
8. Why is natural selection considered to
be a theory and not a law of science?
Making Connections
9. In many species of birds, populations
living in high latitudes lay more eggs
per clutch than populations living
closer to the equator. Explain why you
think this is so.
10. Disasters such as earthquakes, floods,
and fires may reduce the size of a population drastically, killing off weak and
vulnerable individuals. Often, the result is that the surviving population has
a genetic make up that differs from the
original population. Explain.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1

(Section 11.1)
Using a Dichotomous Key

Problem
In this activity, you will use a dichotomous key to
classify turtles commonly found in Canada into their
correct families.
head under the shell by bending its neck sideways,

could you classify the turtle using the key? Explain.
8. Suggest a change to the dichotomous key so that
it can accommodate the classification of this additional example from the side-necked family.
9. What does this tell you about the usefulness of dichotomous classification keys?
Materials
pencil and paper
Procedure
Create a table like the one shown below.
1.
Turtle diagram #
Turtle family
#1
2.
3.
4.
#1
#2
#3
#4
Carefully study one of the turtle diagrams in Figure

11.21. LAL1
Read the first set of choices in the dichotomous key
(1a and 1b) and decide which characteristic the turtle has.
Following the numbered items in the key, name the
family to which the turtle belongs.

1. What characteristics do all the turtles have in common? In what ways are they different?
2. What kinds of characteristics are used in this dichotomous key to classify turtles? Would behavioural traits of turtles be an acceptable
alternative? Explain.
3. Make a hypothesis about the adaptive value of each
of the characteristics for turtles referred to in this
dichotomous key.

4. Explain how the dichotomous key is organized.
5. To what family does each turtle belong?
6. Why is classification of organisms a useful skill in
the study of living things?
Extending
UNIT 4
FIGURE 11.21 Selected turtles
Dichotomous Key to Turtle Selected Families

1a. Shell has distinct ridges
along the length of the
shell
1b. Shell has no longitudinal
ridges
2a. Shell has no distinct
colour markings
2b. Shell has distinct colour
markings
3a. Beak is hooked
3b. Beak not strongly hooked
4a. Forelimbs like paddles
7. All of these turtles protect themselves from predators by retracting their heads straight back under
the shell. If you were shown a turtle with no distinct markings on its shell but which retracted its
384
#5
4b. Forelimbs with claws
Leatherback turtles
(Family Dermochelyidae)
Go to 2
Mud turtles
(Family Kinosternidae)
Go to 3
Snapping turtles
(Family Chelidridae)
Go to 4
Sea turtles
(Family Cheloniidae)
Box, pond, and marsh
turtles
(Family Emydidae)
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Key Terms
Animalia
Archaebacteria
artificial selection
binomial nomenclature
class
classification key
crossing over
Eubacteria
eukaryotes
family
Fungi
genus
homologous structures
kingdom
natural selection
order
phylogenetic tree
phylogeny
phylum
Plantae
prokaryotes
Protista
random assortment
sexual reproduction
species
taxonomy
11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life

11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Natural Selection

Binomial nomenclature is a naming system that assigns every known organism a Latin name consisting of two parts: a genus name and a species
name.
Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms.
All living things are classified according to an established classification system developed by
Linneaus. His system groups organisms by structural characteristics.
Each species belongs to one genus, family, order,
class, phylum, and kingdom. Related species are
grouped in a genus, related genera in a family,
and so on.
The broadest taxon is the kingdom. The number
of kingdoms has increased as more organisms have
been discovered and similarities and differences between organisms have been more closely studied.
A dichotomous key is a tool used to identify and
classify organisms.

The theory of evolution is the basis of the modern

system of taxonomy.
The theory of natural selection explains why new
species evolve from old ones over time.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or
group of species. It explains the similarities and differences among different taxonomic groups.
Genetic diversity in a species is produced by sexual
reproduction. The process of meiosis produces genetic diversity through random assortment and
crossing over.
The survival of a species depends on the genetic diversity of its individuals. Because all individuals are
slightly different, some may have traits that allow
them to survive when the environment changes.

1.

the Agree/Disagree chart. Revise your chart based on
what you learned in this chapter.
2.
Create a concept map that includes the following terms:

taxonomy, phylogeny, classification, taxa. Add more terms
as necessary.
3.
Revisit the Discovering Biology activity on page 369.

Create a dichotomous key to classify these cat breeds.
4.
Construct a concept map outlining the evolution of

classification. Include the following terms: classify,
taxonomists, two-kingdom system, three-kingdom system, five-kingdom system, and six-kingdom system. Use
additional terms as you require them.
5.
Reflect on your learning. At the end of the Unit you will

be completing an Achievement Task. As you study the
Unit content, note the skills and knowledge you are acquiring that will be useful to you in completing this task.
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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1. Homologous structures are
a) similar in function
b) similar in structure
c) similar in function, but developed from different ancestral structures
d) developed from a common ancestral structure,
whether or not they have the same function today
2. Any group of organisms treated as a unit in a classification system is a
a) species
b) genus
c) taxon
d) phylum
3. Before a biologist can classify a newly discovered organism, he or she must make a careful study of its
a) behaviour
b) size
c) structure
d) adaptability
4. Which category contains the greatest number of different kinds of organisms?
a) Genus
b) Family
c) Phylum
d) Class
5. Which of these categories of classification contains organisms that are most closely related?
a) Family
b) Class
c) Order
d) Genus
6. Explain why the biosphere is often referred to as the envelope of life around the world.
7. Describe two examples of classification systems other
than the six-kingdom model.
8. What did Carolus Linnaeus use to classify organisms?
Explain why.
9. Explain what is meant by binomial nomenclature.
10. What is the cause-and-effect relationship between
the extinction of a species and the process of natural
selection?
11. How are homologous structures between organisms of
different species often used as an indication of species
relatedness?
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UNIT 4
12. How are fungi different from plants?

13. Agree or disagree with the following statements and defend your point of view for each:
a) In a dry habitat, organisms with a scaly skin will
survive and tend to leave more offspring.
b) According to the theory of evolution, the giraffe
developed a long neck because it needed one, and
such a neck was passed on to its offspring.
c) Early horses had to run fast to escape predators,
thus they developed larger muscles and longer legs.
Applying Inquiry/
14. Use a field guide and a microscope to identify protists
found in a pond or fish tank. Prepare a presentation to
the class on your findings.
15. Collect a variety of leaves, insects, or fungi. Use a field
guide to identify them. Prepare a Bristol board display
of your collection, including the classification key that
you used to sort the specimens.
16. a) Suppose that you are given a beaker containing a
collection of several hundred various organisms and
you are given a class period at school to sort them.
Describe the steps you would use to begin to sort
them into groups. Imagine after examining 10 specimens randomly chosen from the beaker that you
discovered they all belonged to the class Insecta.
What might you conclude from this about the contents of the entire jar? Explain your answer.
b) What could make this conclusion invalid? What
further steps would you take to test the validity of
your conclusion?
17. Survey others in your class as to the name of their
favourite singer or group. Develop a classification system to create musical subgroups based on your list.
18. Along with others in your class, assemble a collection of
assorted nuts and bolts from home. Develop a classification system that sorts them into groups.
19. Suppose someone presented you with a completely
unfamiliar organism and asked you what kingdom it
belonged to. Create a dichotomous key that would allow
you to place the organism into the correct kingdom.
20. Use the dichotomous key in Figure 11.23 to identify each
of the insects in Figure 11.22. Write the name of each of
the insects AH in your notebook.
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Making Connections
21. You are a professor of taxonomy at a local university.

Your research is not considered a high priority and your
research funding has been threatened. You are alarmed
because it is estimated that only about 10% of the species
currently living today have been named. Write a letter
to the governing body of the university arguing why your
funding should be maintained.
D
E
wing covers
22. Explain why the following statement would have an

impact on the long-term survival of a species: An adaptation of a species to an environmental condition is
significant because certain members of the species will
find an environment where such an adaptation is not
harmful.
23. Agree or disagree with the following statement and write

an essay to defend your point of view: Insecticides are
no longer as successful in killing off houseflies as they
were in the past because flies susceptible to the insecticides have been killed off.
FIGURE 11.22 Common insects
I N S E C T S
With wings
With one pair of

wings or with a
second pair
greatly reduced
End of
abdomen with
2 or 3
projecting
filaments
(mayfly)
Abdomen
without
projecting
filaments
(housefly)
Without wings
With two pairs

of equally sized
wings
Forewings as
hard covers
meeting in
straight line
down centre of
back
(beetle)
Forewings
not hard,
membranous
with wing veins
evident
(stonefly)
Tip of abdomen
with 2 or 3
appendages
directed
backward
Abdomen
appendages
thick and rigid
in the form of
pincers
(earwig)
Abdomen
appendages
delicate and
flexible
(silverfish)
Tip of abdomen
with no
appendages
Legs have
large hooks
(louse)
Legs slender
with no hooks
(water strider)
FIGURE 11.23 Dichotomous key for selected insects
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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CHAPTER 12
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
describe selected anatomical and

physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from
each life kingdom and a representative virus (12.1, 12.2)
compare and contrast the life

cycles of representative organisms
from each life kingdom and a
representative virus (12.1, 12.2)
classify representative organisms

in the kingdom Archaebacteria and
kingdom Eubacteria (12.1,
Investigation 1)
the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(12.1)
explain the relevance of current

studies of viruses and bacteria to
the field of biotechnology (12.3)
Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria, and Viruses
FIGURE 12.1 Electron micrograph of the HIV viruses as they attack a human
white blood cell.
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n this chapter you will explore the vast world of micro-organisms. Bacteria
are the oldest and most abundant living organisms on Earth, and differ little from their fossil ancestors. All bacteria share basic structures but they
show incredible diversity in cell shape and nutritional patterns. Archaebacteria
are the most ancient bacteria, and thrive in extreme environments. Bacteria
affect humans in various ways: they cause disease, spoil foods, and can be
resistant to antibiotics. They also fix nitrogen for plants, decompose organic
matter, manage hazardous waste, aid animal digestion, and help create the
dairy products we consume.
Viruses are non-cellular. They grow and develop in the cells of their
hosts and depend on these cells for their life functions. For example, AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that claims thousands of
lives worldwide each year. It is caused by the HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus. The HIV virus attaches to specific cells in the immune system
of the host (Figure 12.1), hijacks the cells, kills them, multiplies, and destroys
the hosts ability to battle infection. An HIV infection averages 10 years before the person develops AIDS. During most of this time, the infected person exhibits moderate symptoms of the illness, such as swollen lymph nodes
and fever, but eventually the virus can cripple the immune system and kill
the person with the disease. Can we disrupt the reproductive cycle of the HIV
virus? Clinical trials of the drug AZT suggest researchers may have discovered a way to counteract the effects of the virus on body cells.
Every day, breakthroughs in biotechnology advance the genetic engineering of bacteria and viruses to produce drugs for the biopharmaceutical industry, create organisms that manage oil spills, destroy pathogens, and correct
genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
Predicting the Growth of Bacteria

Imagine a flask containing nutrients and a single bacterium is placed by a
warm window. Within about 20 minutes, the bacterium divides. After another
20 minutes, both offspring cells divide. The bacterial cells continue to divide
in number every 20 minutes.

Predict how many cells there would be at the end of one hour, three hours,
seven hours. How many bacteria would there be at the end of a full day?
Many bacteria have an important impact on other living things. Pair up with
another student in your
class and construct a concept map to show the roles
of bacteria in the living
world.
Roles of
bacteria
Hypothesize why we never find such large masses of bacteria in real life.
Positive
Effects
CHAPTER 12
Negative
Effects
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses
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12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and

Eubacteria
Key Understandings
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of organisms from the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
classify organisms from each of the kingdoms
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to organisms in these kindgoms
explain how genetic variation affects the survival of bacterial populations
The Beginnings of Life

If you could travel back in time about
3.9 billion years to walk along the shore
of an ancient ocean searching for life,
you would find nothing alive. At that
time all that existed in the world was an
organic soup of simple molecules that
often stuck together as droplets, some of
which might have been visible to your
naked eye much like bubbles of oil in
salad dressing. Over millions of years,
the oceans, which covered the surface
of Earth, eventually teemed with these
clusters of molecules that formed, expanded in size, and divided in a cycle
that very closely resembled reproduction
in living things.
Characteristics such as an ability
to multiply gave tremendous advantages
to some molecular clusters over others.
Until recently, just how these abilities
came about proved to be quite a mystery to biologists.

Recent discoveries of deep-sea vents
on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean have
supported the idea that primitive cells
may have evolved in the ancient seas in
conditions similar to those found around
these vents. These vents spew out hot
water containing methane and other organic molecules. Many of the organisms
that live near the vents thrive at temperatures above boiling and resemble
the simple structures thought to inhabit
Earth in its primitive state. These
organisms are microscopic and they
belong to two distinct groups of microscopic organisms: eubacteria and
archaebacteria.
Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria are the oldest organisms living
on Earth and they are by far the most
abundant. For example, 10 mL of soil
can contain 1 1010 bacteria. As a group
they are very diverse, but they all share
certain characteristics.

restrictions.
1.
2.
3.
FIGURE 12.2 Material pours forth from a hot-
water vent on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.

The fluid pouring from the vent is rich enough in
nutrients to support the survival of microbes.
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4.
5.
All bacteria are single-celled.

All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their
DNA is not surrounded by a
membrane.
Cell organelles in bacteria are not
surrounded by membranes.
The DNA of bacteria is made of a
single chromosome.
All bacteria reproduce asexually by
binary fission.
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Prokaryotes have no nucleus and no organelles surrounded by membranes. For

the first two billion years of the existence
of life on Earth, it is thought that all
organisms were prokaryotic. As you will
see, prokaryotes are extremely diverse
and live almost everywhere in the biosphere. Because of this, they are now
placed in one of two kingdoms:
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. But before discussing these different kingdoms,
we will look at the characteristics that
both of them share. The term bacteria
is used to describe the organisms in both
kingdoms.
Structure of Bacteria
genetic material
cytoplasm
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As a group, bacteria are the smallest organisms. They are usually 110 m.
A typical eukaryotic cell is about 10 times
larger. The structure of a bacterium is
quite simple (Figure 12.3). It has a cell
wall that provides support and protection for the contents of the cell. Beneath
the cell wall lies the cell membrane that
controls the passage of materials into and
out of the cell. The cytoplasm contains
ribosomes, responsible for the formation
of proteins, and DNA, the genetic information of the cell. The DNA forms a
single chromosome. There is roughly
1/1000th the amount of DNA than in a
typical eukaryotic cell. Instead of forming a strand, the DNA forms a ring.
Some bacteria have whiplike flagella (singular: flagellum) that stem from
the cell wall and cell membrane. They
act like propellors moving in reverse,
drawing the organism forward.
However, beyond these basic structures, bacteria show incredible diversity.
Bacteria are not usually grouped by phylogenetic relationships. They are usually
classified by their shape,
reaction to being stained,
nutrition, and respiration.
cell wall
flagellum

restrictions.
FIGURE 12.3 The structure of a typical bacterium. Note the flagella.
INFOBIT
The worlds largest bacterium
is called Epulopiscium
fishelsoni and is 0.5 mm long.
It is found in the gut of
surgeonfish, and is so large
it can be seen with the naked
eye.
Investigation
Refer to page 413,
Investigation 1
FIGURE 12.4 Shapes of
bacteria

Cell Shape
cell membrane
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Bacteria can be classified

by shape (Figure 12.4). A
spherical cell is called a
coccus (pural: cocci), a rodshaped cell is called a
bacillus (plural: bacilli), and
a spiral-shaped cell is called
a spirillum (plural: spirilli).
Cocci that live as separate
cells are called monococci. If
cocci live in pairs they are
called diplococci. If cocci live
in linear chains they are
called streptococci. If they
live in grapelike clusters, they
are called staphlococci.
Bacilli also exist as single
cells, pairs (diplobacilli), or
chains (streptobacilli). Spiral
bacteria exist only as single
cells.
CHAPTER 12
a) cocci

b) bacilli

c) spirilli
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Gram Stain
Investigation
Refer to page 414,
Investigation 2
.
Bacteria are also classified by their reaction to a dye made of crystal violet and iodine called gram stain (Figure 12.5). Cells
that retain the crystal violet appear purple (gram-positive), and cells that dont
appear light pink (gram-negative). Grampositive bacteria have a different cell wall
structure than gram-negative bacteria and
the stain shows this difference. Grampositive bacteria are very common and
are generally not as pathogenic as gramnegative bacteria, such as the bacteria
that cause typhoid, gonorrhea, meningitis, and pneumonia. Proteobacteria are a
large group of gram-negative bacteria.
Nutrition
WORD ORIGIN
Heterotroph from the Greek
words heteros meaning
other and trophe meaning
nourishment.
Nutrition means obtaining energy and a

source of carbon to produce the organic
compounds needed for cellular
metabolism. There is a large variety of
nutritional patterns among bacteria. Table
12.1 outlines the four types. Most eubacteria are heterotrophs and obtain
their energy by breaking down organic
molecules from their environment. They

restrictions.
FIGURE 12.5 Gram-negative and gram-positive
bacteria
get the carbon needed to make other

molecules from organic molecules as well.
Some eubacteria are autotrophs and can
synthesize their own organic compounds,
such as glucose, from carbon dioxide.
There are two types of autotrophic
bacteria: photoautotrophs use sunlight
as their energy source, while
chemoautotrophs use energy obtained
from chemical reactions.
TABLE 12.1 Nutritional Patterns of Bacteria
Mode of nutrition
Energy source
Carbon source
photoautotroph
light
CO2
chemoautotroph
inorganic chemicals
CO2
photoheterotroph
light
organic compounds
chemoheterotroph
organic compounds
organic compounds
Dr. Grams Discovery
In 1884, the Dutch doctor Hans

Christian Gram accidentally developed the most important staining
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technique used in microbiology. At

the time, Gram was using two stains,
crystal violet and iodine, to show details of human tissue more clearly.
The mixture of the two stains was so
thick that he had to rinse the slide
with alcohol to clear it for viewing
under the microscope. To his surprise,
the human tissue lost the crystal
violet colour, but some of the bacterial
cells that were present on the slide
did not lose the colour.

Further experimentation with
bacterial cells demonstrated that certain bacteria retain the crystal violet
stain and appear purple. These bacteria are now called gram-positive
bacteria. Other bacteria do not retain
the stain and appear light pink under
the microscope and are now called
gram-negative bacteria.
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One important group of photoautotrophs is the cyanobacteria, also

known as blue-green bacteria. These organisms are photosynthetic, which
means that, like plants, they can use
sunlight and carbon dioxide to make
their own food. Unlike plants, however,
cyanobacteria lack true chloroplasts and
their photosynthetic pigments are in a
series of folded membranes found
throughout the cytoplasm. Cyanobacteria
contain two photosynthetic pigments:
chlorophyll a, which appears green, and
phycocyanin, which appears blue. Their
blue-green colour is due to these two
pigments.
Cyanobacteria are common in freshwater lakes and ponds. When their
population increases rapidly, it is known
as a bloom (Figure 12.6). Cyanobacterial
blooms often mean that the water is
polluted. If water becomes contaminated
with nitrates and phosphates from
agricultural runoff, these compounds act
as fertilizers and allow the cyanobacteria in lakes to multiply rapidly.
Cyanobacteria can also be found in
salt water, in soil, in snow, in volcanoes,
and on rocks. They can live as single
cells or cluster together in colonies to
form mats or plates. A few species live
symbiotically with fungi, forming mixed
organisms called lichens.
Heterotrophic bacteria live everywhere: in soil, air, food, and water. Most
bacteria are chemoheterotrophs. Some
are parasites, absorbing nutrients from
living organisms, and others are
saprobes, decomposing dead organic
matter.
Respiration
Recall that all bacteria differ from eukaryotic organisms in that they lack
membrane-surrounded organelles, such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula,
nuclei, and chloroplasts. However, most
of the chemical reactions that take place
in the organelles of eukaryotic cells also
occur in bacteria. Many of these reactions
take place on the inner surface of the cell
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FIGURE 12.6 A bloom of cyanobacteria in a

lake is often an indicator of pollution.
membrane so that gases can pass into

and out of the cell easily. For example,
in aerobic bacteria, cellular respiration
occurs on the inner folds of the cell
membrane. In bacteria that carry out
photosynthesis, membranes containing
the photosynthetic pigments are found
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
All living things must carry out cellular respiration to receive a supply of
energy for lifes functions. Bacteria differ
in whether or not they require oxygen.
If cellular respiration involves oxygen to
produce energy from food that is broken
down, bacteria are termed aerobes. If
oxygen is absolutely necessary for their
survival, they are called obligate aerobes.
Those bacteria that can carry out cellular
respiration in an oxygen-free environment are termed anaerobes. If the
presence of oxygen kills these organisms,
they are called obligate anaerobes. An
example of an obligate anaerobe is the
soil bacterium Clostridium botulinum,
which produces toxins that can cause an
extreme form of food poisoning called
botulism. A third group of bacteria can
survive with or without oxygen and they
are called facultative anaerobes.
Heterotrophs can be either aerobic or
anaerobic.
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Testing Milk for Bacteria
Milk is an excellent growth medium for bacteria and so milk can

become contaminated with bacteria very easily. In this exercise,
you will examine different milk samples from different sources
and determine their quality in terms of bacterial presence.
1. Obtain four samples of milk of various ages or from different
sources (for example, from a fresh, unopened milk carton; from
milk cartons opened and refrigerated one, two, three, or more
days days ago; powdered milk; canned milk).
2. Fill separate test tubes one-third full with each of the milk
samples.
3. Add 1 mL of methylene blue solution to each test tube.
4. Keep the tubes in a warm place.
When aerobic bacteria are actively growing in milk, they consume
oxygen. Methylene blue turns colourless in the absence of
oxygen.
Observe each test tube over four days and record your observations each day.
Determine the relationship between the methylene blue and

the presence of bacteria.
Decide which milk sample has the most bacteria.
What do you conclude about the source of milk and the degree of bacterial contamination?
Reproduction in Bacteria
WORD ORIGIN
Conjugation from the Latin
words iugum meaning yoke
and con-, a prefix meaning
together.
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All bacteria reproduce asexually and divide by the process of binary fission
(Figure 12.7). In binary fission, the parent cell divides into two offspring cells
that are completely identical. Because
division takes place in each individual
cell, there is no exchange of genetic material and so the process is asexual. Due
to their rather simple method of reproduction, most bacteria can divide every
15 to 20 minutes as long as there is sufficient food, warmth, and space. For example, under the right conditions, a
single E.coli bacterium can produce
between 10 and 100 million bacteria in
12 hours. If conditions had always been
ideal for bacterial survival, and their numbers left unchecked, the surface of Earth
would have been overtaken by a massive mat of bacteria over one kilometre
thick. Needless to say, conditions of food,
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temperature, and space are seldom ideal;

the numbers of bacteria are quite limited
and normally exist in a balance with other
organisms in the biosphere.
This fast reproduction rate has an
effect on the mutation rate of bacteria.
In a typical E. coli, the chance of a mutation happening is about 1 107 per
cell division. However, since 2 1010
bacteria can be reproduced daily under
ideal conditions, 2000 mutants could be
produced each day (2 1010 / 1 107).
So, even though individual mutations are
rare, they can have a great effect on the
genetic diversity of a bacterial population because bacteria can reproduce so
quickly. This diversity affects the evolution of the bacterial population. If a
mutation helps an individual bacterium
survive in its environment, that mutation will spread quickly through future
generations.
In addition to the chromosome, a
bacterium has another, smaller ring of
DNA called a plasmid. Plasmids contain
far fewer genes than bacterial chromosomes, anywhere from a few to several
dozen. Plasmids are not necessary to the
survival of the cell under normal conditions. They are usually replicated along
with the chromosomal DNA during binary fission.
Conjugation As long as the conditions

for survival are ideal, most bacteria reproduce through binary fission. When
conditions begin to fail, either through
decrease of food or space, or cooler temperatures, some bacteria take part in a
type of sexual reproduction called
conjugation. During conjugation, two
bacterial cells connect to each other by
long protein bridges (Figure 12.8). The
plasmid of one cell is transferred to the
other cell. When the process is completed, the bacterium that received the
genetic material from the other cell now
has a different genetic makeup. Having
an altered gene structure increases the
chance that a bacterium might possess
a gene combination that enables the
organism to adapt to worsening
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BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA
cell wall
two
daughter
cells
chromosome
cell membrane
parent
bacterial
cell
Bacterial cell starts
with a singular,
circular chromosome
attached to its plasma
membrane.
The chromosome
replicates and the
daughter chromosomes
attach to different
sites on the plasma
membrane.
The cell pinches in

between the
attachment points
of the two
chromosomes.
The cell wall and

membrane join
together in the
middle, resulting in
two new cells.
FIGURE 12.7 Asexual reproduction in a bacterium
environmental conditions. So some individuals might survive these changing

conditions. As a result, the species has a
greater chance of avoiding extinction.
An example of conjugation conferring
an advantage is in providing antibiotic
resistance. In the 1950s, doctors noticed
that antibiotics were not working on

restrictions.
FIGURE 12.8 Conjugation is a one-way

process. One cell donates a plasmid, another
receives it.
some bacteria. In Shigella, a bacterium

that causes intestinal dysentery, antibiotics no longer killed cerain strains.
These strains had become resistant to
the antibiotic. However, antibiotics still
killed other strains of the bacteria. Years
later, scientists discovered that specific
genes are responsible for antibiotic resistance. These genes are not on the bacterial chromosome, but on certain types
of plasmids called R plasmids. These
plasmids code for the production of enzymes that destroy specific types of antibiotics such as ampicillin or tetracyline.
When a population of bacteria is exposed to one of these antibiotics, the
antibiotic will kill all the bacteria that do
not have the R plasmid, leaving only
those bacteria that have the R plasmid
to resist the antibiotic. These bacteria
survive and reproduce in such large
numbers that an antibiotic-resistant
population of bacteria are produced.
These bacteria can also pass on the R
plasmid to other non-resistant bacteria
through conjugation.
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INFOBIT
Bacteria found in the digestive
tract are still referred to as
intestinal flora. This labelling
of bacteria as plants is a
holdover from when bacteria
were grouped under the plant
kingdom.
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This creates a constant competition

between the pathogenic bacteria and the
developers of antibiotics. As antibiotic
resistance spreads through the bacterial
population, antibiotic developers have
to create a new antibiotic for which the
bacteria have no resistance.
Endospore Formation When growth conditions become extremely unfavourable,

many gram-positive bacteria form structures called spores. One type of spore,
called an endospore, is formed when a
bacterium produces a thick wall that surrounds its DNA and cytoplasm (Figure
12.9). The endospore can remain dormant for months until favourable growth
conditions return. Members of the
endospore-forming group include the
many species of Bacillus and Clostridium.
(The toxins produced by Clostridium
botulinum are among the most poisonous
ever discovered.)
The Kingdoms
Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria
So far, bacteria have been discussed as
a single group. But there are two distinct
groups of bacteria, and their differences
are great enough for them to be classified as two separate kingdoms: the kingdom Archaebacteria and the kingdom
Eubacteria.
WEBLINK
Research more about the
structural characteristics of
Archaebacteria. Create a chart
that shows which of these
characteristics are different
from Eubacteria and which
are the same. Begin your
research at
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UNIT 4
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Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria

are considered to be the oldest group of
organisms on Earth. Scientists hypothesize that all life kingdoms are descended
from the ancestors of this group. They
are known for the extremely diverse
environments in which they live, often
places inhospitable to other organisms.
Many of these environments are quite
hot, very acidic, extremely salty, and
resemble conditions thought to exist
billions of years ago on Earth. Not surprisingly then, these bacterialike
organisms closely resemble the primitive clusters of molecules thought to be
found in the ancient seas.

restrictions.
FIGURE 12.9 Endospore formation. Once

bacteria have formed endospores, they can
remain dormant for long periods.
A typical archaebacterium has a cell

wall, and a cell membrane that offers
further protection to the cells organelles.
However, both the cell wall and cell
membrane are chemically different from
those of eubacteria. Also, when biologists mapped the genetic blueprint of
archaebacteria, more than half of their
1700 genes were different from those of
eubacteria. Because the genotypes of
archaebacteria and eubacteria are so different, they have been separated into a
different kingdom.
Archaebacteria are divided into
several phyla based on their habitats.
The members of one phylum live in
oxygen-free places such as the gut of
animals and produce methane gas. They
are called anaerobic methanogens.
Methanogens release all of the methane
gas found in the Earths atmosphere,
including flatulence by humans and other
mammals. Approximately one-third of
total methane production comes from
methanogens in the guts of herbivores
such as cows. Much of the rest of the
methane gas comes from methanogens
found at the bottom of marshes and
swamps. One methanogen lives on the
ocean bottom near deep-sea vents and
thrives in temperatures above boiling.
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atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 )

restrictions.
denitrifying
bacteria
plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root
nodules of legumes
FIGURE 12.10 Masses of heat-loving archaebacteria, shown here around the edge of a hot
spring, are tolerant of hot and highly acidic
environments.
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the soil
decomposers (aerobic
and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi)
Kingdom Eubacteria This kingdom is far

more successful than the archaebacteria, accounting for most of the prokaryotes on Earth. Comparisons of the
mRNA of different Eubacteria species
have allowed scientists to separate them
into
six
phylogenetic
groups:
Spirochaetes, Chlamydias, gram-positive
bacteria,
Cyanobacteria,
and
Proteobacteria. Each group contains a
wide variety of species with different nutritional patterns, gas-exchange mechanisms, and reactions to gram stain.
Bacteria in Ecosystems
Nitrogen Fixation Ecosystems are communities of organisms living together in
a given area. The survival of organisms
living in these ecosystems depends, in
part, on the availability of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is essential for the manufacture
of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen
makes up 78 percent of Earths atmosphere; however, very little of nitrogen in
its atmospheric form can be used.
nitrifying
bacteria
nitrification
ammonification
ammonium (NH4+)
A second group, the halophiles, are

salt-loving organisms that inhabit salt
lakes such as the Dead Sea. The third
group, the thermophiles, inhabit hot,
acidic environments such as hot springs
(Figure 12.10).
nitrates
(NO3-)
nitrites
(NO2- )
nitrifying bacteria
FIGURE 12.11 Bacteria play a pivotal role in the nitrogen cycle, releasing various
nitrogen compounds into the soil.
Nitrogen must be converted to or fixed

into a useful form (Figure 12.11).
The greatest amount of nitrogen
fixation is caused by nitrogen-fixing bacteria that are either free living in the soil
or inhabit the roots of legumes, such as
alfalfa, soybeans, peas, and clover.
Bacteria in the roots of these plants
remove free nitrogen from the air and
convert it to nitrates, which are stored in
small growths called nodules for use by
the plant to form amino acids and proteins. A common symbiotic nitrogen fixer
is Rhizobium. Some species of nitrogenfixing bacteria live freely in the soil. These
bacteria add nitrates to soil that plants
absorb. Animals that feed on plants
consume these plant proteins and
metabolize them to obtain nitrogen and
amino acids.
Carbon/Oxygen Cycle Prokaryotes play

an important role in recycling. Suppose
dead organisms and the wastes of living
organisms accumulated without decay
over an extended period of time. Before
too long, the living organisms would be
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INFOBIT
Just one gram of the exotoxin
that causes botulism could kill
a million people.
WORD ORIGIN
Pathogenic from the Greek
words pathos meaning
suffering and geno meaning
begetting.
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overwhelmed by the dead, and the necessary cycling of elements would cease.
Fortunately, dead organisms and the
wastes of living organisms become food
for decomposing bacteria. These bacteria break down organic matter into
forms suitable for growth and reproduction. The bacteria release carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.
Bacteria and Disease

Only a small percentage of prokaryotes
are pathogenic, or disease causing.
Pathogenic bacteria produce deadly substances (toxins) in the human body that
cause disease symptoms. For example,
toxins released by the bacterium
Streptococcus pneumoniae may result
in the symptoms of pneumonia. Rats
harboured fleas that contained highly infectious bacteria that caused the plague
or Black Death, which ravaged Asia and
Europe in the 14th century. Tuberculosis
and leprosy are also caused by bacteria.
Some bacteria produce toxins that
enter the bloodstream and attack the
nervous system. One of these causes
tetanus, and another causes botulism, a
deadly form of food poisoning. These
bacteria are anaerobic and survive as
spores until they are introduced into a
favourable environment such as a host
organism.
For the host, the consequences of an
infection depend on the invasiveness and
toxigenicity of the pathogen. Invasiveness
relates to the ability of the pathogen to
multiply within the body of the host.
Toxigenicity is the ability of the pathogen
to produce toxins harmful to the tissues
of the host. Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
the pathogen that causes diphtheria, has
low invasiveness and multiplies only in
the throat; but its toxigenicity is so great
that the entire body is affected. By contrast, Bacillus anthracis, which causes
anthrax, has low toxigenicity but high
invasiveness because it multiplies in the
bloodstream.
There are two types of toxins:
endotoxins and exotoxins. Endotoxins
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are released when certain gram-negative bacteria split. Endotoxins are

seldom fatal and normally cause fever,
vomiting, and diarrhea. Species of bacteria that produce endotoxins include
Salmonella and Echerichia.
Exotoxins are released by living,
multiplying bacteria that travel throughout the hosts body. They are highly toxic
and often fatal, but do not produce fever.
Many pathogenic bacteria produce
exotoxins. Some examples of exotoxininduced diseases are tetanus from
Clostridium tetani, and botulism from
Clostridium botulinum.
Putting Bacteria to Work

Waste Management Canada has over
5000 hazardous waste sites that contain
used oil, battery acid, PCBs, heavy metals, detergents, pesticides, old paint,
plastics, radioactive wastes, and more.
A goal of long-term waste management
is to remove these substances as potential threats to the environment. While
they are deadly to many organisms,
some are food to bacteria. Many species
of bacteria can eliminate or neutralize a
variety of toxic compounds in the environment and are even used to clean dangerous chemical spills.
Sewage Treatment Every day, the world

population produces over five billion
kilograms of solid organic waste.
Fortunately, bacteria decompose the
waste and recycle the organic matter.
Some human populations are so dense
that organic wastes begin to accumulate
because bacteria can only work at a certain pace to recycle wastes. In response
to this situation, humans have developed
technology to improve how efficiently
bacteria digest wastes. Now most human
fecal matter is processed in one of
several ways: in sewage sludge reactors
(Figure 12.12), in septic tanks, or spread
on soil as fertilizer.
Many homes in rural areas have
septic tanks. A septic tank is usually an
underground tank that contains billions
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of anaerobic bacteria, which degrade

sewage slowly. Aerobic waste treatment
facilities break down sewage more
rapidly because they rely on aerobic bacteria. By supplying plenty of oxygen,
these bacteria are encouraged to carry
out their chemical reactions as quickly
as possible.
Dairy Foods Over the last 30 years, efforts by food scientists to identify and investigate lactic acid bacteria, Bacterium
lactis, have revealed their many uses in
the production of dairy foods. These uses
include acid production, texture development, flavour generation, preservation, and the synthesis of B-vitamins. For
human beings, lactic acid bacteria provide resistance to intestinal pathogens,
stimulate the immune system, and help
to maintain a healthy balance of microorganisms in the digestive system.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 12.12 A sewage treatment plant
Genetically engineered lactic acid bacteria are now being studied to develop
highly effective digestive enzymes and
vaccines.
Section 12.1 Review

1. Define the following terms: prokaryote,
anaerobe, toxin, heterotroph.
2. List several ways bacteria can be classified and provide examples.
3. Explain the relationship between the
terms prokaryote, bacteria, eubacteria, and archaebacteria.
4. If you were given two organisms and
told one was a eubacterium and one
was an archaebacterium, outline the
relevant information you would need
to know about each organism in order
to classify them.
5. Describe how bacteria change their
genetic properties and how these
changes spread so quickly through the
population.
Applying Inquiry/
6. You have been asked to classify an unknown bacterium according to its
method of cellular respiration. Create
a dichotomous key that will allow you
to classify this organism.
Making Connections
7.
Explain ways in which bacteria are important to the environment.
8. Suppose bacteria lost the ability to fix

nitrogen. Explain how would this affect the environment and the economy.
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12.2 Viruses
Key Understandings
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of a virus
compare and contrast the reproduction of prokaryotes and viruses
Classifying Viruses
WORD ORIGIN
Virus from the Latin word virus
meaning a poisonous slime of
plant or animal origin.
Viruses are often presented in classification systems as being closely related

to prokaryotes since, like prokaryotes,
viral genetic material is not surrounded
by a membrane. However, many biologists do not classify viruses as belonging to any kingdom because they are not
cells, the basic units of life. Some biologists question whether viruses are alive
at all because they do not metabolize
energy or perform cellular respiration.
In fact, viruses must live as parasites
within the cells of a host organism.
Viruses grow and develop in the cells of
specific hosts and depend on these cells
for respiration, nutrition, and all other
functions of life to enable them to reproduce. When viruses enter the hosts
cells, they take over by altering the
host cells genetic make up. A virus is
classified as a non-cellular particle made
up of protein-covered genetic material
that can invade living cells (Figure
12.13).
protein coat
of head
viral DNA
Sizes
Shapes
cowpox and smallpox

viruses
250 nm
influenza virus
100 nm
bacteriophage
65 x 95 nm
tobacco mosaic
virus
300 x 15 nm
yellow fever virus

22 nm
poliomyelitis virus
20 nm
foot-and-mouth
virus
10 nm
tail
tail fibres
FIGURE 12.13 A T4 phage

on the surface of a cell.
Phages are viruses that infect
only bacteria. They are also
known as bacteriophages.
400
UNIT 4
ran
mb
me
a
sm
pla
Escherichia coli
2000 2500 nm
viral DNA being

injected into
bacterium
FIGURE 12.14 The protein coat of a virus gives

it a characteristic shape. Notice how small
viruses are as compared to an E. coli bacterium.
Contents
The Discovery of
Viruses
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Scientists studied viruses long before

they could see viruses. In 1892, a
Russian botanist, Dimitri Ivanovsky,
tried to find out what was killing his
tobacco plants. Ivanovsky noticed his
tobacco plants were losing their texture (Figure 12.15 left) and thought
that the cause was due to bacteria.


FIGURE 12.15 Tobacco leaves (left) infected with the tobacco mosaic virus (right).
Viruses have characteristic shapes

(Figure 12.14) but they all have two
components: genetic material and a protein covering called a capsid. They
cannot invade all cell types, only specific
ones. For example, plant viruses only attack plant cells, and animal viruses only
attack animal cells. Some viruses will
only invade the cells of a certain species
of organism. A viruss genetic material
can either be DNA or RNA, depending
on the type of virus.
The Reproductive Cycle

of Viruses
A cells DNA can be compared to a
computer program, and the cell to a computer. A computer performs tasks by a
coded set of instructions in a program; a
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To verify his hypothesis, Ivanovsky

poured an extract of infected leaves
through a fine filter. At the time, this
filtration procedure was a standard
way to isolate bacteria. To
Ivanovskys surprise, the filter was
free of any bacteria and the filtered
extract still caused the deadly tobacco
mosaic disease in his plants.
Therefore, the cause of the disease
was not bacterial. Clearly, the disease-causing agent was smaller than
a bacterium.
The disease-causing agent was
later named a virus. This virus was
identified in 1935 as the tobacco mosaic virus. Because viruses are so
much smaller than prokaryotic cells,
they werent actually seen. Viruses
have become well understood only
within the last 50 years, largely
through the development of the electron microscope, which had a large
enough magnification to allow viruses
to be seen (Figure 12.15 right).
cell is directed by DNA-coded instructions.

As long as the program remains intact,
the computer will function without error.
Similarly, as long as the DNA code of a
cell remains unaltered, the activities of a
cell function normally.
Suppose a new program is loaded
into the computer that instructs the
computer to stop what it is doing and
make copies of the new program instead.
This new program cannot make copies
of itself if it is in a CD lying on the desk
outside the computer. The new program
must be installed in the computer before
it can function. A virus acts in a similar
way. As mentioned previously, viruses
must invade a living host cell to reproduce. There are two ways that viruses
can reproduce, depending on the type of
virus.
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The Lytic Cycle The bacteriophage T4
1.
that invades E. coli (Figure 12.16) uses

the lytic cycle to reproduce. It is called
the lytic cycle because it always ends
with the lysis (breaking open) of the host
cell. The lytic cycle involves the following steps.
2.
1. Virus attacks
bacterium and
injects its DNA
into the host.
3.
4.
2. Viral DNA uses
hosts enzymes
to make more
viral DNA (by
replication) and
more coat
proteins (by
transcription).
5.
3. The new viral

components
are assembled
into 100 or so
clones of the
original invader.
4. Viruses produce
lytic enzyme
that causes host
cell to lyse,
releasing the
viruses.
WEBLINK
To explore the lytic and

lysogenic cycles further, go to
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UNIT 4
FIGURE 12.16 The lytic cycle of a T4 bacterio-
phage.
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Initially, the bacteriophage attaches

itself to the cell wall surface of the
E. coli bacterium. Proteins in the tail
of the virus fit the structure of the
bacterium wall and this results in
specific virus-host cell infections.
The bacteriophage tail releases an
enzyme that dissolves the wall of the
bacterium. Once an opening in the
wall is created, the virus tail contracts, and the viral DNA is injected
into the cell.
Inside the host cell, the viral DNA
takes over the cells activity and
the host cells DNA is destroyed. The
host cell is now under the control of
the viral DNA, which instructs the
cell to make copies of the viral DNA
and capsid.
Copies of the viral DNA and capsid
are assembled into new viruses.
The cytoplasm in the host cell releases a digestive enzyme that
breaks down the outer shell of the
bacterium, and the cell breaks open
releasing hundreds of new viruses.
This last step is called cell lysis.
After lysis, the new viruses infect
other cells.
You might think that if all viruses reproduced by the lytic cycle, they would
end up killing all the cells of the host or
an entire bacterial colony. Bacteria are
not defenceless against phage infections.
Some bacteria have enzymes called
restriction enzymes that recognize foreign DNA. When a phage injects its
DNA into the bacterium, the restriction
enzymes recognize that it is foreign DNA.
The restriction enzymes act like scissors,
cutting up the phages DNA, making it
useless. There are many different kinds
of restriction enzymes. But, like the
competition between bacteria and
developers of antibiotics, there is a competition between bacteria and phages.
Bacteria with effective restriction
enzymes survive and reproduce. But any
phages that develop resistance to the
restriction enzymes also have a
reproductive advantage.
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The Lysogenic Cycle Not all viruses cause

rapid destruction of the host cell. Some
viruses enter a host cell but do not take
over the hosts activity by destroying the
host DNA. Instead, the viral DNA combines with and becomes part of the host
DNA in a way that does not interfere
with the host cell activity (Figure 12.17).
When the host cell copies its own DNA,
the viral DNA is copied as well. The viral
DNA can be copied in this manner
through several generations of host cell
reproduction. The introduction of viral
DNA into the host genetic structure in
this way is called lysogeny. Once the
DNA is incorporated, the viral DNA becomes inactive. At some time in the life
of the host cell, perhaps by way of an
environmental stimulus, the viral DNA
in an infected host cell may become active. The viral DNA then instructs the
host cell to manufacture new viruses
using the lytic cycle.
lysogenic
phage
phage DNA
bacterial DNA
Phage injects its

DNA into bacterium.
Lysogenic
Cycle
Phages DNA
incorporated into
bacteriums DNA.
Phages DNA may replicate

along with the bacterial DNA
for many generations.
TABLE 12.2 Comparison of Lytic and Lysogenic
Cycles
Lytic cycle
Lysogenic
cycle
Fate of host
DNA after
infection of
the virus
Takes over
host DNA
Becomes part
of host DNA
Incubation
time in host
cell
Release of
new viruses
after one
generation of
host activity
Release of
new viruses
after several
generations of
host activity
Onset of
viral disease
symptoms
Immediate
Delayed
phage
protein
Changing conditions
cause phage to enter
lytic cycle.
Many copies of phages

protein coat and genetic
material are produced.
RNA Viruses
Many viruses, such as the tobacco mosaic virus, have RNA rather than DNA
as their genetic material. In normal
cell processes, molecules of DNA direct
all cell activities. They do this by directing the process of protein synthesis.
Some proteins function as enzymes
to control chemical reactions, other
proteins provide structural characteristics
Phages are assembled

and are released when the
bacteriums cell wall lyses.
FIGURE 12.17 The lysogenic phage Lambda infecting a bacterium.
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to a particular cell (for example, skin,

muscle, bone). The genetic information
coded in DNA is read by the messenger
RNA (mRNA). The mRNA moves to the
ribosomes and directs the synthesis of
proteins. RNA viruses contain RNA,
which can act as mRNA once in the cell,
or can provide instructions to manufacture its own mRNA. The mRNA can
manufacture viral proteins and so bypass the host DNA. All RNA viruses are
lytic since there is no way for the viral
RNA to become part of the hosts DNA
structure.
Retroviruses
INFOBIT
Facts about the influenza virus:
The influenza virus changes
every year.
These changes cause
seasonal flu epidemics.
These changes mean that the
flu vaccine must be altered
every year.
WEBLINK
Recently, the Ebola virus has
emerged as a highly infectious
virus that is almost always fatal
to humans. Find out what type
of virus the Ebola virus is, and
what kind of life cycle it has.
Research where the Ebola
virus first emerged, what its
symptoms are, and what is
being done to prevent its
spread. Begin your research at
404
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Retroviruses also contain RNA as their

genetic material. When a virus infects a
cell, it produces a copy of viral DNA from
the viral RNA code. As mentioned above,
normal genetic information transfer is
from DNA to RNA. Because these viruses
reverse the direction of genetic information transfer, they are called
retroviruses (retro- means backward).
The human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans.
The virus enters a human white blood
cell and subsequently directs the cell to
make DNA from the viral RNA. The new
DNA becomes part of the hereditary apparatus of the infected human cell. The
host cell does not burst, but it changes
permanently in shape, metabolism, and
growth. Because the host cell does not
burst, the cycle of infection is lysogenic.
The first animal retrovirus was isolated in 1910 and was shown to cause
muscle tumours in chickens. In the late
1960s, Howard Temin at the University
of Wisconsin discovered that the Kaposi
sarcoma virus carries an enzyme for the
manufacture of DNA, using viral RNA as
the genetic template. Shortly thereafter,
Temin and David Baltimore independently isolated the enzyme, which was
named reverse transcriptase because
it transcribes DNA from RNA rather than
RNA from DNA. The DNA copy of the
viral RNA can then use cellular structures to make more viral RNA. Viruses
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that use reverse transcriptase are retroviruses.
Viral Diseases
Like their hosts, viruses show tremendous diversity and do not always
replicate in either a lytic or lysogenic
cycle. For example, the human influenza
virus does not lyse its host cell, but
leaves the cell by pushing out through
the cell membrane. As a result, the influenza virus is covered with a section
of the cell membrane from the host
human cell. Now disguised as a normal
human cell, the influenza virus can
spread through the body undetected and
infect other cells. When a person is
infected with the influenza virus, the
infected person very rapidly develops
influenza (flu) symptoms and becomes
ill.
Influenza is spread via respiratory
secretions (coughing and sneezing). The
incubation period is from one to four
days, and infected persons are contagious for about one week.
Most viruses cause some kind of disease in their hosts. Some common animal diseases caused by viruses are
chickenpox/shingles, hepatitis (A, B, and
C), measles, warts, distemper, mumps,
yellow fever, infectious mononucleosis,
equine encephalitis, and rabies.

restrictions.
FIGURE 12.18 Fruit and leaves from a peach

tree infected with a calico virus.
Contents
Previous Section
Most plant viruses tend to be RNA

viruses. Plant viruses can stunt plant
growth and cause low crop yields.
Viruses can be spread from plant to
plant by insects carrying the virus, or by
farmers and gardeners using tools such
as pruning shears that are infected with
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the virus. Some examples of plant viral

diseases are strawberry ringspot, bean
leaf roll, tobacco mosaic, clover yellow
vein, potato mottle, apple chlorotic, tobacco ringspot, alfalfa mosaic, onion yellow dwarf, wheat mosaic, and turnip
mosaic, and peach calico (Figure 12.18).
Section 12.2 Review

1. Explain why it is difficult to classify
viruses.
2. Draw diagrams to compare the lytic
and lysogenic cycles of a bacteriophage.
3. Compare the life cycle of a eubacterium
with the reproductive cycle of a virus.
4. Make a chart to compare how RNA
viruses are similar to and different
from DNA viruses.
5. Make a chart to compare and contrast
RNA viruses and retroviruses with respect to:
a) viral genetic material
b) fate of host genetic material after
viral infection
c) incubation time in host cell
d) onset of viral disease symptoms.
Applying Inquiry/
6. Describe the early evidence that suggested viruses were much smaller
than bacteria.
7.
Scientists believe that viruses could not

have existed prior to other organisms
appearing on Earth. What evidence
supports this hypothesis? Explain.
8. Use appropriate library resources and

Internet sites to research the cause,
symptoms, and treatment of measles
and mumps.
Making Connections
9. Scientists create new vaccines every
year to combat new strains of flu.
Create a PMI chart to show the economic and societal effects of developing new flu vaccines.

Key Understandings
explain the relevance of current studies of viruses and bacteria to the field of
biotechnology
Foundations of
Biotechnology
Biotechnology can be defined as manipulating living organisms or their components to provide products or to serve
useful purposes. As such, biotechnology
has been used by society since the
beginning of recorded history. We use

yeast to make bread rise and bacteria to
make some cheeses. We have bred farm
animals to produce more milk and meat,
and have bred crop plants to produce
higher yields. This breeding takes time,
often years.
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In the past three decades a set of

laboratory techniques has increased the
pace of biotechnology. Now the DNA of
plants, animals, and other organisms
can be manipulated in the laboratory.
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Thus a narrower and more specific

definition of biotechnology is any commercial application of living organisms
or their products that involves the direct
manipulation of their DNA molecules.
animal cell containing gene

of interest
bacterium
1. Plasmid DNA and

DNA containing gene
of interest are isolated.
2. Gene is inserted into
plasmid.
plasmid
bacterial
chromosome
gene of
interest
DNA of
chromosome
recombinant DNA
(plasmid)
3. Plasmid is inserted
into bacterium.
recombinant
bacterium
4. Large amounts of the gene
of interest are created
through cloning.
Copies of gene
are isolated and
transferred to
other organisms.
Product created
by gene is isolated.
Human growth
hormone treats
growth problems.
5. various applications
Gene for pest

resistance is
inserted
into plants.
FIGURE 12.19 An overview of genetic engineering. Bacteria play a central role in biotechnology.
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Genetic Engineering
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mal cell. Scientists use restriction enzymes to do this. These enzymes act as
chemical scissors. There are many types
of restriction enzymes and each type recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence
in DNA. Once an enzyme recognizes its
sequence, it cuts the DNA at that point
(Figure 12.20). Some well-known restriction enzymes are EcoR1, BAM1, and
HaeIII.
Bacteria contain plasmids. These
plasmids are particularly useful in
biotechnology because they provide a
site for genetic recombination. Plasmids
are removed from the bacteria and cut
with the same restriction enzyme used
to cut the DNA from the animal cell. The
action of the restriction enzyme creates
sticky ends at the cut ends (Figure
12.20). These ends are complementary, so the animal DNA fits into the
plasmid. (The process of inserting one
set of genetic material into another is
called gene splicing.) The plasmid is
now considered to be recombinant DNA
because it has DNA from two organisms.
This plasmid is also known as a cloning
vector.
The production of the cloning
vector happens in-vitro; in other words,
outside of the cell. But to be useful, the
Biologists can now alter the DNA of an

organism directly. The techniques they
use to make these alterations are collectively known as genetic engineering.
Suppose you wanted to take a gene from
one organism and insert it into another
organism. In order to do this, you need
certain tools and techniques to do the
following steps.
1. Cut out a section of DNA from the
first organism.
2. Combine this DNA with the DNA
from another organism.
3. Insert the combined DNA into another organism.
Bacteria and viruses are often used
to perform these steps. Figure 12.19
gives an overview of the steps in genetic
engineering. Bacteria are considered the
workhorses of biotechnology, and without them, genetic engineering would be
extremely difficult.
Bacteria and
Recombinant DNA
The process of genetic engineering starts
with cutting out a section of DNA from
the cell of an organism such as an ani-
Eco Rl restriction enzyme Eco Rl
2. Sticky ends are created.
3. Complementary ends join together

to form recombinant DNA.
bacterial chromosome
DNA containing gene of interest
1. Both sets of DNA
cut with the
same restriction
enzyme.
sticky ends
Eco Rl
DNA
recombination
4. Recombinant
plasmid
inserted into
bacterium.
plasmid
5. Cloning
begins.
FIGURE 12.20 Recombination of genes. This process happens in-vitro, outside the cell. Restriction
enzymes cut both the plasmid DNA and the DNA to be inserted in the same nucleotide sequence on
their DNA.
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recombinant DNA has to be put back

into a cell. To do this, the recombinant
plasmids are placed in a solution containing bacteria. Some of the bacteria
take up the plasmids. Those bacteria that
take up the recombinant plasmids are
then isolated and placed in a growing
medium. These bacteria keep dividing
and the plasmids are reproduced along
with the bacteria. In essence, these
bacteria are all clones. So genetic engineering takes advantage of bacterias
ability to multiply rapidly to get large
amounts of the recombinant DNA.
Genetic engineering requires relatively large amounts of recombinant
DNA, and genetic cloning via bacterial
reproduction is a way of producing large
amounts.
Applications of
Genetic Cloning
Once you have large amounts of recombinant DNA through genetic cloning, this
recombinant DNA can be used in different ways. It can be used to do basic
research on the DNA itself. It can also
be used to create products. For example,
one application of the recombinant DNA
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is the production of human growth hormone. The growth-hormone gene is inserted into the bacterial plasmid and
reintroduced into other bacteria.
Because they now have the gene, the
bacteria produce the hormone. So the
bacteria act as bioreactors, producing
large amounts of the hormone, which
can then be extracted and purified for
medical use. Insulin is also made this
way. These types of drugs are known as
biopharmaceuticals. Table 12.3 shows
medicines currently made by geneticallyengineered bacteria.
Another application is to take the
large amounts of recombinant DNA produced by genetic cloning and isolate the
recombinant DNA. This DNA can then
be inserted into cells of other organisms
growing in culture. If the DNA is incorporated into the cells of a different
species, the organism that receives the
DNA is a transgenic organism. These
foreign genes produce new traits in the
transgenic organism. For example, bacteria can be genetically engineered to eat
oil and used to clean up oil spills.
Scientists have now produced transgenic
plants and animals (Figure 12.21).
TABLE 12.3 Selected Approved Biopharmaceuticals.
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Biopharmaceutical
Approved (year)
Used for
Trastuzumab
1998
one type of breast cancer
Recombinant interferon beta 1-B
1993
management of one type of multiple sclerosis
DNase
1993
one type of cystic fibrosis
Proleukin, IL-2
1992
kidney cancer
Recombinant antihaemopheliac factor
1992
Hemophaelia A
Adenosine deaminase
1990
immunodeficiency in children
recombivax HB
1986
Hepatitis B prevention vaccine
Somatrem
1985
human growth hormone deficiency
recombinant human insulin
1982
diabetes
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Discovering Biology
Modelling Gene Splicing
Imagine that your group has recently been hired by a local television to edit a film to show several scenes of students helping other
students at lockers outside your home room. Many students go
to their lockers, get their books, and walk straight into class. Other
students take the time to talk with others, offer assistance in some
way to help them along, and then enter their class. You would like
to put together a short tape of students helping students, one right
after the other.

restrictions.
Materials
several lengths of 35-mm camera film
scissors
tape
1. Take a long piece of film and tape it into a loop.
2. Take another length of film and cut a scene from it.
3. Cut open the loop and, using tape, splice the new scene into it.
FIGURE 12.21 A transgenic plant. This plant

was grown from cells that had a firefly gene inserted into them. Most of the plants cells have
the firefly gene. When the gene is activated, the
plant glows.
Biotechnology at
Work
Spider silk is one of the strongest materials in the world. It can absorb large
amounts of energy without breaking
or losing its shape. The nearly crystalline proteins make spider silk
stronger and more elastic than hightensile steel or Kevlar, the high-tech
plastic used in bulletproof vests.
For many years, scientists have
sought a way to mass-produce spider
Compare and contrast the process of splicing scenes together

using film and tape with the process of splicing a new gene
sequence into an existing plasmid or chromosome, using restriction enzymes.
Identify what materials you used to correspond to which parts

of the gene-splicing sequence.
silk. Unfortunately, milking the spiders themselves is out of the question

because they are carnivores. Spiders
will eat each other if kept in groups.
Countless attempts to produce artificial spider silk in a lab have also
failed.
Now a biotechnology company in
Montreal has genetically engineered
transgenic goats. The goats cells contain the silk-producing gene from the
orb-weaver spider, so that the milk
of female goats will contain the
spider-silk protein. After the goats
mature in special high-security farms,
the companys staff will milk the females. Back at the lab, the milk will
be purified and the silk protein extracted. This new silk product has
CHAPTER 12
been trademarked as BioSteel. The

company is now designing an artificial spinneret, to spin BioSteel into
long threads.
Scientists hope a litre of milk will
produce two to fifteen grams of
spider silk. The company wants to
produce as much as five tonnes of silk
per year.
When commercial production does
begin, BioSteel could be used to
manufacture artificial ligaments, fishing line, bulletproof vests, artificial
body parts, and surgical sutures. One
day it may even be used to repair
bones, cover domed stadiums, and
shield spacecraft from meteorites.
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Viruses and Genetic

Engineering
Bacterial plasmids arent the only cloning
vectors. Viruses can also be used as
cloning vectors in much the same way.
Viruses tend to be used instead of
plasmids if the DNA strand to be
manipulated is quite long. Using a virus
as a cloning vector takes advantage of a
viruss reproductive cycle. The end result of the lytic cycle is many more copies
of the viruss DNA, which is the goal of
any cloning vector.
The most common virus used is the
lambda phage, which infects E. coli. To
clone a section of DNA, it is spliced
into the phages DNA and the recombinant DNA is inserted back into the
phages protein coat. The phage is then
placed in a test tube of E. coli bacteria.
The phage infects the bacteria and,
through the lytic cycle, replicates its
recombinant DNA many times over.
Another possible use of viruses in
biotechnology is in gene therapy to
correct genetic disorders. If a genetic disorder is caused by a single gene, it might
be possible to replace the defective gene
with a normal allele of that gene. For the
allele to be incorporated permanently
into the patient, the gene would have to
be inserted into cells that multiply
throughout the patients life so that the
new allele will be permanently expressed.
(Stem cells in bone marrow are ideal
cells.) Viruses would provide a way of delivering the normal allele to the cell.
But to do this, the virus would have to
be disarmed so that it did not have any
disease-causing properties of its own.
The process is outlined in Figure 12.22.
Currently, this process is mostly in the
research stage, though there has been
some success treating patients with a disease called adenosine deaminase (ADA).
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normal allele
of a gene
1. Allele spliced into
viral DNA.
recombinant
DNA
virus
2. Virus infects human stem
cell and recombinant DNA is
inserted into a chromosome.
chromosomes
stem cell
nucleus
3. Stem cells are injected

back into bone
marrow of
patient.
bone
marrow
FIGURE 12.22 Genetically engineered viruses

can be used to insert a normal allele into a
human chromosome.
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UNIT 4
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Section 12.3 Review

plasmid. When she mixes the two

pieces of DNA together, will she obtain
recombinant DNA? Explain.
1. Can the term biotechnology be defined

in more than one way? Explain.
2. Explain what is meant by the term genetic engineering.
Making Connections
3. Give reasons why bacteria are important to biotechnology.
6. List three applications of genetic engineering.
4. Explain, with the use of a diagram,

how genetic recombination occurs.
7.
5. A scientist uses the restriction enzyme

ecoR1 to isolate a section of DNA from
a plant cell. She then extracts a
plasmid from a bacterium and uses
the restriction enzyme bam1 on the
In a paragraph, describe the advantages and disadvantages of using

generic engineering in industry. Also,
describe several possible drawbacks of
genetic engineering to society and to
the environment.
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Case
Study
Viruses: Research versus Risk
Defining the Issue
Medical research relating to viruses is something

we think about in relation to finding cures for cancer and other diseases. However, research can
also have unexpected results. Scientists in Australia,
for example, accidently created a deadly virus while
researching a vaccine to make mice infertile. They
inserted a gene into a mousepox virus that creates
large amounts of interleukin-4. Interleukin-4 is one
of a group of proteins that play a role in activating
the immune system. The addition of the interleukin
gene to the viruss DNA was intended to stimulate
production of antibodies against mouse eggs. The
role of the virus was to transport the gene into the
mice. However, instead of boosting antibody production, the altered virus suppressed cell mediated
response, wiping out the part of the immune system that combats viral infection.
Although this new modified mousepox virus
does not affect humans, it is related to the smallpox
virus. There could be the potential for using this
same technology to create another modified virus
that could be harmful to society. Although some people believe that continuation of this research does
pose a threat, others cite evidence that in the vast
majority of cases modified viruses are actually
weaker than the original virus. The goals of research

will likely be scrutinized even more closely as the
technology continues to evolve.

restrictions.m
FIGURE 12.23 Researchers working on human viruses in a

high-containment laboratory.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Identify the issue described in this case study.
5.
Create a concept map to summarize your research.
2.
Research the role of the following in marshalling the immune response: a) antigen, b) antibodies, c) the roles
of the following cells: macrophages, T-cells (helper and
killer), and memory cells.
6.
Propose two controls you would recommend to regulate

this research.
7.
Plan a debate to address the risk of experimentation with

viruses such as the mousepox virus. Do you feel the risk
of experimentation with viruses is justified?
3.
List the stakeholders who are affected by the results of

this research.
4.
Research the ethical, political, social, and environmental impacts that face researchers in virology.
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UNIT 4
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 12.1)
Observing Bacteria
Problem
How are examples of bacteria similar to and different
from one another?
on the bacteria. Describe what you observe. Make

a drawing of what you see.
5.
Repeat Steps 14 for the next two slides.
Part B: Live Samples
Materials

prepared microscope slides of bacteria

compound light microscope
microscope slides
cover slips
lens paper
eye dropper
yogurt
decaying beans
immersion oil
CAUTION:
It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach.
Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap
and water if contact occurs.
Be sure to wash your hands thoroughly with soapy water
when you have finished.
Procedure
Here is the simplest way to investigate non-pathogenic

bacteria. Prepare a wet mount microscope slide in
which samples thought to contain bacteria are placed
in a drop of water on a microscope slide.
1. Transfer a small drop of yogurt to the centre of your
slide. Add a drop of water.
2.
Examine the slide under high power. Draw a diagram of what you observe.
3.
Examine the slide under oil immersion. Draw a diagram of what you observe.
4.
Repeat steps 2 and 3 after preparing a wet mount

slide from water containing decaying beans.

1. Describe how your observations of the prepared
slides under low power differ from your observations under high power.
2. Explain what greater detail is now visible.
3. Compare your observations under high power with
your observations under oil immersion.

4. Is there a relationship between the characteristics
of bacteria observed in each of the samples (i.e.,
yogurt solution and decaying beans)? Explain.
1.
Place a prepared slide on the microscope stage.
5. Speculate on the role of bacteria found in each

sample.
2.
Use the low-power objective to focus on the bacteria. Describe what you see.
Extending
3.
Switch the lens to the high-power objective. What

greater detail is now visible?
4.
Swing the high-power objective out of place. Put a

drop of immersion oil directly onto the microscope
slide. Swing the oil immersion objective lens into
the drop of oil. Focus the oil immersion objective
Part A: Prepared Slides
6. Design a simple dichotomous key to classify the

different types of bacteria observed in Parts A
and B.
7. Prepare a concept map to illustrate the similarities
and differences in appearance of the different kinds
of bacteria.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 12.1)
Preparing and Observing Stained Bacteria

Problem
Materials
compound light microscope
microscope slides
cover slips
lens paper
eye dropper
yogurt
methylene blue
immersion oil
CAUTION: LAL1
It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach.
Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap
and water if contact occurs.
Procedure
Part A: Preparing Stained Bacteria
1.
Heat a clean microscope slide gently by passing it

several times above the flame of a Bunsen burner.
2.
When the slide is cool, place a small drop of dilute yogurt solution on the slide. Spread it thinly
over an area the size of a dime.
3.
Dry the slide in the air to form a thin film.
Part B: Fixing the Bacteria

4.
5.
414
Quickly pass the slide three or four times through

the Bunsen burner flame with the film side up to
fix the bacteria. This will make the bacteria stick
to the microscope slide.
Let the slide cool to room temperature.
UNIT 4
Part C: Staining the Bacteria
In this activity, you will prepare a sample of stained

bacteria.

6.
Cover the film of yogurt with a drop of methylene

blue stain.
7.
Leave the stain on the slide for 2 min.
8.
Gently rinse the excess stain in a beaker of water.
9.
Place a cover slip over the slide.
Part D: Observing the Bacteria

10. Use the low-power objective to focus on the stained
bacteria.
11. Swing the high-power objective into place. If necessary, refocus with the fine adjustment.
12. Swing the high power objective out of place. Put
one drop of immersion oil directly onto the stained
bacteria. Swing the oil immersion lens into position into the drop of oil.
13. Draw and describe what you see.
14. Compare these findings using oil immersion with
your findings under high-power magnification.

1. Compare your results with the unstained yogurt
cells you observed in the previous investigation.
Based on your observations, describe what you saw
under low-power magnification. What greater detail is seen with high-power magnification?
2. Estimate the size of these cells.

3. Different colours of dyes bring out the details of different parts of a cell. What part of the bacterial cell
does methylene blue stain?
4. Design an experiment using certain dyes to stain
different parts of a bacterial cell.
Extending
5. Why do scientists stain bacteria?
6. How does a gram stain differ from a simple stain?
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Key Terms
aerobe
anaerobe
autotroph
bacilli
bacteria
binary fission
biotechnology
cloning vector
cocci
conjugation
DNA
endospore
facultative
genetic engineering
gram stain
halophile
heterotroph
lysis
lysogeny
methanogen
obligate
plasmid
prokaryote
recombinant DNA
restriction enxymes
retrovirus
RNA
saprobe
spirilli
thermophile
transgenic
virus
12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria

Archaebacteria and eubacteria are prokaryotic

organisms. They are generally much smaller and
simpler in cell structure than eukaryotic organsims.
The classification of prokaryotes depends on such

factors as cell shape, nutrition, respiration, and reaction to gram stain.
Prokaryotes can be heterotrophic or autotrophic.

Most are heterotrophic.
Bacteria usually reproduce asexually through binary

fission. Bacteria can increase their genetic variability
by undergoing conjugation.
Bacteria affect humans in a variety of ways. Some

cause disease. Many bacteria have important roles.
Some bacteria maintain soil fertility by decomposing organic waste. Certain species fix nitrogen.
Bacteria are separated into the kingdoms

Archaebacteria and Eubacteria on the basis of
genetic and chemical differences rather than visible structural differences.
Archaebacteria are found in harsh habitats, which

are highly acidic, extremely salty, or extremely hot.
Eubacteria are found in diverse habitats. They are

more widespread than archaebacteria.
All viruses are parasitic and require a host cells genetic material to generate new virus particles.
Viruses replicate either through the lytic cycle or the

lysogenic cycle.
Viruses contain either DNA or RNA. Retroviruses

are RNA viruses that incorporate their genetic information into the hosts DNA.
12.2 Viruses

Recombinant DNA is created by splicing DNA

from an organism into either the DNA of a bacterial plasmid or into the DNA of a virus. This gene
splicing happens in vitro.
Recombinant DNA is replicated by one of two methods. A recombinant plasmid can be inserted into a
bacterium, which then clones itself through binary
fission. Recombinant DNA can also be inserted into
a phage, which then replicates its DNA in a bacterium through the lytic cycle.
Scientists can use the large amounts of recombinant

DNA to conduct research into the DNA itself or to
engineer transgenic organisms.
Bacteria can act as bioreactors to produce products

coded for by recombinant DNA in their plasmids.
Viruses play a role in gene therapy by providing a

means of introducing healthy genes into the DNA.
Viruses are not classified under the kingdoms of life.

They are non-cellular particles that consist of
genetic material inside a protein coat.

1.
2.

the concept map you constructed on the roles of bacteria. Review your web based on what you learned in this
chapter.
Construct a concept map describing prokaryotes. Include
the following terms in your map: bacilli, binary fission,
aerobes heterotroph autotroph, cocci, conjugation, aerobe, anaerobe, gram stain, spirilli. Add additional terms
as you need them.
3.
Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures

in genetic engineering.
4.
In the Case Study debate, what criteria did your class

apply to carrying out the debate? If you were to plan
another debate, what additional or different criteria
might you choose?
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CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
1. Endospores
a) are produced by viruses
b) are reproductive structures
c) are very delicate and can easily be killed
d) are resting structures
2. A virus particle is active only in direct association with
a) organic material
b) a living cell
c) inorganic material
d) other viruses
3. In the relationship between bacteriophages and bacteria, the bacterium
a) destroys the bacteriophage
b) uses the bacteriophage DNA to reproduce itself
c) is killed upon entrance of the bacteriophage
d) provides a host for the bacteriophage
4. An
a)
b)
c)
d)
obligate anaerobe would

grow equally well with or without free oxygen
grow well with free oxygen but better without it
die without oxygen
grow only in the absence of free oxygen
5. A bacteriophage that invades a bacterium and remains

inactive through several generations of the cell is called
a) a lytic bacteriophage
b) a temperate bacteriophage
c) a lysogenic bacteriophage
d) a bacterium
6. Explain the difference between the following terms
a) prokaryote, eukaryote
b) photoautotroph, photoheterotroph
c) chemoautotroph, chemopheterotroph
d) gram-positive, gram-negative
e) virus, retrovirus
7. What evolutionary advantage to you think might result
from eukaryotes having organelles surrounded by membranes?
8. Why are archaebacteria considered the oldest organisms
on Earth?
9. Analyze the different nutritional patterns in bacteria.
How are cyanobacteria both similar to and different from
plants.
10. Which method of nutrition that is most common in
bacteria?
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UNIT 4
11. Develop a concept map to illustrate the different methods of gas exchange in bacteria.
12. Draw diagrams of the three most common shapes of bacteria. Label each diagram.
13. What are the methods of reproduction in bacteria. What
factors affect the bacterias use of one or the other?
14. Explain the advantages to bacteria of having the ability
to form endospores.
15. Create a chart that names the groups found in the
kingdom Archaebacteria and the habitat in which each
lives.
16. Describe the role of bacteria in ecosystems. You may
wish to draw diagrams to help your explanation.
17. Suppose that all the bacteria that act as decomposers disappeared from Earth. What would the consequences be?
18. What characteristics do all viruses have in common?
19. List the ways that viruses differ from one another.
20. Draw and label a diagram of a virus.
21. Why would it be incorrect to say that viruses represent
the most primitive form of life in the biosphere?
22. Describe what happens to the host cells DNA during the
lytic cycle of a bacteriophage and during the lysogenic
cycle of a bacteriophage.
23. Explain how reverse transcriptase enzyme works in a cell.
24. Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences between plant and animal viruses.
25. Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
in genetic engineering.
26. In your own words define the term recombinant DNA.
27. Summarize how viruses are used in genetic engineering.
Applying Inquiry/
28. This is the general photosynthetic equation
light
2 H2X + CO2 H2O +CH2O + 2X
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How do anaerobic bacteria convert CO 2 in the air to

organic compounds in the absence of light? Identify a
bacterium capable of this feat. What can be substituted
for X?
33. Pasteurization in a method of eliminating bacteria

from food. Use the Internet and other sources to research
the method of pasteurization, and which micro-organisms it eliminates.
29. When you consume food, the proteins in the food are
broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine. Suppose you swallowed some viruses. Predict
what would happen to the viruses.
34. Speculate what the consequences would be to the

economy, and to the environment if all bacteria on Earth
became extinct. Give specific examples to support your
speculation.
30. The graph in Figure 12.24. shows the growth of two

groups of bacteria. One group was infected with a bacteriophage and the other group was not.
35. Smallpox, a disfiguring and often fatal viral disease, has

been completely irradicated. There have been no reported cases for decades. However, the samples of the
virus exist in labs. Should these samples be destroyed?
Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons to society
destroying the virus. Decide on the best course of action
and justify your decision.
Number of living bacterial cells

(millions)
uninfected group
36. Compare and contrast the nature of a bacterial infection

to a host organism in terms of invasiveness and toxigenicity.
4
3
37. Explain how bacterial activity affects the makeup of gases

in the atmosphere.
38. Explain why certain viruses, such as the influenza virus,

are difficult to treat.
infected group
1
0
Time (h)
39. Some scientists claim that the recent outbreaks of diseases such as haemorrhagic fever from tropical countries is largely due to human activities such as
deforestation and rapid world travel. Do you agree? Write
brief summary of your point of view.
FIGURE 12.24
Analyze the graph. What effect did the bacteriophage

have on the bacteria? Explain your answer.
31. There may be a relationship between temperature and
the growth rate of bacteria. Propose a hypothesis and
make predictions based on your hypothesis. Develop an
experimental procedure to test this hypothesis. What
variables will you control and what variable will you
manipulate?
Making Connections
40. Recent outbreaks of foot and mouth disease have affected

the livestock and dairy industries in Europe, but as of
April, 2001 the virus that causes the disease has not been
found in Canada. Research the reproductive cycle of the
virus, how the virus is spread, the kinds of animals it infects, the symptoms of the disease, and the methods used
to prevent its spread. Create a pamphlet to increase
the general publics awareness of the disease. Include
information on the threat the virus poses to Canadian
agriculture.
41. Many people have reservations about genetic engineering. Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons of
genetic engineering. Do you feel that genetic engineerings benefits outweigh the risks? Support your opinion.
32. Discuss the role of bacteria in each of the following technological applications:
a) waste management
b) sewage treatment
c) genetic engineering
d) food processing
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CHAPTER 13
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
compare and contrast the structure

and function of different types of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
(13.1)

each life kingdom and a
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)

cycles of representative organisms
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)

from each of the kingdoms
(Investigation 1)
Protists, Fungi, and

Plants
[CATCH: D186 photo of an insect devoured by

a fungus. See photo reference attached.1/3-1/2
page]
Caption: Figure xx.
FIGURE 13.1 Killer fungus. This insect was destroyed by a fungus. There are many weird
and interesting types of fungi, beyond the mushrooms you eat in a salad.
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n this chapter you will explore the world of eukaryotic protists, fungi, and
plants. Protists present a challenge to taxonomists. There are animallike,
plantlike, and funguslike protists, and how to divide the protist kingdom and
the plant, fungus, and animal kingdoms has been an ongoing debate among
taxonomists. For example, some taxonomists group algae in the plant kingdom because they contain chlorophyll. Others consider plants to be multicellular, land-based photosynthetic organisms and place all algae, single- and
multi-celled, in the protist kingdom. This book also places algae in the protist kingdom.
Grouping fungi with plants in this chapter has been done because historically, fungi were once thought to be a lower form of plants. In reality, they
are very dissimilar and their roles in ecosystems differ significantly. Plants,
like algae in the kingdom Protista and cyanobacteria in the kingdom
Eubacteria, use sunlight to form complex organic molecules from simple
materials in the environment. Fungi decompose the organic matter of dead
plants and animals, releasing simple molecules back to the environment
(Figure 13.1). Plants and fungi thus participate in complementary ways in
recycling the materials of life.
Two major groups of plants arose from an ancient form of algae. One
group, the bryophytes, are very primitive and lack true roots, stems, and
leaves. A second group, the tracheophytes, are comprised of modern-day
plants with vascular tissues and are found with spore- and seed-producing
varieties.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
How Much Humus in Soil?

Humus is the dark-coloured portion of soil consisting of organic matter. The
organic matter is the result of fungal decay of dead plant and animal bodies
and waste. To determine the percentage of humus in a sample of soil:
1.
Obtain a small amount of dried soil from a garden. Weigh the sample.
2.
Place the dried soil sample in a crucible.
3.
Heat the crucible strongly for 20 minutes so as to burn away any

humus content present
4.
When cool, weigh the sample.
5.
Calculate the humus content as a percentage of the total mass.
CHAPTER 13
A century ago, taxonomists

hypothesized that fungi
were a lower form of plants.
Think of a mushroom and
a geranium plant. Pair up
with another student in
your class and brainstorm
traits that the two organisms have in common.
Then brainstorm traits that
are different between the
two organisms. In what
sense might it have been
thought that fungi, such as
mushrooms, were a lower
form of a plant? Create a
Venn diagram to show the
similiarities and differences
between plants and fungi.
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13.1 The Protists

Key Understandings
compare the structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe the general characteristics of protists
compare the life cycle of a protist to the life cycle of a prokaryote
classify organisms from the major groups of protists
Organisms in the kingdom Protista first

appeared about 1.5 billion years ago.
For the first two billion years of life in
the biosphere, prokaryotes were the only
organisms. The protists were very different in several important ways from
the prokaryotes. The most striking
difference is that protists are eukaryotic
organisms.
bacteria (E. coli)

2 m long
FIGURE 13.2 Prokaryote
versus eukaryote. This protist,
a eukaryote, is far larger
than bacteria, which are
prokaryotes.
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UNIT 4
protist (paramecium)
75 m long
Comparing Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes
Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have
their DNA in a nucleus that has a membrane. Eukaryotes also have organelles
that are surrounded by membranes (for
example, chloroplasts and mitochondria). Do such differences mean that
eukaryotes are more advanced or more
successful than prokaryotes? Many biologists believe eukaryotes are not of a
higher order than prokaryotes. All
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
living today resulted from millions of
years of natural selection and each
organism is well adapted to its environment, having characteristics that enable
it to live successfully in its particular
environment. The differences are summarized in Table 13.1.
TABLE 13.1 Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Organelles/Cell parts
Cytoplasm contains a watery

suspension of ions, enzymes,
macromolecules, and ribosomes,
floating freely inside the cell
membrane.
Cytoplasm has suspended membranesurrounded organelles (for example,

nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria,
vacuoles) and ribosomes.
Genetic Material
Genetic material (DNA) is

concentrated in a region called the
nucleoid, but no membrane
separates this region from the rest
of the cell.
A true nucleus surrounded by a

membrane contains DNA. A nucleolus
contains RNA.
Metabolism
Chemical reactions to support the

work of the cell are carried out
throughout the cytoplasm in a
suspension of water, ions, large
molecules, and enzymes.
Chemical reactions are carried out in

specialized membrane-surrounded
organelles (for example, respiration in
mitochondria, photosynthesis in
chloroplasts).
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There are other structural differences between prokaryotes and

eukaryotes. First, eukaryotic cells are
usually about 10 times larger than
prokaryotic cells (Figure 13.2).
Eukaryotic cells have many chromosomes in long strands, unlike prokaryotic cells that have a single chromosome
in a ring. With more chromosomes, eukaryotic cells have many more genes.
The kingdom Protista contains about
115 000 species, and they are extremely
diverse in their cell structures, patterns
of nutrition, metabolic needs, reproduction, and habitats. In fact, the kingdom
Protista can almost be described as a
grab bag of organisms that do not fit into
the other kingdoms. The one thing they
have in common is that they are all eukaryotes. The phlyogeny within this
kingdom is very complex and makes it
difficult for taxonomists to classify them.
Currently, there is more than one
accepted way to separate protists into
groups. For a general discussion of
protists, this book groups them by
nutritional patterns into animallike,
funguslike, and plantlike protists, even
though this does not follow any phylogenetic pattern.
Animallike Protists
Some protists formerly classified under
the animal kingdom were often called
protozoans. These protists are animallike because they eat or ingest material
from their surroundings.
Zooflagellates These protists possess one

or more flagella (singular: flagellum)
long whiplike structures that are used to
move the organism through the water.
Those organisms with flagella are called
zooflagellates. Some zooflagellates are
heterotrophs and feed on other protists.
Other species live as internal parasites
on animals, including humans. Some
protozoan parasites are human
pathogens (Figure 13.3).
Sleeping sickness, one of the most
serious diseases of Africa, is caused by
the parasitic zooflagellate Trypanosoma
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restrictions.
FIGURE 13.3 Giardia, a zooflagellate, can

cause digestive problems in humans. This illness
is commonly known as beaver fever since it
can be picked up by drinking polluted lake water.
gambiensis. The carrier for sleeping sickness is the tsetse fly. Humans can contract the disease if bitten by an infected
fly. Once inside, the zooflagellate multiplies in the bloodstream, destroys red
blood cells, and attacks other tissues.
Symptoms include fever, chills, and a
skin rash. When the zooflagellate attacks
the nervous system, the infected person
loses consciousness and may never
recover. The disease is often fatal. Other
species of Trypanosoma cause similar
diseases in cattle and other livestock.
INFOBIT
Termites are one of the few
organisms that eat wood.
Termites cannot digest wood
without the help of a
zooflagellate Trichonympha,
a wood-digesting protist,
which lives by the thousands
in the gut of each termite.
Trichonympha produces an
enzyme called cellulase, which
breaks the cellulose bonds in
wood, releasing the nutrients
from the wood into the gut of
the termite.
Amoebas Amoebas are single-celled protozoans with no set body shape. They
create temporary projections of cytoplasm called pseudopods to move and
feed. They feed on small organisms by
endocytosis, engulfing organisms with
their pseudopods (Figure 13.4). Particles
of food are sealed off in food vacuoles
within the cytoplasm. Organic material
is then digested and absorbed.
FIGURE 13.4 An amoeba engulfing a euglena via endocytosis.
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There are several different
ways of classifying protists.
Research the different
taxonomic systems, and create
charts or diagrams that show
the different groupings.
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Some amoebas are parasitic. For example, amoebic dysentery is a disease

caused by a species of Entamoeba commonly found in tropical regions. If a
person drinks infected water, the parasitic amoebas enter the digestive system
and feed on the intestinal walls, often
causing bleeding. These parasitic amoebas form protective cysts to avoid being
digested themselves, and are passed out
of the body in the feces. In countries with
poor sanitation, Entamoeba can pass
into the water supply and create major
public health problems.
Ciliates Many protozoans are covered

with hairlike projections, or cilia, and
are called ciliates. The cilia move back
and forth like oars to move the organism through the water. Unlike amoebas,
ciliates have an elastic outer covering
called a pellicle that maintains their
shape. All of these organisms are aquatic
and heterotrophic. They inhabit both salt
and fresh water. A freshwater ciliate
called Paramecium is one of the most
common species in this group. The beating of the cilia also sweeps food into its
oral groove (Figure 13.5). When food
Contractile
vacuole
cilia
oral groove
micronucleus
cell mouth
macronucleus
food vacuoles
anal pore
FIGURE 13.5 Paramecium, a ciliate
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reaches the end of the oral groove, the

membrane pinches off, surrounds the
food, and a food vacuole is formed. The
food vacuole breaks free, travels around
the cytoplasm of the cell, and joins up
with a lysosome. The lysosome contains
digestive enzymes that break down the
food. After digestion, the usable products are absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Any undigested food is discharged
through an opening called the anal pore.
Paramecia, like other ciliates, have
two types of nucleia large macronucleus and one or more smaller
micronuclei. Reproduction in paramecia, like other protists, occurs by binary
fission. The micronuclei divide by
mitosis and the macronucleus simply
pinches apart to produce two daughter
macronuclei. This form of reproduction,
involving each individual cell, is
asexual. Paramecia use sexual reproduction in the form of conjugation (Figure
13.6). Two paramecia line up against
each other and join at their oral grooves.
The macronucleus in each cell disintegrates and the remaining micronucleus
undergoes meiosis. The reorganization
of the genetic material through meiosis
and the mutual exchange of micronuclei
by the two conjugating cells may result
in organisms better able to survive when
conditions change.
Sporozoans Sporozoans are protists that

produce spores during their asexual
phase of reproduction. They are
non-motile and parasitic, obtaining their
nutrients from the bodies of their hosts.
The best-known sporozoans are from
the genus Plasmodium. They cause a disease called malaria. These organisms
spend part of their life cycle within
human red blood cells (Figure 13.7).
When a female Anopheles mosquito
infected with Plasmodium bites a
human, the mosquito transmits
Plasmodium into the human circulatory
system. The parasites enter the blood
and find their way to the liver, change
their form, multiply, and re-enter the
bloodstream, infecting blood cells along
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meiosis
mitosis
macronucleus
micronucleus
1n
2n
FIGURE 13.6 In conjugation, two individual paramecia swap DNA to
create new micro- and macronuclei that have new combinations of DNA.
the way. When the red blood cells (filled

with parasites) burst, large amounts of
toxins fill the bloodstream. These toxins
cause alternating chills and fever, which
are the symptoms of malaria. If an uninfected mosquito bites the victim, the
mosquito ingests some of the parasitic
Plasmodium cells along with the blood.
The infecting cells reproduce sexually in

the gut of the mosquito and move to the
salivary glands. These mosquitoes can
then transmit malaria when they bite
humans. Malaria is a very serious disease worldwide. Some types of malaria
can be fatal.
Spores infect
liver cells.
liver cells
Plasmodium undergoes
several developmental
stages in the mosquito.
Cells burst
and release
Plasmodium
cells.
Mosquito bites human, injecting

Plasmodium spores.
Plasmodium
cells
red blood cells

Anopheles mosquito draws up blood and
Plasmodium cells from blood of infected person.
Plasmodium cells
infect red blood cells.
Red blood cells burst and Plasmodium cells enter

bloodstream. Some infect other red blood cells.
FIGURE 13.7 Life cycle of Plasmodium
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Discovering Biology
How Do Protists Respond to Changes in their Environment?
Protists respond to unfavourable conditions in various ways. As single-celled
organisms, they lack complex nervous responses but do exhibit noticeable
behaviours to ensure survival.
1. Bring a small sample of pond or stream water to class.
2. Place a drop of the sample on a concave slide using an eye dropper.
3. Tease apart a square of cotton gauze and place a few strands of the gauze
over the water sample and place a coverslip on top.
4. Use a microscope to examine the pond water under low and then medium
power magnification.
What happens to the protists as they bump into the cotton fibres? Record
how the various types of protist react to the gauze.
Draw diagrams of each type of protist in your sample and classify the organisms using a pond-organism study guide.
Funguslike Protists

a)

b)
FIGURE 13.8 Slime moulds
a) in plasmodial stage, and

b) forming fruiting bodies.
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All funguslike protists are heterotrophic

and most are decomposers that feed
on dead plants and animals by endocytosis. They tend to live in cool, damp
habitats. There are three major phyla of
funguslike protists: acellular slime
moulds, cellular slime moulds, and
water moulds.
Acellular slime moulds are singlecelled protists that have many nuclei.
During most of its life, an acellular slime
mould is a plasmodium, a wall-less
mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei that
have divided over and over by mitosis.
This huge mass of cytoplasm streams
very slowly over an object using an
extended network of strands called
pseudopodia. If food runs out, the slime
mould forms reproductive structures
called fruiting bodies, which produce
spores by meiosis. The spores scatter
and germinate into flagellated cells.
These cells fuse to produce diploid amoeboid cells (Figure 13.8).
Cellular slime moulds live in fresh
water, in damp soil, or in decaying matter such as rotting logs. In the feeding
stage of their life cycle, they move about
as amoebalike cells. When food is scarce,
they come together to form a large mul-
ticellular mass. Eventually, a fruiting

body forms and releases spores.
As their name suggests, water
moulds live in water, though there are a
few species in this group that live on
land. If you have seen a whitish, cottony
mould growing on dead fish, it was
probably a water mould. Water moulds
are all aquatic and feed on the remains
of dead plants and animals. Although
most of the land species are helpful
decomposers of dead matter, a few are
serious plant parasites that attack crops
such as avocados, grapes, and potatoes.
Phytophthora infestans, for example,
was the cause of the Irish potato famine
in the mid-1800s.
Plantlike Protists
There are 24 000 species of protists that
contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis, and so they resemble plants.
Euglenoids A diverse group of species,

euglenoids have been classified by biologists at one time or another both as
plants and as animals. They are unicellular flagellates, but many members of
the group photosynthesize, as do the
algae.
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flagellum
eyespot

restrictions.
contractile
vacuole
chloroplast
food storage bodies
nucleus
pellicle
FIGURE 13.9 Euglena. The flagella are not
clearly visible in the photograph on the left.
The freshwater organism, Euglena,

(Figure 13.9) propels itself through
the water by means of its flagellum.
Euglena obtains its nourishment in
more than one way. In sunlight it is fully
autotrophic, using its chloroplasts to
produce sugars through photosynthesis. In the dark, the organism begins to
lose its chlorophyll and feeds as a
heterotroph on dead organic material
in the water.
Algae Algae are protists that resemble

plants because they have chloroplasts
that contain the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll. Some algae are single-celled,
others live in colonies, and other species
are multicellular, reaching enormous
size. There are six main groups of algae,
but here the discussion centres on three
groups.
One group of algae, called diatoms,
take on a golden coloration due to yellow-brown pigments contained within
glasslike shells made of silica. Their
outer covering is made of two halves that
fit together like the lid and bottom of a
shoebox, and each species has a characteristic shape (Figure 13.10). Diatoms
are tremendously abundant in the

oceans and are the key food source in
marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Dinoflagellates are single-celled
algae that have two flagella (Figure
13.11). Most are photosynthetic, though
some species are heterotrophs. They are
extremely abundant in both marine and
freshwater environments. Each species
has a characteristic shape. The beating
of their flagella causes them to move in
a spinning motion. An interesting characteristic of dinoflagellates is they tend
to be luminescent: when the surrounding water is agitated, they give off light.
Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually by
mitosis.
Dinoflagellates grow rapidly when
nutrients in the water increase or ocean
temperatures rise. This rapid population
growth is called a bloom. When the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax polyhedron
blooms, its called a red tide because
the pigment phycoerythrin that colours
the algae also turns the water red. These
dinoflagellates produce toxins. As shellfish and fish feed on them, the toxins
concentrate in the bodies of the
organisms. The toxicity moves through
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FIGURE 13.10 Each species

of diatom has a characteristic
shape.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 13.11 Dinoflagellates
the food chain as other animals, such as

humans, consume the toxic shellfish and
fishes. There may be enough of these
toxins in the fish and shellfish to cause
serious illness or even death in humans.
Green algae can be single-celled, as
in Chlamydomonas, or colonial, as in
Volvox. Each cell has two flagella, which
move the cell around. They live in fresh
water. Ancient green algae are thought
to have given rise to the first plants because they have cellulose in their cell
walls and because their chloroplasts are
very similar to those of plants. Also, the
bi-flagellated cells of green algae look
like the gametes of multicellular algae
and primitive plants.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 13.12 Red tide
Other groups of algae are large, multicellular, and are commonly known as
seaweeds (Figure 13.13). Multicellular
algae differ from plants in that the zygote, or newly reproduced cell of an alga,
is on its own as an unprotected single
cell. A plant zygote, on the other hand,
grows from a multicellular embryo that
is protected by other parental cells. Also
they differ from plants in that they do
not have tissues or organs.
Algae are extremely important to life
on Earth. Algae perform 50% to 75% of
all photosynthesis on Earth, and so provide most of the worlds free oxygen.
Some types of algae are eaten as is, but
algae are mostly used in the manufacture of food products.
The PlantProtist Divide

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.13 This giant

kelp is brown algae.
A giant kelp can grow to
100 m and has the fastest
growth rate of any organism.
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Some algae can be classified either as

plants or as protists. Whether they fall
into one kingdom or the other depends
on how plants are defined. If plants
are defined as multicelluar eukaryotes
that perform photosynthesis, then multicellular algae fit the description, and
can be considered plants. But multicellular algae are quite different from plants
in many ways. The vast majority of
plants have adaptations for living on
land, such as rigid cell walls and specialized organs for support (roots and
stems), and for photosynthesis (leaves).
Since multicellular algae are all marine,
they do not have these adaptations and
so are considered protists at this time.
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Section 13.1 Review

1. Compare and contrast a prokaryotic
cell and a eukaryotic cell.
Applying Inquiry/
2. Explain how the cell parts of a prokaryote are similar to and different from a
eukaryote.
3. Compare the life cycle of an organism
from the kingdom Protista to the life
cycle of an organism from the kingdom
Eubacteria.
4. Organisms in the Kingdom Protista are
defined by what they are not. Explain.
5. Explain how Paramecium carries out
reproduction. How is its reproduction
similar to and different from the reproduction of a typical eubacteria?
FIGURE 13.14
6. Explain why Euglena is difficult to classify.

7.
Why are algae not classified as plants

even though they contain chlorophyll?
8. What are slime moulds? Why are they

classified as protists?
9. Classify each of these two

organisms in Figure 13.14. To which
kingdom does each belong? Explain
your decision.
13.2 The Fungi

Key Understandings
describe the general characteristics of fungi
classify organisms from the three major groups of fungi
describe the life cycle of a typical fungus
Most people are familiar with mushrooms at the market but what about
moulds? A commonly recognized mould
forms on over-ripe oranges. Moulds and
mushrooms are both fungi.
Characteristics of Fungi
The kingdom Fungi contains heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
saprobes, absorbing their food from
decaying matter. Therefore, they are

decomposers. They release digestive
enzymes into their immediate environment. These enzymes break down the
dead organic matter. Fungi then absorb
the digested food through the cell wall.
This method of nutrition is different from
slime moulds, which take up their food
by simple endocytosis.
The bodies of most fungi consist of
threadlike filaments called hyphae. As
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Discovering Biology
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Do All Moulds Look Alike?
In this activity you will look at the structure of moulds. Your teacher
will give you two samples of mouldy food in sealed plastic bags.
One bag contains mouldy bread and the other bag contains mouldy
fruit. Observe the moulds in the plastic bags using a hand lens.
How are the moulds similar and different?
Draw a diagram of your observations.
CAUTION: Do not open the sealed bags at any time. Return the sealed bags
to your teacher when finished the activity and wash your hands in
soapy water.
the hyphae grow, they branch, forming

a tangled mass of filaments called a
mycelium that is well adapted to absorb
nourishment from its food source. In a
forest, for example, the almost invisible mycelia of fungi obtain nutrients
from fallen trees, thus decomposing the
trees. Most hyphae have cell walls. A
substance called chitin strengthens the
cell walls of fungi instead of cellulose
found in plants.
Investigation
Refer to page 445,
Investigation 1
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UNIT 4
Reproduction
Most species in the kingdom Fungi
reproduce both asexually and sexually
by means of spores. Spores are single
reproductive cells that have a haploid
number of chromosomes. The
100 000 species of fungi are grouped
into divisions based on their pattern of
sexual reproduction. (Phyla are called
divisions in the kingdom Fungi.) Fungi
with spores in a caselike structure, called
a sporangium, are placed in the division Zygomycota. Fungi with spores in
a saclike structure, called an ascus,
are placed in division Ascomycota. Fungi
with spores that form in a clublike structure, called a basidium, are placed in
the division Basidiomycota.
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Caselike Fungi
(Division Zygomycota)
Most fungi in the division Zygomycota
are terrestrial saprobes. One common
mould is bread mould, or Rhizopus
(Figure 13.15). Its tangled mass of
mycelium grows and produces several
types of hyphae. Threadlike hyphae that
extend over the surface of the food are
called stolons. As the hyphae make contact with the food, they extend into the
food source, such as bread, like roots of
a plant. These hyphae are called
rhizoids. Rhizoids support further
growth of the mould by absorbing water
and sugars from the bread. After a few
days, black caselike structures appear
among the hyphae on the surface of the
bread. These caselike structures are
called sporangia and grow at the tips
of reproductive hyphae. Each sporangium has the ability to produce several thousands of spores. When each
sporangium breaks open, air currents
carry the spores and, if conditions are
ideal and another food source is available, those spores germinate and begin
to grow on the new food source. Hyphae
branch out and form a new mycelium.
This form of reproduction is asexual and
takes place when growing conditions are
most favourable.
Under less favourable conditions,
Rhizopus reproduces sexually by developing two genetically different types of
hyphae. The two types of hyphae are
represented as plus and minus. When
plus and minus hyphae make contact

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.15 Bread mould
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with each other in a conjugation process,

their nuclei join together to produce a
zygospore. The zygospore remains
dormant until the growing conditions
improve, at which time the zygospores
germinate and form a new mycelial
mass.
Saclike Fungi
(Division Ascomycota)
Fungi in this division are characterized
by their formation of a sac structure used
in reproduction. They include mildews,
some moulds, and some yeasts (Figure
13.16). Sac fungi produce two kinds of
spores. Spores produced as a result of
sexual reproduction are called
ascospores. They are produced in an
ascus or sac. Spores produced asexually
are called conidia. Conidia are formed
in chains at the tips of specialized reproductive hyphae.

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.16 A truffle is an ascomycete that

forms fruiting bodies underground. They are
considered a delicacy and sell for hundreds of
dollars.
Powdery mildews are parasitic

ascocarps that infect cereal grains, lilacs,
roses, and many other plants. They
can be a serious problem to grape
growers.
Yeasts Yeasts are unicellular. Some

are grouped with the ascomycetes because they form an ascus in one stage
of their life cycle. Each yeast cell is ovalshaped and surrounded by a cell wall.
The cytoplasm contains a large vacuole
and a nucleus. Under ideal conditions,
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yeasts reproduce very rapidly by

budding (Figure 13.17). A bud begins
as a small bulge that pushes out from
the cell. As the bud grows larger, the nucleus divides by mitosis. One nucleus
moves into the bud and the other remains in the original cell. Often, the budding cell remains attached to the original
cell and the reproductive process repeats
itself over and over and a long chain
forms. Under poor conditions, yeasts reproduce sexually by forming ascospores.
In the ascospore stage, yeasts can remain dormant for extended periods of
time until conditions for growth improve.
Yeasts can tolerate conditions lacking in oxygen and carry out anaerobic
respiration, or fermentation. In this
process, sugar molecules are broken
down by enzymes in the yeast cells, releasing energy for use by the yeast cells.
Carbon dioxide and alcohol are released
as by-products. This fermentation
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WORDORIGIN
Ascospore from the Greek
words askos meaning a skin
or a leather container and
sporos meaning a seed.
Investigation
Refer to page 446,
Investigation 2

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.17 A budding yeast cell.
ability of yeasts is used to advantage

by the baking industry. Bakers yeast is
added to the dough. As the yeast cells
feed on the sugar molecules in the
dough, carbon dioxide is given off, which
causes the dough to rise. Wine makers
use other strains of yeasts that generate
high volumes of alcohol in fermentation.
Not all yeasts, however, are useful to humans. Some yeasts cause infections of
the skin, lungs, and kidneys. Many are
parasitic and cause disease. In trees,
yeasts cause Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight, and apple scab.
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Clublike Fungi
(Division Basidiomycota)
basidium
fruiting
body
hyphae
FIGURE 13.18 Structure of a

mushroom. Hyphae form an
underground network called a
mycelium and a reproductive
structure above ground called
a fruiting body.
The fungi that are grouped into the

divison Basidiomycota include mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, and
bracket fungi and some yeasts. Many
members of this division are saprobes,
and others are parasites.
Under damp conditions in soil or in
rotting wood, the mycelial mass of
hyphae form knobs that absorb water
and grow quite large. Pushing up
through the soil or perched on rotting
logs, these knobs become spore-bearing
structures called fruiting bodies (Figure
13.18). The umbrellalike cap of each
species of mushroom has a characteristic shape and is used as the basis of its
classification. The cap contains many
gills, or thin sheets, that radiate out like
spokes on a wheel. Each gill bears
thousands of clublike reproductive cells
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called basidia (singular: basidium). Each

basidium contains several thousand
spores. The spores are haploid. When
they are blown by the wind onto suitable ground they germinate through cell
division. The new mycelium that grows
from a spore is also haploid. When two
mycelia are of complementary mating
types, shown as red and blue in Figure
13.19, they fuse. After fusing the resulting mycelium is dikaryotic, meaning
each cell has two nuclei. All the daughter cells also have two nuclei. When conditions are right, a reproductive
structure, the fruiting body, forms.
Initially, the mushroom is made of
dikaryotic cells. Eventually, the nuclei of
the cells on the gills fuse to form diploid
cells. Meiosis happens shortly after in
these cells, creating haploid spores.
These spores drop out from the gills and
are blown away in the wind.
6. meiosis
5. fusion of nuclei
(fertilization)
hap
loi
d
d
l oi
dip
1. spore formation
spore from another

mushroom
gills
4. mushroom
formation
2. germination
dik
FIGURE 13.19 Life

cycle of a mushroom,
a Basidiomycete.
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aryo
tic
3. fusion
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restrictions.
Next Section
Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 13.20 Parasitic club fungi can cause

large crop losses.
FIGURE 13.22 A puffball releasing spores
Parasitic rusts and smuts make up

another important group of fungi. Smuts
cause damage to grain crops such as
corn, oats, wheat, rye, and barley (Figure
13.20). Parasitic fungi are difficult to
control because they have complex
reproductive cycles that often include
more than one host. For example, the
wheat rust fungus infects the common
barberry bush as well as the wheat plant.
Bracket fungi can exist as saprobes
on the wood of dead trees, or as parasites on the wood of living trees. The
mycelium of a bracket fungus penetrates
and breaks down the woody tissue of its
host and, as it grows, the fungus itself
takes on a woody texture. Over the years
of its life, the bracket fungus adds additional layers of hyphae and appears like
a shelf extending out from the woody
bark of a tree (Figure 13.21).
Puffballs (Figure 13.21) are round

or pear-shaped fungi. Often white, they
resemble mushrooms, except that they
release their spores only when the fruiting body dries up and splits open.

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.21 Bracket fungus
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Imperfect Fungi
There are some species that have no
known sexual phases and so cannot be
classified into divisions. These species
are known as imperfect fungi. Many of
these species cause diseases in plants
and animals, including humans.
You have probably seen the green
mould, Penicillium growing on oranges.
Penicillium was considered an imperfect
fungus, but has recently been classified
as an ascomycete. In 1928, a Scottish
bacteriologist named Sir Alexander
Fleming made history when he observed
Penicillium growing on a Petri dish
containing a culture of Staphylococcus
bacteria. Surprisingly, he discovered that
the bacteria only grew on the dish in
places where the green mould did not
grow. In other words, something about
the Penicillium mould prevented the
growth of the Staphylococcus bacterium.
Over the next few years, Fleming
experimented with Penicillium and
eventually isolated a chemical substance
produced by the fungus. This chemical
inhibited the growth of bacteria and
became known as penicillin. It was the
first antibiotic to come into medical use
to fight infectious diseases caused by
bacteria.
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WEBLINK
Research the life cycles of a
slime mould, a zygomycete,
and an ascomycete. Draw
diagrams of each and describe
how they are similar and
how they are different.
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restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.23 Penicillium is inhibiting the

growth of Streptococcus, shown by the clear
area surrounding the Penicillium.
FIGURE 13.24 In athletes foot, the mycelium

of Trichophyton invades the top layer of skin,
causing sores.
An antibiotic is a substance
produced by a fungus or other micro-organism that inhibits the growth of microbes. Antibiotics are not all alike in
their chemical properties and the way
they attack bacteria. Some antibiotics,
such as penicillin, prevent the formation
of cell walls in reproducing bacteria
(Figure 13.23). Other antibiotics prevent
the formation of bacterial cell
membranes.
The common mould Trichophyton
rubrum causes a contagious fungal infection called athletes foot that occurs
most often between the toes and on the
soles of the feet. This fungus thrives in
warm, damp places, such as the floors
of showers, swimming pools, and
gymnasiums. The symptoms of athletes
foot are reddened, cracked, and peeling
skin, accompanied by itching or
burning and stinging sensations (Figure

13.24). Keeping the feet dry and cool
prevents athletes foot, especially during
warm weather that encourages fungal
growth.
Penicillin Makes a
Comeback
In recent years the medical profession has expressed concern about
the over-prescription of common
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Fungal Associations
Certain fungi associate with other organisms for the mutual benefit of both
partners.
Lichens are symbiotic associations
of a fungus with either an alga or a
cyanobacterium (Figure 13.26). In this
partnership, the alga provides nourishment to the fungus through photosynthesis. The fungus provides the alga with
water, essential minerals, and protection
from dryness in its barren and often
rocky habitat (Figure 13.25).
antibiotics to patients with relatively

mild bacterial infections. The effectiveness of certain antibiotics, such
as penicillin, has declined as the
number of resistant bacteria to these
drugs has increased. Highly resistant
bacteria evolved in response to penicillin until the antibiotic could no
longer effectively control their growth.
Doctors prescribed other antibiotics,
such as erythromycin, to replace
penicillin. As bacteria developed resistance to these other drugs, the

pressure on them to resist penicillin
decreased, and recently, Canadian
doctors have again had success using
penicillin. This illustrates the dynamic
nature of the evolution of organisms
in response to the shifting environmental conditions that affect their
growth and survival.
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fungal
hyphae
algal cell

restrictions.
dense
hyphae
algal
layer
loose
hyphae
dense
hyphae
FIGURE 13.25 Lichens dont need soil to grow.

They can grow on bare rock. They are the light
green patches on the rocks.
Other fungi associate with the roots

of plants. These associations are known
as mycorrhizae. The fungus mycelium
forms a thick web over the surface of a
plants roots. Sometimes the hyphae actually penetrate the surface of the roots
cells. The fungal mycelium absorbs
water and minerals from the soil, which
it passes to the root. The plant provides
the fungus with amino acids and sugars.
Mycorrhizae are essential to the
health of plants and most plants have
them. Plants with active mycorrhizae
tend to be a deeper green and can better resist droughts and temperature
extremes than plants of the same species
that lack mycorrhizae on their roots.
rock
lichen
WORDORIGIN
Mycorrhizae from the Greek
words mukes meaning mushroom or fungus and rhiza
meaning root.
FIGURE 13.26 The structure of a lichen
INFOBIT
Still other fungi associate with insects. Some leaf-cutting ants cultivate a
particular species of fungus, providing
it with leaves on which it feeds. The ants
also remove competing fungi. The fungus grows and then serves as food for
the ants.
Scientists have recently

discovered a fungus
associated with white pine
trees that has a unique method
of supplying nitrogen to the
trees. Instead of absorbing
dead organic matter, this
fungus paralyzes and then kills
soil insects.
Section 13.2 Review

1. What nutritional pattern do all fungi
have in common?
2. Draw a diagram of a typical fungus.
Label relevant structures.
3. Create a chart that lists examples, general characteristics, and type of reproduction (sexual, asexual) for each group
of fungi.
4. Name the characteristic used to classify fungi into various phyla. Describe
how this characteristic differs between
the phyla.
5. Fungal interactions can be beneficial

or harmful. Give examples of both
types of interactions, and indicate the
relationship.
Making Connections
6. Create a chart showing the economic,
environmental, or health impacts of
five different fungi.
7.
If all fungi on Earth were to disappear,

what immediate and long-term results
would you predict? Explain.
CHAPTER 13
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13.3 The Plants

Key Understandings
describe the general characteristics of plants
describe the life cycles of various plant groups
classify organisms from the various plant groups
The earliest plants appeared in the biosphere around half a billion years ago.
Until that time, the land surface of Earth
was nothing more than a mass of
barren rock. The earliest land plants are
thought to have evolved from simpler
algal-like ancestors that lived in the
oceans. Even though primitive plants
were tiny, their metabolic activities
helped to convert bare rock into soil that
could support the needs of their succeeding offspring. During the millions of
years leading up to the present, more
and more plant species evolved. Today,
the biosphere is full of animals, fungi,
protists, and bacteria living in widely different environments. But the most visible kingdom by far is the plant kingdom.
mosses
General Characteristics
By broad definition plants are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that carry
out photosynthesis. Their cells have cell
walls containing cellulose. They are
mostly land-dwelling. More precisely
defined, plants develop from embryos
protected by tissues of the parent plant.
This is one of the reasons why algae are
not classified as plants.
Plants include mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants (Figure
13.27). Plants are adapted primarily for
life on land (though a few are aquatic)
and thrive in a wide variety of environments. For example, mosses grow in
moist environments, whereas cacti are
well adapted for life in harsh deserts.
flowering
plants
ferns conifers
flowers
seeds
Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.

restrictions.
vascular
tissue
a) Mosses
b) Ferns
multicellularity
green algae
(ancestors)
FIGURE 13.27 Four main varieties of plants.
Mosses are multicellular; ferns have vascular

tissue; conifers have seeds produced in cones;
flowering plants have seeds produced in
flowers.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
c) Conifers
434
UNIT 4

restrictions.
d) Flowering plants
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Plant Life Cycles
sporophyte dominance (2n)
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
meiosis
multicellular
diploid
adults
ferns
gymnosperms
angiosperms
sporophyte
generation
mosses
1n
egg
sperm
fertilization
mitosis and
development
zygote
sis
multicellular
gametophyte
gametophyte dominance (n)

FIGURE 13.29 The generational dominance varies among plant divisions.
gametes
spores
1n
2n
is
tos
mi
mi
to
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
gametophyte
generation
2n
meiosis
fertilization
multicelluar
sporophyte
zygote
mitosis
FIGURE 13.28 Human life cycle compared to
plant life cycle.
Life cycles vary among the different plant

groups but they share certain characteristics. Plants go through an alternation of generations. One generation is
haploid (1n) and the other is diploid (2n).
These are called the gametophyte and
sporophyte generations. This is very different from the animal life cycle.
Animals, such as humans, are diploid
throughout their entire lives (Figure
13.28). The only cells that are haploid
are the gametes (eggs and sperm), produced through meiosis. At conception,
these haploid cells from two individuals

fuse to create a new, diploid zygote.
Through mitosis, a new diploid individual is produced.
A plant produces haploid reproductive cells called spores. Unlike animal gametes, spores do not have to fuse with
another cell. A spore will undergo cell division to grow into a new plant. However,
this generation is haploid. These haploid
plants eventually produce gametes,
which fuse to produce a diploid zygote.
The zygote then grows into a diploid
sporophyte plant. These generations can
look quite different from one another. In
the more primitive plants, the gametophyte generation dominates, but in the
seed-producing plants the sporophyte
generation dominates (Figure 13.29).
capsule
sporophyte
stalk
gametophyte
Non-Vascular Plants
The term bryophyte includes mosses,
liverworts, and hornworts. Until recently
they were all included in one division
(the botanical term for phylum), but each
is now placed in its own division. (See
Table 13.3 on page 444). These plants
CHAPTER 13
rhizoids
FIGURE 13.30 In the moss

Mnium, the sporophyte
grows on the gametophyte.
435
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lack true roots, stems, and leaves and

they do not have specialized tissues to
transport materials throughout the plant
body (Figure 13.30). They usually grow
in dense mats in moist environments
and are only a few centimetres tall
(Figure 13.31). Most bryophytes live on
the soil but some grow on bare rock, dead
trees, and even on buildings. They first
appeared about 400 million years ago.
Liverworts can reproduce asexually
by vegetative reproduction. A small segment of the plant either branches off or
breaks off the original and grows into an
identical new plant (Figure 13.32).

a) Mosses

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Bryophytes also reproduce sexually (Figure 13.33). In order for sexual

reproduction to occur in non-vascular
plants, sperm have to swim from the
male reproductive organ to the female
reproductive organ. So water, even in
minute amounts, must be present in
order for fertilization to occur. This is
another important reason why
bryophytes grow in wet environments.
Like fungi, bryophytes produce
spores rather than seeds. A plant that is
the result of fertilization releases the
spores. Wind or water can carry the
spores to a suitable environment where
they develop into mature plants.
The Importance of
Bryophytes
b) Liverworts
FIGURE 13.31 Some
bryophytes

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.32 Vegetative reproduction in a

liverwort. Plantlets form within the gemmae
cups. Eventually the plantlets break off, develop
rhizoids, and grow into complete new plants.
Sphagnum moss, or peat moss, grows in

open, wet environments such as bogs.
Most bogs are found in boreal regions.
As the moss begins to decay, it accumulates and compresses older layers of moss.
Because of the constant wetness and lower
oxygen levels in the bog, the moss layers
only partially decay. These layers are
known as peat and may reach depths
of over 10 metres. Dried peat has been
used for hundreds of years as a fuel. In
n
n
n
spores
n
spore capsule
spores germinate
and grow into ...
sporophyte
n
antheridium
sperm
2n
n
parent
gametophyte
2n
developing
sporophyte
in archegonium
archegonium
2n
zygote
egg
n
FIGURE 13.33 Life cycle of a bryophyte
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UNIT 4
male
gemetophyte
female
gemetophyte
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storage for carbon dioxide. As a consequence, more carbon dioxide remains in

Earths atmosphere, contributing to the
greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe
the increasing level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is the main cause of
global warming.

restrictions.
The Vascular Plants

FIGURE 13.34 Commercial harvest of a peat
bog in Quebec.
parts of Finland and Russia it is still burned

for heat. In Ireland, power stations use peat
to generate electricity.
Peat moss is also used around the
world as a soil additive. As a result of
extensive harvesting, peat bogs in some
countries are disappearing at an alarming rate. In Canada, only a very small
percentage of peat bogs are harvested.
The peat industry is carefully managed
to cause minimal damage to bogs.
Canada is the third-largest producer of
peat moss in the world next to Russia
and Germany. The main areas of
commercial peat harvesting are in
southern Quebec (Figure 13.34) and
northeastern New Brunswick.
With the worldwide harvesting of
bogs, these complex ecosystems are
disappearing. Peat bog removal also
affects the carbon cycle. Bogs store vast
amounts of Earths carbon dioxide.
The removal of bogs has reduced ground
Tracheophytes are a diverse group of

plants that include most modern-day
plants. They first appeared on Earth
about 360 million years ago. They are
well adapted to life on land due to the
presence of conducting tissues called
xylem and phloem, which transport materials throughout the plant. Because of
this feature, tracheophytes are known as
the vascular plants. The evolution of
conducting tissues allowed plants to
grow much taller than the bryophytes.
The vascular plants are divided into two
groups: the spore-producing plants and
the seed-producing plants.
Spore-producing
Vascular Plants
The club mosses and horsetails (Figure
13.35) contain the smallest and most primitive members of the tracheophytes. They
are descendants of ancient plants that
made up most of Earths forests hundreds
of millions of years ago. Today, they mostly
grow in marshes and on the edges of
streams. One Central American variety of
horsetail grows to 10 m high.
INFOBIT
One type of horsetail is known
as the scouring rush
because it was used in the
1700s to clean pots and pans.
Because the stem contains
the sandlike substance, silica,
scouring rush stems can be
used to scour dishes or pots.
FIGURE 13.35 Spore-producing vascular plants

a) Ferns

b) Horsetails

c) Club mosses
CHAPTER 13
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As mentioned previously, tracheophytes were the dominant form of plants

on Earth during the Carboniferous
Period (about 360 to 290 million years
ago). The fossilized remains of this group
of plants form the coal deposits. Humans
have been using coal for centuries as a
fuel source.
Ferns are closely related to club
mosses and horsetails but are much
more widespread. They have also been
on Earth for about 400 million years.
Over 12 000 species of fern can be found
from the arctic to the tropical rain
forests. They are found mostly in shady
and wet environments.
The leaves of ferns are called
fronds. Ferns have underground stems
called rhizomes. Ferns produce spores
in sporangia, tiny containers found on
the underside of the fronds (Figure
13.36). Like bryophytes, ferns need
water to complete their life cycle because
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sperm have to swim to the archegonia

to fertilize the eggs.
Seed-producing
Vascular Plants
The seed producers are the most
successful plants on Earth. They have
highly specialized organs, namely leaves,
stems, and roots that have allowed them
to adapt to a wide variety of environments. The two main groups of seedproducing plants produce either cones
or flowers. In both groups, sexual
reproduction occurs by the process of
pollination, or the transfer of pollen
from where it was formed to a receptive
surface. Because of pollination, seedproducing plants dont need water to
complete their life cycle. Seeds can
survive in dry environments and provide
an efficient way of dispersing offspring.
n
n
2n
spores
n
sporangium
sorus
mature
sporophyte
gametophyte
rhizoid
n
archegonium
2n
developing
sporophyte
antheridium
2n
gametophyte
embryo
sperm
FIGURE 13.36 The life cycle of a typical fern. The young sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.
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FIGURE 13.37 Welwitschia, a gneta, has long, straplike leaves. Ginkgo leaves are fanshaped and are dropped in the fall. Cycads are not ferns. Their leaves are long needles.


a) Welwitschia

b) Ginkgo
Gymnosperms
In addition to conifers, there are three
groups of gymnosperms: gnetae (singular: gneta), ginkgos, and cycads (Figure
13.37). Cycads flourished 225 million
years ago, but now only a few species remain in subtropical and tropical areas.
Ginkgoes were far more common 170
million years ago. Now only one species
survives, Ginkgo biloba. Today, conifers
are the most numerous group of gymnosperms. The leaves of conifers are elongated into what are commonly called
needles.
The most striking characteristic of
gymnosperms is that they have special-
c) Cycad fern
ized reproductive structures called cones.

Gymnosperms have two types of cones:
male and female (Figure 13.38). Male
cones, called pollen cones, produce pollen
grains. Female cones, called seed cones,
produce ovules. The male cones release
pollen grains, which are carried in the
wind and some of them drift into the female cones. Once inside, the pollen grain
produces sperm cells by mitosis. These
sperm cells leave the pollen grain and fertilize the ovules in the seed cone. After fertilization, zygotes grow into seeds on the
surfaces of the cones scales. Once the cone
has matured, and if it lands on good soil,
the seeds can develop into new plants.
male cone
INFOBIT
Gingko trees are often used in
landscaping because they are
resistant to fungi and pollution
and their leaves turn gold in
the fall. But ginkgos have a
drawback. Mature trees are
either male or female. Female
trees bear fruit that smells like
rotting garbage!
pollen
(contains sperm)
female cone
egg

restrictions.
mature
tree
growth
seedling
FIGURE 13.38 The life cycle of a gymnosperm.

Pine trees have two types of cones. The male
cone is far smaller than the female cone.
embryo
inside seed
FIGURE 13.39 Softwoods from conifers are

used extensively in construction.
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The Importance of
Gymnosperms
The wood from conifers is referred to
as softwood. Approximately 50% of
Ontarios forests consist of conifers.
Canada supplies about 20% of the worlds
TABLE 13.2 Canadian

Softwoods and Their Uses.
Conifer
Region where found
Commercial uses
Eastern spruce across Canada

(black, white
spruce)
framing lumber, plywood, shipping crates,

pulp
White pine
Manitoba to
Maritimes
window and door frames, doors, cabinets,

toys, carvings, caskets
Balsam fir
across Canada
construction lumber, framing lumber,

plywood, particle board, shipping crates, pulp
Eastern
Hemlock
Ontario to Maritimes
framing lumber, roofing, plywood, pulp
Douglas fir
southern B.C.
construction lumber, plywood, railway ties,

doors (the most versatile of all wood)
Western
red cedar
B.C.
shingles, doors, fencing and fence posts,

decks, siding, pulp
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softwood and is the second-largest producer next to the United States. British
Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta
are the main producers, with B.C.
providing over half of the softwood produced (Figure 13.39). Ontario supplies
about 10%. In 1996, Canadian softwood
exports to 87 countries generated over
$12 billion in revenue. The main importers of our softwood are the United
States, Japan, and the European Union.
Canada uses about 4% of the worlds
supply of softwood; our southern neighbour uses about one-third of the worlds
supply! But per capita, Canada is the
biggest consumer.
Softwoods are grouped commercially into four categories: Spruce-PineFir, Hemlock-Fir, Douglas Fir, and
Western Red Cedar. Table 13.2 indicates
some uses of members of each of these
groups along with the region in Canada
where the tree grows.
Angiosperms
anther
pollen
tube cell
mature
sporophyte
sperm cells
microspores
pollen
germination
GAMETOPHYTE
GENERATION
(n)
stigma
Angiosperm Life Cycle
carpel
ovary
seed
germination
and growth
pollen
tube
megaspore
egg
SPOROPHYTE
GENERATION
(2n)
fertilization
seed
zygote
embryo
(developing zygote)
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UNIT 4
Angiosperms are the flowering plants.

They are the most widespread of all land
plants, with about 250 000 species
worldwide. All angiosperms reproduce
sexually by means of flowers, through
the process of pollination. Angiosperm
seeds are contained in a protective wall
that develops into a fruit.
The angiosperms are the most successful group of plants on Earth. Using
flowers as their reproductive structures frees them from requiring a watery environment like the mosses and
ferns do. The ovules of angiosperms are
more protected than those of gymnosperms and their well-protected seeds,
dispersed through a variety of
ingenious methods, also contribute to
the success of the angiosperms.
In order for the angiosperms to
reproduce, an ovum inside the pistil, the
FIGURE 13.40 The life cycle of an angiosperm
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female part of the flower, must be fertilized by a sperm cell, contained in a

pollen grain. Once fertilized, the zygote
develops into an embryo contained in
a seed. Seeds are enclosed in a fruit. The
seeds must be released from the fruit
and find suitable soil in which to
germinate into a new plant. The
angiosperm life cycle is summarized in
Figure 13.40.
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stamen
carpel
stigma
anther
style
filament
ovary
petals
sepals
receptacle
pedicel
bud
flower
FIGURE 13.42 Flower parts

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.41 The typical angiosperm flower

contains both male and female reproductive
structures.
Pollination Angiosperms have developed

an amazing variety of methods to transfer pollen from one flower to another. In
self-pollination, pollen from the same
plant fertilizes an egg cell. More commonly, pollen is transferred from one
plant to another of the same species
(cross-pollination) by wind, water, or
animals (Figure 13.43). Pollen produced
in the anthers is transferred to the
stigma of another plant by one of these
methods. Flowers are adapted to a
specific method of pollination.
The Flower The group is defined by the

distinct reproductive structure: the
flower. The outermost part of a flower is
made of the sepals and petals (Figure
13.41). The mature flower contains both
female and male parts. A stamen is
the male reproductive part of the flower.
Pollen grains, each containing sperm
cells, are produced by the anther (Figure
13.42). The female reproductive structure is called the carpel. At the base of
the carpel is the ovary, which produces
an egg inside an ovule.
Pollen is released and carried to
other flowers of the same species by various means. When a pollen grain lands
on the stigma, the carpel opening, it
travels down the pollen tube and one
of the sperm inside the pollen grain
fertilizes the egg in the ovary.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.43 Animal pollinators. Bees (top)

and other insects transport pollen from flower to
flower. Hummingbirds (bottom) also pollinate the
flowers they visit.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 13.44 Bee in a

scotch broom. This species of
orchid has a specialized
flower. When a bee lands on
the flower, the curved anther
dabs pollen onto the back
of the bee.
For example, insect-pollinated flowers,

are usually brightly coloured, and produce sweet nectar to attract insects.
Many flowers have also developed a
specialized landing area or platform
designed so that visiting insects,
unknowingly, can pick up pollen efficiently (Figure 13.44).
INFOBIT
Fertilization The process of fertilization
A fruit is defined as a fertilized

ovary of an angiosperm. Many
people are not aware that by
this definition, tomatoes, corn,
peas, and cucumbers are all
fruits.
is summarized in Figure 13.45. The

pollen grain germinates when it lands on
a stigma. A pollen tube grows down into
the ovary. One of two nuclei in the pollen
grain, called the generative nucleus,
divides into two sperm nuclei. One sperm
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nucleus fuses with the ovum to produce

a zygote. The other sperm nucleus fuses
with the two polar nuclei of the ovule to
become endosperm tissue. As in gymnosperms, the endosperm stores
nutrients for the developing seed. After
fertilization, the ovule develops into a
seed and the ovary into a fruit. The
ovary enlarges, and its wall thickens to
form the fruit. The other flower parts die.
In fleshy fruits, the ovary wall thickens into a soft pulp that has a high sugar
content. Not all fruits are fleshy. Dry
fruits, including nuts such as almonds
and cashews, are often mistaken for
seeds. While seeds mature within the
ovary, the ovary walls themselves become modified to form the fruit (Figure
13.46). Fruits that develop from a single ovary in a single flower are called
simple fruits. Tomatoes, plums, and
pears are examples of simple fruits.
Fruits that develop from many ovaries
in a single flower are called aggregate
fruits. Raspberries are an example.
tube cell
pollen grain
sperm cells
stigma
pollen tube
sperm cells
style
fusion of one sperm

cell with nuclei of central
cell to form endosperm
(3n)
micropyle
ovary
ovule
with female
gametophyte
fusion of one
sperm cell with
egg to form zygote
(2n)
egg
(n)
pollination
pollen tube
growth
double
fertilization
FIGURE 13.45 Fertilization in angiosperms. Two fertilizations take place. One

fertilization creates a triploid cell, which forms the endosperm to nourish the young
embryo when it germinates. The other fertilization creates the zygote.
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carpels
receptacle
a Apricot
(one carpel, one seed)
b Pea
(one carpel, many seeds)
c Strawberry
(many carpels, many seeds,
one receptacle)
FIGURE 13.46 The flesh of an apricot a) and a pea pod b) are mature ovaries and
so are fruits. A strawberry c) is actually a receptacle. The seeds on the surface
are actually minute carpels, each containing its own seed and fruit.
Seed Dispersal There are many ways in

which seeds find their way to suitable
soil in which to germinate. Some seeds,
such as those of the milkweed (Figure
13.47), are blown by the wind. Coconut
seeds are often carried on water. The
cocklebur seeds have tiny hooks that
allow them to attach to animal fur. As
you know, the fruits that humans eat are
also eaten by birds and other animals.
The seeds of these fruits are often carried away, undigested, in the digestive
tract of the animal. They may find suitable soil in which to germinate after the
animal eliminates the seeds with its
undigested wastes.

restrictions.
FIGURE 13.47 The seeds of some plants, such

as this milkweed, have shapes or structures that
enhance dispersal by the wind.
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INFOBIT
In 1941, George DeMestral, on
a walk in the woods in his
native Switzerland, decided to
look more closely at the burrs
collected on his clothing and
his dog. Under the microscope
he observed the intricate, tiny
hooks on the burrs. He realized
that he could use natures
invention to serve a variety of
uses that the zipper could not
serve. After many years of
trying to develop a suitable
fabric containing the many
tiny hooks, Velcro was finally
patented in 1955. Velcro is used
in clothing, shoes, medical
supplies, luggage, aircraft, and
sports equipment.
TABLE 13.3 Summary of

plant Classification. Note that
botanists refer to phyla as
divisions in the plant
kingdom.

restrictions.
a)

restrictions.
b)
FIGURE 13.48 Some seeds are enclosed in tasty fruit a) that entices animals, who
eat the fruit and disperse the seeds. Other seeds are enclosed in burrs b) that attach to
passing animals who disperse the seeds over wide distances.
Non-vascular plants
Division
Common name
Number of species
Bryophyta
mosses
Hepatophyta
liverworts
6500
Anthocerophyta
hornworts
100
Lycophyta
club mosses
Sphenophyta
horsetails
Pterophyta
ferns
Coniferophyta
conifers
550
Cycadophyta
cycads
100
Ginkophyta
ginkgo
Gnetophyta
gnetae
70
Anthophyta
flowering plants
12 000
Vascular plants
Spore-producing plants
1000
15
12 000
Seed-producing plants
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
250 000
Section 13.3 Review

1. Explain the difference between crosspollination and self-pollination.
2. In angiosperms, the fertilization is
called double fertilization. Explain why
this term is appropriate
3. Why do bryophytes (non-vascular
plants) survive best in moist, shady
habitats?
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UNIT 4
4. Explain why a cucumber, which is

commonly thought of as a vegetable, is
actually a fruit.
5. What characteristic would you expect
wind-pollinated flowers to have that is
different from bee-pollinated flowers?
6. Using diagrams, compare the life cycle
of a moss to that of an angiosperm.
Indicate similarities and differences.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 13.2)
Growing Moulds
Problem
Part B: Examining Mould
In this activity, you will be growing and classifying

moulds.
Procedure
1.
Examine the bread mould under the binocular

microscope through the covered Petri dish. Draw
your observations and label the hyphae, stolons,
rhizoids, sporangiophores, sporangia, and spores.
2.
Obtain a prepared slide of Rhizopus. Observe its

structures under low power on a compound
microscope. Repeat your observations under
medium and high power. Draw a diagram of what
you observed.
Materials
slice of bread (preferably home-baked
without preservatives)
milk
Petri dish
paper towels
scissors
eye dropper
hand lens
prepared slide of
Rhizopus
binocular microscope
compound microscope
marking pen
CAUTION: Wear goggles and when you are finished, rinse

your Petri dish in a dilute solution of bleach. Wash your hands
with soapy water when finished the activity.

1. Why do you think that the section of bread was
dampened with milk?
2. Did your mould resemble the Rhizopus on the slide?
Explain why or why not.
3. Classify the moulds that grew on your bread.
Part A: Culturing Mould
4. How are the bread moulds different from edible

mushrooms?
Procedure
1.
Cut several thicknesses of paper towel to fit the bottom of a Petri dish.
5. What type of mould(s) grew on your bread? Explain

why you classified them as you did.
2.
Moisten the towels and place them in the bottom

of the Petri dish.
6. Moulds are often the main cause of many allergies.

Research which part of the mould causes allergies.
3.
Place a section of bread (without the crust) over the

paper towels.
7. Can fruit mould grow on bread? Explain.
4.
Dampen the section of bread with a few drops of

milk.
Extending
5.
Place the cover over the Petri dish and seal with
masking tape.
6.
Set the petri dish aside at room temperature or

slightly warmer for 4-5 days.
7.
Without removing the cover to the Petri dish,

examine the bread mould daily with a hand lens.
When a white fuzzy growth appears on the
surface of the bread with black dots sprinkled
throughout, you can start Part B.
8. Design an experiment to test the effect of each of

the following variables on the growth of bread
mould: heat, light, moisture.
9. Design an experiment to grow edible mushrooms
on a portable substrate (e.g., a log).
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 13.2)
Improving the Growth of Yeast
Problem
Experimental Design
Suppose you are a research scientist for a biotechnology company. A large bakery has hired your company to help them improve the ways they grow yeast.
Yeast cells are used to make baked goods rise, giving
more volume and a lighter texture. Each scientist has
decided to investigate a variable that will enhance
the growth of the yeast.
The following steps outline a standard procedure
for growing yeast.
1.
The following variables may affect the growth of

yeast: pH, temperature, oxygen, water, amount of
sugar, and salt concentration. Choose one variable you believe will enhance the growth of yeast.
2.
Use the standard procedure for the growth of yeast.

Design an experiment to test the effect of the
chosen variable on yeast growth. Ensure your
experimental design is complete.
3.
Carry out your experiment, following all relevant

safety requirements.
4.
Collect and record your data appropriately.
1. Measure 1.0 g of yeast on the triple beam balance.

2. Measure 0.25 g of sugar.
3. Pour sugar and yeast into a 150-mm test tube.
4. Add 5.0 mL of distilled water to the test tube.
Ensure that all yeast is in the solution.
5. Place the test tube in a warm water bath (incubate
at 37C) for 10 minutes.
6. After 10 minutes remove the test tube from the
warm water bath and measure the height of the
foam produced using a ruler. This will indicate how
much growth has occurred. Note other characteristics of the foam, such as density, as a confirmation of the results.
1. Compile the information from your own and your

classmates (colleagues) work. Analyze that information to agree on the final recommendations to
the bakery.
2. Explain, using your knowledge of fermentation, the
use of sugar in this investigation.
3. What factors influenced the rate of CO2 production?
4. Which factor maximized the growth of yeast?
Materials

yeast
triple beam balance
sugar
150-mm test tube
large beaker
other items as needed
5. Describe from your observations the best condition

for maximum yeast growth.
6. Identify any experimental error that could have affected your results.
7. If you repeated this procedure, what changes would
you focus on and why?
8. Draw a specific conclusion regarding your variable.
Prepare a report on your data and conclusion to
present to colleagues who have investigated other
variables.
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UNIT 4
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Key Terms
alternation of generations
anal pore
angiosperm
anther
ascospore
ascus
basidium
bryophyte
budding
cap
cilia
cones
conidium
diatom
dinoflagellate
endocytosis
endosperm
eukaryote
fermentation
flagella
food vacuole
fruit
fruiting body
gametophyte
gills
gymnosperm
hyphae
lichen
lysosome
macronucleus
micronucleus
mycelium
mycorrhizae
oral groove
ovule
pellicle
plasmodium
pollination
pseudopod
rhizoid
slime mould
sporangium
spore
sporophyte
sporozoan
stigma
vascular plant
water mould
zygospore
13.1 The Protists

The kingdom Protista contains only eukaryotic organisms. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded
by a membrane, and organelles also surrounded by
membranes.
The protist kingdom is extremely diverse. Most
are unicellular. Some resemble animals by ingesting food particles. Some resemble plants
by having chlorophyll. Some resemble fungi by
absorbing molecules from their surroundings. Some
are parasitic.
Most fungi consist of a tangled mass of hyphae that

form a mycelium. The fungi can reproduce asexually as well as sexually.
Lichens are an alga and a fungus living together in

a symbiotic association. Mycorrhizae are associations of fungi with the roots of plants.
13.3 The Plants
Amoebas move by means of pseudopods, flagellates

by means of flagella, and ciliates by means of cilia.
Sporozoans are non-motile.
It is thought that plants evolved from the green
algae.
All members of the plant kingdom are multicellular

and have cell walls made of cellulose. They are almost all land plants, though some are aquatic.
The plant life cycle involves an alternation between

the gametophyte and sporophyte generations.
The bryophytes lack vascular tissues.
Vascular plants are divided into two groups: the

spore-producing tracheophytes and the seedproducing plants.
13.2 The Fungi

Most of the kingdom Fungi are multicellular

eukaryotes. All lack chlorophyll and absorb nutrients from their environment.
The seed-producing plants are the most successful

group of plants. They include the gymnosperms and
the angiosperms.
Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures:

the caselike Zygomycota, the saclike Ascomycota,
and the clublike Basidiomycota.
Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants and angiosperms are flowering plants.

1.
Look back at the Checkpoint on page 419 and revisit the

Venn diagram you made before beginning this chapter.
Draw a revised diagram if you would change or add
information based on what you have learned.
2.
Starting with the word protists, create a concept

map that shows how species in the kindgom Protista resemble species in the plant and fungi kingdoms.
3.
Review the skills you have used so far in completing the

Investigations in this unit. Complete a chart to summarize the skills you have developed.
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CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
1. Small, hair-like projections used for locomotion by
paramecia are
a) pseudopodia
b) cilia
c) flagella
d) mycorrhizae
2. Eukaryotic cells
a) have genetic material but no nucleus
b) are more primitive than prokaryotic cells
c) carry out chemical reactions throughout the
cytoplasm in a suspension of water
d) evolved from prokaryotic cells
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
kingdom Protista contains

the unicellular prokaryotes
the unicellular eukaryotes
only animal-like eukaryotes
the Fungi
4. In which division in the kingdom Fungi are mushrooms found?

a) Zygomycota
b) Ascomycota
c) Basidiomycota
d) Imperfect fungi
5. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
male portion of a flower is the

sepal
carpel
stamen
stigma
6. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand

the different types of protists.
7. Name three methods of locomotion used by some species
of protists and describe these methods.
8. Draw a labelled diagram to describe the life cycle of
the malarial parasite, Plasmodium vivax.
9. How do euglenoids resemble plant and animal cells?
10. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand
the different types of fungi.
11. Why are slime moulds classified as protists and not fungi?
12. Describe the hyphae that make up the bread mould
Rhizopus.
13. Describe the conjugation process in the case-like
Zygomycota.
14. How are saclike fungi different from the club fungi?
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UNIT 4
15. Describe the structure of a mushroom.

16. In what sense might lichens be called pioneer
organisms?
17. You are shown an organism that looks somewhat like a
mushroom. Describe at least three characteristics that
would enable you to classify the organism as a plant or
as a fungus.
18. What are the characteristics of bryophytes?
19. What are the characteristics of tracheophytes?
20. Describe how a fruit is formed.
21. Researchers have found that some plants have the
ability to produce juvenile insect hormone. This substance helps to regulate the timing of insect development.
By producing large amounts of the hormone, plants
are able to prevent insect predators from going through
metamorphosis (i.e., changing from a larva to an adult
insect). How might this be of survival benefit to these
plants?
22. What characteristic do all species in the protist, fungi,
and plant kingdoms have in common?
23. Compare endospores in bacteria with spores in protists.
24. Do you think malaria could be transmitted through blood
transfusions? Explain your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
25. Table 13.4 provides examples of different types of fruits.
Obtain samples from each of the categories, investigate
their similarities and differences, and provide descriptions that distinguish one type of fruit from another.
26. Predict where you might find mould spores in your home.
Design an investigation to see if your predictions are
valid.
27. Create a dichotomous key to classify an unknown organism into the protist, fungi, or plant kingdom.
28. A paramecium can reproduce asexually about 700 times
before dying. However, if it reproduces sexually through
conjugation in addition to asexually, it can reproduce
many more times. Develop a hypothesis for this
observation.
29. Figure 13.49 shows the effects of mycorrhizae on plant
growth. For each species, one tree grew with
Contents
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Type of Fruit
Examples
Description
legume
pea, bean
achene
sunflower, buttercup, dandelion
grain
corn, wheat, rye, oats
samara
maple, elm
nut
acorn, walnut, cashew, chestnut
pome
apple, pear
drupe
peach, cherry
berry
grape, tomato, blueberry
pepo
cucumber, squash, melon, pumpkin
hesperidium
orange, lemon, grapefruit
aggregate
strawberry, raspberry
multiple
pineapple, fig
TABLE 13.4
without mycorrhizae
with mycorrhizae
6
5
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Canada who visit their former homeland have an extremely high risk of contracting the disease because they
have lost their immunity. Explain why these immigrants
to Canada are more at risk upon revisiting their former
homeland than when they resided there originally.
31. Explain why it is unwise to assume that it is safe to drink
the water from lakes in our provincial parks. Include a
specific protist in your answer. Do additional research
on this protist and prepare a public information pamphlet on the problem for provincial park visitors.
32. Biodiesel fuels are becoming an alternative to existing
energy sources for combustion engines. Developed
over the last decade, they blend soybean oils with algae,
resulting in fuels with high lubricating, clean burning
and high energy-releasing properties. Explain why the
addition of algae to the plant oils might enhance the energy-releasing properties of the fuel.
33. Describe what environmental conditions might cause
harmful protists, such as Gonyaulax polyhedron, to multiply rapidly in large numbers, creating a red tide. How
can it be explained that deadly toxins from a microscopic
protist can often have fatal effects on humans, fish,
and other organisms?
34. Explain what natural benefit in nature a fungus like
Penicillium might have due to its ability to produce a
chemical inhibiting the growth of Staphlococcus bacteria. How has this ability been utilized in medical
practice?
4
height (m)
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3
2
35. Some species of vascular plants are considered endangered. Comment on Canadian and provincial habitat
protection efforts and land-use policies as they relate
to populations and communities of vascular plants.
1
0
pine
hemlock
beech
poplar
Tree species
FIGURE 13.49
mycorrhizae and one without mycorrhizae. Analyze the

graph. How does the growth of the two plants in each
species compare? Make a generalization about the
growth of plants that have mycorrhizae.
Making Connections
30. It has recently been reported that the incidence of malaria
in Canada has increased significantly over the last
decade. One of the main reasons for the resurgence of
this tropical disease is the belief that immigrants to
36. Some people enjoy eating wild mushrooms and go into

the countryside to hand-pick them. Unfortunately, many
people become seriously ill or even die from misidentifying, and then eating, poisonous ones. Do you think
picking wild fungi should be made illegal? Create a
PMI chart on this proposition and, based on your chart,
back up your opinion.
37. Blooms of toxic protists are on the rise worldwide. These
blooms have serious effects: large numbers of fish die as
a result, and shellfish become contaminated. Humans
can become seriously ill or die if they eat the contaminated shellfish, and fisheries have to be shut down, resulting in losses for the fishing industry. A rapid increase
in coastal development, and the pollution created by
these developments is thought to be behind these blooms.
What should be done to decrease the incidence of toxic
blooms? Should coastal development be stopped? Decide
on a course of action to address this problem.
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CHAPTER 14
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
The Animal Kingdom


each life kingdom and a
representative virus (14.114.5)

cycles of representative animals
representative virus (14.114.5)

from each of the life kingdoms
(Investigation 2)
use appropriate sampling

procedures to collect various
organisms in a marsh, pond, or
other ecosystem, and classify
them following the principles of
taxonomy (Investigation 2)
FIGURE 14.1 Both invertebrates and vertebrates teem in the natural ecosystem created by a
coral reef, including the corals themselves. Human activity and climate change threaten the
biodiversity of coral reefs. If these rapid environmental changes continue, coral reefs and the
species that depend on them for survival will continue to disappear at an alarming rate.
450
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hink of an animal. Do you think of a furry, four-legged creature, something that rustles through brush or roams across savannah? Or do you
picture a creature with buds, tentacles, spines, suckers, something that creeps
across the ocean floor or feeds in the human intestine? Although all animals,
including humans, share certain features, they have evolved a vast diversity
of anatomical and physiological characteristics, and their life cycles vary
widely.
Biologists classify animals into one of two categories: vertebrates (including mammals, birds and reptiles), and invertebrates (including insects, worms,
and corals). Vertebrates make up only a small fraction of animal species. Coral
reef, like the one pictured here, teems with animal life. Sponges, corals, jellyfish, clams, sea stars, crabs and squid, all invertebrates, thrive there, along
with vertebrates. In terrestrial environments, invertebrates like flatworms,
leeches, snails, spiders, and insectsthe most numerous of all animal species
flourish along with terrestrial vertebrates.
Researchers have cloned sheep and cows and have genetically modified
flies, mice, and more for purposes such as improving our agricultural industry
and accelerating research into human disease.
Discovering Biology
Mammals
Birds
Complete a gathering grid

to list what you know about
the differences between
fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals.
Copy the following
gathering grid into your
notebook:
Reptiles
All living things must exchange gases to remain alive. Fish exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen with their watery environment using their gills. A
typical goldfish measuring 6 cm long can pump about 31 L of water at 20C
across its gills a day. How long would it take for this goldfish to pass all the
water in a 20-gallon aquarium (1 L = 0.26 gal) through its gills? Predict what
would happen if the water temperature were to drop to 10C. Explain your
reasoning.
Amphibians
CHECKPOINT
Fish
Pumping Capacity of a Fish
Body
covering
Method of
locomotion
Habitat
Skeleton
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
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14.1 Simple Animals

Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of sponges and cnidarians
describe the life cycles of sponges and cnidarians
What is an animal? They vary from

microscopic organisms that live in water,
to the largest land animal, the elephant.
However, some characteristics are common to all animals.
They are heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes. They cannot make

their own food so they must ingest
other organisms.
Their cells lack cell walls and have
only cell membranes surrounding
the cell contents.
They have two types of tissue that
are only found in animals: nervous
tissue and muscle tissue.
Most animals reproduce sexually.
The diploid stage of the life cycle is
dominant.
The presence of a coelom, or internal body cavity, and other structural

and physiological modifications.
Most biologists today believe animals are

descended from colonial flagellated protists. Like other colonial protists, the
ancestor of animals had cells that were
nearly identical to each other and not
particularly specialized in their form or
function (Figure 14.2). Some colonies
may have developed cells with different functions for feeding and locomotion.
Because these varieties lived more
efficiently than other varieties, they had
a selective advantage over those that
did not specialize. They grew larger and
eventually evolved into organisms that
we know as animals.
Body Plan
The organization of an animals internal
structures and the way the structures
function define an animals body plan.
Although body plans provide clues to the
evolutionary relationships of different
animals, they are used more to cluster
animals into a common classification
scheme based on structural similarities.
Biologists examine the features of an animals body plan in order to organize the
smaller taxa such as phyla and classes.
These features include:
452
UNIT 4
The type of body symmetry. Does the

body look asymmetrical or does it
show bilateral or radial symmetry?
The degree of cell organization
within the body. Do cells exist
independently or form functional
groups, such as tissues or organs?
cells
stalk
FIGURE 14.2 The earliest animals are thought

to be related to this choanoflagellate, a colonial
protist.
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The Simplest Animals

(Phylum Porifera)
Some living sponges resemble the ancestral colonial protist. Sponges belong
to the phylum Porifera and vary widely
in shape and size depending on their
habitat. Biologists have identified about
5000 species of sponges, all aquatic and
mostly marine. As sessile organisms,
sponges stay fixed in one place (Figure
14.3).

restrictions.

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Sponges absorb water through numerous tiny pores that cover the body
and expel water through larger openings
called oscula. As water travels through
canals within the sponge, the sponge absorbs oxygen and releases waste through
gas exchange and filters out small organisms.
Sponges have three main types of
cells, each with a special function.
Flattened epithelial cells cover the inner
and outer surfaces of the body. Some
epithelial cells surround pores and
control their size to regulate the flow of
water. Collar cells maintain the flow of
water through the sponge by beating a
flagellum that extends into the inner
canal. The collar that surrounds the flagellum filters micro-organisms that the
cell ingests. Some food passes to a third
type of cell, the amoeboid cell. As amoeboid cells move between epithelial cells
and collar cells, they digest and distribute
nutrients, produce reproductive cells, and
develop an internal skeleton. The skeleton of the sponge, composed of spicules
formed from calcium carbonate (chalk)
or silica (glass), supports the body.
INFOBIT
Today, most households use
synthetic sponges to wash,
bathe, and clean, but some
specialty stores sell natural
sponges. Natural sponges hold
more water and wear better
than synthetic sponges. The
ones sold grow only in warm
shallow seas. Loofah
sponges, are not sponges at
all, but the dried fibrous interior
of a tropical gourd.
osculum
epithelial cell
collar cells
FIGURE 14.3 The shapes, colours, and sizes
of sponges vary depending on their aquatic
environment. Smaller sponges (top) live in
shallow marine waters with strong tidal action.
Larger sponges with branching structures
(bottom) live in deep, quiet waters and may
grow to be over a metre in height.
central cavity
spicule
jellylike
inner layer
amoeboid cell
pore cells
pore
Sponges have a simple, asymmetrical body plan made up of a loose

collection of cells (Figure 14.4). They
have no mouth, no digestive cavity, no
muscles, and no nervous system. Within
the animal kingdom, only sponges, the
simplest multi-cellular organism, have
an asymmetrical body plan and lack definite cell layers.
FIGURE 14.4 Because sponges lack true

organs, differentiated cells such as the epithelial,
collar, and amoeboid cells, perform specialized
functions at the cell or tissue level.
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The Animal Kingdom
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Sponges reproduce both sexually

and asexually. In most species, a single
sponge is hermaphroditic, producing
both eggs and sperm. Water currents
carry sperm from one individual to
another to fertilize eggs. Sponges also
reproduce asexually by budding.
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oral
The Two-Layered Animals

(Phylum Cnidaria)
Cnidarians show the first major evolutionary changes from the poriferans:
they have symmetrical bodies with cells
organized into tissues. Cnidarians
include hydrozoans (class Hydrozoa),
jellyfish (class Scyphozoa), and sea
anemones, sea fans, and corals (class
Anthozoa). About 10 000 cnidarian
species, both solitary and colonial,
survive today. They range in size from
microscopic animals to jellyfish that can
grow to be 2.5 m wide. All cnidarians
show radial symmetry. An organism
with radial symmetry has body parts
that repeat around one main axis point
(Figure 14.5).
Cnidarians have two layers of cells,
an outer layer, or ectoderm, and an
inner layer, or gastrodermis (Figure
14.7). A jellylike layer called the
mesoglea sits between the ectoderm and
Discovering Biology
1.
2.
3.
454
FIGURE 14.5 Radial symmetry
the endoderm. The mesoglea of jellyfish

is like thick jelly, giving the animal its
common name. Some ectodermal cells
have muscle fibres that contract to
move the animal. Other ectodermal cells
have a nerve net that allows the cnidarian to respond to environmental stimuli.
All cnidarians have stinging structures called nematocysts in specialized
ectodermal cells called cnidocytes.
Cnidocytes, found on armlike structures
called tentacles, release toxic substances
through the nematocysts to paralyze
prey (Figure 14.6). The nematocysts
deliver the sting that some jellyfish
inflict on swimmers.
Observing Hydra
Obtain a few living hydra and place them into a watch glass
containing pond water.
Observe the hydra using a dissecting or stereomicroscope.
Use an indirect or cool source of light. Examine them for a
few minutes. Do not disturb the watch glass.
Is the hydra mainly motile or sessile?
Are any of their cells far away from direct contact with
water?
Why is the hydra able to function without a circulatory
system?
Does the hydra have a mouth? An anus?
Can you observe a right-hand or left-hand side of a hydra?
Explain.
Touch the tentacles with the tip of a dissecting needle. Describe
what happens. Does the whole body or only the tentacle
respond?
UNIT 4
aboral

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.6 The tentacles of jellyfish extend

down from the outer edge of a cuplike body. The
tentacles of some larger species can grow to be
25 m long.
Contents
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The tentacles of cnidarians extend

from the mouth region and carry prey
to the mouth. The mouth leads to a sac
called the gastrovascular cavity, which
functions in digestion, circulation, and
gas exchange. The same opening functions as both mouth and anus. Food
passes in one direction and waste passes
out in the other.
The life cycle of most cnidarians
consists of two stages (Figure 14.7). In
the first stage, the polyp looks like a
cylinder and sits on an underwater surface with its tentacles extended into
the water. Polyps are asexual and
reproduce by budding. They usually
dominate the life cycle of hydrozoans. In
the second stage, the medusa, floats like
a bell or an umbrella, usually with its
mouth and tentacles facing downward.
Medusae produce eggs and sperm and
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release them into the water (Figure

14.8). Once fertilized, the egg develops
into a free-swimming larva called a
planula. The planula eventually settles
to the bottom and develops into a new
polyp. The medusa stage dominates the
life cycle of scyphozoans. Anthozoans
lack the medusa stage. The life-cycle
stages and modes of reproduction vary
between the three cnidarian classes.
medusae
2n
Medusa
gastrovascular
cavity
mesoglea
gastrodermis
epidermis
young
medusa
mouth
egg
2n
sperm
zygote
tentacle
budding
polyp
2n
Polyp
mouth
free-swimming
larva (planula)
tentacle
epidermis
sessile
polyp
2n
mesoglea
2n
gastrodermis
gastrovascular
cavity
FIGURE 14.7 Cnidarians develop into two

different stages with different body structures:
the flowerlike polyp and the bell-shaped
medusa.
FIGURE 14.8 In many cnidarians, the polyp

and medusa stage both enter the life cycle. In
jellyfish, a fertilized egg develops into a planula
that develops into a polyp. The polyp buds into
other polyps and the polyps bud into medusae.
The mature medusae produce and fertilize
new eggs.
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INFOBIT
Some divers and snorkelers
carry meat tenderizer in
their first-aid kits to treat
Portuguese- man-of-war stings.
Meat tenderizer contains the
enzyme protease, which helps
break down the protein toxin
that causes the painful sting.
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Portuguese man-of-war is a
hydrozoan colony made up of many
specialized polyps (Figure 14.9). One
polyp forms a gas-filled float. Some
polyps have elongated tentacles to capture prey. Some specialize in digesting
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prey, and yet others specialize in

producing eggs and sperm.
Some sea anemones can move
slowly on a base they attach to a surface
underwater, while most corals are sessile colonial organisms (Figure 14.10).

restrictions.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.9 The Portuguese man-of-war is a

free-floating hydrozoan whose medusae and
polyps combine to form colonies.
FIGURE 14.10 Sea anemones (top) have no

protective covering. Most coral polyps (bottom)
generate a protective skeleton of calcium
carbonate that produces distinctive patterns in
different coral species.
Section 14.1 Review

1. Explain the evolutionary relationship
between protists and sponges.
2. Draw a diagram showing the typical
structure of a sponge. Label the
diagram.
3. Explain how being a hermaphrodite
would be an advantage for sessile
organisms.
4. Describe the structure and symmetry
of cnidarians.
5. How do the structures that cnidarians
use for locomotion compare with the
flagella and cilia of other organisms?
6. Describe the two life-cycle stages of
cnidarians and explain how each is involved in a typical life cycle.
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UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
7.
Investigate the body plan of a sponge

to determine how its structures make
it well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
8. Since the early 1980s, marine parks
and reserves have been established
around the world to protect the coral
reefs and the animals and plants that
thrive on them. Access appropriate library and electronic tools to research
the causes of reef destruction and develop an action plan to conserve their
existence.
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Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of flatworms, roundworms, and segmented worms
Body Plan
animals. Most animal species have a

fluid-filled body cavity between the body
wall and the digestive tract. When this
cavity is lined with a tissue called mesoderm, the cavity is called a coelom. The
solid body plan of animals without a
coelom allows nutrients and oxygen to
diffuse into all body cells and wastes to
diffuse out. But because of this, their bodies must be relatively thin and flat.
Having a body cavity provides several
advantages. Internal organs are suspended in the cavity and are cushioned
by the fluid in the space so that they
are not twisted out of shape by muscle
movements in the body wall. The body
cavity also provides more room for internal organs to expand. For example,
ovaries expand as they develop eggs.
Having a mesoderm-lined coelom makes
it possible for the digestive tract to develop specialized regions and also allows
for the formation of blood vessels, which
are formed from mesoderm. Having a
body cavity also allows animals to become larger.
Certain evolutionary changes altered the

body plan of simple animals, allowing
them to move through their environment
more efficiently and diversify. Most
animals that move exhibit bilateral
symmetry (Figure 14.11). In a bilaterally symmetrical animal, an imaginary
line drawn down the middle of the body
from the anterior, or front end, of the animal to the posterior, or back end, divides
the animal into two sides that mirror each
other. The dorsal refers to the upper surface, or back, of the animal. The ventral
refers to the animals underside, usually
the side with a mouth.
Most bilaterally symmetrical animals
move through their environment with
their anterior end forward. Sense organs
and nerve cells usually concentrate at
the anterior end of a bilaterally symmetrical animal, a development known
as cephalization. As the animal moves,
this anterior sensory structure acts as a
control centre that allows the animal to
respond quickly to stimuli.
Although some cnidarians
can move slowly through
their environment, their radially symmetrical bodies
dorsal
have no front end that first
anterior
encounters the environment.
Evolution favoured bilaterally
symmetrical animals with
cephalization that could sense
their environment as they
moved through it. As a result,
ventral
most of the worlds living
species today are bilaterally
symmetrical.
The development of the
coelom can be traced through
FIGURE 14.11 In bilateral symmetry, the two halves of an animal are mirror images of
the groups of wormlike
one another.
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
posterior
457
Contents
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The Flatworms
(Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Image omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 14.12 A branched

gastrovascular cavity in
the planarian, a freshwater
plathelminth, increases
surface area for digestion.
Platyhelminths show bilateral symmetry.

Because they have few internal organs,
all cells that transport oxygen to internal
tissues or excrete liquid wastes need to
be near the surface of the animal to
better exchange gas and wastes with the
environment. The flat body plan of platyhelminths brings more of these cells to
the surface and gives the phylum its common name of flatworm. The flattened
shape also prevents the presence of a
fluid-filled coelom.
In most flatworms the mouth opens
into a dead-end sac, or gastrovascular
cavity, with branches (Figure 14.12). The
branches increase the surface area of the
digestive sac so the animal can absorb
digested nutrients more efficiently.
Undigested waste leaves the cavity
through the mouth.
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the planarians head sense light.

Projections at the side of the head sense
touch and help the animal position itself
in water currents.
Class Trematoda The parasitic flatworms

of the class Trematoda, often called
flukes, live part of their lives in mammals and feed on their tissues and
fluids (Figure 14.14). The outer cell layer
often produces a thick cuticle that
covers the small body, provides shape,
and protects the animal. Usually a
sucker around the mouth on the ventral
surface of the animal attaches the fluke
to its host. The cuticle and the sucker
represent adaptations of the flatworm
body plan to a parasitic existence. In the
trematode digestive cavity, two posterior
branches connect a large anterior pouch
to the mouth.
Class Turbellaria The most common

platyhelminths belong to the class
Turbellaria (Figure 14.13). The planarians, a freshwater species, grow between
1 and 2 cm long. To feed, the planarian
extends a muscular tube, or pharynx,
from its mouth on its ventral surface. The
pharynx connects the mouth to the digestive sac. Like all flatworms, planarians have a nervous system, an anterior
collection of nerve cells that coordinate
information from the sense organs and
direct the animals responses to environmental stimulae. Two eye spots on
INFOBIT
The bigger the host, the bigger
the tapeworm. The tapeworm
Echinococcus multiloculoarus
lives in coyotes and grows
between 1.2 to 3.7 mm. The
tapeworm Polygonoporus lives
in sperm whales and can
grow to be 30 m.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.13 Marine flatworms belong to the

class Turbellaria. Most turbellarians inhabit freshwater environments but few live in moist terrestrial habitats.
458
UNIT 4

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.14 The blood fluke Schistosoma

mansoni feeds off snails and also infects the
human intestine, causing a serious disease.
Class Cestoda Most cestodes have a flat

slender body composed of many short
sections. For this reason, they are commonly called tapeworms. All tapeworms
are parasitic and lack body extensions for
locomotion. Suckers and hooks on the
scolex, or head, attach the tapeworm to
the inside of the hosts intestine (Figure
14.15). Like the parasitic flukes, tapeworms have a thick cuticle that protects
them from digestion by the hosts
enzymes. Tapeworms absorb food
directly through their body wall. Their
lack of both mouth and digestive sac
are adaptations to a parasitic existence.
Contents
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Discovering Biology
Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 14.15 When humans eat raw or

improperly cooked beef, any tapeworms that
infect the animal can transfer into the human
host. With their scolex, or head, the tapeworms
attach to the inside of the hosts intestine.
The Roundworms
(Phylum Nematoda)
Nematodes are also called roundworms
(Figure 14.16). Most live as scavengers
in soil and the bottoms of lakes and
ponds. Several live as parasites in most
plants and animals. Like parasitic flatworms and flukes, nematodes produce
a cuticle that covers their body.
Nematodes evolved a digestive system
that improved efficiency. Unlike flatworms, which have one digestive
opening where food comes in and waste

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.16 Although biologists have named

about 10 000 nematode species, as many as
500 000 species may exist. Some parasitic
nematodes grow to be about 1 m long, but
most nematodes are microscopic.
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Collecting Nematodes
Nematodes may be the most common animal on Earth. To

collect nematodes from a soil sample from a marsh or stream bed,
slip a small piece of rubber tubing over the end of a funnel and
clamp the opening shut with a clothespin. Place the soil sample
into the funnel. Pour in enough water so that some water stands
free on the surface. The nematodes will sink into the funnels neck.
Wait 5 min before unclamping the clothespin to release your
catch into a container.
Observe the organisms under a microscope. Draw diagrams
of what you see. What characteristics of the organisms identifies
them as nematodes?
goes out, nematodes developed a separate mouth and anus. In this body plan,
food moves through the digestive system
in one direction only. Nearly all complex
animals have this type of gut. The nematodes thin body wall and round
shape minimize outer surface area.
Because these features reduce energy
requirements, nematodes lack both a circulatory and a respiratory system. They
also have a fluid-filled body cavity
(Figure 14.17)
The Segmented Worms

(Phylum Annelida)
Annelids, including earthworms, form a
diverse group of 15 000 species of
worms that live in marine, freshwater,
and terrestrial environments. They
developed segmented bodies and a
coelom. These changes in their body
plan have given them evolutionary
advantages over other worms. Most of
the segments are identical and have the
same structures. The repeating body segments allow annelids to increase in size
without losing the capacity to transport
molecules and relay messages, so annelids grow larger than non-segmented
worms. Segmentation also improves
locomotion as different muscles evolved
to control each body segment. Finer
muscle control allows annelids to move
their bodies in more complex ways than
non-segmented worms.
CHAPTER 14
WEBLINK
Research the phylum Rotifera.
Find out about their body plan,
cell layers, and symmetry.
Draw a diagram of a typical
rotiferan and describe how it
is similar and different from
the animal phyla you have
studied so far. Begin your
research at
INFOBIT
The Trichinella worm, a
nematode that forms a cyst in
the muscles of pigs, can infect
humans if they eat inadequately
cooked meat from an infected
pig. The adult female worm
burrows into the hosts small
intestine, lays eggs, and the
offspring infect the hosts
muscles causing severe muscle
pain, muscle deterioration, and
body fatigue. This disease is
known as trichinosis.
The Animal Kingdom
459
Contents
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digestive
cavity
digestive
cavity
ectoderm
mesoderm
ectoderm
endoderm
digestive
cavity
endoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
a) acoelomate (flatworm)
mesoderm
body cavity
(pseudocoelom)
b) pseudocoelomate (roundworm)
ectoderm
body cavity
(coelom)
c) coelomate (annelid)
FIGURE 14.17 The development of the coelom. Flatworms a), are called acoelomates
because they lack a body cavity. Roundworms b) are pseudocoelomates because even
though they do have a body cavity, it is not lined with mesoderm as in the annelid
worm, c) a true coelomate.
WORD ORIGIN
Parapodia from the Greek
words para meaning beside
and podia, meaning little
feet.
A true coelom (Figure 14.17), a fluidfilled body cavity completely lined with
mesoderm, separates the body wall from
the digestive tract and protects the
delicate internal organs from the outside
environment. The coelom also acts as a
hydrostatic skeleton. Circular and longitudinal muscles in the body wall squeeze
against the incompressible coelom fluid,
allowing the worm to elongate or contract,
something flatworms cannot do.
Since annelids grow larger and weigh
more than platyhelminths and nematodes, they need a circulatory system to
help molecules diffuse for gas exchange.
In contrast, nematodes and flatworms
exchange gas through simple diffusion.
The thin body wall of annelids provides
a surface for gas exchange but restricts
annelids to moist environments. Annelids
lack a rigid, external protective covering
and in dry air they lose body fluids
rapidly through their thin body wall.
Classes Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Hirudinia

More than half of all annelid worms
form the class Polychaeta, including
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UNIT 4
sandworms and tubeworms. The body

wall of most body segments extends outward as a series of outgrowths, called
parapodia. These parapodia contain
many blood vessels and function in gas
exchange and locomotion. Stiff setae,
or bristles, extend from each parapodium
and help the animal grip the surface as
it moves (Figure 14.18).
FIGURE 14.18 Most polychaetes live in marine

environments. The bristle worm has many stiff
setae extending from each parapodium.
Contents
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Polychaetes have separate male and

female sexes. They release sperm and
eggs into the water and the fertilized
eggs form ciliated larvae that mature
into segmented adults. Oligochaetes,
commonly called earthworms (Figure
14.19), are hermaphroditic. Each
oligochaete has both male and female
reproductive organs. When two individ-
Next Section
Quit
uals copulate, they exchange sperm to

fertilize each others eggs. Each adult
lays its eggs in a cocoon outside its body.
It sheds its cocoon and, once developed,
miniature worms emerge.
Hirudineans, or leeches (Figure
14.20), are external parasites of other
animals. They secrete an anti-clotting
agent that keeps the blood flowing. For
hundreds of years, doctors used leeches
to let blood, and they are still used today
to reduce swelling in damaged tissues or
remove pools of blood.
INFOBIT
Some surgeons use leeches in
plastic and reconstructive skin
surgery. One company in the
United Kingdom breeds
leeches and sends them to
doctors around the world to
use on their patients.

restrictions.
restrictions.
FIGURE 14.19 Many of the 3000 known

species of oligochaetes live in terrestrial
habitats. Oligochaetes are hermaphroditic.
FIGURE 14.20 Most leeches live in freshwater.

A parasitic leech cuts into its host with the
three-toothed jaws on its mouth and its body
swells as it takes in blood.
Section 14.2 Review

1. Explain how the body plan of a flatworm demonstrates the principles of
cephalization.
2. Explain how the body plans of animals
evolved to carry out the process of gas
exchange more efficiently as animals
have changed their lifestyle.
8. How has the process of gas exchange

in annelids been made efficient enough
to ensure their survival?
9. Why do you often see more earthworms after it rains?
10. Compare the body plan of a segmented
worm with that of a roundworm.
3. Compare and contrast the characteristics of flatworms and roundworms.
Applying Inquiry/
4. What adjustments are necessary in the

body plan of an animal for a parasitic
way of life?
11. Investigate the body plan of a representative flatworm to determine

adaptations for survival in an aquatic
habitat.
5. Why is having a third layer of cells and

a primitive coelom an important adoptation?
6. Why is it important for a motile animal
to sense its environment?
7.
What organs, found in other flatworms,

are missing in tapeworms? Explain
your answer.
Making Connections
12. Research the examples of the harmful
effects of roundworms in society.
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
461
Contents
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14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing

Complexity
Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of mollusks and echinoderms
describe the life cycle of mollusks and echinoderms
Animals with a Shell

(Phylum Mollusca)
Mollusks number in excess of 100 000
species and include snails, slugs, clams,
squids, and octopuses. Most are marine
and live freely. Some swim, some creep
slowly, and some prefer terrestrial habitats. Mollusks range in size from snails
as small as 1 mm to giant squids more
than 18 m long.
Scientists believe mollusks are

descended from an annelidlike ancestor. Mollusks have a moist, muscular body
without a skeleton. Their body plan
includes three main components: the
foot, the mantle, and a fleshy visceral
mass (Figure 14.21). The foot is muscular and is used for locomotion and
feeding. The mantle is a thin layer of
tissue that covers the gills and secretes
the shell in shelled species. The shell is
made of calcium carbonate. The visceral
mass contains the internal organs.
shell
foot
visceral mass
mantle cavity
clam
(bivalve)
snail
(gastropod)
squid
(cephalopod)
FIGURE 14.21 The body plan of all mollusks includes a foot, a mantle, and a visceral
mass. Members of the three mollusk classes have different forms of the foot and shell
for different functions.
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Class Bivalva Bivalves, including clams,

oysters, scallops, mussels, and other shellfish, developed a two-part shell that
extends over the top and sides of the body
(Figure 14.22). A flexible hinge connects
the two shells. Bivalves are sessile and
have no head. Having an anterior end
with a sensory structure benefits animals
that move. Since bivalves stay fixed in one
place, they have no need for an anterior
end, and have lost their heads, so to
speak, through evolution. The mollusk foot
is flattened in bivalves. Clams use the flattened foot to burrow into sand and mud.
Mussels have a reduced foot that secretes
a set of threads that holds the animal to
rocks. Scallops lack a foot and clap their
shells together to move through the water.
Bivalves use their large mucus-covered
gills to capture food from the water and
for gas exchange.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.22 The giant clam is a sessile
bivalve.
Class Gastropoda The most diverse group

of mollusks, gastropods, include a rich
variety of snails (Figure 14.23), whelks,
limpets, slugs, and abalones. Most gastropods use their large foot to move
slowly across a terrestrial or underwater
surface. To feed, gastropods scrape algae
from rocks with a radula, a flexible
stretch of tissue lined with spines. Most
gastropods exchange gas through their
gills and their moist skin. In some species,
a shell encloses the gills within a cavity.
In other species, such as sea slugs, the
gills remain exposed. Land snails and
slugs are the only terrestrial mollusks and
they breathe through a simple lung.
INFOBIT
The zebra mussel, Dreissena
polymorpha, has invaded the
waters of the Great Lakes and
the eastern United States.
The mussel originated in the
Caspian Sea region of Asia, but
a transoceanic vessel that took
on fresh water in a European
port discharged this ballast into
Lake St. Clair, near Detroit and
introduced the species to
North America. Zebra mussels
feed on native species, clog
waterways, and contaminate
the water fowl that feed on
them, causing reproductive
problems in the birds.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.23 The mollusk class Gastropoda

numbers about 35 000 species. Many
gastropods have shells that vary widely in
shape and colour. The queen conch has
an extremely heavy shell.
Class Cephalopoda Cephalopods include

squids, octopuses, and the nautilus (Figure
14.24). Cephalopod evolution has favoured
the reduction and modification of the shell
to improve movement. The shell of the
squid is reduced to an internal rod that
runs the length of the animals body. This
rod changes the shape of the mantle
and allows the squid to eject water from
the cavity to move more rapidly through
the water. The mobility of large squids
makes them important ocean predators.
Squids have complex eyes and can see
their prey at great distances in the water.
The cephalopod brain, especially that of
an octopus, is well-developed and
resembles the brains of more complex
animals.
FIGURE 14.24 Only one shelled cephalopod, the nautilus, survives today.
Experiments indicate that octopuses have tremendous memories and are able
to learn.

a) Nautilus

restrictions.
b) Octopus
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
463
Contents
INFOBIT
Sea lilies and sea biscuits are
both echinoderms. Sea hares
and sea slugs are gastropod
mollusks. The sea mouse is a
marine annelid worm. The sea
cow is a mammal, the sea
robin is a spiny fish, and the
term sea dog refers to an
experienced sailor. But a sea
scallop is, actually, a scallop.
Previous Section
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Radially Symmetrical
Marine Animals
(Phylum Echinodermata)
Echinoderms include sea stars (class
Asteroidea), sea urchins and sand
dollars (class Echinoidea), and sea
cucumbers (class Holothuroidea). About
7000 species of echinoderms, all marine,

restrictions.
WEBLINK
Echinoderms have a water
vascular system, which
connects to tube feet. Using
the Internet and other sources,
research their functions and
draw and label diagrams
showing their structures.
FIGURE 14.25 Sea stars have the ability to

generate lost parts. A new individual may form
from a single arm. (Sea stars are also called
starfish.)
Quit
exist today. The echinoderm body plan

reflects an evolutionary shift. As adults,
echinoderms are radially symmetrical
but, as larvae, their bodies show bilateral symmetry. The shift in body plan
from bilateral to radial symmetry
suggests that the ancestors of modern
echinoderms probably began as bilaterally symmetrical animals but reverted,
through evolution, to the more primitive
radial body plan. Recall that cephalization offers a sensory advantage to
bilaterally symmetrical animals moving through their environment. Since
echinoderms move extremely slowly
along the ocean floor, bilateral symmetry and cephalization hold no advantage,
so echinoderms revert to radial
symmetry as adults (Figure 14.25).
Almost all echinoderms have an
endoskeleton, or internal skeleton, that
supports and protects the animal.
Calcium plates form the endoskeleton
and extend within the body wall. Spiny
projections on the plates protrude
through the skin. Sea stars have small
soft gills that extend from the body
cavity for gas exchange. Sea cucumbers,
in contrast, have an internal system of
canals called a respiratory tree that helps
distribute gases to all the cells. All echinoderms reproduce sexually.
Section 14.3 Review

1. How is the method of feeding in
bivalves similar to the way sponges
gather food?
2. Describe the main features of a mollusk. How do these features vary from
one class of mollusks to another?
3. What characteristics are common to all
echinoderms?
4. Explain why it was thought that the ancestors of echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical animals.
5. Describe the ways that echinoderms
are structurally different from mollusks.
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UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
6. Investigate the body plan of a snail to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
7.
Explain how the feeding behaviour of

leeches has been put to good use by
the medical profession.
Contents
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Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of anthropods
describe the life cycle of anthropods
Animals with an Exoskeleton

(Phylum Arthropoda)
In terms of numbers of individuals and
numbers of species, the arthropods dominate animal life on Earth. Biologists
have identified about 1 170 000 species,
most of them insects, and estimate that
up to 9 000 000 arthropod species still
exist undiscovered. All arthropods have
a segmented body, a feature that
suggests arthropods evolved from the
segmented annelid worms. The
segments, however, have become more
specialized and, in the higher arthropods,
almost every segment differs in structure
and function. Arthropods also developed
an exoskeleton, jointed legs, and
a hemocoel, or blood cavity, further
adaptations that altered and improved

the annelid body plan and enabled the
arthropods to proliferate.
Arthropods have developed a thickened external covering, the exoskeleton,
built mostly from a strong, waterproof carbohydrate molecule called chitin. This hard
layer protects the animal, and resists dessication, or drying out, in non-aquatic
environments. The development of the
exoskeleton allowed many arthropods to
move from aquatic environments onto the
land. The rigidity of the exoskeleton, however, prevented efficient locomotion.
Arthropods evolved appendages and
groups of muscles to move these
appendages. Over time, the appendages
evolved joints. These adaptations increased
arthropod mobility.
abdomen
cephalothorax
brain
green
gland
gonad (testis
or ovary)
intestine
heart
first antenna
second antenna
carapace
stomach
ventral
nerve cord
mandible
claw
gill
walking leg
digestive
gland
swimmerets
FIGURE 14.26 Segments of the exoskeleton became modified in different arthropod

groups. Specialized regions, modified, jointed appendages, and groups of muscles
improved arthropod function and motility.
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The Animal Kingdom
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The rigid exoskeleton altered the

arthropod body plan in other ways.
Arthropods no longer needed the coelom
to provide body shape and so the coelom
shrank. Though the exoskeleton
provided shape, it also reduced the
arthropods ability for gas exchange. Gills
that took in oxygen and released carbon
dioxide evolved in aquatic arthropods,
such as crustaceans. Many other arthropods, especially those that lived on land,
developed tubes called tracheae to carry
oxygen to body tissues.
The rigidity of the exoskeleton also
hindered growth. As the arthropods size
increased, the exoskeleton failed to expand. Arthropods adapted by moulting.
As their body grows, they shed their exoskeleton periodically and replace it with
a larger one.
The arthropod circulatory system
has a hemocoel, or blood cavity, a feature not seen in annelid worms. Over
time, blood replaced the body fluid of
annelids, travelled through vessels, emptied into the hemocoel, and bathed the
internal organs directly in an arrangement called an open circulatory system.
Arthropods also developed specialized
sensory receptors, such as eyes and
antennae.
INFOBIT
A spiders silk has a tensile
strength five times greater than
that of steel of equivalent
weight. If a rope as thick as a
pencil were made of spiders
silk it would be strong enough
to resist the force from four jet
engines.
Investigation
Refer to page 478,
Investigation 1
466
UNIT 4
Class Arachnida Members of the class

Arachnida include scorpions, spiders,
mites, and ticks. They abound in terrestrial environments. The body of an
arachnid has two main parts. The head
has fused to the body segments with legs
to form the cephalothorax. Posterior
body segments that contain most of the
internal organs compose the abdomen.
Most arachnids have six pairs of
appendages, each pair modified for a different function. Arachnids use the first
pair to feed, the second pair to sense
their environment, and the remaining
four pairs to walk. To reproduce, the
male arachnid inserts his sperm into a
small sac in the female called the
seminal receptacle where the sperm
fertilize the eggs. In the simple life cycle
of most arachnids, miniature adults
Quit

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.27 Many spiders build webs with

their silk, but some use their long threads to
mate or protect their young.
hatch from eggs and live independently

from the time they hatch.
Spiders carry out gas exchange
through book lungs, highly folded membranes in the abdomen that increase
surface area and improve oxygen
uptake. Silk glands in the spiders
abdomens produce protein threads used
to spin webs (Figure 14.27).
Class Crustacea Crustacean species number about 40 000 and include shrimp,
lobsters, crayfish, and crabs. Three
regions divide the crustacean body: the
head, thorax, and abdomen (Figure
14.26). The exoskeleton forms a thick
carapace that covers the head and many
of the other segments. Crustaceans have
paired appendages attached to each
body segment. The first two pairs of
appendages, the antennae, are followed
by the mandibles. The mandibles crush
food and feed it to the mouth. Behind
the mandibles, a pair of maxillae bring
food forward and a pair of maxillipeds
sense the environment and search for
food. Behind the maxillipeds, large clawlike chelipeds grab food and protect the
animal from predators. Four pairs of
walking legs follow the chelipeds (Figure
14.28). On the abdomen, six pairs of
swimmerets help the crustacean swim.
At the posterior end of the abdomen, a
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restrictions.
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FIGURE 14.28 Using their groups of muscles

and jointed appendages, some crabs move
very fast. Lobsters and crayfish use powerful
abdominal muscles, the part that people eat,
to move.
FIGURE 14.29 A small sampling of insects.

Insects live in almost all aquatic and terrestrial
environments. Almost every species of plant or
animal serves as a food source for insects.
pair of flattened appendages called

uropods lie on the tail, or telson. They
act as paddles to move the animal backwards.
Crustaceans have a series of gills that
are connected to the walking legs. They
are protected by the carapace. The gills
are feathered to increase the surface area
for gas exchange. Gases in the water diffuse into and out of the gills and travel
through the circulatory system to the
body tissues. Because of their large size,
crustaceans need more than just diffusion alone to get enough oxygen. To
increase diffusion through the blood vessels of the gills, the swimmerets on the
telson beat and sweep water forward,
under the carapace, and over the gills.
Crustacean sexes are separate and
males and females come together to copulate. In some species, fertilized eggs stick
to the females body for protection.
single pair of antennae sense the environment. On the thorax, three pairs of
walking legs move the insect. Insects
carry out gas exchange through air sacs
and tubes called tracheae that extend
from external openings to tissues
throughout the body. The adults of most
flying insects have two pairs of stiff membranous wings attached to the thorax.
Flies, however, have only one pair of
wings. In beetles, the front wings form
hardened wing covers.
Like other arthropods, insects have
separate sexes that produce sperm and
eggs. Some insects look like miniature
adults when they hatch from fertilized
eggs and undergo simple development
as they mature and grow into adults.
Winged insects undergo more complex
development. Their body structure
changes radically in the process of
metamorphosis as a wormlike larva matures through each instar, or early stage
of development, into an adult.
Metamorphosis often includes not only a
change in shape but also a change in diet.
The shift in diet minimizes the competition for food between larvae and adults
and increases the species chances for
survival.
Class Insecta Insects are the most

numerous of all animal species. There
are about 1.5 million species (Figure
14.29). Some live freely while others
are internal parasites in animals. Insect
bodies, like those of crustaceans,
consist of three main regions: the head,
thorax, and abdomen. On the head, a
CHAPTER 14
INFOBIT
Many insects metamorphose in
days but the larvae of the
cicada species Magicicada
septendecim live underground
for 17 years before they finally
emerge as mature adults.
The Animal Kingdom
467
Contents
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Discovering Biology
Next Section
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Collecting Insects
To collect insects from soil samples, carpet the bottom of a glass jar with newspaper. Insert a funnel, neck downward, into the mouth and loosely fill the funnel
with collected soil. Place a bright incandescent desk lamp directly over the soil.
To avoid the light and heat, the insects will tunnel deeper into the soil until they
fall out of the funnel onto the newspaper.
Examine any organisms you find in your sample with a hand lens or dissecting microscope. What features do these organisms have that classify them as
insects? What non-insect life did you find?
Classes Diplopoda and Chilopoda Diplopods

are more commonly known as millipedes. The name millipede suggests a
thousand feet but members of this class
have only about a hundred pairs of legs.
The number of segments in the body
varies from about 10 to over 100 (Figure
14.30). Each segment has two pairs of
legs. (Diplopoda means double footed.)
Chilopods are commonly called centipedes, which literally means hundred
feet. Like diplopods, chilopods have
about 10 to 100 pairs of legs but each
centipede body segment has only one
pair of legs.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.30 Millipedes range in length from

about 2 mm to about 30 cm. All herbivores, they
eat organic matter in leaves and rotting logs.
Centipedes are carnivores.
Section 14.4 Review

1. Describe the main characteristics of
arthropods.
2. List the five classes that make up the
phylum Arthropoda.
3. Which adaptations of arthropods are
very useful for living on land?
4. Explain how each of the following is
carried out in a chosen representative
arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
and locomotion.
5. How has the development of an
exoskeleton in arthropods caused an
alteration in the body plan and affected
its ability to grow?
468
UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
6. Use the following terms to create a concept map: adult, cocoon, exoskeleton,
metamorphosis, larva, moult, instar,
wings.
Making Connections
7.
Discuss different ways that arthropods

are important to society. Discuss ways
in which they can be harmful.
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Key Understandings
describe the general features of various chordate groups
describe the life cycles of various chordate groups
use sampling procedures to collect organisms and classify them
The Chordates
(Phylum Chordata)
tail. Certain features, such as gill slits,

notochord, and tail occur only in early
stages of embryo development of some
chordates and indicate ancestral evolutionary relationships. Biologists studying
chordate embryos suggest that chordates
evolved from marine animals.
Early chordates include tunicates
(class urochordata) and lancelets (class
cephalochordata), small marne animals
still in existance today.
Chordates share a number of key characteristics. All have, at some point in

their life, a dorsal hollow nerve cord,
a dorsal supporting rod called a
notochord, and gill slits near their
throats. All are bilaterally symmetrical
and have a ventral heart. The body of all
chordates extends past the anus into a
chordates
a mmals)
ds)
b ir
s(
a li
a (m
e
Av
Reptilia (reptiles)
Amphibia (frogs and salamanders)
Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)
Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)
Cephalochordata (lancelets)
Urochordata (tunicates)
vertebrates
Ma
hair
egg with a shell
legs
lungs
jaws, teeth, two sets

of paired appendages
vertebrae
ancestral chordate
FIGURE 14.31 This phylogenetic tree represents a

hypothesis of the evolutionary ancestor-descendant
relationships between different vertebrate groups.
Biologists separate members into groups based on the
appearance of shared evolutionary characteristics, such as
hair in mammals.
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The Animal Kingdom
469
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Vertebrates make up the largest

group of chordates (Figure 14.31). In vertebrates, the embryonic notochord
develops into a backbone made of cartilage or bone. The backbone supports the
body, protects the delicate nerve cord and
brain, and serves as an attachment for
muscles. The development of the internal
skeleton provided support and allowed
vertebrates to grow bigger and move in
more complex ways than arthropods.
INFOBIT
Vertebrates have two pairs of
Several species of shark
appendages. Both pairs attach to the
inhabit Canadian waters.
vertebral column. The development of
One of the more bizarre
these appendages allowed vertebrates
species is the Greenland shark,
to move faster. They also evolved an
found off the coast of Baffin
anterior skull with a large brain. A large
Island. These slow-moving,
seven-metre-long creatures
coelom houses the internal organs. A
are almost blind due to
ventral heart pumps blood through a
parasites that attach
well-developed circulatory system that
themselves to the sharks
delivers oxygen to tissues. In aquatic vereyes.
tebrates, gas exchange occurs in the gills,
while in terrestrial
vertebrates, the process occurs in the
lungs. Skin covers
the body and consists
of at least two layers.
The skin often forms
accessory structures,
such as glands,
scales, feathers, hair,
nails, claws, horns,
and hoofs. To simplify
discussion, verteImage omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
brates are subdivided
into seven classes:
jawless fishes, cartilaginous fishes, bony
fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
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mostly scavengers. The lamprey lacks

jaws and paired fins. Its circular mouth
is modified to attach to the body of another fish to feed on its blood and tissue
(Figure 14.32). The lamprey also lacks
paired appendages. Instead, lampreys
undulate their bodies to move. Water
passes over multiple gill slits for gas
exchange.
Class Chondrichthyes Chondrichthyans,

or cartilaginous fish, live in marine habitats and include sharks, rays, and skates.
They have an endoskeleton made of cartilage rather than bone. Sharks have two
sets of paired fins, a pair of anterior
pectoral fins and a pair of posterior
pelvic fins. A dorsal fin along the midline of the body stabilizes the fish as it
moves. Sharks swim with their tail and
pelvic fins (Figure 14.33), but skates and
rays undulate their greatly enlarged pectoral fins to propel themselves. In sharks,
swimming forward moves water over
paired gills. Sperm develop in the male
in two long anterior testes in the body
cavity, while the female produces eggs
in two large ovaries. During copulation,
the male transfers sperm into a receiving chamber, called the cloaca, in the
female. Most sharks are ovoviviparous,
which means females retain fertilized,
shelled eggs internally and give birth
to live young.
Superclass Agnatha
FIGURE 14.32 Lampreys cut through the skin of

fish with their sharp tongue and feed on the blood
and tissue of the host. In recent years, lampreys
have invaded the Great Lakes and killed large
numbers of trout.
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UNIT 4
Few species of jawless

fishes,
or
agnathans, survive
today. They are lampreys and hagfish.
Lampreys live as
external parasites on
fish, and hagfish are
FIGURE 14.33 Most sharks are predators,

but a few strain protists from the water. Most
skates and rays live on the ocean floor and eat
mollusks and other invertebrates.
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Class Osteichthyes There are more than

30 000 species of osteichthyans, or bony
fish (Figure 14.34). Like the sharks, bony
fish start their development with a skeleton made of cartilage, but as young
fish mature into adults, the cartilage gets
replaced by bone. Flat, smooth, thin, and
lightweight scales cover most species
and protect the body. The four or five
pairs of gills are in a chamber covered
by a flat bony plate called the
operculum. As the operculum flaps up
and down, it acts as a pump. Water is
drawn in through the mouth, into the
gill chamber, and out over the gills for
gas exchange. Sharks do not pump
water over their gills. This adaptation
allows bony fish to breathe even when
not moving.
In most bony fishes, large sacs called
swim bladders help suspend the fish in
the water. A fish can adjust the amount
of gas in its swim bladder to control its
depth in the water. Lungfishes use the
swim bladder as a lung for gas exchange. Most fish reproduce by external
fertilization of large numbers of eggs
shed by the female.
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FIGURE 14.35 Most species of frogs and toads

live in tropical and warm regions. Salamanders
live in cool, moist environments as well as more
temperate regions.
million years ago, swamps covered most

of Earth, and fossil evidence indicates
that amphibians were the first vertebrate
animals to leave the swamps and live on
land. The life cycle of modern amphibians reflects this evolutionary link.
Modern amphibians spend the early part
of their lives in water but develop into
air-breathing terrestrial adults who live
most of their lives in a moist habitat. The
amphibian egg must remain moist. In
a dry environment, the egg loses water
rapidly through the delicate coating that
surrounds it. The fertilized egg develops
into a larva that lives in water until it
metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult.
INFOBIT
The tropical marine fish
Anthias squamipinnis lives in
groups among coral reefs.
Each group consists of one
male and an average of eight
females. Males compete to
maintain their groups but if
the male of the group
disappears, one of the females
will change sex and develop
male characteristics such as
brighter colour, longer fin
spines, and larger size.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.34 Bony fishes come in diverse

sizes and shapes.
Class Amphibia Amphibian species number about 4000 and include frogs, toads,
and salamanders (Figure 14.35). Most
amphibians live in freshwater at some
time in their lives. Three hundred
FIGURE 14.36 Frogs spend most of their

lives on land but their fertilized eggs hatch and
develop into tadpoles in water.
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The Animal Kingdom
471
Contents
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Frogs Fight Infection

Dr. Michael Zasloff, a geneticist,
wondered in 1986 why the microorganisms that teemed in his frog
tanks never infected the wounds of his
frogs. After careful study, Dr. Zasloff
isolated an anti-microbe defence
INFOBIT
Researchers today are
focussing on the rapid global
decline of amphibian species,
especially frogs. Some blame
acid rain, insecticides, crop
fertilizers, climate change,
and human encroachment on
wetland habitat. Biologists
are monitoring amphibian
populations to learn what is
causing the decline and to
determine the effects of the
decline on other organisms
and their habitats.
Next Section
molecule in the frogs and found and

sequenced the gene responsible for
the microbial resistance. He called the
molecule magainin from the Hebrew
word for shield. Magainins disrupt
the cell membranes of micro-organisms but they dont have the same
effect on the cells of the amphibian.
Each frog species develops its own
magainin and because of the way
magainins disrupt microbe cells, the
bacteria do not develop resistance to
them. Dr. Zasloffs discovery drove
The frog has a three-chambered

heart. One chamber receives oxygenated
blood from gas-exchange organs, a
second chamber receives deoxygenated
blood from body tissues, and both chambers pump blood into a common third
chamber. The third chamber delivers a
combination of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to body tissues. The lack
of fully oxygenated blood in the body
tissues limits sustained muscle activity
in the frog. Methods for gas exchange in
frogs varies with species. Some diffuse
gas through their lungs, through the lining of their mouth, or through their skin.
Adult frogs always seek fresh water in
which to lay their eggs.
Class Reptilia Reptilian species number

about 7000 and include crocodiles,
alligators, turtles, tortoises, lizards, and
snakes (Figures 14.3714.39). Although
amphibians began the transition from
water to land, reptiles developed structural and physiological adaptations to
thrive in the terrestrial environment and
expand into arid regions. Unlike amphibians, reptiles need no water to
reproduce. They have developed an egg
with a shell that is waterproof. They fertilize their eggs internally and lay them
in dry places. Reptiles also developed a
tough skin that restricts water loss,
and kidneys that can excrete highly
concentrated urine to conserve water.
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UNIT 4
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him to apply the molecules to combat

microbes that infect organs and moist
surfaces of humans, such as the gut,
the mouth, and the respiratory tract.
After more than a decade of research,
marketing, and clinical tests with
Magainin Pharmaceuticalsa drug
company founded on Dr. Zasloffs discoverydrugs such as Locilex, developed from the frog molecules, may
soon enter the battle against microorganisms that infect humans.
FIGURE 14.37 Most lizards walk on four

limbs and the largest, the Komodo dragons of
Indonesia, grow as long as 3 m.
Although the reptiles scaly skin reduces

water loss, it prevents gas exchange.
Reptiles must carry out gas exchange
through lungs much larger than those of
amphibians. A reptile expands and contracts its ribs to force air into and out of
its lungs. The reptile heart is more developed than the amphibian with a partially separated third chamber to
improve the separation of oxygenated
blood. Because of this separation, the
reptile heart delivers higher concentrations of oxygenated blood to muscle
tissues than the three-chambered
amphibian heart, allowing reptiles to
sustain higher levels of muscle activity
than amphibians.
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TABLE 14.1 Habitat and Feeding Behaviour of the Major Reptile Groups
Reptile
Habitat
Feeding behaviour
Turtles
mostly aquatic: lakes and ponds,

few in oceans
mostly herbivores
Tortoises
terrestrial
mostly herbivores
Lizards
mostly terrestrial
mostly insectivores
Snakes
mostly terrestrial
carnivores
Crocodiles
aquatic in warm, temperate

environments, but build nests on land
carnivores

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.38 Sea turtles spend their entire

lives in the ocean except when they come
ashore to lay their eggs.
FIGURE 14.39 Several species have developed

poison glands and inject venom into their prey
through their teeth. This eyelash viper has large
swellings on either side of its head. These are
poison glands.
Different reptile groups have diversified into a wide range of habitats and
developed different modes of feeding
(Table 14.1).
One group of reptiles includes turtles and tortoises. They have an armour
of dorsal and ventral bony plates that
form a shell within which they can draw
their head and limbs. Another group of
reptiles includes lizards and snakes.
Snakes probably evolved from lizards
that burrowed. Because of this lifestyle,
snakes lost both pairs of limbs. They also
have modified ventral scales to assist
movement. Other reptilian classes include crocodiles, caimans, and alligators.
Crocodiles and alligators, the largest reptiles, range in length from 3 to 7 m.
Class Aves Living species of avians, or

birds, number about 8700, more than
any other vertebrate group except fishes.
Birds share a number of features with
reptiles: they have horny scales on their
legs, they lay large-yolked eggs enclosed
in firm shells, and their young do not
metamorphose.
Unlike fish, amphibians, and
reptiles, birds are endotherms. They
generate their own body heat and they
maintain a high, relatively constant body
temperature regardless of their surroundings. This allows them to sustain
rapid movement for long periods.
(Ectotherms absorb heat from their surroundings and cannot move rapidly for
long periods.)
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The Animal Kingdom
473
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trachea
barb
barbules
shaft
lung
air duct
down
feather
air sac
contour
feather
shaft
FIGURE 14.40 Down feathers have a different structure from

contour feathers. Down feathers create lots of air spaces to trap
warm air.
FIGURE 14.41 The air sacs empty into the lungs and make the
bird lungs extremely efficient at gas exchange.
The hind limbs of birds are used for

walking or perching, and the forelimbs
are modified into wings for flight.
Birds have feathers, which evolved
from scales. They serve two functions.
They keep the bird from losing body heat
and they help it to fly. Long contour
feathers on the wing and tail provide lift
and stability during flight. Smaller contour feathers cover the rest of the body
(Figure 14.40). Down feathers underneath the contour feathers provide
insulation.
The light but strong bones of birds
are hollow, with internal supports for
strength. The breast bone forms a large
keel-like structure to which the breast
muscles attach. The breast muscles pull
the wings down to provide upward lift
during flight.
Because sustained flying requires
huge amounts of energy, birds need a
highly efficient gas-exchange mechanism.
Bird lungs are connected to air sacs,
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UNIT 4
which look like large clusters of grapes

(Figure 14.41). These allow gas exchange
when the bird exhales as well as when
it inhales. When the bird inhales, air
travels to the lungs where gas exchange
happens. But most of the air goes into
the air sacs. When the bird exhales, air
from the air sacs passes through the
lungs and gas exchange happens again.
Air sacs also make the bird more
buoyant, which makes flying easier. A
four-chambered heart distributes gases
and nutrients efficiently to the body.
Most birds lay their eggs in nests. A
protective shell surrounds the eggs and
prevents the embryos from drying out.
In most species the body heat of the
adult incubates the eggs. Bird eggs hatch
quickly relative to their developmental
requirements. Offspring of many species
often hatch at an early stage of their development and their parents feed them
for some time.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 14.42 Mammals likely evolved from

ancestors of reptiles that grew hair. Today,
extensive hair or fur covers, insulates, and
protects most mammals.
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restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.43 The shape and size of a

mammals teeth offer clues to its diet and the
way it chews its food.
Class Mammalia There are about 4500

mammal species, including the humans,
Homo sapiens. All share common key
developments, most notably a body covering of hair, a four-chambered heart that
allows sustained levels of rapid movement, and glands that produce milk to
feed the young. Hair covers the body for
protection and insulation (Figure 14.42).
Mammals also have specialized teeth,
such as molars and canines, which allow
them to eat a wider variety of foods
(Figure 14.43).
Like birds, mammals are endothermic. Four chambers divide the mammalian heart and completely separate
oxygenated from deoxygenated blood.
This separation allows mammals to deliver high concentrations of oxygen to
muscle tissues to sustain high levels of
extended muscle activity.
During reproduction, sperm fertilize

eggs within the body of the female and
the embryos develop within the uterus.
Mammary glands in female mammals
produce milk to nourish young, a feeding
behaviour unique to mammals (Figure
14.44).
Biologists divide mammals into three
main groups: monotremes, marsupials,
and placentals. The most primitive, the
monotremes, lay eggs. Only two species
of monotremes, the platypus (Figure
14.45) and the spiny anteater, survive
today. The marsupials, or pouched mammals, include the kangaroo, opossum,
and koala (Figure 14.46). Young are
born at early stage of development and
complete their growth in their mothers
pouch. Placental females incubate their
young in the uterus. This allows the
young of placentals to develop more before birth than the young of marsupials.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.45 The platypus, a semi-aquatic

monotreme with a ducklike bill and webbed feet,
lives in long winding burrows the female digs in
the banks of rivers or streams.
FIGURE 14.44 Female mammals

developed mammary glands that
produce milk to nourish their young.
Investigation
Refer to page 479,
Investigation 2
FIGURE 14.46 Kangaroos are one of many

marsupial mammals that abound in Australia.
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
475
Contents
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Genetically Modified
Monkey
Researchers have developed the
worlds first genetically modified (GM)
monkey from an egg modified to
include a simple jellyfish gene. The
monkey is called ANDi. Read backward, ANDi stands for inserted DNA.
Next Section
The gene technology produces a fluorescent marker gene in cells that

researchers can see under a special
microscope. Researchers hope to use
the technology to introduce a disease
gene to a GM monkey like ANDi, track
the response of the monkeys cells,
and develop a vaccine for the disease.
Because the genetic make-up of primates closely resembles our own, the
outcomes of disease study on GM
monkeys would relate more closely to
humans than studies on GM mice.
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There are those who feel that

using biotechnology for these purposes causes animals to suffer needlessly. Others caution that society
must use this technology in ethically
responsible ways.
As ANDi raises hopes of accelerating cures for human diseases, these
ethical and moral issues will result in
the further regulation and monitoring of biotechnology used in medical research.
Biologists place the nearly 4000

species of placental mammals into 16
classes based on modified features such
as teeth, limbs, and mode of feeding
(Figure 14.47). Terrestrial mammals
diversified into most land habitats but
some species, including whales,
dolphins, seals, and sea lions, returned
to a marine mode of life. Mammals
range in size from the pigmy shrew, less
than 5 cm long, to the giant blue whale,
about 30 m long.
FIGURE 14.47 Most

orangutans have a distinctive
red-orange hair colour and
spend much of their time in
trees. They are placental
mammals.
Section 14.5 Review

1. List the three basic characteristics that
are present in all chordates. What
other features do chordates possess?
2. Describe how representative animals
in the phylum Chordata carry out
gas exchange, locomotion, reproduction, and circulation.
3. Describe the body plan of representative vertebrates.
4. Explain why reptiles are better adapted
to life on land than amphibians.
5. Describe adaptations of birds to a life
of flight.
6. Name three different kinds of
mammals. How has each adapted to
its existence?
7.
476
UNIT 4
Discuss how the circulatory system has

changed in representative chordate
classes and how this has impacted on
their lifestyle.
8. Analyze Figure 14.31 on page 469 that

shows the phylogenetic tree for chordates. Explain in your own words the
relationship between words on the
diagram such as teeth and the groups
of organisms below (earlier periods)
and above (later periods).
Applying Inquiry/
9. Investigate the body plan of a snake to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
10. Many representative chordates have,
for various reasons, become extinct.
Research several examples and suggest
reasons for their demise. How would
their extinction affect other animals?
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Case
Study
Cloning and the Cattle

Industry
Defining the Issue
Starbuck II is a product of genetic engineering. He

What will the role of cloning be in the future of
is a clone of Starbuck, a prize Holstein bull that died
the cattle industry? The current success rate with
in 1998. Through artificial inseminations, the origcloning is poor. Out of all current cloning attempts,
inal Starbuck sired over 200 000 calves in 50 counonly two percent produce healthy offspring. Dolly
tries. His female offspring are better producers of
was created after 276 failed attempts. Starbuck II
high-protein milk than other cows, and are able to
was created after after 65 attempts. Research in
produce milk over a longer period of time. Starbuck
cloning the clones of mice has an even poorer sucII was created by the Quebec company that owned
cess rate, and cloning has proved to be impossible
Starbuck, in hopes that he would be as valuable combeyond the sixth generation of clone.
mercially as the original.
Starbuck II is the first mammal
in Canada created from the tissue
cells of a mature animal. In 1996,
Dolly the sheep was the first mammal in the world to be cloned using
this procedure. Dollys arrival
started a more public debate about
cloning and the ethical questions it
posed to society. With the ability to
selectively clone certain animals for
their best characteristics, could this
mean that humans may someday
selectively clone other humans for
characteristics like intelligence,
strength, or attractiveness? This potential use of cloning, as well as the
cloning process itself continues to
challenge the ethical and moral values of society.
FIGURE 14.48 These cows are Holsteins, a breed of dairy cattle.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Brainstorm different perspectives on the cloning of

cattle.
2.
Identify the different social attitudes to cloning farm

animals that are affected by economic, technological,
environmental, and ethical considerations.
3.
Research arguments to support each of the identified

perspectives.
4.
Identify three possible long-term consequences to biodiversity in cloning farm animals like Starbuck. Explain.
477
CHAPTER 1
The Periodic Table
5.
After completing your research, do you think continued investment in cloning of cattle is merited? Justify
your decision.
6.
You are working on behalf of a cattle association in

Ontario. You have been asked to provide a cost-benefit
analysis on cloning. What perspectives are reflected
among members? Prepare a paper for presentation to a
biotechnology company, explaining the members
different points of view.
C H A PThe
T E ROrigins
1 4 The
Animal
Kingdom
of the
periodic
law
477
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 14.4)
Study of a Crayfish Body Plan
4.
The carapace extends anteriorly and forms a bony

beak, the rostrum. Locate the stalked compound
eyes that lie beneath the rostrum. Examine the eyes
with a hand lens and note the many lenses or
facets that compose a compound eye. What shape
are they?
5.
The most anterior appendages are the branched

antennules. Locate the antennae attached just posterior to the antennules. Examine the antennules
and antennae with your hand lens. Describe their
structure.
6.
Turn the specimen over and examine the mouth

and other appendages on the head. Locate the
mandibles, or true jaws, which lie just posterior
to the antennae. Examine the first pair of maxillae,
which are just posterior to the mandibles, and the
second pair of maxillae, which lie posterior to the
first. How do the mouth parts of the crayfish move?
7.
The thorax bears eight pairs of appendages: three

pair of maxillipeds and five pairs of legs. Locate
and examine the first maxillipeds, which are posterior to the second maxillae, then the second maxillipeds, posterior to the first, and the third
maxillipeds, posterior to the second. How do the
first maxillipeds differ from the second and third
maxillipeds? How do the second maxillipeds differ from the third maxillipeds? How do the third
maxillipeds differ from a walking leg?
8.
The next pair of appendages are the most obvious

structures on the thorax. These are the chelipeds.
Are they alike? Note the well-developed pincers that
are formed on the chelipeds.
Put the preserved crayfish, dorsal side up, in the

dissecting tray. Examine the hard chitinous
exoskeleton and note that the body is divided into
two distinct regions, the cephalothorax and the
abdomen. The abdomen ends in a reduced
abdominal segment called the telson. Note that the
cephalothorax is covered by a single piece of the
exoskeleton called the carapace.
9.
The next four pairs of legs are called the walking

legs. Examine them carefully. In what ways do they
differ from one another?
2.
Locate the cervical groove that marks the division

between the head and thorax.
3.
There are 13 segments in the cephalothorax. These

segments are more easily located on the ventral
surface. How many segments are there in the
abdomen?
11. The sixth pair of swimmerets is greatly modified to

form the uropods, which, together with the telson, form the powerful tail fin used in backward
swimming.
The segmented appendages of the crayfish seem to

have evolved from a common type, but have become
greatly modified to carry on several different functions.
The trilobite, an extinct ancestral arthropod, has paired
appendages, similar to the swimmerets of the crustaceans, on every segment of its body. For this reason
the swimmeret is considered the basic type of crustacean appendage.
Appendages that are similar in origin and structure, but which have a different function, are referred
to as homologous structures. (When they occur in repeated segments, it is called serial homology.)
Problem
LAL1
How does the body plan of a crustacean demonstrate
the principles of serial homology and segmentation?
Materials

preserved crayfish
dissecting tray
hand lens
dissecting probe
scissors
white glue
stiff white cardboard, 8 1/2 11 inches
CAUTION: Wear safety glasses and gloves as the
preservative can be an irritant or allergen.
Procedure
1.
10. The abdominal appendages of the crayfish are

called swimmerets. The first pair of swimmerets in
the female are reduced in size. In the male the first
two pairs are modified for transferring sperm. What
is the sex of your specimen?
12. Locate the anal opening on the ventral side of the

telson.

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(continued)

13. Label the following on a diagram: rostrum, antennule, antenna, compound eye, cephalothorax,
cervical groove, cheliped, uropod, telson, walking
leg.
14. Carefully dissect out all of the 19 appendages along
just one side of your specimen. Arrange them in
order as they would appear, and glue them to a
sheet of cardboard for display. Provide labels and
a function for each appendage.

1. Draw and complete a chart with the following column headings: Body Region, Appendages, Number
of Parts, Function.
2. How does the body plan of a crayfish demonstrate

the principles of segmentation and serial
homology?
3. How is a crayfish, encased in an exoskeleton, able
to grow?
Extending
4. With reference to segmentation and specialization,
how are these arthropods successful in their
environment?
5. Land arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders) dont have
gills. How do they exchange gases?
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 14.5)
Stream Study
Problem
How can environmental awareness be heightened
through the study of biodiversity in a stream or river
ecosystem?
Materials
concave microscope
slides
plastic cover slips
lens paper
eyedropper
hand lens
compound microscope
paper towels
white plastic dishpan,
or enamel pans
kitchen strainer
nets (sieve and/or

plankton nets)
small plastic
containers
aquatic life
identification guide
clipboard
hip waders
waterproof boots
compass
first aid kit
CAUTION: If you have any allergies, such as hay fever,

notify your teacher. Do not touch any unfamiliar objects
or plant life.
Note: Respect the outdoor environment. Do not remove
organisms including animals, plants, or fungus from
the site. Observe and record any information needed

before returning these organisms to their original
locations.
Procedure
Part A: Before the Field Trip
1. Formulate a hypothesis on the numbers and
diversity of aquatic organisms in relation to the
location of the stream being studied.
2.
State your prediction for organisms to be collected.
3.
Provide a rationale for your hypothesis.
4.
Research appropriate procedures for collecting

water and soil samples from different locations in
and around the body of water.
Part B: During the Field Trip

1. Locate and identify the aquatic habitat to be studied on a map provided by your teacher or make a
sketch on a piece of notepaper. Indicate on your
map where you are doing your pond study.
2.
Choose a safe, shallow, stony-bottomed section of

the stream.

CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
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3.
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Observe your chosen site for signs of animal life.

You may see squirrels, birds, insects, snakes or
worms. Look for evidence of other animal life such
as burrows, tracks, animal droppings, beaver tree
shavings, and so on. Record your observations in
a table.
TABLE 14.1 Stream Bank Observations
Animals or animal evidence observed
Location
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13. Check the area to ensure its clean without any

litter.

1. Brainstorm a list of characteristics needed to classify various aquatic organisms (e.g., autotrophs or
heterotrophs) found in the water samples and surrounding soil.
2. Describe the physical land features of the stream
and the bank.
4.
5.
For collecting organisms on the stream surface,

approach the stream quietly with proper waterproof clothing. Wade into the stream and secure a
good foothold with a sieve or fish net in hand.
Run the net across the surface of the water. Any
insects, floating plants and surface dwellers could
be caught. Transfer any materials into a shallow
dishpan.
6.
Observe the kinds of organisms collected and record

them. LAL1
7.
To collect organisms from the stream bottom, carefully kick the stream bed immediately upstream of
the net for exactly one minute to dislodge aquatic
animals. They will drift into the net with the
current.
8.
Empty your catch into a white-bottomed tray or

basin containing cold, clear stream water.
9.
Collect any aquatic specimens that you find in small

plastic containers. Properly label each sample with
the location and date collected.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 to collect a second sample

at the same location. Record all findings in
Table 2.
11. Prepare wet mount slides from your samples to
observe under the compound microscope over the
next several days. Each sampled organism should
be further categorized and recorded as follows: description, method of locomotion, labelled drawing,
location where sample were taken from, as in
Table 2.
3. State any other environmental factors associated

with the stream (e.g., temperature, speed of water
current).

4. Use the dichotomous classification key provided by
your teacher and keys from other sources to help
classify the organisms.
5. If you needed to compare polluted and non-polluted
sections of a stream for diversity of animal life, why
would it be important for the same student to do
the sampling and to use the same sampling technique each time?
6. Identify other possible sources of error in this sampling technique that might influence the number of
aquatic organisms in the sample. Explain how these
errors could be eliminated.
7. Explain why many aquatic organisms cling to the
undersides of rocks and stones in a stream.
8. Describe how these organisms are camouflaged
in their environment.
Extending
9. Environmental stresses such as habitat destruction,
pollution, climate change, and displacement by introduced species affect biodiversity. Research the
interdependence between the environment and the
diversity of living things and illustrate this relationship by creating a poster display of one specific
example of an environmental stress and its direct
impact on biodiversity.
12. When you are finished, gently return the animals

to their stream habitat.
TABLE 14.2 Samples from Stream
Location
Type or Name of Organism from:

Sample 1
Sample 2
Stream surface
Stream bottom
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Key Terms
abdomen
air sac
antenna
bilateral symmetry
body plan
book lung
bony plate
budding
carapace
cephalization
cephalothorax
chitin
cloaca
coelom
dorsal fin
ectoderm
ectotherm
endoderm
endotherm
exoskeleton
feather
foot
hermaphrodite
instar
larva
mammary gland
mandible
mantle
marsupial
medusa
mesoderm
metamorphosis
monotreme
moulting
nerve chord
notochord
ovary
parapodia
pectoral fin
pelvic fin
pharynx
placental mammal
planula
polyp
radial symmetry
radula
scales
scolex
seminal receptacle
sessile
setae
shell
simple development
skull
swim bladder
testes
three-chambered
heart
trachea
vertebrates
visceral mass
14.1 Simple Animals

Sponges have an asymmetrical body plan, are

always sessile, and lack cell layers.
Sponges can reproduce either asexually or sexually.
Cnidarians exhibit radial symmetry and have cells

that are organized into tissues.
Their life cycle has two phases: medusa and polyp.
They have a muscular foot for movement, a soft

body that houses the internal organs, and a covering called a mantle.
Echinoderms have a calcified internal skeleton, and

are bilaterally symmetrical as larvae and radially
symmetrical as adults.
Locomotion and gas exchange are controlled by a

water vascular system.

Flatworms are the simplest animals to show bilateral symmetry and cephalization.
They have tissues organized into organs and
systems.
Nematodes show bilateral symmetry and are the
simplest animals with a complete digestive system
with two openings.
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical and have

bodies that are divided into segments.
They have a body plan with a true coelom separating internal organs from the outer covering.

Arthropods are the most diverse organisms on

Earth.
They have jointed appendages, well-developed

nervous systems, and an exoskeleton made of chitin.
Arthropods include spiders, insects, and crustaceans.

At an early stage in their development all vertebrates

have a hollow nerve chord and paired gill slits.
A subgroup of chordates have a spinal column

consisting of vertebrae.
Vertebrates include jawless fish, cartilaginous

fish, body fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing Complexity

Mollusks are bilaterally symmetrical and have three

distinct tissue layers.

1. Look back at the Checkpoint on page 451 and revisit
the gathering grid you completed.
academic requirements and specific skills needed for pursuing this career path in your post-secondary education.
2. Draw a concept map starting with the word symmetry.
4. Summarize how cloning farm animal species affects their

biodiversity.
3. Review the careers that relate to this area of biology.

Select one career and do further research on the
CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
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1. Dorsal relates to
a) the forward or head end of an animal
b) the back or upper surface of the animal
c) the lower side or belly of the animal
d) the tail end or the end away from the head of an
animal
2. In annelids, the successive units that contain similar
structures are known as
a) sediments
b) segments
c) sinuses
d) appendages
3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the class
Chondrichthyes?
a) cartilage skeleton
b) gill slits near the throat
c) live in fresh water
d) are ovoviviparous
4. Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes are considered
to be more complex than those of the phylum Cnidaria
because they have
a) flattened bodies and two main layers of cells in the
body
b) segmented body with a circulatory system
c) two main layers of cells in the body and the body is
covered by a shell
d) radial symmetry and stinging cells
5. Radial symmetry is to sea stars as bilateral symmetry is
to
a) hydrazoans
b) jellyfish
c) bony fish
d) sand dollars
11. Name and describe a representative animal from each

of the classes of the phylum Platyhelminthes.
12. Explain the differences in body plan related to freeliving and parasitic worms.
13. Describe the general characteristics of members in the
phylum Annelida.
14. What are some of the similarities and differences
between echinoderms and mollusks?
15. Which group from question 14 do you think is more complex? Explain your reasoning.
16. Explain how each of the following is carried out in a
chosen representative arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
locomotion, reproduction, sensory control.
17. Outline the advantages and disadvantages to an animal
in having an exoskeleton.
18. Indicate the major development that separates each vertebrate class from the next: Agnatha, Chondrichthyes,
Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
19. One reason for mollusks survival over millions of
years is their ability to live in conditions with low oxygen. Few animals can do this. Explain why this ability
has contributed to their success over the ages.
20. Draw the life cycle of a cnidarian and the life cycle of a
fern. Create a chart showing how these two life cycles
are similar and how they are different.
21. Sharks were probably the first vertebrates to give birth
to live young instead of laying eggs. How might this
method of reproduction give their offspring a better
chance of survival over egg-laying species?
7. Make a list of the different phyla of invertebrates explored in this chapter. Indicate what type of symmetry
is demonstrated by each phylum.
22. Reptiles were the first vertebrates to reproduce with the

help of amniotic eggs. These eggs contain a membrane
that forms a fluid-filled sac around the embryo. How
might this adaptation be to the advantage of reptiles that
lay their eggs on land?
8. Explain why it is believed that animals evolved from a

colonial protist.
23. List characteristics of birds that distinguish them from

reptiles.
9. Explain how feeding and gas exchange are carried out

in a sponge.
24. One advantage to living in air is that it is not much good

at conducting heat. As a result, birds can maintain a
large temperature difference between themselves and
their surroundings. How does this ability increase their
chances of survival?
6. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry.
10. Describe the structure and functions of cnidarians with

respect to feeding, gas exchange, and reproduction.
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25. What group of mammals is most similar to birds? Explain

your reasoning.
26. Look at the feathers in Figure 14.40 on page 474.
Describe how they are similar and different.
27. How does the structure of a down feather help it to
perform its function?
28. The Irish elk was the largest known member of the deer
family and was abundant about 20 000 years ago during the last ice age. Like all deer, its antlers were formed
from bone and, despite their enormous size of over three
metres, they were grown and shed every year. Speculate
reasons for why this species became extinct based on
the above information.
29. Barnacles were extensively studied by Charles Darwin
in the 1850s on his travels in the southern hemisphere.
They were originally thought to be mollusks because they
are protected by hard plates that make up a shell.
However, closer study shows that they have tiny jointed
appendages, a feature not found in mollusks. In what
group of animals are barnacles correctly placed based
on the above information? Explain your reasoning.
30. Years ago, biologists loosely described animal species as
being primitive or advanced, suggesting that some
have made a better job of evolving than others. Many
scientists consider the use of these terms to be misleading. Which point of view do you support? Defend
your point of view using evidence from examples of
different phyla in the animal kingdom.
31. Humans have a high opinion of themselves. It has been
said that we are the most highly evolved and specialized
animal. In what ways is this true or not true?
32. List the features that all animals have in common.
Applying Inquiry/
33. Birds and mammals make up the largest number of
animals on display in zoos. Choose an animal that is not
native to North America that is kept in zoos. Use the
Internet and other sources to research the problems of
caring for this species in captivity.
34. Prepare a poster showing the animal you researched
in question 33 to illustrate the problems of maintaining
this animals health outside its native habitat.
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35. Obtain samples of natural and synthetic sponges. Use a

hand lens to examine the surface and pores of each. How
do natural and synthetic sponges compare?
36. While walking in the woods, you discover a small, fourlegged, ectothermic vertebrate. What characteristics
would you look at in order to classify it as a reptile or
an amphibian? Explain.
37. Animal A has hair and lays eggs. Animal B has hair and
bears live young, which then develop in a pouch on the
mothers body. Animal C has hair and bears live young
but has no pouch. Classify these animals into their correct orders. Give reasons for your classification.
38. Create a dichotomous classification key that would allow
you to classify an animal into its correct phylum.
Making Connections
39. Imagine that you are a doctor. Recently a number of your
patients have been infected with Trichinella, a roundworm. Describe an action that you would suggest to your
patients to reduce the risk of further development of this
problem in the community.
40. The completion of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the 1950s
accidentally introduced lampreys into the Great Lakes
by providing them with a way to bypass natural barriers. Research the environmental effects that lampreys
have had on the Great Lakes ecosystem. Create a chart
listing species of fish that previously inhabited the Great
Lakes before the arrival of the lampreys and the major
fish species that are found there now.
41. Mammals other than humans have a huge effect on society. Create a chart listing 10 different mammals,
whether they have a positive or negative effect, and what
that effect is.
42. Around the world, zoos are popular attractions. However,
some people think that it is cruel to keep wild animals
in captivity. Create a PMI chart on zoos. Look into their
economic impact, their treatment of animals, their
efforts at conservation, and their role in education. Decide
whether zoos should continue or whether they should
be abolished.
43. List the positive and negative effects that insects have
on agriculture and forestry.
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Investigating Careers in Biology
The diversity of living things is astounding. Almost everywhere scientists
look for life on this planet, they find it.
There are species able to survive under
the most extremeand unlikelyconditions. Some species are found in only
one place, while others seem able to live
almost anywhere.
The diversity of careers involving the
study of living things is just as astounding. How can you find out about them?
A good starting point is to think of biology as divided into specialized areas
of study, called fields (a specialization
within a field may be called a subfield).
For example, the study of insects, or entomology, is a field within biology. The
diagram shows how this field, in turn,
splits into many subfields. Thinking of
biology this way breaks an immense
subject into manageable topics. At the
same time, it more accurately portrays
the world of work within biology,
because careers in biology are typically
in one or two subfields.
Finding More Career Options

Within any field, there are yet more specializations. For example, within insect
taxonomy there would be people
specializing in beetles or aquatic insects,
and so on. How does this breakdown
into specialties affect your career investigation? First, it can help you identify
possible careers of interest that you
might not have considered. For example, what could a person do in the
subfield taxonomy of aquatic insects?
Taxonomists classify living things. To do
this, they need to be able to identify a
particular organism and know how it is
related to others.
1.
For each of the following situations,

how might an aquatic insect taxonomist be involved?

plant protection
entomology
urban
entomology
forensic
entomology
conservation
entomology
medical
entomology

insect
ecology
ENTOMOLOGY
population
biology
insect
physiology
horticulture
integrated pest
management
FIGURE 1
484
UNIT 4
parasitology
insect
taxonomy
A tropical disease specialist

identifies a persons sickness as
due to a rare parasite. Only one
species of mosquito is known to
be a carrier of this parasite.
There are several ponds where
mosquitoes are found near this
community. Some of these
ponds may be of concern to
public safety.
A new canal system will soon
connect two bodies of water that
have never been connected
before. Each body of water has
distinct insect populations. The
government intends to monitor
what happens when the canal
is finished.
Aquatic ecologists use the
presence of certain insects to
indicate the quality of a freshwater environment. A local
Contents
Previous Section
fishery is reporting fewer fish in

their nets and suspect lower
water quality is to blame.
2.
Look at these situations again. For

each, list other subfields of biology
that might be involved. Think of as
many as you can. Then, consider
careers within those subfields. Your
ideas about what you could do with
an interest in biology will become
wider and wider.
The economy is growing and

one of the signs is that people
are choosing to buy more expensive, imported fresh fruit.
career
s who
be more
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ecologist
t
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There
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Quit
In the future, a decision by the

Supreme Court makes it possible
for an individual or company
to own chemical agents
produced by newly discovered
beneficial insect species.
This would cause a demand
for people with
backgrounds in insect phy
siology to work
for investment companies
analyzing the
potential of newly discov
ered species.
Seeing the Future

Another aspect of good career investigation is considering which careers are
likely to be around in the future. While
its impossible to accurately predict the
future of any one career, you can make
a reasonable prediction of what may
happen within a field or subfield. For
example, the growing public awareness
of the importance of maintaining
biodiversity is likely to result in more
careers in the fields of insect ecology,
physiology, taxonomy, and conservation.
Here are some possible changes in
our economy, environment, and society.
Beside each is a sample prediction about
how these changes might affect a career
in insect ecology.
Next Section
The federal government

announces an investment of
$40 million per year for five
years to clean up the most
polluted areas in the Great
Lakes.
in aquatic
th a background
wi
le
op
pe
r
fo
ed
ne
area such as
There would be a
ning in a related
ai
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insect ecology wh
d the long-term
hwater ecology, an
es
fr
,
ct
pa
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environment
s on living things.
effects of toxin
3.
Pick a career area within biology

that interests you. Make your own
predictions in each of the above situations. If you can, ask someone
working in this area for his or her
opinion as well.
Looking Outward
It pays to be aware of the world around
you as you think about your own future.
Watch news broadcasts and documentaries on television. Read a national
newspaper or magazine as often as you
can. Get into the habit of asking
yourself how each change might affect
people and their careers. You may spot
an opportunity you hadnt imagined.
Exploring Careers
485
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Saving Endangered Species

Until recently, the word extinction meant that
a species had disappeared forever. Now that
idea might be changing as scientists develop a
wider range of options to help endangered
species survive. For example, biotechnology
companies are developing new assisted reproduction techniques, such as a cross-species
nuclear-transfer. This technology could help to
rescue endangered species and perhaps even
reverse extinctions.
In this technique, a female from a nonendangered species acts as a surrogate mother.
Cells from an endangered species are inserted
into the surrogates eggs. The eggs have their
nuclei removed before the cells are inserted.
Once the cells are in the eggs, a small electric
current is applied to the eggs and the eggs start
to divide. One of the resulting embryos is then
implanted into the surrogate mother.
The San Diego Zoo has collected a bank of

frozen DNA that includes living cells from 5400
animals. These cells span more than 400 animal species and subspecies. This DNA could act
as a source of cells for cross-species nuclear
transfer.
Biologists around the world are collaborating to find ways to save vanishing species.
The Toronto Zoo, for example, participates with
other zoos worldwide in international breeding
and conservation programs. In North America,
Species Survival Plans (SSPs) are captive breeding programs for endangered species. The
Toronto Zoo is involved in 17 SSPs that direct
breeding and management of endangered
species, as well as research into species
habitat and nutrition. Most SSPs use more
traditional reproductive technologies such as
artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilization.
With reproductive technologies under testing and development, and programs to promote
the breeding and conservation of endangered
species, the word extinction may become
endangered as well.
SCENARIO
FIGURE 1 The Bengal tiger is one of many endangered

species that could benefit from advances in reproductive
technologies.
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UNIT 4
You are preparing a position paper about the

role of reproductive technologies in saving
endangered species. Your essay must include
information on the risks and benefits of using
reproductive technologies and should include
consideration of the following: habitat, genetic
variability, social, ethical, and economic impact.
Contents
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Part A: Research Biotechnology

1.
2.
3.
Research the different reproductive technologies described. Summarize your

information in a comparison chart. For each
process, research the steps involved, the
success rate, how widespread its use, its
drawbacks, and its cost.
What impact do reproductive technologies
have on the fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny?
Explain how meiosis and variability are affected by the application of reproductive
technologies.
Next Section
6.
5.
What new controls on population size would

have to be considered for animal populations if species were no longer endangered?
How would each reproductive technology
affect classification techniques that are currently used? Identify the taxonomic level(s)
that would be most affected. Explain why.
Assuming new species could result from the

use of reproductive technologies, propose
a new classification system that would include them. Use a diagram to present your
thinking.
Part C: Preparing a Risk/Benefit

Analysis
7.
Prepare a risk/benefit analysis on the implications of reproductive technologies on

the biodiversity of endangered species
based on your research.
8.
Propose new biodiversity issues that might

arise if reproductive technologies like
cloning become widely accepted and carried out for all endangered species.
Part B: Impact on Current

Scientific Knowledge
4.
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Part D: Summary Sheet

9.
In a one-page summary, outline the most

critical factors affecting biodiversity in using
biotechnology to save endangered species.
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UNIT 4 REVIEW
1. Two fish classified in the same class must also be grouped
in the same
a) phylum
b) family
c) order
d) genus
2. In the six-kingdom system of classification, eukaryotic
organisms that absorb their nutrients as decomposers
are members of the kingdom
a) Protista
b) Eubacteria
c) Fungi
d) Plantae
3. Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic are
classified in the kingdom
a) Archaebacteria
b) Plantae
c) Protista
d) Animalia
4. E. coli bacteria are shaped like tiny, straight sausages.
They are
a) spirillae
b) bacillae
c) cocci
d) spirochetae
c)
d)
9. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
a vascular system
seeds
portion of the flower that receives the pollen is the
style
stigma
ovary
anther
10. Which of the following is often characteristic of bilateral

symmetry?
a) cephalization
b) none have a mesoderm
c) a lack of true tissues
d) a non-motile lifestyle
11. Explain why it is necessary to classify organisms.
12. What is the basis of classification systems?
13. In your own words, define binomial nomenclature.
14. Explain why the system of binomial nomenclature is a
good way to name organism.
15. What is the smallest level of taxon? Which is the largest
level of taxon?
16. Describe the difference between a species and a genus.
5. Bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into

ammonia are called
a) nitrogen ammoniafiers
b) nitrogen autotrophs
c) nitrogen heterotrophs
d) nitrogen fixers
6. Which of the following is a difference between plants
and fungi?
a) Plants have diploid and haploid stages in their life
cycle, and fungi only have haploid stages.
b) Fungi are heterotrophic and plants are autotrophic.
c) Fungi have cell walls.
d) Fungi produce spores.
7. The diploid generation of a plant life cycle always
a) is larger and more conspicuous than the haploid
stage
b) produces eggs and sperm
c) is called the gametophyte
d) produces spores
8. Angiosperms are different from all other plants because
only they have
a) a sporophyte stage
b) cones
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UNIT 4
17. Suppose every living organism on Earth is known and

fully classified as of today. Do you think the study of taxonomy will end? Explain.
18. Explain how the modern classification system takes evolutionary relationships into consideration.
19. Explain the connection between taxonomy and the principles of phylogeny.
20. List the features that bacteria have in common.
21. List the ways that bacteria can differ from one another.
22. Bacteria feed in a variety of ways. Classify bacteria by
their feeding habits.
23. Explain why conjugation is important to prokaryotes.
24. Substantiate the claim that bacteria survive in an
extraordinary range of habitats with examples and
descriptions of their niches.
25. Compare and contrast archaebacteria with eubacteria.
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26. Explain why it was necessary to place archaebacteria

and eubacteria into different kingdoms.
27. Explain why sexual reproduction in bacteria provides
resistance to certain antibiotics.
28. In your own words, define the term biotechnology.
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45. How is body symmetry in animals suited to the organisms lifestyle? Use examples to justify your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
31. Draw a life cycle of a protist.
46. Create a dichotomous key to classify the following animals into their correct classes.
salmon
snake
frog
shark
bear
pigeon
32. Draw the life cycle of a mushroom and identify the

stages.
47. Add additional animals to the ones represented above

and test your classification key with these animals.
33. State the function of the following.

spore
ovary
frond
pollen grain
cone
fruit
48. If one of the diagrams provided was that of a whale, what

class of animals would you have concluded that it belongs
to based on your classification key? What does this tell you
about the usefulness of dichotomous classification keys?
34. What environmental condition is necessary for fertilization in mosses to occur?
49. Suggest changes to your classification system so that it

can be made to accommodate the correct classification
of whales.
29. Explain what is meant by the term genetic engineering.

30. Why is it difficult to classify organisms as protists?
35. Explain alternation of generations using terms such as

haploid, diploid, gametophyte, sporophyte, spore, gametes, egg, meiosis.
36. What reasons can you suggest to explain why flowering plants exceed any other group of plants in terms of
numbers of species?
37. Explain why you do not usually find ferns growing in dry
places, even though they contain vascular tissues.
38. Compare and contrast the roles of protists and bacteria
as decomposers.
39. In your own works, define what is meant by the term
animal.
40. What characteristics do taxonomists use to group animals into phyla?
41. What do the following terms mean?
bilateral and radial symmetry
ectoderm and endoderm
vertebrate and invertebrate
42. Name two members of the class Aganatha.
43. Explain how a bony fish adjusts its buoyancy to maintain its level in the water.
44. Is multicellularity unique to animals? If not, in what other
kingdoms would you find multicellular organisms?
50. Scientist Stephen J. Gould has suggested that breaking of the enormous eukaryotic branch into four
kingdoms and the compression of the two prokaryotic
branches into one kingdom of Bacteria seems fully
justified. What are the implications of his view to
organizing the astonishing diversity of organisms?
51. Research the term stromatolite. What is it and where
would you find it today? There are fossilized forms in
Canada that are extremely old, about two billion years
old. What is their biological significance? Prepare a brief
report on stromatolites.
52. A research biologist studied a population of tadpoles in
a small pond. She looked down at the grey, muddy bottom and estimated about 500 tadpoles. Most were dark,
but there were 75 albinos among them. The next morning she found tracks of a raccoon at the edge of the pond.
Table 1 shows the counts of each type of tadpole over
five days.
TABLE 1 Tadpole Counts over Five Days
Day
Number of albino tadpoles
Number of regular tadpoles
75
425
49
422
27
415
408
393
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Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of dark

tadpoles the raccoon had consumed over the four days.
61. What do the following have in common: peat moss, club

moss, Spanish moss, reindeer moss, Irish moss?
53. Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of

albino tadpoles that had been preyed upon.
62. Find a book or field guide that summarizes the local flora
in your area. Identify local mosses, ferns, gymnosperms,
and flowering plants. Create a local map to show where
they could be found and conduct a field trip to find them.
54. Using the data in Table 1, plot a graph to show the trends
in the total tadpole population, the albino population, and
the dark tadpole population over the study period.
55. Analyze the graph you created in question 54. What does
it tell you about the raccoons predation pattern?
56. What does the data tell you about the variability within
the tadpole population?
57. Predict the composition of the tadpole population in
the pond next summer.
Table 2 shows the results of a survey of a stream polluted by
sewage waste. Samples were taken at 10-m intervals above
and below sewage outflow into the stream. Water samples
were taken to count the numbers of bacteria and algae and
determine the oxygen and nitrate content of the water.
TABLE 2 Survey of Polluted Stream
Sample site
in relation
to pollution
source
Bacteria
(millions/L)
Oxygen
Content
(mL O2/
100 mL)
Algae
Nitrate
(thousands (mg/L)
/L)
10 m above
10
10 m below
10
20 m below
15
30 m below
16
40 m below
14
50 m below
11
12
10
60 m below
15
70 m below
18
80 m below
15
90 m below
12
100 m below
10
110 m below
10
58. Using the data from the table, plot graphs showing
a) the levels of bacteria and oxygen
b) algae and nitrate concentrations.
59. What happens to the sewage waste on entering the
stream? How is the oxygen concentration affected?
60. Explain the relationship between the presence of algae
in the water samples relative to the concentration of
nitrates.
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63. Research the current literature on the various systems for

classifying organisms: a five-kingdom, six-kingdom, eightkingdom, and a three-domain system. Explain why such
a variety of systems have been proposed. Account for the
similarities and differences by constructing a comparison
chart that shows the major groups, and explain the
rationale for grouping organisms in this manner.
Making Connections
64. An error in cell division can result in organisms with
three (3n) and four (4n) sets of chromosomes, a condition called polyploidy. It is very common in plants and
contributes to genetic variation in the plant kingdom.
Research and report on polyploidy in ornamental and
crop plants and comment on economic as well as
genetic benefits.
65. Organizing or classifying living things is done by a variety of groups, organizations, and government agencies
for pleasure, profit, or understanding. Garden centres,
greenhouses, zoos, museums, seed banks, sperm banks,
and other facilities use a system of classification to identify and group organisms into meaningful categories.
Prepare a presentation using audiovisual means on the
role of a facility in studying organisms, their sources of
revenues, contribution to society and scientific research.
66. Comment on the significance of bacterial activities in our
environment.
TABLE 3 Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Species
Disease
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
diphtheria
Salmonella typhi
typhoid fever
Streptococcus pneumoniae
pneumonia
Clostridium botulinum
botulism
Borrelia burgdorferi
Lyme disease
Vibrio cholerae
cholera
Clostridium tetani
tetanus
Streptococcus tonsilae
toxic strep throat
Chlamydia trachomatis
chlamydia
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67. Table 3 lists several examples of pathogenic bacteria and

the infectious disease that they cause. For each disease,
research the major symptoms and how each pathogen
is spread. Create a table in your notebook to show your
findings.
Cases of
malaria
(millions)
68. Identify commonly used antibiotics that you or your

family might take. Discuss the concept of antibiotic resistance and the effect the use of antibiotics in medicine
has had on the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistant
strains.
20
30
Cases of whooping cough
1990
4570
1991
2719
1992
4083
1993
6586
1994
4617
69. Table 4 shows the number of reported cases of the

viral disease whooping cough as reported in Health
News, August 1995. There is a vaccine for whooping
cough but the disease resists being eradicated. Why do
you think this disease continues to occur?
70. List three applications of genetic engineering. Explain
how each is useful to society.
71. Crops genetically modified to be resistant to insect pests
are being promoted as a solution to low food yields in
developing countries. A member of the British royal family recently spoke out of the immorality of playing God
by moving genes between species that could never breed
naturally. Construct a PMI chart listing ideas in support
of the proposed solution, ideas against, and interesting
questions or issues that need further investigation.
72. The graph in Figure 1 shows the incidence of the disease malaria in Africa, Asia and North America since
1985 as reported by the World Health Organization. Why
do you think there is such a difference in the reported
cases in Africa relative to the other continents? What do
you think might be the reasons for the recent decline
in Africa over the last decade? In 1995 most Asian countries put in place a limited ban on the use of DDT. Predict
what effect this decision might have on the future incidence of malaria in that region over the next several
years. Why is the incidence of malaria in North America
to date consistently low in relation to other parts of the
world?
Africa
10
Asia
1
North America
1985
TABLE 4 Reported Cases of Whooping Cough
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1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Year
FIGURE 1 Reported cases of malaria in Africa, Asia, and North
America.
73. The mining of peat bogs, logging of forests, or draining

of wetlands for urban growth has economic effects.
Tourism and recreation provide benefits to communities
as well. What measures does Canadian society need to
undertake to balance these competing interests?
74. Botanists estimate that there are between 4200 and 5800
species of vascular plants in Canada. What would
account for the range in their estimates?
75. What are some benefits to society of having such a
diversity of vascular plants?
76. Describe, in general terms, the positive and negative
effects that protists, fungi, and plants have on the
Canadian economy.
77. Research and report on, in detail, the effect protists,
fungi, and plants have on the management of waste, the
pesticide industry in Canada, or the treatment of
municipal water supplies.
78. Sea urchins are collected from wild populations and their
eggs are exported to Japan where they are considered
a delicacy. Sea urchins will probably be exterminated if
their overfishing is not reduced. Should we look to aquaculture as an alternative to harvesting them from the
wild? Should we stop over-harvesting altogether? Who
decides? Explain your answers.
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UNIT
5
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
describe the major processes and

mechanisms by which plants grow,
develop, and supply various
products, including energy and
nutrition, needed by other
organisms
demonstrate an understanding,
based in part on your own
investigations, of the connections
among the factors that affect the
growth of plants, the uses of
plants, and the ways in which
plants adapt to their environment
evaluate how the energy and

nutritional needs of a population
influence the development and use
of plant science and technology
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and
Functions
he number of products on the market today that come from plants is

truly remarkable. Food, timber, paper, textiles, industrial lubricants,
plastics, cosmetics, perfume, rubber, fuel, paint, and medicine are just
a few of the products available. To meet the demand, plant-related industries
rely more and more heavily on science and technology. Crops are sprayed
with pesticides and herbicides to protect them from insects and weeds. Produce
is exposed to radiation to increase its shelf life. Fruits and vegetables are
genetically modified to make them bigger and hardier. As these and other
technologies become more widespread, the list of new plant-related products
will continue to grow.
The benefits that plant-related products bring to the world are many.
However, there are risks as well as benefits associated with these new products. The effects of their cultivation, processing, and manufacture raise many
questions. Is deforestation contributing to global warming? Are pesticides
Canola field. To meet the demand, growers increasingly rely on plant science and technology
to help them to produce high yields.
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poisoning the planet? Then there are the other questions that you have to face
personally, every day. Is the genetically modified tomato you just bit into safe
for you to eat? Is the cosmetic you just put on your face made from non-renewable petroleum or from a renewable plant material? These are questions
that can directly or indirectly affect your health or the health of the planet.
As you start your study of plants, you will examine the role plants play
in maintaining biodiversity. Next, you will learn how science and technology are revolutionizing the way we grow, harvest, and process plants. After
looking at how plants are used in agriculture, industry, and medicine, you
will investigate the structure and function of the components that comprise
the plant: the root, stem, and leaf. Finally, you will study how nutrients
such as nitrogen affect plant growth.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Genetically Modified Super Weeds

In the first case of its kind, some weeds in Canada
have become resistant to herbicides. The plants
picked up genes from genetically modified canola
plants. (Canola is a plant grown for the oil in its
seeds.) The canola plants were modified to be resistant to herbicides. This allowed farmers to spray
their fields with herbicides, which kill the weeds
but not the canola. At least thats the way it is supposed to work. Unfortunately, in this case the weeds
cross-pollinated with the canola and the weeds became resistant to herbicides.
New Study Says Wonder Herb Does Not Work

One of the most popular herbal supplements on
the market today, echinacea, has little effect on the
common cold, according to a recently published
study. Echinacea was no better at preventing colds
than a placebo in a study of 289 people. This
contradicts other studies in which the herb was
shown to be effective.
Hemp Returns
More than 60 years ago, the Canadian government
outlawed hemp (Cannibis sativa) farming due to
the rise of illegal cannibis use. But in 1998, the
federal government legalized the farming of 0.3%
THC hemp. (THC is the active chemical in
Cannibis.) Within months, farmers across Canada
were planting hemp seeds for the first time since
1938. Hopes are high for this versatile plant that

has over 25 000 uses. Fuel, textiles, paper products, paint, and ink are just a few of the products
that have been made from hemp.
Study Indicates GM Crops Not As Harmful As Once

Feared
The results of a 10-year British study indicate that
genetically modified (GM) crops do not invade
and interbreed with native or non-GM plants. One
of the concerns about GM crops is they might
interbreed with native or non-GM plants, thus
transferring their genetically engineered trait
into the wild plant population, possibly causing
harm to the environment. Another worry is that
the GM plants could spread uncontrollably in the
wild. The study, published in the scientific journal,
Nature, showed that for GM potatoes, sugar beets,
canola, and maize, neither of these concerns is
justified.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learning by preparing a research funding proposal. Your proposal will be presented at a world health summit focusing
on the topic of genetically-modified rice and its use in
developing countries. You will research the science and
the issues surrounding genetically-modified foods and
evaluate the safety, economic, and environmental impacts of genetically-modified rice. Your presentation will
also include a summary of key points and a bibliography of your information sources. See page 582.
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CHAPTER 15
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
The Uses of Plants

illustrate the process of succession

and the role of plants in the
maintenance of diversity and the
survival of organisms (15.1)
describe and explain some of the

food and industrial processes that
depend on plants (15.2, 15.3)
describe and explain some of the

uses of plant extracts in food and
therapeutic products (15.2, 15.4)
compile information about the

chemical products derived from
plants and, either by hand or
computer, display the information in
a variety of formats, including
diagrams, flow charts, tables,
graphs, and scatter plots (15.3, 15.4)
identify various factors that result

in trade-offs in the development of
food technologies (15.2)
describe and explain ways in which

society supports and influences
plant science and technology (15.2)
express opinions supported by your

own research about the case for
funding certain projects in plant
science or technology rather than
others (15.2)
describe how a technology related

to plants functions, and evaluate it
on the basis of identified criteria
such as safety, cost, availability,
and impact on everyday life and
the environment (15.2)
FIGURE 15.1 A few of the thousands of products derived from plants
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ave you thanked a plant today? If not, you probably should. Plant science and technology are helping humans in many ways. For example,
many of the medicinal drugs taken today are derived from plants. Plantproduced chemicals are used in industry to manufacture a wide variety of
products. With advances in technology, humans continue to create new synthetic products and many of the raw materials used to manufacture these
products are derived from plants or plant extracts. In this chapter, you will
learn about some of the traditional, current, and future uses of plants and
plant products.
Agriculture is an industry largely devoted to producing plants for you to
eat. Society supports and influences agriculture in many different ways.
One way is by funding research into plant technologies. Over the last 20 years,
there have been dramatic changes in technologies used in agriculture.
Genetically engineered plants continue to have economic, environmental, and
social impacts in our world. These are just a few of the kinds of issues you
will examine in this chapter.
Discovering Biology
Whats the Source?
Look at each of the synthetic items in Figure 15.1.
Identify the material or materials in it that are derived from plants.
Name a specific plant source for as many of these materials as you can.
CHECKPOINT
Brainstorm what you know
about products made from
plants. Use a web, like the
following example, as a
starting point.
Industrial
products
Agricultural
products
Plants
Medicinal
products
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The Uses of Plants
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Key Understandings
explain the role of plants in the maintenance of diversity and survival of organisms
describe the process of succession
INFOBIT
A single tree in the Peruvian
rain forest can provide habitat
for more than 17 000 species of
beetle.
Plants have two main roles in ecosystems. The most important role is to
capture solar energy and convert it into
a usable form of energy. Plant leaves and
stems have energy-capturing machinery
in the form of chloroplasts. They convert
solar energy into stored chemical energy,
sugars. Plants are in turn consumed by
other organisms and the energy in plants
is passed on to them. Without plants filling this vital energy-trapping role, most
other organisms could not exist.
Plants also provide habitats for other
organisms. The greater the diversity of
plants in an area, the more types of
habitat exist for other organisms. For
example, a lawn has just one or two

plant species. Only a few invertebrates
can live on or below the grass. The
garden beside the lawn, however, may
contain a variety of different plant
species including few shrubs and trees.
This plant diversity can provide habitat
and food for a greater variety of insects,
as well as birds, and some small mammals.
Plant diversity is not the same
around the world. Plant diversity in any
given region is determined by the climate in that region. For example, the
high arctic has far fewer plant species
than the tropical rain forests. Earth is
FIGURE 15.2 Tropical rain forest in Costa Rica
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Mahogany Makes a
Comeback
The hull and deck of the tall ship in

Figure 15.3 are made from mahogany, a highly-prized tropical hardwood used since the 1500s to build
ships, buildings, and quality furniture. The wood is strong, beautiful,
easy to work with, and highly water-
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resistant. Mahogany has been

brought from Central America and
the Caribbean to Europe and North
America for hundreds of years.
Because of demand for the wood, the
mahogany forests have been greatly
depleted, accompanied by a decline
in the diversity of other plants and
animals. In the Central American
country of Belize, efforts are being
made to re-establish the mahogany
forests. This is being done for economic as well as ecological reasons.
The wood is still highly sought after
and so can provide income to people,
and by replacing mahogany trees, it
divided into biomes, each having a characteristic climate, and vegetation that is
adapted to living in that environment
(Table 15.1). The greater the diversity of
plants in a biome, the more habitat they
provide for other organisms.
Tropical rain forests, such as in
Figure 15.2, are found around the globe
in equatorial regions, and they hold
the largest variety of plant species on
Earth. It is estimated that 40 000 to
50 000 different plant species live in the
Amazon rain forest alone. In Costa Rica,
about 300 different tree species can be
found in one hectare of rain forest. This
roughly equals the number of tree
species found in all of Canada! The
diversity of animal life in the rain forest
is a direct result of the rich plant life.
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FIGURE 15.3 A tall ship made of
mahogany
helps maintain biodiversity in the

countrys rain forests.
TABLE 15.1 The Major Land Biomes
Terrestrial biome Climate
Characteristic vegetation
tundra
mainly mosses, lichens, grasses,

small shrubs and trees
very cold, long harsh winters,

short summers, little rain
(1020 cm/year)
boreal coniferous cold winters and short

forest
summers, little rain
(3050 cm/year)
coniferous trees such as pine,

fir, and spruce
temperate
deciduous forest
mild winters, cool summers,

ample rain (75125 cm/year)
hardwood trees such as oak,

maple, and beech
grasslands
hot summers, cold winters,

moderate rain (3080 cm/year)
variety of grasses, few trees
desert
daily extremes of hot and cold,

minimal rain (no more than
25 cm/year)
some have no plant life; others

have cacti, sedges
tropical rain
forest
warm year-round, high rainfall

(200400 cm/year)
largest variety of plant life of any

biome, deciduous evergreen
trees
Ecological Succession
In any given area, whether in the far
north or at the equator, plant diversity
can change over time. Ecological
succession is the process whereby a
community of plants in an area gradually changes over time. Along with each
change in the plant life during succession, the animal community changes
with it. The disturbances that promote
succession are often in the form of fires
and severe storms. Ecologists used to
believe that succession was a predictable
sequence of changes that resulted in a

stable, unchanging plant community
known as a climax community. Many
communities, however, do not follow a
predictable sequence of changes. For example, some grassland communities, if
left undisturbed, remain as grassland
whereas others become forests over
time. Communities routinely change and
seldom remain stable indefinitely.
However, the concept of climax community remains contentious.
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Primary Succession Thousands of years

ago, most of Canada was covered with
glaciers. In some areas, the ice was thousands of metres deep. The last glacier
retreated from Ontario about 10 000
years ago, leaving behind a barren,
rocky landscape. Now vast forests stand
on many of the areas that were once
covered by the glaciers. Most of southern Ontarios forests were cleared for
agricultural land in the 1800s. The process of changing from bare rock to an
area with a dominant form of vegetation
is called primary succession. Primary
succession only occurs in an area where
no previous community existed. The
barren, rocky land left behind by the
retreating glacier develops into a mature
forest over thousands of years. Figure
15.5 illustrates primary succession in
northern Ontario.
Lichens (Figure 15.4) are the first
organisms to grow in a barren landscape. Lichens can grow directly on
rocks without the presence of soil. They
are called pioneer species because they
are the first organisms to grow in the
area. Soil develops gradually as organic
matter accumulates from the decomposed remains of lichens. Mosses, which
require minimal soil, start to grow and
gradually replace the lichens. Mosses secrete an acid that accelerates the breakdown of rock into smaller particles.
Organic matter, from dead and decaying
plants, contributes to the build-up of
humus, an important component of soil.
At this stage, there is little plant diversity. Because plants provide food and
habitat for animals, low plant diversity
means low animal diversity. Generally,

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.4 Lichens are

the first species to appear in
primary succession.
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in the pioneer stage of succession, insects will be the only animal life present.
In time, with the gradual formation of more soil, vascular plants replace
the mosses. Hardy grasses and weeds,
which do not need much soil, are
the first to grow. As the plant community changes so does the animal
community. Animals such as mice and
other small rodents, insects such as
grasshoppers, and birds such as sparrows, can be found in the grass stage of
succession. As even more soil is formed,
the grasses are gradually replaced by
larger plants such as shrubs.
With each change in the plant life in
succession, the soil and other environmental conditions in the area also
change. For example, once the seeds of
shrubs germinate and grow in an area
where previously only grasses grew, the
mature shrubs block the light reaching
the grasses. The area has been altered
so that the grasses can no longer survive. The shrubs create too much shade
for grasses to grow. The presence of
shrubs, in turn, creates ideal growth
conditions for seedlings of certain trees.
The trees will eventually take over and
eliminate the shrubs by blocking out the
sunlight that the shrubs need. The animals that were found in the previous
stages of succession move on and are
replaced by forest dwellers such as
squirrels. Subject to the influence of
periodic disturbances, a long-standing
community such as a forest may develop
over a lengthy time period.
Each land biome is characterized by
a dominant form of plant life, which is
primarily determined by the climate.
In succession in northern Ontario, the
resulting dominant plant life is usually
a coniferous forest (Figure 15.6a). In
southern Ontario, which has a more
moderate climate, the deciduous forest
(Figure 15.6b) dominates. In the tundra,
lichens and mosses may be the dominant plants in some regions, while
shrubs may dominate in others (Figure
15.6c).
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Coniferous trees dominate.
Deciduous trees crowd out shrubs and grasses.
Shrubs appear.
Soil forms; grasses grow.
Mosses grow.
Lichens cover rocks.
Bare rock
FIGURE 15.5 A common succession in a boreal forest biome. These stages overlap one
another as succession progresses.
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FIGURE 15.6 Three Ontario biomes
b) Deciduous forest
a) Coniferous forest
Discovering Biology
c) Tundra
Looking into the Future
Observe the playing field in Figure 15.7. List the plant types that might be growing there. Suppose the playing field is abandoned: no one plays on it and no one
cuts, feeds, or weeds the grass.
Predict the plants you might find after 10 years.

Predict which plant types might be growing there after 100 years.
FIGURE 15.7 A playing field in southern Ontario
Secondary Succession When an existing

natural community, such as a forest, is
disturbed by a natural or human-made
disaster, secondary succession occurs.
For example, secondary succession commonly occurs after a forest fire. After all
the surface plant life has been destroyed
by fire, new plants start to grow in a relatively short time because soil is present.
Secondary succession can lead to the for500
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mation of a mature forest in about a

hundred years.
Secondary succession may occur in
a vacant city lot. If grass is not cut,
weeds soon take over, followed by
shrubs, and then trees. It also may occur
after farmland is abandoned. A cornfield, for example, if left unattended over
a long period of time, may revert back
to the forest that it originally was.
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TABLE 15.2 Differences between Primary Succession and Secondary Succession
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Occurs in areas where no previous plant

life existed
Occurs in areas where plant life was disrupted

or destroyed
Begins with pioneer, spore-producing plants
Usually begins with vascular seed-producing

plants
Occurs gradually over thousands of years
Occurs more rapidly (within several hundred

years)
Succession and Biodiversity

Each stage of succession changes the environment. The types of plants growing
in an area determine soil moisture and
composition, the amount of light reaching the ground, and the humidity near
the ground. The plants provide habitat
for animals, fungi, and micro-organisms.
The number and types of plants, in turn,
determine the number and types of other
organisms that live in the area.
In a coniferous forest, there may be
only a few species of trees with slightly
more shrubs and herb species. After a forest fire or the harvesting of a section of
forest, biodiversity generally increases
during the resulting secondary succession.
Plant species that could not live in the
shade of the forest, such as grasses and
goldenrods, thrive in the open disturbed
area created after the trees are removed.
While some animal species may decline
due to the lack of trees, a variety of new
animal species will move into this area
because of the increased food supply of
grasses and other small plants.
As the shrub stage of succession
develops, new animals arrive to feed on
these new plant species. For example,
the white-tailed deer population in
Canada has increased as a result of the
succession occurring after the logging of
sections of mature forests. Deer feed on
the woody stems and shrubs found in
the shrub stage of succession.
There is a more abundant food supply for the deer in this area than in the
nearby mature forest. The rabbit and
grouse populations also increase during
this stage of a succession.

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.8 Deer feeding on shrubs. Deer do

not thrive in a coniferous forest.
After commercial logging, however,

the natural secondary succession that
follows may be altered by timber management authorities because the species
of trees that arise naturally may not be
the ones the forest company wants to
harvest. In some cases, herbicides are
applied to an area that has been logged
to control which plant types grow, to
reduce the succession time, and to
improve the growth prospects for the
more commercially desirable trees. In
such cases, the normal course of succession, and the resulting increase in
biodiversity, is disrupted through human
intervention.
The creation of nature and forest
preserves is a way to maintain biodiversity. Most countries have set aside
portions of natural areas to help preserve plant and animal life. One of the
goals of Canadas forest managers, as
adopted in 1996 and approved by the
Standards Council of Canada, is to
ensure that both plant and animal
diversity is maintained.
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Section 15.1 Review

Ontario. Explain this observation in
terms of the squirrels habitat.
1. In your own words, describe the role
of plants in the maintenance of diversity in ecosystems.
Making Connections
2. Define the term ecological succession.
7.
3. Explain the differences between primary and secondary succession.

4. In a flow chart, illustrate the stages of
succession in a boreal forest.
5. Explain the effect of secondary succession on biodiversity.
Research careers in forestry. What

kinds of decisions are people who work
in forest management making each day
about the environment?
8. What kinds of information does a

forester need to consider in managing forests to ensure sustainable yields?
6. Grey squirrels are common in southern Ontario. However, they are not
found at all in the tundra of northern

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you, will be able to:
describe how certain food technologies work
identify factors that cause trade-offs in the development of food technologies
describe how society supports and influences plant technology
express opinions about plant research funding
describe and evaluate technologies related to plants
Humans have been cultivating plants for

thousands of years. In fact, there is evidence that a type of corn was grown
in Mexico over 7000 years ago (Figure
15.9). Every major variety of plant used
for food has been grown for over 2000
years. Angiosperms, known as the seed
producers, have been and continue to
be the major group of plants used for
food. Of the 250 000 known species of
angiosperms, only about 30 species provide most of the worlds plant food supply. The worlds ever-increasing
population is dependent on how well
land available for food production is
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managed. In fact, only about three percent of Earths surface is suitable for food
production.
In Canada, less than two percent
of the population supplies the rest of the
country with its food. Farmers must
grow increasingly large quantities of high
quality crops at reasonable prices, while
at the same time they must be sensitive
to environmental concerns, such as
preserving soil quality and minimizing
agricultural pollution. Farmers, like
others in society, have turned to science
and technology for help.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 15.10 Wheat field. Canada produces

roughly 25 billion tonnes of wheat each year.
Fifteen percent of Canadas 293 000 farms are
wheat farms, and wheat contributes $2.5 billion
to Canadas gross domestic product.
FIGURE 15.9 This drawing of wild corn is

based on archaeological samples.
Food Plants
Everything we eat comes directly or
indirectly from plants. Fruits and
vegetables obviously come from plants,
and meat and dairy products come from
animals that feed on grain or grass.
The edible parts of plants can be
grouped into three broad categories:
parts that grow underground, such as
potatoes and carrots; parts that grow
above ground, such as lettuce; and,
lastly, the seeds and fruits of plants. This
last category is the most significant as a
food source because seeds are high in
carbohydrates and protein. The cereals,
or grains, provide most of the food supply for the world. This group includes
rice, wheat, corn, oats, and barley.
Legumes, a group of specialized fruitproducing plants, are also a major
source of food. They are the second most
important group of food-producing
plants after the cereals. Included in this
important group of plants are many
types of peas and beans, including soybeans, peanuts, and lentils (Figure
15.11).
Plants can sometimes be eaten just

as they grow, but many plants or parts
of plants are processed into a variety
of different food products. For example,
wheat seeds are ground to make flour,
which is used to make bread. Soybeans
are processed to make tofu, soy sauce,
vegetable protein (used in vegetarian hot
dogs and burgers), and soy milk.
Edible oils come mainly from the
soybean, canola seed, corn seed, and
olive fruit. A key ingredient of chocolate,
a fat, is produced from the seeds of the
cacao plant. Spices are derived from
sources such as the pepper fruit, cinnamon bark, mustard seed, and ginger
root. Herbs such as parsley, sage, and
thyme leaves and garlic root are cultivated and used to add to the taste of
foods. The worlds supply of sugar comes
from two main sources: the cane plant
stem and the root of the sugar beet.
Although most people think that honey
comes from bees, the bees actually
process plant nectar from flowers to
create the honey that is processed for
human use.
INFOBIT
Chili peppers owe their unique
taste to a chemical called
capsaicin. Humans taste
chemicals by means of
specialized nerve endings in
the taste buds. Capsaicin,
however, does not stimulate
taste buds; it stimulates pain
receptors on the tongue and in
the mouth! This may explain
why many people cannot
tolerate too much of the spice.
Investigation
Refer to page 523,
Investigation 1

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.11 Soybeans are

processed into many different
food products.
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Old Crop,
New Food
The amaranths, a group of grains,
were grown in Mexico during the
time of the Aztecs. At that time,
they were a major food source.
Amaranth, also known as pigweed and African spinach, has
recently been grown experimentally in Canada and the U.S. with
a view to making it an important
food crop again. It produces
protein-rich seeds, which are used
by a few food manufacturers to
make multigrain cereals and flour.
Its vitamin-rich leaves are used as
animal feed and they can be eaten
by humans, for example, like lettuce in a salad.
FIGURE 15.12 Amaranths in flower
Discovering Biology
Squash Varieties
Look at the drawings in Figure 15.13.

All these very different looking fruits
come from the genus Cucurbita.
However, none of these fruits are found
in the wild forms of Cucurbita.
FIGURE 15.13
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How do you think these varieties

were created?
With a partner, brainstorm the process of creating different varieties of
a plant.
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Increasing Plant
Productivity
As the population increases, farmers are
under pressure to produce as much food
as they can. In addition, they have to
produce it as cheaply as possible so that
once the food reaches the market, its
affordable to consumers. Farmers and
plant scientists use a variety of technologies to increase crop yields.
goat grasses
Selective Breeding Variation is common

within a species. In humans, this
variation is obvious. People differ in
height, weight, hair and skin colour,
complexion, and body shape. Humans
also show variation in athletic ability,
resistance to disease, and many other
characteristics. The same is true of
plants. Growers select individual plants
with desirable traits such as high yield
or drought resistance and use these
seeds to plant the next years crop. Over
time, all members of the local plant
population begin to show the same
desirable traits. This process is called
selective breeding, and humans have
used it for centuries in the breeding of
both plants and animals.
Wheat has been greatly altered
through selective breeding. The wild grass
ancestors of modern wheat had fewer desirable traits than modern wheat. The
seeds were smaller and there were fewer
of them. They had rough, barbed coats;
and they fell off the plant easily. By selecting seeds for the next seasons crop
from plants that produced large, numerous, smooth, and firmly attached seeds,
wheat has been gradually modified into
a better crop (Figure 15.14). For example, ancient wheat was susceptible to
diseases such as wheat rust, a fungus.
By selecting individual plants that
showed greater resistance to wheat rust
than others, crop losses due to this disease have gradually been reduced.
Similarly, selective breeding has been
used with hundreds of plant species to
improve disease resistance and increase
crop yields.
modern bread wheat

FIGURE 15.14 Goat grasses are the wild ancestors of modern bread wheat.
The traits of modern bread wheat are the product of both selective breeding and
hybridization.
Hybridization As you have learned, growers selectively breed individual plants to

create a new plant variety. Plant varieties of the same species or very similar
species can each have different desirable characteristics. For example, one
variety of wheat may be frost-resistant,
and another may be disease-resistant.
Plant breeders use hybridization to
combine the two varieties. They crosspollinate two varieties, and the daughter
plants grown from the resulting seeds
show both desired characteristics. The
hybrid plants are both disease- and
frost-resistant.

FIGURE 15.15 A drawback

of hybrids is that farmers
must purchase seed from a
seed company each season.
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Cloning Techniques Some plants are

FIGURE 15.16 A cutting.

This cutting is growing roots
from the base of the stem.

capable of reproducing asexually to

create genetically identical copies of
themselves. In some species, entire new
plants can be grown from a single leaf
of a parent plant.
This ability of plants is put to use by
farmers and horticulturalists. Sometimes
an individual plant has such good
characteristics that farmers or horticulturalists want to make exact copies of it,
so they reproduce the plant asexually.
The resulting plants are clones, or
genetically identical copies, of the parent
plant. The simplest cloning method is to
take cuttings. A grower cuts off a piece
of the plant that includes a stem. A clump
of tissue called a callus develops at the
cut end, from which a root forms (Figure
15.16). When the cutting that has developed roots is planted, it grows into a new
plant, genetically identical to the one the
cutting came from. The new plant is a
clone of the parent plant.
Another widely used method to reproduce crops and ornamental plants with
desired characteristics is grafting.
Grafting can only work if the plants have
a tissue called cambium. (Cambium is discussed in section 16.2.) Not all plant types
have it. A bud from a plant with certain
desired characteristics is attached, or
grafted, to the rooted stem or root of another plant, which has other desired
features. The shoot is called the scion, and

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the root is called the stock. At the graft

site, the cambium of the stock fuses with
the cambium of the scion (Figure 15.17).
The grafted plant grows as one
new plant. By grafting, a grower can
turn one good tree into thousands of genetically identical copies. Many varieties
of apples, plums, grapes, and peaches
are produced by grafting.
The first plant in Canada in which
the technique of grafting was used was
the Macintosh apple tree. In 1811, in
Dundas County in eastern Ontario, an
unusual apple tree was discovered that
produced an abundant crop of large, red,
tasty fruit. This tree, named after its discoverer, John Macintosh, was an obvious choice for artificial selection.
Thousands of its seeds were saved and
planted, but the offspring were always
a disappointment. These seedlings produced mostly inferior apples; none were
as good as the parent trees apples.
In 1835, the newly developed technique of grafting was used to attach
scions from the Macintosh tree to other
root stocks. Because all the tissues, including the fruit, above the graft are
genetically identical to the Macintosh
tree, the resulting trees produced the
desired Macintosh apples. All Macintosh
apples sold today come from grafts of
that original tree.
Modern technology has sped up the
process of cloning plants. Whole plants

FIGURE 15.17 The grafting process. The stock and scion have been aligned so that the
cambium of each fuse together.
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can now be grown in test tubes from tiny

pieces of tissue or even single cells. The
test tubes contain a growth medium containing nutrients and hormones to help
the cells grow and differentiate into
seedlings. These seedlings can then be
transferred to soil. A single plant can be
cloned into thousands of copies by subdividing the cultured tissue as it grows.
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restrictions.
Control of
Agricultural Pests
In addition to increasing yields through
plant breeding techniques, yields can be
increased by removing weeds that compete with plant crops, as well as by removing insects and other organisms that
feed on the plants. There are different
methods of doing this.
Chemical Control Agricultural pesticides

are chemicals that kill organisms that
eat, infect, or compete with crops.
Insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill
fungi, and herbicides kill certain plants.
Most food crops could not be grown
successfully without the use of these
chemicals. But pesticides are expensive.
Canadian farmers spend more than
$750 million a year on pesticides. Even
with extensive use of pesticides, it is estimated that over one-third of the worlds
crops are still destroyed by pests.
Unfortunately, most chemical pesticides
kill a variety of organisms in addition to
the intended target organism. This can
have a negative affect on local biodiversity. These toxic chemicals can remain
in the environment and can harm
animals and humans. A well-known
example of a toxic chemical is DDT,
which is a very effective pesticide and
was widely used for many years. It was
discovered that this chemical did not
break down and so remained in the
environment. It was harmful to many
animals. In particular, it interfered with
reproduction in the peregrine falcon and
pushed the species to the verge of
extinction. DDT was banned in Canada
in 1969, but it is still used in developing
FIGURE 15.18 Cloning of carrots. Leaves,

stems, and roots are starting to form from a
small amount of tissue that was placed in the
Petri dish.
countries because it is inexpensive yet

very effective.
Biological Control Using natural parasites or predators to control or eliminate

agricultural pests is called biological
control. This also includes the use of
plants selected to keep agricultural pests
away from crops. Knowing that certain
plants produce chemicals that have a
bad taste or are toxic to insects, farmers grow these plants in fields alongside
their crops. Insects are less likely to
destroy a crop if there are plants nearby
that they avoid.
Natural parasites of insect pests are
used by farmers to reduce the need for
chemical pesticides. Alfalfa is an economically important crop grown widely
in Canada and the U.S. mainly as animal feed. It was brought to North
America from the Middle East and Asia.
Not long after alfalfa became a common
crop in North America, an insect called
the alfalfa weevil started to eat the
alfalfa plants. The alfalfa weevil is particularly harmful, since both the larvae
and the adults feed on alfalfa. Since the
plant is a perennial, the weevil has a
yearly food supply. The insect is also
difficult to control with pesticides.
To battle the weevil, a species of
wasp was introduced into alfalfa fields.
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 15.19 Alfalfa
weevils
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WEBLINK
Today, farmers use a system
known as integrated pest
management (IPM) to combat
insect and fungal pests.
Research how IPM works and
what sort of biology knowledge
farmers need. Prepare a
brief written report on IPM.
Next Section
The wasp lays its eggs in the weevil

larva, killing it as the wasp larvae feed
and develop. The weevil population was
controlled by the wasps. Farmers also
allow weeds to grow in the fields with
the alfalfa because they provide nectar
for the adult wasps. By encouraging a
natural parasite population to become
established, alfalfa farmers have
dramatically reduced the need for
chemical pesticides to control the alfalfa
weevil. This has reduced the cost of
producing alfalfa.
Biological controls dont always
have their intended effect. A thorough
understanding of the complex relationships between the organisms involved
in the biological control of pests is essential. In 1935, the cane or giant toad,
native to Central and South America,
was introduced to sugar-cane fields in
Australia to control a parasitic beetle.
The toads ate some beetles, but also ate
bees and other beneficial insects. The
toads eat just about anything they can
get into their mouths. They also have
no predators in Australia. The cane
toads have now spread to vast areas of
Australia. So far, no effective way of
getting rid of them has been found.
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doses of radiation in order to kill harmful insects, fungi, and bacteria.

Irradiation also slows the ripening of
certain fruits and vegetables, thus increasing their storage life. The foods
are exposed to radioactive cobalt and
cesium, which emit highly energized
particles. These radioactive emissions
damage the DNA of the organisms living in or on the food, thus killing them.
In Canada, wheat flour is irradiated
to kill insects, and ground spices are
irradiated to kill fungi and bacteria.
Potatoes and onions are irradiated to
prevent sprouting.
Genetically Modified
(GM) Plants
Whenever plant breeders do selective
breeding or hybridization, they are modifying the genetic makeup of the plants
to produce the desired characteristics.
With these techniques, breeders manipulate genes that occur naturally in the
plant. With the rise of recombinant DNA
technology, scientists can now add specific genes from other plant species, or
even animal species, to a plant. These
genes will produce a desired characteristic in the new plant.
Food Irradiation A technology used to

preserve food is food irradiation. Fruits,
vegetables, and grains are examples of
foods that are subjected to measured
FIGURE 15.20 Onions and potatoes are

irradiated to stop them from sprouting.
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FIGURE 15.21 Pesticides being applied to a

farmers field. Pesticides protect against crop
losses, but are costly to use and may have
environmental and health consequences.
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Case
Study
Canadas Laws on
Pesticide Use
Defining the Issue
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) recently announced

the introduction of its own ecological brand of produce. Farmers from Ontario, P.E.I., New Brunswick,
and Alberta formed a partnership with the WWF
and agreed to grow apples and potatoes using fewer
pesticides.
This is causing debate among different groups
affected by the farm produce industry. Some environmentalists argue that using fewer pesticides in
growing some crops does not mean those crops can
be given an organic foods label. The ecological
brand misleads the public into believing the food
has had no exposure to harmful chemicals. In reality, pesticides are still present in those foods. Many
consumers also share this view.
Farmers in the agricultural sector want to
continue to use pesticides in growing food crops. It
has been a successful method of preventing destruction of crops by insects and disease. If they stop
using pesticides, their livelihoods could be at stake.
Critics of the WWF suggest that the organization should be spending its money on educating the
public about the risks of pesticides and lobbying the
government to make changes to the Pest Control
Products Act. They believe public awareness is the
key to changing current practices. As long as pesticides remain legally acceptable, they say, the use
of pesticides will not stop.
FIGURE 15.22 Potato field being sprayed in Prince Edward

Island. The WWFs goal is to reduce pesticide use.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
In a web diagram, show who the principal stakeholders are for this issue, and identify the perspectives they may hold.
2.
Research organic foods, and identify one widely held

assumption about organic foods that may be
challenged by your research and explain why an
assumption like this may exist.
3.
The shift to reducing use of pesticides is seen as insufficient by critics of the WWF. In your opinion, how
does this affect what the WWF partnership represents?
4.
Write a Letter to the Editor expressing your personal

point of view on the issue. Do additional research to
support your position.
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INFOBIT
The first GM crops developed
in North America were
tomatoes genetically
engineered to produce less
of an enzyme that causes the
fruit to ripen. These tomatoes
can be stored longer and can
resist spoilage. However,
because consumers were wary
of GM foods, these tomatoes
did not sell very well.
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The resulting plant is a transgenic plant

because it contains genes from a completely different species. It is also known
as a genetically modified (GM) plant.
A common method of introducing
new DNA into a plant cell is by using
bacteria called Agrobacterium tumefaciens. This bacterium causes a tumour
called crown gall disease in some plants.
In this technique, a non-harmful strain
of the bacteria is used. The desired gene
is inserted into the plasmid of the
bacterium using recombinant DNA technology. (See Chapter 12 for details of this
process.) The bacteria containing the new
gene infect the plant cell and the gene
gets incorporated. The cell is then grown,
in culture, and forms into a callus and
then into a tiny plant. It is then cloned,
and these genetically modified plants are
planted as crops. Each plant is identical
and shows the desired characteristics
produced by the introduced gene.
GM plants are tested to ensure they
will not have any adverse effects on humans before they are allowed on the
marketplace. However, long-term possible effects are unknown.
The main goal of genetically engineering crop plants is to increase crop
yields to meet the nutritional demands
of a steadily growing population. This
goal can be met in a number of ways,
for example, by engineering crops that
will not be affected by weed killers.
A major problem for farmers has always
been to control weeds that compete with,
and sometimes destroy, crops. The cost
of growing crops, and thus the cost of
food to consumers, could be reduced if
fewer herbicides had to be used.
Other genetically modified crops
have been engineered to make them
insect-resistant. Two examples of such
plants grown in Canada are corn and
potatoes. A certain variety of corn that
is susceptible to an insect called the
European core borer has been genetically modified so that it now contains a
gene from a bacterium, B. thuringiensis
(Bt). This gene produces a protein that
kills the insect. The protein is found only
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in minute quantities in the leaves and

pollen of the plant. The borer eats the
leaves and dies. Another Bt protein from
a different strain of this bacterium has
been placed into a variety of potato
plant. Bt kills the Colorado potato
beetle once the insect eats the leaves.
The GM potato, called Newleaf, was
approved for commercial use by
Agriculture Canada in 1997.
Similar to insect resistance, crops
are also being genetically engineered
to resist infection by disease-causing
viruses, fungi, and bacteria.
Environmental conditions can also
lower crop yields, or even prevent certain crops from being grown at all. Some
areas get very little rain, or have very
saline soil. Research is under way to engineer drought- and salt-resistant crops
so that areas previously unusable as
farmland can be used to grow food.
Plants have also been genetically engineered to increase their nutritional
content. For example, Swiss researchers
have engineered a strain of rice that
contains beta-carotene, the precursor to
vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a
common problem in many developing
countries. Similar research is under way

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.23 In 1999, scientists at the

University of Victoria created a genetically
modified potato plant that is resistant to both
bacteria and fungi. However, in late 2000,
consumer demand for GM potatoes was so low
that few farmers were planting them.
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to produce an iron-rich rice. Also, plants,

such as alfalfa, could be engineered to
produce more protein. The animals that
eat the alfalfa, such as sheep, obtain
an increased amount of protein in their
diet as a result. However, those plant varieties that produce more protein require
large amounts of nitrogen compounds
in the soil. Therefore they require additional fertilizer.
Nitrogen compounds must normally
be added to the soil in the form of fertilizers. Legumes, such as beans, peas,
and alfalfa are able to convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen
compounds the plants are able to use.
They do this by means of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots. A major effort is being made to genetically alter the
ability of these bacteria to fix more nitrogen so that less fertilizer is required
for the high-protein producing legumes.
Efforts are also being made to develop
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can live in
the tissues of plants other than legumes,
thus reducing the need for fertilizers for
these plants. Scientists are also trying to
develop plants that can fix atmospheric
nitrogen themselves without the need for
the specialized symbiotic bacteria.
Most of these applications of
genetic engineering are either in the
research stage, or in very limited use.
Most of the GM crops currently grown are
either herbicide- or insect-resistant
(Figure 15.24). Currently, Canada produces seven percent of the worlds GM
crops. GM soybeans and corn are the
most commonly grown, followed by
New Food or
Novel Food?
New food products appear on the
grocers shelf every year. New breakfast cereals, snack foods, soft drinks,
and a host of other products are
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canola and potatoes. Since 1996, the

global number of hectares of GM crops
has risen from 1.7 million hectares in
1996 to 41.2 million hectares in 2000
a 25-fold increase.
In spite of the potential of GM crops,
this technology remains controversial.
Many people have concerns about the
safety of these plants and the impact
they might have on the environment and
on human health. The potential benefits
of using GM crops may or may not outweigh the risks. Farmers and scientists
are not the only ones who need to
be aware of the risks and benefits.
An informed public is essential to make
certain that governments make the
best choices for society and for the
environment.
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80
Total GM crops (%)
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60
40
20
0
herbicide
resistance
insect
resistance
herbicide & pest

resistance
FIGURE 15.24 Traits of GM crops as of 2000

Source: International Service for the Acquisition of
Agri-biotech Applications
introduced. Some of these food products contain genetically modified

plant material or are manufactured
using gene modification techniques.
If the food product contains GM plant
matter, it is known as a novel food.
There are over 40 such foods currently on the market in Canada. Two
examples are foods containing protein from GM corn and GM potatoes.
Health Canada defines a novel food
as a food that is derived from a plant,

animal, or micro-organism that has
been genetically modified such that
the plant exhibits characteristics
that were not previously observed in
that plant Usually, one or two
novel genes have been added to the
plant. One codes for the desired trait
and the other acts as a marker so that
scientists can readily identify these
genetically modified plants.
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Preserving Old Plant

Varieties
Once a plant has been developed with
desirable characteristics, it is planted in
large numbers. The growing of one variety of a crop in a large area is known
as monoculture (Figure 15.25). Although
the plants may be highly resistant to
drought, or may all bear fruit at the
same time, for example, there are drawbacks. Planting a single variety of crop
may prove disastrous because these genetically identical plants may not be able
to resist a particular fungal or bacterial
disease. In this situation, an entire crop
could be wiped out. In 1846, the entire
potato crop in Ireland was wiped out by
a mould (blight). The potato variety destroyed by this fungus had been selected
as the most desirable after hundreds of
years of cultivating potatoes. Nearly 10
percent of the Irish population died as a
result of the potato famine.
Around the world, agricultural seeds
of all varieties are stored in seed banks
(Figure 15.26). Seeds of both cultivated
and wild varieties are stored. These seed
banks are important for several reasons.
First, the genes of a large number of varieties of an agricultural plant must be
saved in case disasters like the Irish
potato blight were to wipe out a crop.
If a number of varieties of the plant are
FIGURE 15.26 Seeds of many varieties of

wheat (Triticum sp.), some close to extinction,
are kept in cold storage in this seed bank for
future use.
available, then a disease-resistant variety could be grown after the disaster.

Also, wild relatives of crop plants often
are an excellent source of resistance
when new or stronger strains of diseases
appear. If a plant variety were to become
extinct, scientists could then re-introduce the plant using the stored seeds.
Finally, seeds of plants no longer in agricultural use will be available for research
purposes. With new technologies, scientists may be able to develop improved
varieties from the stored seeds.
FIGURE 15.25 A monoculture of corn. Monocultures are risky because if the variety that has
been planted cannot resist a certain disease, the whole crop can be wiped out.
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Plant Technology Trade-offs

Many factors affect the development and
use of plant technologies. One of these
is the cost of developing the technology. The cost is reflected in the price of
the product. For example, when a
biotech company develops a GM crop,
they have to consider whether the cost
of the end product is reasonable.
There are also safety factors to
consider when developing a new plant
technology. For example, a proposal to
genetically engineer a brazil nut gene into
a soybean plant was abandoned because
of the possible effects on people with nut
allergies. It was thought that the potential health risks outweighed the benefits.
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Farmers have to decide which varieties of crops to grow. If a farmer grows

a variety that produces tomatoes that
are very tasty but bruise easily, the supermarket might not buy them. To avoid
this risk, the farmer might decide to
grow a hardier but less flavourful variety to be certain of selling his or her
crop.
Finally, consumer preferences also
determine what plant technologies are
developed and used. For example, consumers want the cheapest food possible,
but they also want food that looks and
tastes good. They might also be concerned about the environment, and may
prefer more costly organic foods.
Section 15.2 Review

1. Name two groups of plants that provide major sources of food for humans.
2. In
a)
b)
c)
your own words, define

selective breeding
hybridization
cloning
3. In a chart, compare two plant technologies and indicate the advantages

and disadvantages to using each one.
4. Outline the potential risks and benefits
of developing genetically modified
crops.
5. How might scientists safeguard against
potential problems associated with
growing one variety of GM crops?
6. Create a web to show the different
components of food plants and the
products that are developed from them.
7.
In a field of corn, all the plants on some

rows are growing healthy corn cobs.
All the plants in other rows have been
eaten by insects. Propose a possible
explanation for these observations.
Making Connections
8. Canadian consumers want fresh
produce year round at affordable
prices. In what ways does this
influence plant science and technology?
9. With the known dangers of DDT, why

would this pesticide still be in wide use
in developing countries?
10. Genetically modified foods continue to
be controversial. What impact does this
issue have on the traditional farmer in
society?
11. How have farming careers changed
with the increasing uses of biotechnology?
12. Explain why it is important to society
that farmers have techniques for increasing plant yields.
13. Should money be spent on improving
organic farming techniques or should it
be spent on developing GM plants?
Research organic farming and GM crops
and list the positive and negative effects
of each on producers and consumers,
on the environment, and on society as
a whole. Based on your research, evaluate the relative merits of funding
research in each area.
14. Explain why vegetable producers might
prefer to grow varieties that dont spoil
easily over varieties that have better
flavour or nutritional value. Examine
the producers choice in terms of cost,
environmental impact, and consumers
preferences.
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
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Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you will be able to:
identify products made from plant fibres, plant extracts, and wood pulp
describe and explain some of the food and industrial processes that depend on plants
describe and explain some of the uses of plant extracts in food products
In addition to supplying heterotrophic

organisms with their food supply, plants
are used by humans to create a vast
array of important products (Figure
15.27). Trees are the source of wood for
building a variety of items, from musical instruments to the frames of houses.
Plants also supply us with many other
substances including a wide variety of
fibres and chemicals. They also serve as
a major source of fuel.
Products from Wood

The forest products industry is Canadas
leading manufacturing sector. Wood
products include lumber, plywood,
newsprint, fine papers, and paperboard
or cardboard. Hardwoods such as maple
and oak are used to make furniture,
flooring, mouldings, cabinets, plywood,
and charcoal, as well as products ranging from sponges to baseball bats.
Softwoods such as pine and cedar
are used to make paper and paper products because their cellulose fibres are
longer than hardwood. Longer fibres add
strength to the paper.
In 1999, over 30 billion tonnes of
paper and cardboard products were
produced in Canada. Canada is the
Discovering Biology
largest supplier of newsprint to countries around the world. The Canadian

pulp and paper industry is the largest
employer in the country. Over 250 000
people work directly in the industry.
Indirect employment in the pulp and
paper industry across the country is
estimated to be about 760 000.
To make paper products from wood,
the first step is to make pulp. The bark
is removed from the log and the logs are
then ground up into chips. The chips are
either ground even finer, or mixed with
chemicals to separate the individual fibres from one another. The pulp is
washed and then passed through a
screen. It is then thickened by removing
water from the pulp mixture. If the pulp
is to be used to make white paper or diapers, the pulp is bleached.
To make paper from pulp, water is
added so that the individual fibres become separated and saturated with water.
This mixture is then filtered through a
screen, and the substance left on the
screen forms a matted sheet of cellulose
fibre. This sheet is passed through a roller
to squeeze out the water. The resulting
sheet of paper is then left to dry. Canada
produces a variety of paper products from
writing paper to facial tissue.
A Closer Look at Paper
In this activity, you will be investigating paper fibres. Obtain several samples
of paper from your teacher. Set up a dissecting microscope at 50 X or 60 X
magnification.
Observe each of the samples using sub-stage illumination.
Describe any differences you see in the fibres of each of the paper samples.
Form conclusions as to whether there is a relationship between the structure
of paper and its use. Explain your reasoning.
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UNIT 5
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cork oak tree

(bulletin board)
balsam fir
(particle board)
cotton plant
(T-shirt)
rubber tree
(eraser)
FIGURE 15.27 We use a variety of plant products in our daily lives.
A New Use for

Wood Pulp
In the pulp manufacturing process, a
frothy layer called tall oil forms. Tall
oil contains a mixture of plant chemicals. Traditionally, chemicals in tall

oil have been used to manufacture
soaps, paints, and lubricants.
Recently, a Canadian company has
found a new use for some of these
chemicals. They have extracted a
group of chemicals called phytosterols
(plant sterols) from the tall oil and
used them to create a drug that lowers cholesterol levels in humans.
flax plant
(linen pants)
Plant sterols are complex molecules

found naturally in many plants. The
drug, known as Phytrol TM is being
used as an ingredient of food products such as cereal, soy beverages,
and milk. The drug has been shown
to reduce the levels of bad cholesterol. High cholesterol levels are
associated with heart disease and
circulatory problems.
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
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WEBLINK
For centuries, the hemp plant,
Cannibis sativa, has been
grown because it can be used
to make many useful products.
However, with the rise of the
illegal cannabis use, the
cultivation of hemp has been
outlawed. Investigate the legal
cultivation and use of low-THC
hemp. Look at hemp production
in terms of ease of cultivation,
cost to cultivate it, and possible
legal and societal implications.
Create a P-M-I chart to record
the pluses and minuses of
hemp cultivation. Begin your
research at
Investigation
Refer to page 524,
Investigation 2
.
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Products from Plant Fibres

Most fabrics are made from plant fibres.
Cotton, used for fabrics for centuries,
is just one of the important fibres derived from plants. Other plants used
for fibres include flax, used to make
linen; jute and sisal, used to make rope;
and kapok, used as a filling in mattresses
and upholstered furniture. Cellulose fibres, mainly from cotton and wood, are
used in countless products, from the
kitchen sponge to the film in your camera. Cellulose is also used to manufacture rayon, a fibre that is woven into
fabric used in clothing.
A plant extract is any substance that is

produced by processing a plant or part
of a plant. Cooking oils are extracts from
seeds such as sunflower, safflower, corn,
olive, and canola. Seed oils are used in
the production of processed foods such
as margarine, ice cream, peanut butter,
and salad dressings. Most seed oils are
unsaturated and are liquid at room temperature. Interestingly, oils such as canola
and corn oils have to be hydrogenated in
order to be used as an ingredient in margarine. Hydrogenation makes them more
solid at room temperature, which makes
the margarine solid enough to spread.
However, hydrogenated oils may be less
healthy than unsaturated oils.
FIGURE 15.28 Castor bean oil is an ingredient

of some motor oils.
UNIT 5
Oils from olives, coconuts, yuccas,

jojoba, among others, are used to make
soaps, shampoos, and skin softeners.
The other ingredients mixed in with
these oils affect the type of end product.
For example, olive oil is used to make
soap, shampoo, moisturizer, or bath oil.
Linseed oil is extracted from the seeds of
the flax plant. It is a popular finish for
furniture because it gives dry wood a
pleasing colour and protects it against
moisture damage.
Plant Extracts

restrictions.
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FIGURE 15.29 Linseed oil is added to oil-based

paints to give them a good consistency and to
increase the gloss of the paint.
Seed oils have a variety of other industrial uses. Many paint bases, some
lubricants, and even the oil for high-powered microscope objectives all come from
seeds. Castor bean oil, which is extracted
from seeds of the castor bean plant,
has long been known for its ability to
withstand high temperatures and pressures, and is used in hydraulic systems
in industrial machinery. The oil is also
used as an ingredient in motor oils
(Figure 15.28) for high-performance automobile engines. It clings to the very hot
moving metal parts and protects them
from the harmful effects of friction.
Essential oils are extracted from the
flowers of plants such as jasmine, lilac,
and the rose, and used in the manufacture of perfumes. The formulas for
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perfumes are carefully guarded by

manufacturers.
Rubber is manufactured from the
milky liquid called latex, which is produced from several types of rubber trees.
Rubber trees are tropical plants grown
in South America and Southeast Asia.
Once collected, excess water in the
latex is removed by evaporation and crude
rubber is left. Crude rubber tends to melt
or become brittle in extreme temperatures
so it has to be vulcanized. In the vulcanization process, sulfur and carbon are
added to the rubber. Once vulcanized rubber is much more pliable, it can be used
to make a variety of products such as bicycle inner tubes and tires.
Plants have supplied the raw materials for dyes used on fabrics over the
centuries. Roots, berries, flowers, and
wood are all sources of dye. One of the
oldest known sources of dye is a group
of tropical shrub-like plants commonly
called indigo plants. The plant was used
in ancient Egypt, Rome, and India to dye
fabrics various shades of blue. The
chemical indican, produced by the plant,
reacts with oxygen in the air to produce
the intense blue colour.
The henna plant has been used
since ancient Egyptian times as a source

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.30 The manufacture of perfumes

depends on plant extracts.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 15.31 Latex from a rubber tree is

collected by cutting small slits in the bark of the
tree.
of dye for decorating the human body.

In India, it is called mehndi, and in a traditional wedding ceremony, the bride
usually has her hands and feet covered
with beautiful henna designs (Figure
15.32). The plant, also called Egyptian
privet, is native to North Africa and
India, and can grow to heights of six
metres. Orange, red, or brown dye is
extracted from its crushed leaves. Henna
is also used for colouring hair.
INFOBIT
The ancient Greeks and
Romans used olive oil as a
soap. They rubbed oil on
their skin to loosen natural
secretions and dirt. This dirty
oil was scraped off, leaving
the skin soft and clean, but oily
by our modern standards. The
olive scent was undoubtedly
preferable to the odour of an
unwashed body.

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.32 Hands decorated with henna.

The dye usually wears off after several weeks.
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
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INFOBIT
What do tapioca and nail
polish remover have in
common? They are made from
substances produced by the
cassava plant. Acetone, the
solvent in nail polish remover
and many other industrial
chemicals, is obtained from
fermenting parts of the cassava
plant. Tapioca comes from
starch in the roots.
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Plant protein, which is found mainly

in the seeds of plants, is used to manufacture food products such as tofu. The
soya bean is high in protein and is used
extensively in meatless products such
as vegetarian burgers and soy hot dogs.
Products such as these are important
sources of protein for vegetarians.
A recently developed snack food that
looks like peanuts but is made from soya
beans, can be enjoyed by people with an
allergy to peanut products. Soy drink or
soy milk is a common substitute for
cows milk for people who are lactose
intolerant.
Energy from Plants

Until the industrial revolution, wood was
the major source of fuel for cooking and

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.33 Average
global fuelwood production is
roughly 1.7 million cubic
metres. This wood is used for
cooking, heating, and power
production. Canada produces
roughly 5000 cubic metres.
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warmth. In many developing nations,

wood and charcoal are still the primary fuel sources.
In industrialized countries, plants
are the major energy source. Coal, oil,
and natural gas are all combustible materials that are produced from ancient,
fossilized plants. These important fuel
sources are used around the world
for heating, transportation, many industrial processes, and the generation
of electricity.
As oil and gas resources become
scarcer and more expensive, we turn to
plants to find new ways to supply fuels
for energy, especially for transportation.
Gasohol is a fuel made by combining
gasoline with ethanol. Ethanol is formed
by the fermentation of wastes from crops
such as corn and potatoes. Gasohol reduces the dependence on petroleum but
also reduces the number of pollutants
produced by the automobile engine.
Currently, gasohol can contain only about
10 percent ethanol. Higher ethanol
content can damage some components
of the engine. Gasohol is also expensive
to produce. Until cheaper production
methods are developed, gasohol will not
become as common a fuel as was
originally hoped. Currently, 250 million
litres are sold in Canada each year. In
Ontario, there are 520 gas stations that
sell gasohol.
Section 15.3 Review

provide the vast majority of all sources

of energy used by society?
1. What is the most important industry in

Canada that uses plants?
2. In a flow chart, illustrate the process
of making paper.
3. Vanilla is a common extract found in
the kitchen. In your own words, explain what a plant extract is. List two
different types of extracts that are used
in the food industry.
4. Explain some of the ways that food and
industrial processes depend on plants.
5. Why can it be said that plants
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UNIT 5
Making Connections
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using gasohol?
7.
Based on the importance of plants to

the well-being of society, what actions
could industry take to ensure biological diversity?
8. Research careers directly and indirectly

affiliated with the logging industry.
Record your findings in a concept map.
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Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you will be able to:
describe some of the uses of plant extracts in therapeutic products
compile information about chemicals derived from plants
Plants produce thousands of chemical

substances. Most of these chemicals have
nothing to do with the plants most
important process, photosynthesis.
Because plants cannot move, they have
developed adaptations to ensure that
sexual reproduction takes place. Plants,
for example, lure bees to flowers by
producing chemicals in nectar. The
chemicals produced also protect the
plants from animals and a host of
parasites. For example, mustard plants
produce a number of chemicals with
strong odours that deter most insects
from eating them. Humans discovered
therapeutic uses of plants thousands of years
ago and have been using plants and their
extracts for these purposees ever since.
Plants in Medicine in the Past

The earliest evidence of plant use in
medicine was found in Iraq in the 1950s.
Neanderthal remains were found in
Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 15.34 A page from the 13th-century

Arabic manuscript Treatise of the Theriac,
showing six herbs used to make theriacs,
antidotes to poisons.
the Shanidar Cave, along with pollen

from prehistoric plants that lived an estimated 60 000 years ago. The pollen of
seven flowering plants was found in clusters, leading scientists to believe that the
flowers were arranged in a wreath worn
by a prehistoric man or woman who was
sick. The pollen was identified, and it
turns out that each of the flowering
plants from the cluster is used today for
medicinal purposes. One of the plants
was a hollyhock, which is a common
Ontario garden plant. It has been used
over the centuries as a herbal remedy
for its pain-killing properties.
Over 5000 years ago, the Sumerians
recorded the use of plants for healing
purposes. There are also many references to the medicinal use of plants in
the Bible. One of the oldest records of
the medicinal use of plants comes from
China. Around 2800 B.C., a list of hundreds of medicinal plants was compiled,
many of which are still in use. A comprehensive list of herbal remedies, made
in 200 B.C., documents thousands of
years of use in China. Doctors tested
plant remedies on commoners who
showed similar symptoms to the sick
emperor. If the remedy cured the commoner, it was given to the emperor. The
symptoms and appropriate herbal treatments were then recorded. There are
over a thousand plant drugs still used by
doctors in China today. The last 30 years
have seen a much greater interest in
North America in ancient Chinese herbal
medicines.
In 1597, the book Herball, published
in England, listed the medicinal uses of
hundreds of plants (Figure 15.35). One
of the treatments in this book was for
disorders of the inward parts of the

FIGURE 15.35 The cover of
Herball.
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
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Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 15.36 Foxglove
plants
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body, including the liver. A remedy using

the leaves of the foxglove plant (Figure
15.36) was prescribed. It was eventually
discovered that the powerful heart drug,
digitalis, is produced by this plant.
In the late sixteenth century, during
the Spanish conquest of Peru, the
Spaniards discovered that the native
Peruvians used the bark of a tree known
as the fever tree to treat the mosquitoborne disease, malaria. Several hundred
years later, the chemical quinine was isolated from the bark of the yellowbark
cinchona plant, the fever tree. The
drug was used for many years as a therapeutic product to prevent and cure this
deadly disease.
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the world noticed an increase in resistance of the parasite to these drugs. New
drugs had to be developed. A relatively
new drug that is now used to combat
some of the resistant forms of malaria
is called mefloquine. Unfortunately, it has
serious side effects in some people.
For centuries, a mixture containing the leaves of the white willow tree
had been used as a remedy for all types
of pain. It was eventually discovered that
the bark of the willow tree produces the
chemical, salicylic acid. Another small
plant called queen of the meadow also
produces this chemical. At the end of the
nineteenth century, German scientists
had isolated and finally prepared the active pain-killing substance, acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA), which they named Aspirin.
ASA is probably the most familiar drug
in the world.
Medicinal Chemicals
from Plants
FIGURE 15.37 A small

section of a fresco in Mexico
Citys Hospital de la Raza,
showing an Aztec healer and
some of the medicinal plants
the Aztecs used.
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UNIT 5
Today, malaria still affects close to

500 million people and kills over two
million people a year. Because the
Anopheles mosquito lives in the tropics,
Canadians have largely been unaffected
by the disease. However, with an increase in travel to tropical countries, the
incidence of malaria in this country has
also increased.
Quinine was replaced in the 1940s
with synthetic forms of the drug.
Scientists used the molecular structure of
quinine to make these new drugs. In
the 1960s, doctors and scientists around
The medicinal value of plants is due to

chemicals found in the leaves, stems,
roots, seeds, flowers, fruits, bark, or
wood. The sugars that plants produce
through photosynthesis are converted by
the plant to many other substances. So
far, over 10 000 different plant chemicals
have been identified. The function of large
numbers of these substances is still unknown.
Plant chemicals can have stimulating, soothing, or relaxing effects, or even
kill invading micro-organisms. Practically
all of the drugs considered as recreational come from plants. These include
caffeine, nicotine, the chemicals in chocolate, and marijuana. One-quarter of all
prescription drugs used today contain
plant-produced chemicals.
Two of the most important groups
of plant chemicals used in medicine are
the alkaloids and the glycosides. The alkaloids include drugs such as morphine,
nicotine, cocaine, and quinine. Opium,
the source of the powerful pain killer,
morphine, is obtained from the dried
latex of the poppy fruit (Figure 15.38).
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Digitalis, a glycoside, is a crude form

of a heart drug from the foxglove plant.
Two other powerful heart drugs, digitoxin and digoxin, are also extracted
from digitalis. These drugs cause a diseased heart to beat more strongly and
with a more regular rhythm. The glycosides alone have saved thousands of lives
over the years.
Antioxidants are chemicals that are
believed to help normal animal cells
resist diseases like cancer. Many of these
chemicals are produced by plants. Darkgreen vegetables such as broccoli,
cauliflower, and cabbage, legumes such
as beans, and citrus fruits produce
antioxidants. There is evidence that
people who eat these foods regularly are
less likely to get cancers of the colon,
stomach, and esophagus. Researchers
are currently exploring the possibility
that these chemicals may also help slow
the aging process.
The drops that the eye doctor or the
optometrist puts in your eyes to dilate
your pupils when you have your eyes examined contains a drug called atropine.
It comes from the belladonna plant.
Codeine and antihistamines, found in
cold remedies, also come from plants.
Steroids are also produced by plants. In
fact, a major source of estrogen for the
production of birth control pills is the
yam. Two powerful drugs have been isolated from the rosy periwinkle, a rare
plant found in the rain forest of
Madagascar. One is very effective in
treating a form of cancer called
Hodgkins disease, while the other is
used to treat some types of leukemia.
Therapeutic chemicals extracted from
plants are generally less expensive to
obtain than chemicals synthesized in
laboratories. Some of the molecules in the
compounds produced by plants are so
complex that they either cannot be
artificially manufactured, or the cost of
making them would be very high. As a
result, the cost of the medication for those
who need it would be high.
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WEBLINK
Naturopathic medicines have
become increasingly popular in
recent years. One of the most
popular is Echinacea. Find out
whether there is scientific
evidence to support whether
Echinacea is effective and
decide whether you would use
Echinacea. Write a paragraph
to support your decision.

restrictions.
FIGURE 15.38 Seed pods of the poppy plant
The Search for

New Plant Drugs
Pharmaceutical companies have been
putting most of their research efforts into
finding drugs produced by bacteria
and fungi. With modern recombinant
DNA techniques, it is relatively inexpensive to produce large quantities of
the type of micro-organisms desired for
the research and development of new
drugs. In order to investigate a plant
as a potential drug source, many of the
plants are needed. One of the difficulties
is in obtaining enough plants, especially
if the plant is rare and grows in an inaccessible area such as the Amazon
jungle. It often takes a large quantity of
plant material to produce a small
amount of the drug. In the case of the
medicinal chemicals produced by the
rosy periwinkle, about 500 kg of leaves
are required to produce one gram of
each drug. Drug research in plants is not
being carried out on a wide scale. It is
difficult to know which of the 300 000
species of plants to investigate. All plants
produce chemicals. Which ones might
be useful to humans?
Should scientists investigate all
plants for drug-producing abilities? Even
if scientists examine plant groups with
known medicinal functions, the task is
huge, since these plants produce
INFOBIT
Researchers are testing
several varieties of broccoli
to see whether levels of an
antioxidant called sulforaphane
differ among the varieties.
If sulforaphane levels are
genetically controlled, new
varieties could be developed
with higher levels of this
antioxidant.
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
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hundreds
of
chemicals. Even
plant-derived
drugs that have
been used for
many years for a
particular ailment
could have a beneImage omitted due to copyright
ficial effect on
restrictions.
some completely
unrelated disease.
A good example is
the case of ASA.
ASA has been
used for about 100
years as an effective pain reliever
and to reduce
fever.
ASA
hinders
the
production of a
FIGURE 15.39 Though ASA
group of hormones called prostaglandins.
is an effective pain reliever, it
causes stomach irritation in
When these hormones are released by
some people.
human tissue, they cause fever, pain, and
inflammation. However, in the late
1980s, researchers found that taking
ASA could reduce the chances of someone having a second heart attack or
stroke. ASA prevents platelets in the
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blood from coming together to form clots.

Clots are particularly harmful in patients
with advanced heart disease because
their narrowed vessels may become completely blocked. In the last decade, thousands of people have taken ASA
regularly to protect themselves against
a second heart attack or stroke.
The search for anti-cancer drugs
from plants is perhaps more difficult
than for other drugs. In many cases,
drugs have been discovered that were
used for centuries by the local inhabitants for a particular ailment. The use
of quinine by Peruvians to treat malaria
is a good example. In the case of cancer,
however, descriptions of the disease in
local folklore and traditional medicine
are vague.
Because scientists cannot predict
which plants will produce useful drugs,
as many plants as possible must be preserved in their natural habitat.
Biodiversity must be maintained if
society hopes to continue using plant
chemicals that nature has provided to
cure diseases.
Section 15.4 Review

Making Connections
1. Give two reasons why plants produce

so many chemicals.
7.
4. Malaria has been a dangerous disease

throughout history. Describe how the
drugs used to treat malaria have
changed over time.
There is a large tract of tropical rain

forest that farmers want to clear so that
they can grow food and graze livestock
to feed their families. However, the
plants in the area have never been surveyed by scientists as possible sources
of life-saving chemicals. Identify the social groups who have a stake in the
area. Propose a course of action for this
rain forest and justify your plan by
explaining how each group would be
affected by it.
5. Research antioxidants and, in a chart,

record the effects they may have on
disease.
8. Should plant research be more

widespread? In a paragraph, support
your opinion.
2. Create a web to show the different

chemicals that come from plants.
3. In a table, list the chemicals produced
by plants listed in the text and describe
their therapeutic role.
Applying Inquiry/
6. Hypothesize why plants have been a
source of medicines through history.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 15.2)
A Test for Protein in Seeds

Problem
Materials
For each group of students:

cheesecloth
mortar and pestle
funnel
10 20-mL test tubes
Biuret reagent
10% NaOH
filter paper
balance
beans may require soaking overnight in room-temperature water

before grinding
** chestnut preparation: prior to investigation, remove wall of chestnuts, chop into pieces no larger than 5 mm, and dry overnight in a
warming oven
CAUTION: If you have an allergy to nuts, do not do this

investigation. Biuret reagent is toxic and 10% NaOH is very
corrosive. Avoid contact with skin. Wear eye protection.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Place several layers of cheesecloth in a clean funnel

inserted in a clean, labelled test tube. Filter the contents of your first sample through the cheesecloth.
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the remaining samples,
washing the funnel between samples. Use a
separate test tube and fresh cheesecloth for each
filtration. Discard the cheesecloth and its contents
after each filtration.
8. Adjust the volume of each extract to approximately
5 mL (thumb width).
9. Treat each extract as follows: add 10 drops of 10%
NaOH and 7 drops of the Biuret reagent. Mix contents by gently flicking the bottom of the test tube
while holding the top securely.
10. Observe each test tube. Record any colour changes
for each of the samples after the Biuret reagent
has been added.
6.
Seeds supply energy and nutrition. In this investigation, you will determine whether various seeds contain
protein.
dry navy, white, pinto,

or kidney beans*
flax seeds
soft wheat kernels
dried, chopped chestnut meats**
gelatin powder
distilled water
Using a mortar and pestle, thoroughly grind a few

pinches of seeds (of the same type) at a time. A
1-g sample of ground seeds is required for each
type of seed.
Weigh the ground seeds on filter paper. (Adjust the
balance to compensate for the mass of the paper.)
Measure 1 g of ground seeds for each type. Wipe the
mortar thoroughly each time with paper towels before grinding the next seed type. It is not necessary
to wash the mortar if you wipe it clean each time.
Weigh 1 g of dry gelatin powder.
Place each ground-seed sample in a clean, dry, and
labelled 20-mL test tube. Place the gelatin in a fifth
test tube.
Add 10 mL of distilled water to each test tube. Using
your thumb as a stopper, shake each one vigorously
for 30 s.

1. Construct a chart with the following headings:
Extract, Colour, Colour after Biuret Test.
2. Record your observations for each sample in your
chart.
3. Interpret each of your observations after testing for
the presence of protein.
4. Gelatin powder is pure protein. Explain why it is
used and how it helps you to interpret your observations.

5. According to your observations, which seeds contain protein?
6. In what occupations might this information be
needed? Explain.
Extending
7. What other chemical tests could be run on the extracts of these and other seeds? The testing done
in this investigation is a qualitative test. Explain
how another type of test might be more valuable
for testing nutrient contents in seeds.
8. Find out what percentage of seed mass is protein
for each type of seed.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 15.3)
Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites

Dust mites are tiny relatives of spiders and live in carpets, bedding, upholstered furniture, and stuffed
toys. Their diet consists of dead skin cells from humans
and pets. The mites droppings are an allergen for many
people and can cause sneezing , runny nose, and
asthma. It is very difficult to get rid of these tiny pests.
Eucalyptus oil is an extract of the eucalyptus tree,
a tree native to Australia. Preliminary evidence has
shown that eucalyptus oil may kill dust mites.
Question
Will eucalyptus oil kill dust mites?
Hypothesis/Prediction
Develop a hypothesis for your experiment.
Materials

dust mites
cloth
plastic bag
eucalyptus oil
CAUTION: Students with allergies to dust should not be
involved in collection of the dust.
Decide how you will measure the results of your

experiment.

1. Present your observations in a data table.
2. How did the concentration of eucalyptus oil affect
your results?
3. Prepare a lab report to summarize your findings.

4. Was eucalyptus oil effective in killing dust mites?
5. Would removing dust mites result in increasing
other allergens or affect other homebound insects, i.e., affect the food chain in the dust mites
ecosystem?
6. Prepare a written lab report to summarize your
investigation.
Extending
7. Research other possible uses there might be for
plant extracts such as eucalyptus oil.
8. Could any other plant extract be used on dust mites
instead of eucalyptus oil? Develop a procedure to
test your idea.
Experimental Design
To begin the experiment, collect dust mites by placing a smooth, dark-coloured cloth on the floor and
sweeping house dust onto the cloth. After several
days, gently shake off the dust, place the cloth in a
clean plastic bag, and bring it to your science class.
Place the cloth under the microscope and check
for dust mites. Use Figure 15.40 as a guide. Make
sure that you view the cloth at 50 X magnification.
Develop a scientific investigation to show the effects
of eucalyptus oil on dust mites.
Select the variables you can manipulate to test eucalyptus oils effectiveness in killing dust mites.
Select which variables you will control in your
experiment.
Design a procedure to test the variable you have
selected.
Have the teacher review your experiment before you
carry out the plan.
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FIGURE 15.40 House dust mite (magnification 245)
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Key Terms
biological control
clone
cutting
ecological succession
(succession)
genetically modified (GM)
grafting
hybridization
monoculture
primary succession
secondary succession
selective breeding


Plants supply usable energy to other organisms.

They also provide habitat.
Increased plant diversity leads to increased animal diversity.
The diversity of a plant community changes over
time through the process of succession.
Primary succession happens in places where no
plant life existed previously; secondary succession
occurs after disturbances in existing communities.


The most important food crops for humans are

the grains or cereals and the legumes.
Sources of food come from roots, stems, leaves,
fruits, and seeds.
Growers use a variety of techniques to increase
yields to provide affordable food to an expanding
population.
Yields from agricultural plants have been continuously improved over the centuries by selective
breeding, grafting and, more recently, by cloning.
Cuttings, grafts, and test-tube cloning allow for the
production of agricultural plants that are genetically
identical.
Hybridization and recombinant DNA techniques are
used to produce genetically modified plants with a
variety of desired characteristics.
Although a monoculture allows for high yields of a

desired crop, it is risky because the entire crop could
be destroyed by disease or insects.
Many important industrial products are made from

plant fibres, extracts, and plant proteins.
Industrial processes such as papermaking and tire
manufacturing depend on plants.
Although plants are an important fuel source in developing countries, new fuel sources from plants,
such as gasohol, are being developed.

Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for

thousands of years.
Quinine and salicylic acid are two of the oldest
and most well-known plant extracts used as medicinal drugs.
Only a small number of plant chemicals have been
identified and only a few of these have been researched for medical uses.
Finding new drugs from plants is time-consuming
and difficult. Plant biodiversity must be preserved
in order to give scientists the time to discover new
drugs from plants.

1.

the web you used to brainstorm products derived from
plants. Revise the web diagram based on what you have
learned in the chapter.
3.
There are a wide variety of career choices in plant science relating to industry, agriculture, and medicine.
Research a career in one of these categories and describe
the skills you would need to succeed in that career.
2.
Draw a concept map to summarize what you have

learned about the uses of plants in agriculture using the
following key terms: selective breeding, hybridization,
clone, genetically modified, monoculture.
4.
Reflect on your learning. When you research on the

Internet, what are the criteria you use to evaluate the
information on the sites that you explore?
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1. The pollination of a plant possessing a desired trait with
another variety of the same species is known as
a) self-pollination
b) grafting
c) cloning
d) hybridization
2. Aspirin is used
a) as a painkiller and heart stimulant
b) to reduce fever and prevent blood clots from
forming
c) to reduce fever and prevent malaria
d) to reduce fever and treat certain cancers
3. Legumes have an advantage over other types of plants
in that they require
a) less fertilizer
b) more protein
c) genetic modification
d) more fertilizer
4. The bacteria that cause crown gall disease are important in agriculture because they
a) do not affect plants
b) can transmit a desired gene to a plant
c) cause cloned plants to reproduce
d) can be cloned
5. A major use of genetic modification of plants has been
the development of crops that
a) absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere
b) survive freezing temperatures
c) resist the effects of weed killers
d) do not require light to grow
6. Explain why both grafting and cloning are considered to
be asexual reproduction.
12. Explain how the rotation of crops reduces the need for
applying a pesticide to control an insect pest.
13. Make a chart showing the categories of edible plant parts
and common foods from each category. Give two examples for each.
14. Identify the agricultural technique used to produce many
identical plants without planting seeds. List four common crops produced in this manner.
15. Explain why the tropical rain forest biome supports a
wider diversity of animal life than the boreal coniferous forest.
16. Compare secondary succession in the temperate deciduous forest to that in the boreal forest.
17. a) Provide two specific examples of genetically modified crops grown in North America.
b) Outline the reason(s) why these crops were developed
and the benefit(s) derived from growing them.
18. Copy Table 15.3 into your notebook. Complete all sections with a suitable word or phrase.
TABLE 15.3 Plants and Their Uses
Plant extract
Source
Commercial use
latex
flax seeds
peanut butter
castor oil
7. Describe how the technique of selective breeding works.

henna leaves
8. Explain why selective breeding is an important agricultural technique.
indigo dye
9. Describe how and why one plant extract is used in the
auto industry.
10. a) Name some processed foods derived from plants.
b) Identify the plant(s) that are used in a).
19. Describe how food irradiation works.
11. Explain why an occurrence such as the Irish potato blight,

in which most of the potato crop was lost, is unlikely to
happen today in most countries.
20. Provide three examples of plant extracts that are used

in industries that are not connected to the food industry. Describe how they are used.
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Applying Inquiry/
27. Prepare a report explaining how either of the following

is manufactured:
a) cardboard
b) kraft paper
TABLE 15.4 The number of species growing in a field near

Windsor, Ontario, that was abandoned 40 years ago. Data were
collected periodically over the 40 years.
Vegetation
type
Years after abandonment that the field

was sampled
28. Write a report on the efforts currently being made to

conserve biodiversity in Canadian forests.
29. Describe how society affects plant science and technology.
15
25
40
grasses
31
27
23
31
34
shrubs
17
trees
14
23
31
31
28
52
74
total species
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21. Analyze the data in Table 15.4. What do you conclude

about the plant diversity in the field and explain how the
data supports your conclusion.
22. Analyze the data in Table 15.4 and conclude whether
these data provide evidence of succession and explain
how the data support your conclusion.
23. Given the trends in the data, predict what the data might
be for each vegetation type after another 25 years.
24. In Discovering Biology on page 500, you predicted what
an abandoned playing field would look like after 10 and
100 years. Suppose you were asked to test your predictions, but you were given only a few weeks to do it,
and you could only examine natural areas near where
you live. Design an experimental procedure to test your
hypothesis. What would you use as a control for this
investigation?
Making Connections
25. All Koster blue spruce trees are sterile (unable to reproduce). However, many of these trees are grown in
residential areas throughout the country as ornamental or decorative trees. Explain how these trees are
obtained.
26. Explain how it was possible for the Macintosh apple to
become an important agricultural product.
30. Investigate the current protective measures recommended for travellers to malaria-infested areas of the
world. Include in your brief report, a discussion of the
treatment for travellers returning to Canada who have
contracted malaria.
31. Irradiation is used to prevent foods from spoiling and it
extends their shelf life. Bacteria, fungi, and insects are
killed by this process. Even though irradiation has been
shown to be effective in preventing human disease, there
is opposition to the use of this technology. Prepare a brief
report on the pros and cons of food irradiation.
32. In the late 1980s and early 90s, a chemical called Alar
was applied to apple orchards to ensure all the fruit
ripened at the same time. There were reports in the
media at the time that this chemical might be harmful
to humans. In fact, some Hollywood celebrities supported
a public outcry against the use of Alar. Research the controversy over the use of this chemical and prepare a brief
report about what happened. Include the role of the
media in the controversy as well as the research findings about the effects of Alar.
33. Food additives are put into processed foods for a variety of reasons. There are many consumers who are
against the use of such additives. Identify a number of
additives from labels of a variety of processed foods. Find
out what effect each has and why it is added to the food.
34. Some people in society do not support the use of genetically modified food. Research what concerns they
have and decide whether these concerns are valid.
Provide evidence to support your decision.
35. There is increasing interest in natural remedies and
plant-derived products for internal and external use.
Gingko, aloe vera, Saint Johns wort, slippery elm
bark, and many other plants are now available as herbal
remedies. Research the use of herbs in treatments for
ailments, as supplements, or as skin creams.
CHAPTER 15
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CHAPTER 16
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
describe the structure and function

of the components of each of the
leaf, the stem, and the root of a
representative vascular plant (16.1,
16.2, 16.3)
differentiate between monocot and

dicot plants by observing and comparing the structure of their seeds
and identifying vascular differences
between plants (16.1, 16.2,
Investigation 1)
identify, using a microscope and

models, the plant tissues in roots,
stems, and leaves (16.2,
Investigation 2)
explain how non-vascular plants

function without a vascular system
(16.3)
Plant Structure and

Function
[CATCH: P2 colour enhanced

scanning electron micrograph
of a cross section of the root of
a corn plant. 1/3-1/2 page]
Caption:
FIGURE 16.1 This micrograph shows the intricate structure of the root of a corn plant.
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ver since land plants evolved from green algae millions of years ago, they
have evolved specialized structures that have enabled them to spread out
into different ecosystems and survive in diverse environments. The photomicrograph in Figure 16.1 shows the intricate, organized, and complex
structural characteristics of plants. The root, stem, and leaf are basic
structures of plants. Various cells and tissues in these structures perform
specialized functions and work together to sustain the life of the plant.
Plants have several types of tissue that perform different functions. In
order for plants to survive, they need nutrients and they need to be able to
move these nutrients to every cell. Roots absorb minerals and water from the
soil, and specialized transport tissues conduct the water and minerals from
the roots, through the stem, to the leaves. Cells in the leaves use the water,
along with carbon dioxide, to create sugars through photosynthesis. Another
specialized transport tissue moves these sugars to all the other cells of the
plant where they are used as an energy source. Another tissue protects the
plant structures to ensure they function effectively. Yet another tissue has various specialized cells that provide the plant with support and allow the
plant to grow and develop.
The movement of water and nutrients is critical to the survival of
plants. The mechanisms and processes by which plants supply themselves
with water and nutrients are extremely complex. This chapter examines the
structure of green plants and explains how structure is directly related to the
many functions carried out in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining the Age of a Tree
Examine a cross section of tree
trunk provided by your teacher
in which the annual rings are
clearly visible. Each ring represents one year in the life of the
tree. Determine the age of the
tree used in class or the one in
the photo. In your group, hypothesize how these rings are
produced each year.
CHECKPOINT
Make a T-chart that lists the
structures and functions of
the different parts of the
plant.
Structure
Function
FIGURE 16.2 Cross section of a tree trunk
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Key Understandings
describe the structure and function of the roots, stems, and leaves of vascular plants
identify some vascular differences between monocot and dicot plants
compare the seed structures of monocots and dicots
A plant is organized into roots and

shoots (Figure 16.3). The root system
is below ground and the shoot system is
above ground.
Roots serve at least three important
functions in plants: they act as anchors
to hold the plant in the soil, they absorb
water and minerals, and they transport water and minerals to the stem
for distribution to the rest of the plant.
In some plants, the roots also serve an
important food-storage function.
The leaves and the stem make up
the shoot system. The primary role of
the leaf is to serve as the main location
for the food-making process of green
terminal
bud
flower
leaf
bud
shoot
root
hairs
root
plants, photosynthesis. The primary

function of the stem is to support the
leaves. Stems also transport water and
minerals to the leaves and sugars from
the leaves. There are also stems that
store food.
Monocots and Dicots

Angiosperms are a class of plants, the
Angiospermae, that produce flowers.
Angiosperms can be further divided into
two subclasses: the Monocotyledoneae
and the Dicotyledoneae, commonly
called monocots and dicots. There are
over 200 000 different species of dicots
and more than 50 000 types of monocots. Monocots include the grains and
grasses, while the dicots include such
common plants as the daisy, tomato, and
maple tree. The names of the two subgroups are based on the structure of
their seeds. A seed is made up of a seed
coat, embyro, and endosperm. All
angiosperm seeds have at least one seed
leaf, or cotyledon. Monocots have only
one cotyledon. Dicots have two
cotyledons and these store nutrients that
nourish the embryo as it develops. In
monocots, the cotyledon does not
provided nourishment to the embryo;
the nourishment comes from the
endosperm. Table 16.1 shows the major
differences in structure between
monocots and dicots.
Roots
FIGURE 16.3 The two parts of plants.
Although flowering plants vary widely in shape,
they all have the features labelled here.
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There are two main types of roots found

in plants: taproots and fibrous roots
(Figure 16.4). The primary root emerges
from the germinating seed and develops
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TABLE 16.1
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Differences in Structure between Monocots and Dicots
Many differences result from whether a plant is a monocot (has one seed leaf) or a dicot (has two seed
leaves).
Monocots
Dicots
Vascular bundles
scattered
throughout
stem
arranged
in ring in
stem
Seed leaves
one
cotyledon
two
cotyledons
Flower parts
multiples
of three
multiples
of four or
five
parallel
veins
branching
veins
Mature leaves
narrow
leaves
fibrous
root
system
Roots
Examples
orchids, wheat, rice, bananas
into a long, thick root called a taproot.

Branch roots, called secondary roots,
emerge from the taproot as the plant
grows. Dicots have taproots. Common
plants with taproots include carrots,
beets, and dandelions. Dandelions are a
problem to remove from lawns because
of their long taproots. If you pull out the
plant but leave some of the taproot
broad
leaves
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
tap root
system
oak and maple trees, cacti,

sunflowers
in the soil, that piece of root will grow

new shoots, resulting in a new plant.
Although a dandelion root might be long,
a mature oak trees taproot can grow
to a depth of four metres.
Monocots, such as the grains and
grasses, possess fibrous root systems. In
this system, there are many main roots
of about the same size, and thousands
CHAPTER 16
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 16.4 A taproot of a

dandelion (top), and the
fibrous root of a blue lace
flower (bottom)
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Discovering Biology
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Monocot and Dicot Seeds
You will be provided with dried peas, dates, corn seeds, oat seeds,
pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds. Remove date seeds from
their fruit and remove the shells from the pumpkin and sunflower seeds.
Observe each type of seed carefully with a hand lens.
Determine whether the seed consists of one cotyledon or two.
Categorize each seed as a monocot or dicot.
Present your results in a table.
CAUTION: Do not eat any of the seeds. Do not do the activity if you
have a nut allergy.

restrictions.
FIGURE 16.5 Prop roots growing from a stem
of a corn plant
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of secondary and tertiary roots. Often,

the roots of such plants extend laterally
over a great area. The total length of
all the roots in the fibrous root system
of the rye plant has been estimated to
be over 500 km! In some plants, roots
known as adventitious roots develop.
These emerge from tissues other than
roots, such as the stem and leaf. The
corn plant grows adventitious prop
roots from its stem to help support the
plant (Figure 16.5).
There are several different types of
tissues found in the root. These can be
seen in the cross sections of the monocot and dicot roots shown in Figure 16.6.
The epidermis is one cell layer thick
and is the outermost layer of the root.
In addition to protecting the inner cells
of the root, the epidermis absorbs water
and minerals from the soil. Specialized
epidermal cells form root hairs, which
act as sites of water and mineral absorption. Root hairs greatly increase the
surface area of the root, allowing this
absorption to occur faster.
The cortex is a layer of cells found
just below the epidermis (Figure 16.6)
and consists of cells that store molecules
epidermis
cortex
endodermis
vascular
cylinder
vascular cylinder
xylem
phloem
a) monocot root
b) dicot root
FIGURE 16.6 Cross sections of roots
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endodermis
endodermal cell
root hair
cell
wall
Casparian strip
epidermis
cell
membrane
xylem
phloem
vascular
cylinder
cortex
FIGURE 16.7 The Casparian strip is like a series of rubber bands placed around each cell of
the endodermis.
such as starch. These cells also help

transport water and minerals from the
epidermal cells to the centre of the root.
Water moves by osmosis through these
cells. The inner layer of cortex is a specialized wax-coated cell layer called
the endodermis. The Casparian strip,
which surrounds the endodermal cells
(Figure 16.7), prevents water from moving around them. Water must move
through the endodermal cells into the
vascular cylinder by osmosis, and minerals are pumped through them by
active transport. This layer controls
the movement of water and minerals
into the central area of the root known
as the vascular cylinder. The vascular
cylinder contains the plants conducting
tissues, the xylem and phloem. Once the
water and minerals have entered the
cylinder, they are not able to move back
into the cortex cells. The role of the
xylem is to conduct water and minerals to the leaves and the role of the
phloem is to transport sugars from the
leaves to other parts of the plant. The
details of how these tissues function are
found in section 16.2.
The fact that roots are so effective
in absorbing not only water but also
minerals is being exploited by scientists

in an effort to clean up the environment.
Phytoremediation is the use of plants
to extract toxic substances from soil and
water. Contaminants such as lead, arsenic, and uranium are absorbed by the
roots. These substances are concentrated
in the roots and shoots of the plants. The
plants can either be recycled or the entire plant can be safely disposed of.
Plants currently being used for phytoremediation are the mustard plant, the
sunflower, aspen, and cattail.
INFOBIT
Scientists have estimated that
the total surface area available
for water absorption in the rye
plant is about the same as the
floor space of a very large
(400 m2) house.
FIGURE 16.8 Sunflower plants have been used

in the phytoremediation of radioactive material
from contaminated water in Chernobyl, Ukraine.
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WORD ORIGIN
xylem from the Greek word
xulon, meaning wood.
phloem from the Greek word
phloios, meaning bark.
Investigation
Refer to page 551,
Investigation 1
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Stems
There is a huge variety in shapes and
sizes of stems in different plant species.
Whatever the shape of the stem, its main
functions are to hold leaves up to the
sunlight and to conduct various substances between the roots and the
leaves. There are two main types of
stems. Herbaceous stems are green and
usually soft. These stems do not survive
the winter and are regrown each year.
Woody stems contain tough, hard tissues commonly called wood. Trees and
shrubs, such as the lilac, are examples
of plants with woody stems. These stems
survive the winter.
Herbaceous Stems Vascular bundles are

collections of xylem, phloem, and associated tissues. In the vascular bundles,
the xylem is always closer to the centre
of the stem and the phloem is closer to
the outside of the stem. The vascular
bundles are surrounded by supporting
tissues. The vascular bundles of herbaceous monocots, such as corn, are
scattered throughout the stem (Figure 16.9
a). In herbaceous dicots (Figure 16.9 b),
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the bundles are arranged in a ring. In

dicots, there is a thin layer of tissue
called the vascular cambium in between
the xylem and phloem. Many herbaceous
dicots, such as buttercup or Ranunculus,
have a hollow stem.
Woody Stems The most complex stem is

the woody stem. All trees have woody
stems. Its major components are shown
in Figure 16.10. Woody stems are able
to grow thicker over time. This is due to
its vascular cambium (Figure 16.11). The
cambium makes so much new xylem
and phloem that the individual vascular
bundles are jammed together and are
difficult to distinguish. Each year, cambium produces a layer of new xylem
(and phloem). Sapwood is younger
xylem, which conducts water and minerals. As new xylem is formed each year,
the older xylem created in previous years
fills with resins, oils, and other complex
chemicals and becomes heartwood. The
chemicals resist decay and may also give
the heartwood a different colour.
Heartwood is no longer able to conduct
fluids. As the tree grows each year, more
pith
vascular
bundle
cortex
epidermis
fundamental
or ground
tissue
xylem
phloem
a) monocot stem
FIGURE 16.9 Herbaceous stems
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b) dicot stem
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heartwood
cork
phloem
bark
vascular
cambium
sapwood
FIGURE 16.10 Layers of a woody stem
wood is added, and the trunk widens.

The growth of new xylem each spring
results in a new layer of sapwood or
annual ring being formed.
By counting the number of annual
rings, a person can determine the age
of the tree when it is cut down. By
carefully examining the xylem within the
annual ring, one can also determine the
weather during the year that the xylem
was produced. Spring growth is rapid.
Many large xylem cells (spring wood) are
formed by the cambium. Summer growth
is slower and smaller cells are produced
(summer wood). The difference in spring
and summer xylem can be seen in Figure
16.11. Cambium activity stops in late
summer and resumes the following
spring. A wide annual ring indicates a
long growing season and a narrow ring
indicates a short one.
The outer part of the woody stem is
the bark. Bark is a protective tissue that
consists of the phloem and cork tissue.
The outer cork cells are dead and contain fats, oils, and waxes, which help
prevent water loss. As the stem widens,
the outer cork layer often cracks or peels

off in strips as the wood grows.
Specialized Stems The stems of cacti

(Figure 16.12) are herbaceous but are
very different in structure and function
from plants found in Canada. In deserts,
water is briefly available only at
phloem
vascular
cambium
summer
wood
spring
wood
annual
ring
FIGURE 16.11 A cross section of a woody dicot stem
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certain times of the year. Cacti must be

able to store the water they absorb during those periods. Most cacti have stems
that are adapted to store water, so they
have a constant supply for photosynthesis
throughout the year.
Stems can also be used to store food,
to help the plant survive the winter and
spring. The plant uses the stored food
until it has grown new leaves that can
make food. There are several different
types of modified stems (Figure 16.13).
Rhizomes are thick, fleshy stems that
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grow on or just below the soils surface.

Rhizomes develop roots and can survive
winter. In the spring, buds develop from
the rhizomes. Many familiar garden
plants, such as irises and canna lilies, and
many species of grass develop rhizomes.
Tubers are another form of specialized stems. Even though tubers are
stems, they grow underground. They become so enlarged with stored food that
they dont resemble stems at all. Tubers
have eyes, which are actually buds.
These buds grow into new shoots above
the ground. Potatoes are common tubers.
Bulbs are also underground stems.
The actual stem, though, is quite small. It
is surrounded by layers of modified leaves.
These leaves are short and very thick.
Tulips, onions, and daffodils develop
bulbs.
Leaves
restrictions.
FIGURE 16.12 A giant saguaro cactus. All that

is seen in the photo is stem. The leaves are tiny
needles that are not visible in this photo.

a) Iris rhizomes

b) Potatoes are tubers.
FIGURE 16.13 Specialized stems
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UNIT 5
The leaf not only makes sugars for the

plant but also supplies all living organisms with their source of food and oxygen. The photosynthetic machinery of
plants, the chloroplasts, is located primarily in the leaves of green plants.
There are many different types of leaves
but most are designed to provide the
maximum exposure to sunlight. Figure
16.14 shows the difference between a
simple leaf and a compound leaf, as well
as some highly modified leaves. The typical leaf, as seen in cross section in
Figure 16.15, contains a number of specialized tissues.

restrictions.
c) Tulips form bulbs.
Contents
Previous Section
Most leaves are covered by a waxy

substance known as cuticle, which is
produced by the epidermis. As in the
root and stem, the epidermis forms the
outer cell layer of the plant. The
epidermis and cuticle provide waterproofing for the leaf, as well as a
protective barrier for the tissues inside
the leaf. However, water vapour, oxygen,
and carbon dioxide must be able to
move into and out of the leaf. The passage of these gases happens through the
stomata (singular: stoma). In land
plants, most of the stomata are located
on the underside of the leaves. Woody
plants, such as the oak and apple, have
no stomata on the upper leaf surface,
while the leaves of herbaceous plants,
such as corn, have significant numbers
on their upper surfaces.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
is one of the raw materials used by the
chloroplasts to manufacture sugars. In
general, the stomata are open during
daylight hours to allow in the carbon
dioxide needed for photosynthesis and to
allow water vapour out. Oxygen, a byproduct of photosynthesis, is also released
through the open stomata into the atmosphere. Since photosynthesis cant
happen at night, carbon dioxide is not
needed, so the stomata are usually closed
at night to prevent excess water loss.
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compound
leaves
simple
leaves
leaves modified
as spines
leaves modified
as tendrils
FIGURE 16.14 Leaves come in many different shapes. Simple leaves have just one
blade, but compound leaves are divided into smaller leaflets.
vein
cuticle
epidermis
palisade layer

restrictions.
mesophyll
spongy layer
stoma
epidermis
guard cells
xylem
phloem
air spaces
FIGURE 16.15 Leaves are the site of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates.
CHAPTER 16
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Contents
INFOBIT
Scientists have estimated that
the total surface area of the
chloroplasts in all the leaves of
one mature tree, such as an
elm, is slightly less than the
entire land area of the island
nation of Barbados (about
430 km2).
Previous Section
Plants are also able to close their stomata

during the day, depending on environmental conditions. When its too hot, or
when there is a lack of water in the soil,
plants can close their stomata until
conditions improve. Many plants also
display a rhythm of opening and
closing of stomata during daylight hours.
Each stoma is surrounded by two
guard cells (Figure 16.16). The guard
cells are specialized, kidney-shaped epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. In
daylight, the complex movement of ions
into the guard cells creates a hypertonic
environment inside the cells. As a result,
water moves by osmosis from the surrounding cells into the guard cells, causing
them to swell. Because the inner wall of
the guard cell is thicker than the rest of
the cell wall, the cell curves more on
its outer side as it swells with water. The
uneven curving of the guard cells causes
them to pull away from each other and
open the stoma. At night, the ions move
out of the guard cells and the water
follows, causing the cells to shrink and
close off the opening, or stoma.

restrictions.
FIGURE 16.16 Two stomata

are visible. One is open and
one is closed. In this photograph, most of the epidermis
has been torn away, revealing
the spongy layer that lies
below it.
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UNIT 5
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The cells within the leaf are known

as mesophyll cells (Figure 16.15). These
thin-walled cells contain numerous
chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis.
In many plants there are two distinct layers of mesophyll, the palisade layer and
the spongy layer. The palisade cells are
more densely packed and usually contain
more chloroplasts than the spongy cells.
The spongy layer cells are loosely spaced
so that air can be in contact with these
cells. In fact, there is more surface area
exposed to air inside the leaf than outside the leaf! The mesophyll cells are the
sites of gas exchange in the leaf. Carbon
dioxide and oxygen have to be dissolved
in water to enter and leave the mesophyll
cells, so all the cells have to be covered
in a thin film of water. The water is transported from the roots by the xylem and
supplied to the leaf cells. Over 90 percent
of the water entering the roots of plants,
however, evaporates from the surface of
the mesophyll cells. Once it has evaporated, the water vapour moves through
the spaces between mesophyll cells and
out through the stomata. This process of
water loss through evaporation in leaves
is called transpiration. On a warm summer day, a mature maple tree can lose
over 160 L of water per hour through this
process.
The xylem and phloem continue
from the stems through the petiole, or
leaf stem, into the leaves, forming part
of the vascular bundles. These bundles
are called veins. The veins in a leaf
branch out extensively so that the xylem
and phloem are close to the mesophyll
cells. The arrangement of patterns
varies: in monocots the veins run parallel to one another, while in dicots the
veins form a branching network. As you
have learned, xylem carries water and
dissolved minerals from the soil, and
phloem transports the sugar manufactured in the leaf mesophyll cells, to all
parts of the plant. The conducting tissues found in the leaf are continuous
with those in the stem and root. In a mature cedar or redwood, the conducting
tissues can be hundreds of metres long!
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Case
Study
Using Plants to Fight

Pollution
Defining the Issue
Mustard and sauerkraut arent just hotdog toppings

anymore. Scientists are now using mustard and cabbage plants to clean soil. These plants are being used
for their ability to absorb cesium and strontium from
contaminated soil. Phytoremediation is the process of using plants to clean up contaminated soil,
sediments, and water. Certain plants have the ability to absorb large amounts of contaminants and
transfer them to their tissues. These plants act as
a kind of biological pump. There are many different
plant species that have the ability to absorb various
contaminants. Research is underway to find plant
species that can absorb specific contaminants efficiently.
Plants can be used to absorb toxic metals such
as chromium and mercury, organic compounds such
as hydrocarbons and PCBs, and radionuclides (substances that produce ionizing radiation such as
x-rays and gamma rays). These include uranium,
strontium, and cesium. Because different plants can
be used to absorb a wide range of toxic substances,
many contaminated sites around the globe could
benefit from phytoremediation. Mine tailings ponds,
nuclear waste dumps, and old munitions dumps
could all benefit from phytoremediation. Removal
of contaminants by other methods from any of these
sites is difficult and very costly. The use of plants
to clean up such areas promises to be an inexpensive and natural way to remove harmful substances
from contaminated soil and water. Phytoremediation
FIGURE 16.17 A wastewater treatment facility at a Body

Shop manufacturing site. In this form of phytoremediation, the
plants roots provide habitat for different types of bacteria that
can break down pollutants in the wastewater. The water
passes through several different tanks before being discharged.
is being used in selected sites, but it is still in the research and development stages. Additional study
needs to be completed before the process becomes
more widespread.
Analyzing the Issue

1.
Use the Internet and other sources to research and

describe the biochemical processes involved in
phytoremediation.
2.
Analyze your data in a PMI chart. What other questions

come to mind from evaluating your findings? Explain.
3.
What factors affect the decision to use phytoremediation

on a broader scale?
4.
Identify and explain the environmental and economic

impacts of implementing this process.
5.
Propose a media campaign to educate the public about

phytoremediation and promote the decision to implement this technology immediately on a worldwide basis.
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Specialized Leaves Plants that live in dry

conditions usually have modified leaf
structures to help retain water. The
leaves often have a thicker epidermis
with a very thick cuticle, which helps
cut down on water loss (Figure 16.18).
Also, all the stomata are on the underside of the leaf, out of direct sunlight.
Keeping the gas exchange surface cool
slows the rate of transpiration. The
leaves may also be thick and used for
water storage.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
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The leaves of a cactus are modified into

spines for protection and they no longer
perform photosynthesis. The spines have
no stomata or chlorophyll. Photosynthesis
happens in cells near the surface of the
stem instead.
Aquatic plants such as the water lily
have modified leaves. The underside of the
leaf is in contact with water, and so gas
exchange cannot happen on that surface.
To overcome this, water lilies have stomata only on the upper surface of the leaf.

restrictions.
FIGURE 16.18 The leaves of a jade plant, cactus, and water lily. All have structural
adaptations that allow them to live in their specialized environments.
Section 16.1 Review

1. In a table, state the three main functions of the root and identify the root
structure(s) that actually carry out these
functions.
2. In your own words, define:
a)
tuber
b)
rhizome
c)
bulb
3. Identify the roles of vascular bundles
in plants.
4. Using diagrams, contrast the structural
differences between monocot and dicot
plants.
5. How does the structure of a leaf support its function?
6. Explain why most plants have stomata
mainly on the lower surface of their
leaves.
7.
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UNIT 5
Predict the environment in which you

would expect to find plants with
several layers of palisade mesophyll

cells densely packed with chloroplasts.
Explain the reasoning behind your prediction.
8. Draw and label a cross section of a leaf.
Draw arrows to indicate the directions
of water vapour and carbon dioxide
movement.
Making Connections
9. What factors does a landscaper have
to consider when selecting plants for a
garden?
10. Research the use of phytoremediation
in Ontario. What criteria should environmentalists consider in applying this
technology?
11. Select an analogy that could be used to
explain leaf structure.
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Key Understandings
identify the tissues found in angiosperms
describe the functions of fundamental, vascular, and protective tissues
locate meristematic tissues and explain their functions
A tissue is a group of cells, usually identical, that act together to carry out a
specific function. Just as animals contain
specialized tissues (such as muscle and
nerve tissues), so do plants. The angiosperms have a number of tissues,
each designed to carry out an important
role.
Vascular Tissue
As you know, xylem conducts water and
dissolved minerals (together called xylem
sap) from the roots to all parts of the
plant. There are two types of xylem cells:
vessels or vessel elements and
tracheids (Figure 16.19). Vessel elements are only found in angiosperms. A

vessel consists of many vessel elements
connected end-to-end. The ends are either absent or perforated. This allows
xylem sap to pass from one element to
the next as it travels upward through the
length of the vessel. Vessels are often
packed side-by-side and may be connected to each other by pits. These
permit the lateral flow of xylem sap from
one element to the next. Thus, xylem sap
may flow straight upward or may
change vessels part way by flowing
through pits.
water
Investigation
Refer to page 552,
Investigation 2
water
vascular bundles
phloem
sieve
elements
xylem
vessel
elements
companion
cells
tracheids
stem section
food
FIGURE 16.19 Cells of the xylem and phloem. The inset photo is a microscopic view of
vascular tissue.
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WORD ORIGIN
collenchyma from the Greek
words kolla, meaning glue,
and enchima, meaning an
infusion.
meristematic from the Greek
word meridzein, meaning to
divide.
Previous Section
The tracheids are much narrower

than the vessel elements and their ends
are so sharply angled that they appear
pointed. They also have numerous pits.
Tracheids are found in all vascular
plants, not just in the angiosperms. They
are the only kind of xylem found in gymnosperms.
The substances cellulose and lignin
are deposited on the exterior surfaces of
xylem cells to form rigid cell walls. When
the cell walls are complete, the cytoplasm dies, leaving dead, hollow xylem.
In woody dicots, xylem cells eventually
become plugged with oils, gum, tannins
and resin, resulting in the formation of
heartwood.
Phloem transports water and dissolved carbohydrates (primarily sugars)
from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Most phloem cells (Figure 16.19) are
called sieve tube cells (or members) because they have sieve plates at each end.
These resemble vessel elements, but
are much smaller. Also, these cells remain
alive, unlike the xylem elements. At maturity, however, sieve tube members contain no nuclei. Instead, they have
cytoplasm. Even though a sieve tube
cell lacks a nucleus, it is still able to function. The cytoplasm of each sieve cell is
connected by pores to a small nucleated
companion cell next to it. The companion cell appears to direct the operation of

restrictions.
a) parenchyma
Next Section

b) collenchyma
FIGURE 16.20 The cell walls get progressively thicker across the three types of
ground tissue. Sclerenchyma forms the shells of nuts and the spines of cacti.
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UNIT 5
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the sieve cell. Experiments have demonstrated that if the companion cell dies,
the sieve cell stops functioning.
Fundamental or
Ground Tissue
Most of a plant is made of ground tissue,
and this tissue consists of parenchyma
cells. Parenchyma is found in the roots,
stems, leaves, and fruit. Parenchyma has
many different functions. It provides
support for the plant and stores food and
water. Photosynthesis also occurs
in parenchyma cells containing
chloroplasts. The flesh of an apple
or watermelon is parenchyma, and
potatoes and radishes are mostly
parenchyma. The cell walls of
parenchyma cells are quite thin and
flexible (Figure 16.20). Collenchyma and
sclerenchyma are specialized types of
parenchyma with thicker and more rigid
cell walls. They provide support in plant
stems. Mature sclerenchyma consists
mainly of the rigid walls of dead cells.
Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissue is a type of tissue
that produces new cells by mitosis.
In plants, mature cells cannot divide.
This means that the plant can only
grow where there is meristematic tissue.

restrictions.
c) sclerenchyma
Contents
Previous Section
shoot apical
meristem
(terminal
bud)
lateral bud
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producing cells that increase the stem

length, the meristems in all shoot tips
also produce leaves and vascular tissues.
In roots, the apical meristem produces
new cap cells as well as the elongating
vascular tissues. These protective rootcap cells are continually sloughed off as
the tip forces its way farther into the soil.
A typical root tip is shown in Figure
16.22b).
There are two other types of meristematic tissue. These tissues allow
woody plant stems to grow in width,
as discussed in section 16.1. Vascular
cambium is a ring layer of meristematic
tissue found between the xylem and
a)
immature
leaf
shoot apical
meristem
root apical
meristem
FIGURE 16.21 The meristems are the purple

areas on the shoot and root.
These regions are referred to as

meristems. Apical meristems are located at the ends of shoot and root tips
(Figure 16.21). These are responsible for
the primary growth (growth in length)
of the stem and root. A plant may have
thousands of apical meristems: every
root tip and bud has one! Lateral buds
are located between the main stem and
the branches. These contain meristematic tissue that can give rise to new
leaves or flowers.
The youngest cells are at the tip of
the apical meristem. These cells are very
small. Older cells are located farther
away and they rapidly increase in size
(Figure 16.22a). Most of the growth in
shoot length comes from the elongation of these older cells. Besides
b)
root
apical
meristem
root
cap
FIGURE 16.22 The cells of the apical meristem

in a shoot a) are seen in brown. The cells of a
root meristem b) are found behind a group of
cells that form the root cap.
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secondary xylem
The cork cells produce a waxy substance

that acts as a water repellent. The outer
layers of dead cells make up most of the
cork tissue. However, new cells are conbark
stantly being produced by the cork cambium.
The product known as cork comes
from a single species of tree, the cork
oak (Quercus suber), which grows in
Mediterranean countries. The cork cells
from this tree are air-filled and watertight, which makes cork tissue very light
and impervious to water or other liquids.
Cork can only be taken from trees that
are over 25 years old. The cork is
stripped by cutting slits in the outer bark
and then peeling away the cork layer in
vascular
secondary cork cork
cambium phloem
cambium large sheets from the living phloem
below. Its very important that the
phloem and vascular cambium are not
FIGURE 16.23 Secondary growth tissues. Bark
damaged in the process. Cork sheets are
consists of secondary phloem, cork cambium,
then boiled to increase the corks flexiand cork.
bility. These sheets are then used to
make stoppers for bottles, flooring, cork
boards, and many other products. Cork
phloem in dicots. Tissue produced by ditrees can be stripped of their cork layer
viding cambium cells is called secondary
repeatedly. A healthy tree, once it has
growth (growth in width). Secondary
been stripped, will grow a new layer of
vascular tissue is important to plants like
cork in 3 to 10 years.
trees that have permanent, growing
roots and stems. The cambium produces
new large xylem cells on its interior
surface and new phloem cells on its exterior surface. These new layers are
called secondary xylem and secondary
phloem (Figure 16.23).
As more and more cells are added
by the vascular cambium, the diameter
of the root or stem gradually increases.
Cork cambium produces cork, the outer
protective layer of a woody stem.
first
annual
growth
ring
INFOBIT
The skin of a potato is
actually a thin layer of cork. So
people who eat the skins of
cooked or baked potatoes, are
actually eating cork!
second
annual
growth
ring
third
annual
growth
ring
restrictions.
Protective Tissue
The epidermis, usually only one cell in
thickness, is the outer protective layer
of leaves, stems, and roots. As you
learned in the previous section, the epidermal layer, with its covering of cuticle, also serves as waterproofing for
plant tissues.
Cork, protects inner tissues from injury. It is more than one cell layer thick.
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UNIT 5
FIGURE 16.24
tree by hand.
The cork is peeled off a cork
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Section 16.2 Review

1. Draw a diagram of the two types of
water-conducting xylem cells.
Applying Inquiry/
2. Describe how the sieve tube and companion cells work together to perform
their transport role.
3. Starting with the word tissue, create
a concept map to illustrate the three
classes of tissues and their functions.
4. Distinguish between the functions of
parenchyma and meristematic tissues.
5. Outline the reasons why a monocot,
such as a corn plant, cannot increase
its stem width each year, whereas a
dicot, such as an oak tree, is able to do
so for decades.
6. Some plants that grow in arid areas
often have thicker leaves to store water.
Which type of tissue would the bulk
of the leaf be made of? Provide reasons
for your answer.
FIGURE 16.25
7.
Identify as many tissues as possible

in Figure 16.25. Is this a slide of a stem
or a root? Give reasons for your answer.
8. Draw a cross section of a root and use

coloured pencils to shade in the ground
tissue, protective tissue, and vascular
tissue.

Key Understandings
explain the mechanism of water transport in vascular plants
explain why sugar transport in vascular plants is more complex than water transport
explain how non-vascular plants function without a specialized vascular system
The function of xylem in vascular plants

is to transport water and minerals from
the soil to all parts of the plant, and the
function of the phloem is to transport sugars from the leaves to all parts of the plant.
How the xylem and phloem actually carry
out these tasks is not fully understood.
Scientists can only theorize as to the
intricacies of water and food transport.
Water Transport in
Vascular Plants
In the Root Root hairs absorb essential
minerals from the soil by active
transport. The energy needed for active
transport comes from the respiration of
carbohydrates in the root cells. Once inside the epidermis, the minerals are
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restrictions.
FIGURE 16.26 Guttation occurs in some small

plants, and usually takes place at night in humid
conditions.
Discovering Biology
Water Movement in Narrow Tubes
Your group will be provided with a Petri dish, food colouring,
and 3-4 capillary tubes of identical lengths but different
diameters. Fill the Petri dish half full with water
and add 2 drops of food colouring. Gently
swirl the dish so that the water is a
uniform colour. Each member of your
group, in turn, will place one capillary
tube into the dish and hold it
upright as in Figure 16.27.
Before you place the tubes

in the dish, predict what
you think will happen. It is
not necessary to reach a
consensus.
Carefully observe the water in
your capillary tube. Measure the
height of water in the tube.
Provide possible
explanations for the
results.
FIGURE 16.27
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UNIT 5
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moved toward the centre of the root

where the wax-coated endodermis prevents them from diffusing back out to
the soil. This concentration of minerals
creates xylem sap that is hypertonic
relative to soil water outside the root.
Consequently, the hypotonic soil water
enters the root by osmosis. Energy is not
required for water entry but is required
for mineral transport. As long as the root
hairs continue to absorb minerals, water
will follow by osmosis.
The accumulation of water and
dissolved minerals creates pressure. This
pressure pushes the sap up the xylem.
This pressure is called root pressure and
it can be measured in some plants such
as tomatoes. If the stem of a tomato plant
is cut off just above ground, the stump
will bleed sap. Root pressure can also
cause guttation, where water droplets
are exuded from blades of leaves (Figure
16.26).
Root pressure is able to push water
up to only a maximum of a few metres
in some plants. However, there are many
trees, such as giant redwoods and cedars,
that are over 100 m tall. Also, in many
plants, including some trees, there is no
measurable root pressure. Clearly, root
pressure cannot entirely account for
xylem sap movement.
In the Stem Water clings readily to a

variety of non-oily surfaces. This
phenomenon is known as adhesion.
This principle is demonstrated every
time you dry yourself with a towel. Water
clings more readily to the fibre of the
towel than to your skin, which is oily
compared to the towel. When a drop of
water on your skin comes into contact
with the towel, it flows and adheres to
the towel fibres. This same principle
accounts for the movement of water into
sponges and blotters even if the
movement of the molecules is against
gravity, as it is in the xylem. Water
adheres to the inner walls of the xylem,
creating a pulling force on the column
of water molecules.
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xylem sap
air space
mesophyll cells
stoma
outside air
water molecule
Transpiration
cohesion of
water molecules
adhesion
xylem cells
flow of water
Cohesion and Adhesion in the Xylem
soil particle
water molecule
root hair
water
Water Uptake from Soil
FIGURE 16.28 The flow of water from the roots to the leaves
The ability of water to stick to itself

is known as cohesion. Because of the
hydrogen bonding between adjacent
water molecules, very strong forces of
attraction are created. If you have ever
tried to pry apart two wet microscope
slides, you will have noticed how tightly
they stick together. The water between
the slides acts like glue. A xylem vessel
may be very long, but it does not contain much water because it has a small
diameter. The cohesion of water
molecules in this long cylinder results in
the water column holding together
continuously from the ground to the top

of the highest leaves. This narrow column of water is incredibly strong: it has
the same strength as steel wire of the
same diameter! This is more than
enough to support a column of water
in the tallest trees. If a pull at the top
of this water column were exerted, there
would be enough cohesive strength to
draw water all the way from the roots.
The pull required comes from the
leaves via a process called leaf pull or
transpiration pull.
CHAPTER 16
WEBLINK
To further explore the concept

of water movement from the
roots to the leaves, go to
547
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WEBLINK
Maple syrup is a popular
Canadian export. Research
more about maple syrup
production in Canada. What
provinces produce maple
syrup? What countries does
Canada export to? How much
maple syrup is produced
annually? Complete a data
table to summarize your
findings. Begin your research at

FIGURE 16.29 Tapping does

not harm the tree, provided
that not too much sap is
taken.
548
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In the Leaves Most of the water entering

the leaves is lost through the process of
transpiration. As each water molecule
evaporates during transpiration, it
pulls on the adjacent water molecules.
These molecules in turn pull on the next,
and so on, in an unbroken cohesive
chain all the way to the root hairs. The
evaporation of liquid requires heat energy, which comes from the environment
around the plant. Thus, the plant uses
heat energy from its surroundings to pull
water from the roots to the top of the
plant. Xylem sap movement is dependent on the rate of transpiration. If the
air temperature is low, as in a northern climate, the rate of evaporation (and
thus the rate of transpiration) is low. But
if the temperature is high, these rates
are also high. That is, the faster water
evaporates from the leaves, the faster
sap will rise. Under ideal conditions, sap
can rise 75 cm per minute in a tree.
The pull or tension exerted on the
column of water in the xylem is strong
enough to account for the movement of
water to the tops of any tree found on
the planet. Scientists have estimated that
the pulling forces exerted by transpiration pull, combined with cohesion forces,
could transport water to the top of trees
three times higher than the tallest known
trees.
This theory of water transport is
currently widely accepted by most scientists because it is the best interpretation of the observations.
A Product Derived from Xylem Sap In

North America, the xylem sap of the
sugar maple tree is put to use. In early
spring, when the days are warm and the
night temperatures fall below freezing,
sugar maples begin to convert starches,
stored in the roots, into sugars and send
them up the xylem to the branches. To
make maple syrup, holes are tapped into
the xylem to collect the clear xylem sap.
Maple syrup producers then boil this sap
down to remove most of the water.
About 50 L of sap are needed to produce
one litre of pure maple syrup.
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Food Transport in
Vascular Plants
The precise mechanism of food transport is not known. One of the problems
in explaining how food is moved in
plants is that the phloem sieve-tube cells
are living cells, containing cytoplasm
with most of the organelles that other
cells have. Functioning xylem vessel
cells, as you know, are dead and hollow.
Scientists have a much easier time explaining how water moves up hollow
pipes than how sugars and other complex molecules move from living cell
to living cell at rates as fast as 2 m
per hour. The theory that best explains
the movement of sugars is called the
pressure-flow theory.
In this theory, the leaf cells are called
the source, and the storage cells in the
roots are called the sink. In the leaves,
sugars are pumped into phloem sievetube cells by active transport, thus building up a hypertonic solution inside
(Figure 16.30). This hypertonic solution
causes water to move by osmosis into the
sieve-tube cells from adjacent hypotonic
xylem cells. This results in the creation
of a pressure that pushes the sugars
through the phloem away from the
leaves, down the stem toward the roots.
In the root, the soluble sugars are
moved out of the sieve-tube cells into storage parenchyma cells (the sink). This may
happen passively depending on the relative sugar concentrations inside and
outside the root cells. Water molecules
follow the sugars out of the sieve-tube
cells by osmosis. The phloem sap is now
under less pressure in the roots. As leaves
add and the roots remove sugars, the
phloem sap experiences two different
fluid pressures. A high pressure in the
leaves pushes on the sap and a low
pressure in the root pulls on the sap.
A number of observations support
this theory. One of the most interesting
involves an insect called an aphid (Figure
16.31). Aphid colonies are usually found
on thin stems just below leaves. An
aphids mouth-parts form an extremely
fine tube or proboscis, which it inserts
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XYLEM
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PHLOEM
SOURCE
WEBLINK
high sugar concentration
and high water pressure
sugar
To further explore the concept

of sugar transport in plants,
go to
1. active transport of sugar

into phloem
water
2. water follows by osmosis
leaf cell
3. pressure gradient moves

fluid down phloem
SINK
4. active or passive transport
of sugar into root cell
sugar
5. water follows by osmosis

water
low sugar concentration
and low water pressure
root cell
vessel elements

restrictions.
sieve elements
FIGURE 16.30 Food transport in plants requires energy to pump the sugars into
FIGURE 16.31
Aphids feeding on a stem
the phloem.
into individual phloem sieve cells to

withdraw phloem sap for food. While an
aphid is actively feeding, researchers are
able to snip the aphid away from its
embedded proboscis. The proboscis continues to ooze phloem sap, clearly indicating that the phloem is under pressure.
Chemical analysis shows that this
phloem sap is up to 30 percent dissolved
chemicals (mostly sugars), which is a
much higher sugar concentration than
that in the phloem in leaves. This indicates that there is a pumping or concentrating mechanism (probably active
transport) at work. Chemical analysis of
root phloem sap generally shows a lower

concentration of dissolved substances.
These observations are consistent with
the pressure-flow theory.
In general, pressure is high in the
leaves and low in the roots where the
sugar is being used. All tissues that use
sugars, however, such as a growing
shoot higher up on the plant, also develop low phloem pressure. The plant is
able to reverse the direction of flow of
sugars from the root to other parts of the
plant. The roots then act as the source
and the shoots or other upper tissues of
the plant act as the sink.
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Water and Food Transport in

the Bryophytes
The non-vascular plants, the bryophytes,
do not have xylem or phloem. There are
consequences to lacking transport tissues for this primitive group of plants.
There are three groups of bryophytes:
the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
Bryophytes grow on rocks, on the bark
of trees, and in soil. Because these plants
have no xylem, they must live in wet,
shady environments. Water moves from
the environment into the plant and from
cell to cell by osmosis and capillary action. These forces work only over short
distances, so all the bryophytes photosynthetic tissues must be close to water
(Figure 16.32). Thus, most bryophytes
are restricted to heights of less than 2
cm. These plants do not have true leaves,
stems, or roots. Rhizoids serve to anchor
the plant. Photosynthesis takes place in

restrictions.
FIGURE 16.32 All cells of a bryophyte depend

on osmosis to get water. As much of the plants
tissue as possible must be in direct contact with
water.
the upper, small, leaf-like sections of the

plant. Unlike the vascular plants, each
cell in a bryophyte is responsible for
manufacturing its own sugars, since the
plant lacks phloem to take sugars from
one cell to another.
Section 16.3 Review

1. Explain why root pressure alone cannot account for water transport in most
plants.
2. a) Name the tissue(s) in a typical plant
that is (are) the source(s) of carbohydrates.
b) Identify several tissues in another
plant organ that use the carbohydrates produced by the plant.
3. Outline two consequences for the
bryophytes of not having vascular
tissues.
4. You are using an electron microscope
to examine sections of a plant cell that
receives carbohydrates from sieve-tube
cells. Predict which organelle(s) you are
unlikely to observe in these sections
and provide a brief explanation.
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UNIT 5
7.
When they receive cut flowers, people

often cut off the ends of the stems while
holding them under water and then
transfer the flowers to a vase, making
sure there is a water droplet at the end
of each stem. Explain how this slows
the wilting of cut flowers.
Applying Inquiry/
Relative rate
(grams per 2 hours)
30
transpiration
20
10
0
water
uptake
6 am
noon
6 pm midnight
Time of day
5. Explain why aphids provide evidence

that supports the pressure-flow theory.
FIGURE 16.33
6. Create a Venn diagram to compare the

similarities and differences between
water transport and food transport in
vascular plants. Your answer should
include energy inputs, direction of
transport, plant tissues used, among
others.
8. The graph in Figure 16.33 shows the

rate of water loss through transpiration and the rate of water uptake.
Analyze the data and propose a relationship between water uptake and
transpiration.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 16.1)
Examining Monocot and Dicot Stems
Problem
In this activity, you will examine the arrangement of

vascular tissue in prepared slides of monocot and dicot
plant stems to determine the differences between the
two.
1. a) Which conducting tissue was always closest

to the epidermis in the monocot stem?
b) Was this pattern followed in the dicot stem?
Materials
For each pair of students:
prepared slides of
monocot stem cross section, e.g. Zea mays
(corn)
herbaceous dicot stem cross section,
e.g. Rununculus (buttercup)

2. What is the major difference in structure between
monocot and dicot stems?
Comparing Monocot and Dicot Stems
Procedure
1. Examine a herbaceous monocot stem cross
section such as corn, Zea mays, under low magnification. Locate the following: epidermis, vascular
bundles, and fundamental or ground tissue.
2. Make a labelled drawing, showing the arrangement
of the vascular bundles.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a herbaceous dicot stem
cross section.
4. Move the microscope objective to a higher magnification so that one vascular bundle almost fills the
field of view. This may be medium or more likely
will be high power.
5. Locate the following tissues: xylem, phloem, cambium, pith, cortex, and epidermis.
6. Under high power, draw and label a section through
the vascular bundle starting at the epidermis,
through the bundle tissues, into the pith cells. The
section should only be as wide as the width of 34
epidermal cells, but include cells from each area
through the stem.
FIGURE 16.34 Micrographs of stems
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 16.2)
Examining Plant Tissue

Problem
In this activity you will examine tissue from a living
stem and determine what type of tissue it is.
6. Place the slide on the microscope stage. Observe the

tissue under low and then medium power.
7. Draw what you observe through the microscope at
medium power.
Materials

microscope
microscope slides
cover slip
double-edged razor blade
dissecting needle
forceps
celery stalks
CAUTION: One edge of the razor should be carefully taped
by your teacher with several layers of masking tape. Handle
the razor blades with care.
1. Compare your tissue sample to the illustrations in

Figure 16.19. Identify the tissue. What is the
feature that allowed you to identify your tissue
sample?
2. What other tissue(s) are connected to the red
tissue you have isolated? What is their function?

3. What is the specific function of the red tissue you
have identified?
Procedure
Extending
One day prior to activity: Place several celery stalks,

with leaves attached, in a beaker one-third filled with
water dyed with red food colouring.
1. Using the razor blade, cut across the centre of a celery stalk dividing it into 2 equal halves. Make sure
that the cut is at a right angle to the length of the
stalk.
4. How are food/nutrients transported in stems?

Where in the stem is this tissue located?
2. Observe the cut end and draw a diagram.

3. Using your instruments, carefully dissect a 1-cm
length of one of the red-coloured strands. Using the
razor, slice as thin a section as you can of a length
of red tissue. Try to isolate just the red tissue. Scrape
off as much of the surrounding tissue as possible.
4. Put the isolated strands on a microscope slide placed
on a clean lab counter surface. Using a second slide,
carefully but firmly press down with your thumb on
top of the slide to squash the tissues. Rotate the slide
slightly as you press down.
5. Remove the top slide. Add a drop of water, and then
place a cover slip over the squashed tissue. Tap on
the cover slip to remove air bubbles.
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5. The spiral or coiled structures you observed are

made of the substance called lignin. Investigate
a) the role of this substance in plants;
b) what types of plants produce this substance;
c) what cells are able to manufacture lignin; and
d) the importance of this material in commercial
products made from plants.
6. If you make a cut around the circumference of a
plants stem, just shallow enough to cut the phloem,
the plant will die even though its water transport
system is intact. Explain why this happens.
7. What group of vascular plants contain the tissue
you have identified?
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Key Terms
adhesion
cambium
cohesion
cortex
cuticle
dicot
epidermis
heartwood
herbaceous
meristem
mesophyll
monocot
parenchyma
phloem
phytoremediation
pressure-flow theory
primary growth
root pressure
sapwood
secondary growth
sieve tube cell
stomata
tracheid
transpiration
transpiration (leaf) pull

vascular bundle
vascular cylinder
vessel element
woody
xylem

Monocots and dicots have structural differences. A

major difference is in the seed structure: monocot
seeds have one seed leaf, dicots have two.
Roots anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals,
and transport water to the stem.
Root hairs increase the surface area available for
water absorption.
Stems conduct water and sugars to and from leaves.
Monocots have vascular bundles throughout the
stem; the vascular bundles of dicots form a ring.
Herbaceous (soft) and woody (hard) are the two
main types of stems found in plants.
Mesophyll cells in the leaves are arranged to maximize light absorption and gas exchange in order to
carry out photosynthesis.
Transpiration in the leaf is controlled by specialized
epidermal cells, called guard cells.

Water and dissolved minerals are transported in

dead, hollow xylem cells called vessels and tracheids.
In phloem, living sieve-tube cells, with the aid of
companion cells, transport sugars.
Parenchyma tissue provides storage or support.
Meristematic tissue is the growth tissue of plants. It
is the only plant tissue whose cells can divide.
Epidermal tissue provides waterproofing and physical protection.

Water transport up the xylem depends on root pressure, which pushes water into the vascular cylinder, as well as transpiration (leaf) pull, which pulls
water up the stem to the leaves. Water transport requires no energy from the plant.
In the pressure-flow theory, sugars are pumped into
the phloem and move down to the root because of
differences in water pressure between the leaf and
root. Sugar transport requires energy.
Non-vascular plants rely on osmosis and capillary
action for water transport.

1.
Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 529 and review the chart listing the structures and functions of
plants. Revise the chart based on what you have learned
in the chapter.
2.
Draw a concept map beginning with the terms water,

roots, and leaf to summarize what you have learned
about plant structure and function.
3.
The pressure-flow theory was described in section 16.3.

Explain how this theory is important to our understanding of how plants function.
4.
Reflect on your learning. Diagrams are an important way

of communicating information in science. Name three
advantages to using diagrams as you learn.
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12. Analyze how the shape of a typical dicot leaf is adapted

to its function.
1. The large surface area of root systems is mainly due to

the presence of
a) adventitious roots
b) root hairs
c) taproot
d) secondary roots
13. Plant growth is of two types: growth in height and growth

in diameter. Specific tissues are responsible for each of
these types of growth. By continuously cutting away one
of these tissues, a miniature but fully mature plant
can be obtained. Explain how and why this occurs.
2. Which of the following does not belong in this list?

a) parenchyma
b) cork cambium
c) apical meristem
d) vascular cambium
14. A 10-cm nail is hammered 5 cm into a young tree trunk

1 m above the ground. Describe what one would observe
about 30 years later with respect to where the nail would
be and how deep it would be in the trunk. Provide reasons for your answer.
3. Which of the following tissues does not contain meristematic cells?

a) vascular cambium
b) stem tip
c) root tip
d) phloem
15. There are at least two different plant tissues that serve
their primary function once they are dead. Identify these
tissues and describe the specific role(s) of each.
4. Annual rings in the stem of a tree are actually

a) layers of xylem
b) layers of phloem
c) layers of xylem and phloem
d) sapwood
5. The pressure exerted at the source in the pressureflow theory is the result of
a) diffusion of sugars into root cortex
b) diffusion of sugars into palisade cells
c) osmosis of water into sieve-tube cells
d) osmosis of water into xylem vessels
6. Draw a cross section of a monocot root and add labels
to identify the tissues.
7. Construct a table showing the differences between monocots and dicots.
8. Distinguish between adhesion and cohesion. Briefly
describe how each of these helps in the transport of
water.
9. Draw a diagram describing the process of water movement into sieve-tube cells.
10. Explain why the terms source and sink are used in describing food transport in the pressure-flow theory.
11. On the basis of the structure of xylem and phloem, provide an explanation for the faster movement of sap
through xylem.
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16. Describe the likely effect on a) the root and b) the entire plant of adding a high concentration of salt to the
ground where the plant is growing. Explain your answers.
17. Suppose a chemical can be administered to a plant
that stops the process of active transport but has no other
effect on the plant. Describe the likely consequences on
a) water transport
b) food transport
Explain the reason(s) for each of your answers.
18. Where would you expect to find stomata on floating water
plants? Explain.
Applying Inquiry/
19. Design an experimental procedure to determine whether
a plant exhibits root pressure. What evidence would support your hypothesis?
20. You have learned that by counting the annual rings in
a cut tree trunk, one can determine the approximate age
of the tree when it was cut down. Find out how environmental conditions that the tree was exposed to over
its life can be determined from carefully examining the
annual rings.
21. People spend a lot of time trying to get a perfect lawn.
The physical removal (by hand) of dandelions and unwanted grass from a lawn are both difficult, but for different reasons. Provide a brief explanation based on the
structure of the plants.
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22. Radish seedlings were examined by students to

determine the surface area of the root hairs on the
emerging primary root. The average surface area of a
typical root hair was estimated at 0.3 cm2. Table 16.2
below shows results from four seedlings.
a) Calculate the total surface area for each of the radish
seedlings as well as the average total surface area
for the four samples.
b) Compare the average surface area calculated to the
surface area of the cover of your textbook.
c) The data you are looking at comes from only one
small primary root, about 34 cm in length. What
conclusions can be drawn from the fact that mature
dicot plants will have hundreds of branch roots in
addition to a long primary root?
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Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What does it tell you

about the location of cell division in the root tip?
25. Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What conclusions can
you draw as to the type of tissue in the root tip?
26. If the same measurements had been taken in a section
of root 1620 10-4 cm from the end of the root, predict
what data would be obtained. Draw a graph of this
hypothetical data.
27. What conclusions could you draw about the type of
tissue in the previous question?
Making Connections
TABLE 16.2
Radish seedling
Number of root hairs (estimate)
1050
1200
1180
1300
28. Beavers often kill trees by girdling them (removing a

strip of bark from the entire circumference).
a) Explain specifically why the tree will die.
b) Propose a method to prevent this from happening
in an area without harming the animals or the environment.
29. Explain why old xylem is vital to Canadas economy.
23. Design a classroom experiment to determine the effect

of physically preventing leaf transpiration on geranium
plants. You must control only this factor; all other conditions must be suitable for normal plant growth. Control
plants must be part of your experimental design.
24. The graph in Figure 16.35 shows the percentage of dividing root cells in a root tip.
35
30
Cell divisions (%)
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30. Scientists have discovered that certain plants produce

additional layers of cuticle as a protective measure when
attacked by pests such as fungi. Assume that scientists
will be able to put this characteristic into any plant they
want to in the future. Predict some of the possible consequences of this technology.
31. A number of plants are currently being studied for use
in cleaning up land sites containing toxic substances.
a) Name the technique of using plants for this purpose.
b) Briefly describe how this process works.
c) Consider some of the limitations and possible negative effects on the environment of this method of
cleaning up toxic land sites. Outline your concerns.
32. Trees in urban areas often have difficulty surviving. They
are exposed to air pollution. The water they receive may
contain dissolved salt used to clear icy streets, and oil
from automobile leaks. Their roots are often confined to
cement planters or are mostly covered by concrete
sidewalks. List the benefits trees provide to an urban
location. Describe actions that could be taken to increase
the number of trees in an urban area near you. Also,
propose a course of action that would improve the
chances of survival for existing trees.
25
20
15
10
5
10
12
14
16
18
20
Distance from end of root (x104 cm)

FIGURE 16.35
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C H A P T E R 17
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
describe the nutrients required for

the development of plants (17.1)
describe the effects of growth

regulators (17.2)
design and carry out an experiment

to determine the factors that affect
the growth of a population of
plants (Investigation 1)
Plant Growth and

Development
FIGURE 17.1 Lettuces and beans being grown hydroponically
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he lettuces in Figure 17.1

are being grown hydroponically. Instead of being planted
in soil, their roots are placed in
a solution that contains all
the dissolved nutrients the
plants need. Growing lettuce
hydroponically has certain
advantages. The grower can
carefully control all the factors
that affect the growth of the lettuce plants. Sunlight can be
controlled through the use of
ultraviolet light. The temperature can be controlled in the
greenhouse. The nutrients in
the growing medium can be
adjusted easily. By controlling
each of these factors, plants can
be grown efficiently in the
shortest possible time, providing Canadians with fresh
produce all year round.
Unlike the hydroponic
FIGURE 17.2 This massive pine tree germinated
lettuces,
the tree in Figure 17.2
from a tiny winged seed. Conifers grow continuously
belongs to a family of trees that
for hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of
years, and can reach heights of over 100 m.
can grow to heights 10 times
higher than a typical two-storey
high school. How does a seed
grow into such a massive structure, one that can live for over a thousand
years? Many processes, some very complex, take place in the growth and
development of a new plant.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
All seeds have certain
requirements for germination
and growth. Using a
flowchart, begin with the
word seed and list all the
requirements you can think
of that will make the seed
grow into a mature plant.
Seed
Its a Gas!
Bananas produce a gaseous substance that may affect the ripening of green
tomatoes.
Work in small groups and design an experiment to test this hypothesis. Each
group will need three green tomatoes, a ripe banana, and two plastic bags.
What will be the control in your experiment?
Carry out the experiment recording your observations over the next
several days.
Mature Plant
Analyze your observations and form conclusions about what effect the
banana has on the ripening of tomatoes.
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Key Understandings
describe the nutrients required for the development of plants
describe how plants adapt to growth factors in their environments
design and carry out an experiment to determine the factors that affect the growth of
plants
Plants need water, carbon dioxide, and

light in order to manufacture the organic
molecules required for energy and
growth. Inorganic substances, commonly
referred to as minerals, are absorbed
from the soil by the plants roots and are
carried, dissolved in water, to the leaves.
In order for seeds to germinate, certain
environmental conditions must be present. Only then can a seed germinate
and develop into a new plant.
Soil and Soil Nutrients

Plants need nutrients to grow and
develop and they get these nutrients
from the soil. Soil consists of sand, clay,
rock particles, minerals, and decaying
plant and animal matter called humus.
humus
topsoil containing humus
subsoil
bedrock
FIGURE 17.3 Soil. The various layers together are referred to as the soil profile.
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The amounts of these components vary

in different soils. There are several layers that make up soil (Figure 17.3). The
top layer consists of humus. Soil with
higher concentrations of humus will support plant growth better than soils with
little humus. Beneath the humus is topsoil, the layer that primarily supports
plant growth. It contains humus, clay,
minerals, and sand. A layer of subsoil
lies beneath it and a layer of bedrock is
found under subsoil. Plants cannot grow
well in subsoil and do not grow at all
in bedrock. Many varieties of insects,
worms, and micro-organisms live in the
top three layers of soil. Water, as well as
the minerals dissolved in it, is absorbed
by plant roots from these three layers.
Plant nutrients are classified as either macronutrients or micronutrients.
Macronutrients are required in relatively
large amounts by the plant, whereas micronutrients (or trace elements) are
needed in very small quantities. Both
types of nutrients are taken in by the
roots. Table 17.1 lists some plant nutrients and their functions.
Nitrogen is of prime importance for
plant growth. Although 80 percent of
Earths atmosphere consists of nitrogen,
plants cannot take it in as a gas. Nitrogen
must be absorbed, by the roots, in the
form of nitrate or ammonium compounds. These compounds are supplied
by the decomposing organic matter in
the soil. Unlike most other plants, the
legumes, which include the bean, pea,
and alfalfa families, have specialized
roots that allow them to absorb nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere by a process known as nitrogen fixation. The
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TABLE 17.1 Some Plant Nutrients and Their Functions
Plant Nutrient
Macronutrients:
Micronutrients:
Function
Nitrogen
component of proteins, DNA, RNA
Phosphorus
component of DNA, RNA
Potassium
controls operation of stomata, crucial in water intake in roots
Calcium
important in the development and functioning of cell walls
Magnesium
component of chlorophyll
Iron
important in cell respiration
Zinc
crucial in the functioning of chloroplasts
Copper
important in cell respiration
roots of legumes have small swellings or

nodules (Figure 17.4), which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria
are able to convert or fix nitrogen from
the atmosphere into the nitrate and ammonium compounds required by plants.
This process is called nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen and sulfur are important
components of proteins made by the
plant. Phosphorus (as well as nitrogen)

is used by cells to make DNA. Potassium
is also important in protein synthesis as
well as in the normal development of
roots. Calcium is important in the
normal development of cell walls, and
magnesium is a key component of the
chlorophyll molecule. Humans require
the same inorganic substances for
growth as plants do and most of these
substances are obtained by eating plants.
Even though they are required only
in very small amounts, the micronutrients are also critical in normal growth
of plants. If any of the required
micronutrients are missing from the soil,
the plant will not grow properly or it
may die.
Investigation
Refer to page 574,
Investigation 1

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.4 Nodules on roots of a bean plant.

The nodules contain the nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
Rhizobium, which convert nitrogen from the air
to nitrogen compounds needed by the plant.
FIGURE 17.5 The leaves of this bean plant are

turning yellow due to a lack of sulfur.
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Fertilizers and Plant Growth

Farmers have known for centuries that
adding fertilizer to soil results in better
crops. There are two types of fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers come from living
sources and contain decaying plant or animal matter; examples are compost, sheep
or cow manure, bone-meal, and fish meal.
Inorganic fertilizers are produced chemically. Commercial fertilizers such as lawn
and plant fertilizers have three numbers
on their labels, such as 10-6-4. The first
number indicates the percentage of nitrogen; the second, the percentage of
phosphorus; and the third, the percentage of potassium.
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Choosing the right kind of fertilizer

depends on the type of plant, as well as
the kind of growth you want from the
plant. For example, do you want a plant
to produce many flowers, as in rose
bushes, or do you want a plant to produce lots of green growth, as in a lawn?
Fertilizers with a high first number
promote green growth, so a fertilizer
with a high nitrogen content is used on
lawns and evergreen shrubs. Fertilizers
with a high second number have large
amounts of phosphorus. Phosphorus is
used by the plant to grow roots and to
form flowers. If you are growing flowering plants, growing grass from seed,
or have laid new sod, fertilizers with
high phosphorus content are the most
effective. Potassium helps build
hardiness into plants. Fertilizing plants
with a high potassium fertilizer in late
autumn helps plants to survive the
winter. Vegetables require moderate to
high levels of all three nutrients.
An advantage of using organic
fertilizers is that they release nutrients
into the soil more slowly than inorganic
fertilizers do, and are less likely to be
washed away in a heavy rain.
FIGURE 17.6 A bag of commercial fertilizer.

This fertilizer has high nitrogen and potassium
percentages.
Discovering Biology
Which Fertilizer for What Job?
As you have read, different fertilizers are used for different purposes. For instance, people who do not want
to cut their grass very often may select a fertilizer with
a lower nitrogen content than one recommended for
a lush, rapidly growing lawn.
Copy the list of fertilizers in Table 17.2 into your
notebook. Match each of the following desired
outcomes with the appropriate fertilizer: high vegetable yields; a lawn successfully surviving winter; a
lush, green lawn; new lawn growth from seed; and
many flowers.
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TABLE 17.2 Common

Garden Fertilizers
Fertilizer
10-20-10
10-4-14
20-27-5
25-3-5
12-12-12
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Requirements for Seed

Germination
Once a seed has been released from the
fruit, it wont necessarily germinate
immediately upon landing in a suitable
environment. Most seeds go through a
resting period or dormancy. The embryo cells in the seed undergo very slow
metabolic processes. Some seeds, such
as the coconut, may have a dormancy
period of months. In some cases, seeds
can remain dormant for years and still
be able to germinate.
Other seeds germinate within days
of finding suitable soil conditions. There
are even examples of plants in which the
seed has no dormancy period at all. In
the red mangrove, a subtropical tree
(Figure 17.8), the seed germinates in the
fruit, while still attached to the tree.
In agriculture, it is important for
seeds to be stored under controlled conditions so that they will be able to
germinate when they are needed. Proper
crop seed storage is crucial in ensuring
societys continuing food supply.
When conditions are right, a seed embryo will end its dormancy and begin to
grow. For many seeds, this process of germination begins with the absorption of
heat and moisture from the soil. The seed
also requires oxygen to germinate. Some
seeds require light before they will germinate. There are also other factors that

restrictions.
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initiate or contribute to germination. Some

species like the jack pine require that their
cones be heated or singed by fire to release the seeds. Other species like oak
acorns and walnuts require exposure to
cold temperatures for a long period before the embryo will germinate. The lotus
seed requires scratching or cracking
(called abrasion) of the seed coat before
the seed will break dormancy. Other
species require that their seed coat be
altered chemically by some factor in the
environment. For instance, some seeds
will germinate only after passing through
the digestive system of a particular animal.
The seeds of desert plants have a
tricky problem. They must germinate only
when there is enough moisture in the
ground to support their growth to maturity. If they germinate after a brief rain,
the seedling could dry out and die after a
week or so. Only a prolonged rain is sufficient to let them complete their growth,
bloom, and produce the next generation
of seeds. These plants have a chemical in
their seeds that inhibits germination. Only
a heavy rainfall can wash away this inhibitor and let the seed germinate. A light
rain will not break their dormancy.
INFOBIT
Possibly the most durable seed
comes from the Arctic lupin.
Frozen seeds were found in the
Yukon in 1954. Some seeds
were successfully germinated.
Radiocarbon dating showed
the seeds were produced
between 8000-13 000 B.C.!

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.8 The radicle

emerging from a mangrove
fruit/seed still on the tree
FIGURE 17.7 Germinating coconut. This

coconut seed may have been dormant weeks or
months before it germinated.
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Extinction May Cause

Extinction
The island of Mauritius in the Indian
Ocean is the only habitat of a species
of tree called the dodo nut tree.
Strangely, the youngest of these trees
are more than 200 years old. Despite
their abundant crops of cherry-sized
WORD ORIGIN
radicle from the Latin word
radix, meaning root, and
-ulus, meaning little.
FIGURE 17.10 Corn and

bean seed structure. In some
plants, the endosperm is the
only source of nourishment
for the embryo. In other
plants, nutrients are stored in
the cotyledons.
Next Section
fruits, these seeds have failed to

germinate. This phenomenon has
puzzled botanists for many years, but
scientists now hypothesize that the
dodo bird, which became extinct at
about 1790 due to human slaughter,
was the main consumer of this fruit.
The dodo ate the fruit for its fleshy
exterior. The seed was activated by
abrasion and chemical action as it
passed through the dodos gut. By
killing the dodo, this species of plant
may be doomed to extinction as well!
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FIGURE 17.9 Drawing of the extinct dodo
bird
Germination
Germination in both monocots and dicots begins when the embryo releases
the plant hormone, gibberellin, into
the rest of the seed. This chemical triggers the production of digestive enzymes
within the seed. These enzymes break
down large storage molecules such as
starch and release smaller sugar
molecules to provide energy for the
growing embryo. Other enzymes digest
the stored lipids and proteins.
These sugar molecules greatly increase the solute concentration of the
liquid inside the seed. This makes the
interior of the seed hypertonic, causing
more water to be absorbed by osmosis.
Eventually, the seed coats soften and
stretch or crack under pressure from
their swelling contents. Oxygen can now
diffuse in, and the embryo obtains
energy using aerobic respiration. The tip
of the radicle emerges and elongates
rapidly. Rapid growth is possible because
the cells of the radicle were formed
before dormancy. They now elongate

under the influence of hormones and absorbed materials. The growth in the
length of the root occurs in an area of
cells just above the apical meristem
called the zone of elongation (Figure
17.11). In the zone of maturation, these
cells develop into a variety of mature root
cells, including specialized epidermal cells
with root hairs.
In plants such as the bean, once the
radicle has begun to grow rapidly, the
hypocotyl begins to emerge (Figure
17.12). The hypocotyl forms a loop or
hook that elongates upward, anchored
by the well-developed radicle. The hook
drags the cotyledons with it. When the
hook encounters light, it stops elongating and straightens. The hypocotyl
becomes the lower portion of the stem.
The epicotyl supports the leaves, the
upper part of the stem, and the terminal bud. The leaf-like cotyledons remain
on the plant temporarily and perform
photosynthesis. As true leaves develop
epicotyl
plumule
seed coat
hypocotyl
endosperm
radicle
plumule
cotyledons
cotyledon
seed coat
radicle
Bean (dicot)
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Corn (monocot)
embryo
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epidermis
cortex
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xylem
phloem
epicotyl
zone of
maturation
endodermis
cotyledons
root hair
cotyledon
radicle
hypocotyl
zone of
cell division
zone of
elongation
hypocotyl
apical meristem
FIGURE 17.12 Development of a bean seedling
root cap
FIGURE 17.11 Longitudinal section of a
growing root
from the apical meristem, the cotyledons

wither and fall off.
Plant Adaptations to
Different Environments
Plants need light, water, and soil nutrients to grow, yet some environments lack
one or more of these requirements. Over
many thousands of years plants have developed adaptations to deal with these
less than ideal conditions.
Desert Adaptations Deserts lack water

and so plants that live in this environment must have adaptations to help
them find and conserve water. Familiar
desert plants such as cacti possess a
thick waxy outer layer called a cuticle,
and have small or no leaves. Since most
water loss in plants occurs by transpiration from leaves, desert plants such as
cacti have leaves modified into needles
to reduce the surface area, and therefore water loss. Because the needles are
so small, photosynthesis occurs in the
stems. In addition, cacti have thick stems
specially adapted to store water.
The root system of most desert
plants is usually very extensive to allow
for maximum absorption of what little
water is available. The seeds germinate
quickly. The plants develop rapidly during the very short rainy season. Flowers
and seeds are produced within a few
weeks. As the long dry period begins,
only the seeds survive until the next period of rain arrives.
Discovering Biology
Leaf Adaptations
Obtain three different leaves from your teacher, each from a plant
that grows in a different environment. Observe each leaf carefully.
You may want to examine them with a hand lens. Decide what
environment each plant lives in. Discuss with a partner what
adaptation(s) each leaf shows that allows the plant to successfully
live in its particular environment.
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Adaptations for Wet Environments The

ponds, swamps, bogs, and marshes
common to the boreal forest all contain
plants that are adapted to water. Many
species of plants live in shallow ponds
and extend their leaves and flowers to
the surface. Floating leaves, such as
lily pads (Figure 17.13), exchange gases
more readily than underwater leaves.
The living tissue in plant roots must obtain oxygen if cellular respiration is to
occur. For tissues that are underwater,
this can be difficult. Herbaceous pond
plants like the water lilies have special
stems to help move oxygen to their underwater roots. Hollow tubes in the
stems allow gases to diffuse downward.
These tubes serve a dual purpose: they
make the stem buoyant, which then
helps to keep the plant upright in the
water. Vascular plants like the pickerel
weed and water plantain live partly submerged in water often produce seeds
that are designed to float.

restrictions.
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fireweed (Figure 17.14) and Populus

grow only after a fire, and quickly cover
the ash-coated ground. When other
plants and trees eventually appear,
these two species are crowded out.
Plants that are specialists on
burnt land must have a means of surviving fire. The seeds of some species
need to be strongly heated or singed by
fire in order to germinate. This characteristic makes good ecological sense:
the seeds will germinate and grow best
after a fire, when there is no competition for soil and light from mature
plants. Also, the ash-enriched soil
makes an ideal environment for young
seedlings.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.14 Fireweed is one of the first

plants to appear after a forest fire.
FIGURE 17.13 Water lilies. The leaves of the

water lily have stomata on their upper surface
only.

restrictions.
Adaptations for Fire Fire is a normal occurrence in the boreal forest. It removes
old and dying trees, and enriches the soil
with ash. The ash neutralizes some of
the acid in the soil, making the soil
conditions better for new plants. Many
plants can live only in environments
recently ravaged by fire. Plants such as
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FIGURE 17.15 This jack pine cones have

opened after being singed.
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Cold Climate Adaptations Many plants

must contend with sub-zero temperatures and dry winter conditions,
especially in the tundra and boreal forest. Plants have developed adaptations
that allow them to survive and reproduce in such harsh conditions. In colder
climates, heat-collecting adaptations are
useful. The flowers of some tundra
plants such as the arctic poppy act as
miniature solar collectors (Figure 17.16).
Under hormonal control, these flowers
rotate to follow the sun across the summer sky. The shape of their flowers concentrate the suns rays on the ovary at
the base of the petals. With the extra heat,
the ovary matures faster so that reproduction can occur before winter sets in.
This is an important adaptation in a short
growing season.
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In deciduous plants, nutrients are

moved out of the leaves before they are
dropped and are stored in the roots over
winter. In early spring, the days lengthen
and water becomes more abundant. As
the trees come out of dormancy, these
sugars are brought from the roots, in the
sap, as new leaves develop. It is during
this time that maple trees are tapped for
this sap in order to make maple syrup.
Evergreens, such as the spruces,
do not lose their leaves in the winter.
Instead, the leaves are designed to minimize winter drying by having a thick
layer of moisture-proof cuticle. Evergreen
leaves are modified to form needles,
which minimize the surface area of the
leaves, to reduce winter drying (Figure
17.17).

FIGURE 17.17 Balsam fir

leaves are flattened needles.
New growth shows a lighter
green.
Adaptations for Nutrient-Poor Soil Some

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.16 The flowers of the arctic poppy

act as solar-energy collectors.
Plants must have a means of surviving winters lack of water. Plants that
grow in areas with a cold winter have a
dormant period. Just how plants sense
the approach of winter is not clear, but
it is thought that the lower temperature and declining daylight periods are
the key stimuli to trigger leaf fall in deciduous trees. If leaves remained on the
trees, the water in the leaves could
freeze and damage the leaves tissues.
With a large surface area, they would
also dry out easily. The simple solution
for many plants is to lose their leaves as
winter approaches.
soils are very acidic. In boreal forest soil,

the acid is mostly humic acid from fallen
conifer needles. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
do not thrive in acidic soil, and so there
is little conversion of nitrites to nitrates,
the form of nitrogen that plants are able
to use. Angiosperms, however, need generous supplies of nitrogen, which are
needed to make proteins. A number of
angiosperms that live in nitrogen-poor
soil have developed a special technique
for obtaining nitrates: they eat animals.
Carnivorous plants capture, kill, and
partly digest insects. The digestion
proceeds far enough to remove the
nitrogen-containing compounds and the
remainder of the animal is then
discarded. In Ontario, carnivorous plants
include the sundew (Figure 17.18), the
pitcher plant, and the butterwort.
Some plants survive in nutrient-poor
soils by stealing food from other plants.
There are over 2500 species of parasitic
flowering plants worldwide. These plants
can get water, minerals, or sugars from
their host plant. Mistletoe (Figure 17.19c),
a plant with chlorophyll, obtains some
of its nutrition by sucking fluid from
the xylem of its host plant. The parasitic
vine, dodder, which contains almost no
chlorophyll, obtains all its nutrition by
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restrictions.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 17.18 Although the

Venus fly trap a) does not
grow in Ontario, it is probably
the best-known carnivorous
plant. It grows in the southern
U.S. Sundews b) are found in
Ontario.
a)

FIGURE 17.19
b)

Parasitic plants
a) Dodder
b) Indian pipe
drawing fluids from the hosts xylem and

phloem. Indian pipe gets its nutrition
from the host trees roots.

FIGURE 17.20 The forest

floor gets only a small
amount of direct sunlight.
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Adaptations to Shade In both the boreal

and temperate deciduous forests, the
canopy of tall trees shades the ground
(Figure 17.20). Deciduous maples and
beeches can block more than 98 percent
of the sunlight reaching the ground
below. Smaller plants below these trees
must be adapted to live with limited
light, particularly in the deciduous forest where fires are much less frequent.
Many herbaceous plants of the temperate deciduous forest have adapted to
this lack of light by blooming early in the
c) Mistletoe
spring. Plants that use this adaptation

are called spring ephemerals. As soon
as the snow melts, trilliums and dogtoothed violets send their shoots
upwards (Figure 17.21).
Within days, their leaves are
collecting light and soon they are in full
bloom. This rapid growth is possible
because each plant has a specialized
energy-storing root underground. These
plants life cycles are carried out
before the forest canopy leaves appear.
By midsummer, the spring plants have
disappeared.
Winter survival was difficult for
native peoples and early European settlers in North America. In spring, with
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winter food stores dwindling, any source

of food was welcome. Spring plants
helped. A member of the onion family
called wild leek emerges early in the

spring. Its leaves and bulb are edible,
tasty, and nutritious (Figure 17.22).

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.21 The trillium is the official flower

of the province of Ontario. If you see trilliums
flowering in the early spring, enjoy looking, but
do not pick them.
FIGURE 17.22 Wild leeks
Section 17.1 Review

1. Make a chart listing three important
inorganic substances from soil needed
by plants in significant quantities, and
the role each plays in growth.
2. Indicate one advantage and one disadvantage of using inorganic fertilizer.
3. Describe the factors that affect the
growth of a desert plant and explain
how the plant has adapted to grow in
desert conditions.
4. In a germinating seedling, what role
do the cotyledons play? Explain the risk
that the seedling faces if the cotyledons
drop off or are broken off prematurely.
7.
Scientists have tricked a type of plant

that normally does not fix nitrogen into
developing root nodules, the structures
that hold nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
legumes. These nodules do not have
bacteria in them. Describe further steps
you think scientists need to carry out
to enable these plants to fix nitrogen
in the same manner as the legumes.
TABLE 17.3 Three trays of seedlings were

given a complete nutrient solution, distilled
water, or a nutrient solution lacking nitrogen.
After several days, the root length of the
seedlings were measured.
Applying Inquiry/
Solutions
5. Interpret the results in Table 17.3 to

determine which solution provided the
elements for healthy growth.
Complete
nutrients
46
deep green
Distilled
water
13
pale green/
yellow
Lacking
nitrogen
15
pale green
yellow
6. Decide whether there is enough

evidence to conclude that a solution
lacking nitrogen is better for plant
growth than distilled water. Provide
reasons for your answer.
Mean Root
Length (mm)
Leaf Colour
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17.2 Hormones and the Control

of Plant Growth
Key Understandings
identify plant hormones and describe their functions
WORD ORIGIN
hormone from the Greek word
horman, meaning to set in
motion or to urge.
auxin from the Latin word
augeo, meaning to enlarge,
grow, or increase.
All organisms must be able to control

their own growth and plants are no
exception. Plants use hormones to
coordinate their growth in response
to external factors such as light, gravity,
nutrients, and competition, or in response to internal factors such as the
need for repair or reproduction.
A hormone is a complex chemical
produced in very small amounts within
the plant, and it has a dramatic effect on
the plants growth. Hormones are often
produced in one location (the source)
and travel to another location to exert
their influence (the target). Only small
amounts of hormones are required to
stimulate the target cells.
There are three groups of plant
hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins. There are also two hormones
that are not classified into any of these
groups: abscisic acid and ethylene.
ce
ll e
auxin
molecules
tion
ga
lon
FIGURE 17.23 The action of auxin in shoots. Auxin molecules move away from the
light source, either downward a) or sideways b), depending on the position of the
light source.
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Individually or collectively, they can alter

the rate of mitosis, direct differentiation,
control aging, and stimulate the growth
in size of individual target cells.
Auxins
It has long been observed that plants
bend toward a light source. Experiments
done in the late 1880s showed that the
tip of a growing stem was responsible for
this phenomenon. Plants such as grasses
have a coleoptile, a sheath that covers
the young leaves as the seedling emerges
from the ground. The coleoptile responds
to light by bending toward it. A hormone
called auxin is released from the tip of
the coleoptile when it is exposed to light
(Figure 17.23). The auxin is transported
downward and causes the cells of the
growing stem to elongate. If the light is
coming from the side, the auxin moves
away from the light to the shaded side of
the stem, causing only those cells on the
dark side to elongate. As a result of the
uneven elongation of cells, the stem bends
toward the light.
In the root, auxin produced in
apical meristems causes the root to grow
downward with the pull of gravity and
away from light. In root cells, auxin has
the opposite effect than on the shoot
cells: high concentrations of auxin inhibit cell elongation. If a root is exposed
to light, auxin accumulates in the cells
that are the least exposed to the light.
Thus, the sunny cells elongate more
than the shaded ones, causing the root
to curve downward, away from the light.
The same thing happens when growing roots hit an object such as a stone.
Auxin accumulates on the lower side of
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The Darwins
Experiments
Charles Darwin, well known as the
co-originator of the theory of evolution, and his son Francis were the
first researchers to provide evidence
for the existence of plant hormones.
In 1880, the Darwins performed a series of experiments with grass
seedlings to investigate how they respond to light (Figure 17.24). They
found that if the tip of the coleoptile
was covered with a light-proof cap,
and the stem was left exposed, the
stem continued to grow but did not
bend toward the light. However, if the
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coleoptile was covered everywhere

except the tip, it still responded to
light by bending. The Darwins concluded that coleoptile is light sensitive
and that it produces an influence,
or signal, that causes bending further
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down the stem. They did not know

what this influence was or how it
functioned. Some 40 years later, another researcher discovered that the
influence was in fact a chemical,
which is now known as auxin.
light
control
tip
removed
tip covered
by opaque
cap
tip covered
by transparent
cap
base covered
by opaque
shield
FIGURE 17.24 The Darwins experiments
the root, and the upper part elongates.

The root then grows sideways and then
downward around the stone.
Other Effects of Auxins Auxins also affect

other plant parts. The terminal bud (the
highest bud) of many plants produces an
auxin that inhibits or retards the development of other buds below it on the
stem. This is called apical dominance.
Plants that show strong apical dominance
grow tall and straight. Plants that lack
apical dominance are usually short and
bushy. Shade trees often have apical dominance when young, and then lose it as
they mature, thus forming a spreading
canopy high above the ground.
Auxins (or their absence) also control
maturing processes in plants. Leaves on
deciduous plants release auxin during the
warm growing season, but stop releasing it as fall approaches. Without auxin, a
layer of cells at the base of the leaf stalk
called the abscission layer weakens, allowing the leaf to fall away at the end of
the growing season (Figure 17.25).
Auxins also aid in root development,
and in the initiation of flowering.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.25 Leaf fall is
caused by declining levels of
auxin and increased levels of
ethylene. Stephen Leacock, the
famous Canadian humorist,
reportedly spent many hours
under this maple tree, located
in Jacksons Point, Ontario.
Uses for Auxins Chemically, auxin is

known as indoleacetic acid or IAA. IAA
is the only known natural auxin, but others similar to it have been synthesized and
are now commercially available. IAA is
used commercially in the horticulture
industry to promote root growth in cuttings.
Some commercial weed killers have an
artificial auxin, a chemical called 2,4-D. In
high concentrations, it is toxic to dicots,
but monocots, such as grass, can tolerate these concentrations. Broad-leafed
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weeds sprayed with 2,4-D grow uncontrollably and the plant grows itself to
death, leaving only the surrounding
grass. Unfortunately, during the production of 2,4-D, another chemical called
2,4,5-T is also manufactured as a side
product. Together these two chemicals
are known as agent orange. Agent orange was used as a defoliant in the
Vietnam war in the late 1960s and early
70s. Besides killing all plants, it is dangerous to human health. A by-product
of 2,4,5-T is dioxin, which is linked to
birth defects, skin diseases, and a number of cancers.
Another artificial auxin is used to retard the sprouting of potatoes during
storage. Seedless tomatoes and watermelons are produced using an auxin
sprayed on the flowers before pollination. The unfertilized (and therefore
seedless) ovary develops a fleshy coat
under the influence of the hormone.
Sprayed auxins may also be used to prevent ripe fruit from falling off orchard
trees. The auxin prevents the abscission
layer from developing, thus allowing the
farmer extra time to harvest the crop.
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also produced in leaf chloroplasts.

Gibberellins work together with auxins
to promote elongation of stems and
roots. They also work alone to promote
leaf growth and flowering. Earlier in this
chapter, you learned how gibberellins
are involved in seed germination.
Gibberellins also control fruit development. An important application of
gibberellins is the spraying of the
Thompson variety of seedless grapes.
When giberellins are sprayed on the
grapes, each grape grows larger and farther apart in a cluster (Figure 17.26).

restrictions.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins are produced in apical
meristems but, unlike auxins, they are
Foolish
Seedlings
In the 1920s, Japanese biologist Ewiti

Kurosawa was working with a fungal disease of young rice plants. The
fungus caused infected plants to grow
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very tall, but these plants soon

fell over. The disease was appropriately known as foolish
seedling disease. The scientific
name of the fungus is Gibberella
fujikori. Kurosawa discovered
that a chemical released by the
fungus was responsible for the
abnormal growth. The term gibberellin was used to name this
chemical. Further research
showed that there were many
different forms of gibberellins.
(More than 80 are now known.)
FIGURE 17.26 The grapes on the right have

been sprayed with gibberellin.
FIGURE 17.27 Farmers need rice plants

with strong stalks to keep the rice seeds
away from the ground.
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Cytokinins
Cytokinins are hormones that promote
cell division and cell differentiation. They
also promote seed germination and flowering. Cytokinins are produced in the
roots and are transported to their target
cells. One effect of cytokinins is that they
prevent some plant cells from aging
too quickly. Florists spray cut flowers
with cytokinins to keep them fresh for a
longer time.
Other Hormones
Unlike the three groups of hormones
previously discussed, abscisic acid (ABA)
does not stimulate growth but, rather,
inhibits it. In the lab, ABA speeds up the
fall of leaves when sprayed on plants.
Whether or not it controls this process
in the natural environment is unclear. It
certainly slows down or stops growth
and induces dormancy.
Auxin stimulates the production of
fruit, but another hormone, ethylene,
causes the ripening of fruit in many
plants. Ethylene is a gas produced in
large quantities by over-ripe fruits. It also
initiates the formation of the abscission layer in the stems of fruits.
Ethylene has widespread commercial applications. Many fruits are now
picked before they are ripe. Green fruits
are tougher, do not spoil, and are easy
to ship. The action of ethylene produced
by the fruit as it ripens can be stopped,
but not reversed, by adding large quantities of carbon-dioxide gas to storage
containers. They can be stored for an
extended length of time near their final
destination in giant cold lockers flooded
with carbon dioxide. When the market
is ready, as in mid-winter, the locker is
warmed and filled with air and ethylene.
The fruit then ripens and is sold.
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in part by the environment. These

growth responses are called tropisms
and are controlled by plant hormones.
Positive tropisms are growths toward
the stimulus whereas negative tropisms
are growths away from the stimulus.
There are several known kinds of
tropisms, and they are classified by the
type of stimulus to which they respond.
Phototropism The bending and growth

of a stem toward a light source is an example of a phototropism. Stems and
leaves almost always show a positive
phototropic response because this allows
them to capture more sunlight energy.
Roots, on the other hand, show a negative phototropic response by growing
away from light. As you have studied,
auxin is responsible for the different
ways in which stem and root cells elongate when exposed to light.
Gravitropism The growth response to
gravity is called gravitropism or
geotropism. Stems show negative gravitropism and roots show positive
gravitropism in response to the force
of gravity. It is believed that the direction of gravitational force is sensed by
specialized cells found in root caps and
along the length of stems. These cells
contain dense organelles called
amyloplasts. The amyloplasts sink to the
lowest side of the cell, thus indicating
which direction is down. The result is
the release of auxin, which causes uneven cell elongation and the subsequent
WORDORIGIN
tropism from the Greek word
trop, meaning a turning.
INFOBIT
The old expression that one
rotten apple will spoil the
whole barrel is true because
the rotting apple gives off
ethylene gas, which
accelerates the ripening of
all fruit near it.
WEBLINK
Plant hormones often work
together to produce changes
in a plant. Research plant
hormone interactions and
create a concept map to show
these interactions and their
effects on plants. Begin
your research at
Investigation
Refer to page 576,
Investigation 2

restrictions.
Tropisms and Turgor

Responses
FIGURE 17.28 After

being placed on its side,
this oak sapling stem
has curved upward
against gravity.
Plants grow in response to external

stimuli. The pattern of growth and the
appearance of the plant are determined
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Gravity acts on the emerging root.
Next Section
Auxin is released and moves to

the downward side of the root,
inhibiting cell elongation.
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Cells on the upward side elongate,

causing the root tip to point downward.
gravity
FIGURE 17.29 Gravitropism in plant roots. Roots show a positive gravitropism.
bending of the root downward, with

gravity (Figure 17.29).
Thigmotropism Some plants grow in response to touch. This response is termed

thigmotropism. Most vines are masters
of this response, using it to gain support
without growing a thick woody trunk.
Specialized cells in the epidermis of
these plants control this response.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.30 Thigmotropism
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UNIT 5
Other Tropisms Other tropic responses

have been observed. Chemotropism is
a response to certain chemicals in the
environment. Hydrotropism is a special
type of chemotropism: growth toward
water. All tropic responses are of adaptive value, that is, they improve the
likelihood of the plants survival.
Turgor Responses
One of the most remarkable plant
responses is rapid movement. The
insect-trapping movement of a Venus fly
trap is a familiar example. Less well
known, but even more dramatic is the
rapid movement of the leaflets of the
mimosa plant (Figure 17.31).
These rapid movements are brought
about by changes in turgor pressure.
When plant cells are filled or swollen
with water, they are rigid and have high
turgor pressure. When their water
content is low, the cells are limp and turgor is low.
This is similar to a truck tire with
an inner tube. When the tube is full of
air, it presses against the tire. The tire
becomes rigid and can bear weight.
When the tube is low on air, it does not
press firmly against the tire. The tire becomes soft and cannot bear weight.
Touching the petiole of the mimosa or
trigger cells on the Venus fly trap causes
a sudden loss of turgor in special cells.
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restrictions.
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restrictions.
FIGURE 17.31 Mimosa leaflets. Touching the petiole of a mimosa plant leads to a
loss in turgor pressure, causing the leaflets to close rapidly.
This is like a nail punching through a

tires tube. Rigid weight-bearing cells
rapidly become limp, and the leaflets or
leaves close quickly.
Plants like the sunflower (Figure
17.32) use turgor to track the sun like
a TV satellite dish. Many leaves do the
same. These regulated responses are
also carried out by changes in the turgor of specialized cells.
FIGURE 17.32 All the sunflower plants have

angled their flowers toward the sun.
Section 17.2 Review

1. A growing plant is illuminated from
one side. Describe the effect of auxin
on the cells of the stem.
2. Describe the effect gibberellins have on
a plant and what parts of the plant are
affected.
3. Explain the difference between a positive and negative tropism. Give one example of each.
4. Flowering tropical plants called
bromeliads can be tricked into flowering by growing them inside a clear
plastic bag that also has a ripe apple
in it. Propose a mechanism that explains this observation.
Applying Inquiry/
5. Using additional sources, collect more
information about the actions of each
of the hormones listed in the text.
Create a chart that lists the hormones
various actions, and where in the plant
each hormone is produced.
Making Connections
6. Write a brief report on the uses of plant
hormones in agriculture. In your report, outline the positive and negative
impacts of using hormones on society, the environment, and on food
producers and consumers.
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Inquiry
InquirySkills
Skills
Investigation 1
Initiating
Initiatingand
andPlanning
Planning
(Section 17.1)
Applying
ApplyingTechnical
TechnicalSkills
Skills
Using
UsingTools,
Tools,Material,
material,Equipment
Equipment
Conducting
Conductingand
andRecording
Recording
Factors Affecting the Growth of Plants

In this activity your group will design and carry out an
investigation to determine how certain factors affect
the growth of a population of plants. You will carry out
your investigation on cress seedlings, which you will
grow in Part A of the activity.
Part AGrowing Cress Seedlings

In this activity you will grow cress seedlings using a
soil-less growth medium. You will use the resulting
plants in the experiment you design in Part B.
Materials LAL1

cress seeds
distilled water
3 Petri dishes
vermiculite
marking pens
25-mL graduated cylinder
1.
Mark the sides of your Petri dishes clearly to

identify them as yours.
2.
Fill the bottom half of each Petri dish evenly with

vermiculite and smooth it out so that the surface is
flat.
Measure 20 mL of water into the graduated cylinder. Carefully pour the water evenly over the vermiculite so that it is thoroughly moistened but there
is no standing water. Record the exact amount of
water you used.
4.
Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other two Petri dishes.

Make sure you use exactly the same amount of
water as in step 3.
5.
Sprinkle roughly the same amount of cress seeds

evenly onto the surface of the vermiculite in each dish.
6.
Concluding
Concludingand
andCommunicating
Communicating
Once the seeds have germinated, the lids may be

removed.
Part BDesign and Conduct an Experiment
Experimental Design
1. Discuss each of the following factors and decide
which one your group will investigate.
quality of light (colour)
intensity of light
amounts of nutrients supplied to plants
temperature
salinity
2. Once you have chosen a factor, propose a hypothesis for your investigation.
3. List the materials you will need to carry out your
experiment. The materials must be available either
through your teacher or brought from home.
4. Assess whether there are any safety issues with any
of the materials.
Procedure
3.
9.
Analyzing
Analyzingand
andInterpreting
Interpreting
Gently push the seeds onto the surface and replace

the lids of the Petri dishes.
7.
Store the dishes in a dark cupboard at room temperature or slightly higher.
8.
Check the dishes each day and add water to keep

the vermiculite moist. Always add equal amounts
of water to each dish.
5. Design your procedure. Outline, in sequence, the

steps you will take to carry out your investigation.
6. Decide which variable you will manipulate and
which variables will be kept constant.
7. Decide what you are going to measure and how you
are going to record the data.
8. Write out the entire procedure in logical sequence
and clearly so that any other science
student could carry out your investigation.
9. Once your group has completed the procedure,
exchange it with the procedure of a group investigating another factor. Suggest ways they could
clarify or improve their experimental design.
10. Modify your experimental design as necessary.
11. Submit your final experimental design to your
teacher for approval.
12. Once approved, carry out your investigation.
13. Record data from your investigation.

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(continued)
1. Analyze your data and decide whether your data

support your hypothesis.
4. Draw a conclusion from your data.
2. Compare your results with other groups that

investigated the same factor.
3. Your group may not have obtained the results you
expected for a variety of reasons. Analyze your experiment and determine the most likely reasons
why you did not get the expected results.
5. Prepare a written lab report as outlined by your

teacher. Be sure to include any possible errors in
the design and the carrying out of your experiment,
and how they may have affected your
results.
6. From your observations of Part A, are nutrients
needed for seed germination? Explain.
7. From Part B, at what level (concentration intensity,
and so on) did your factor produce the
optimum growth in your seedings?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 17.2)
Investigating Gravitropism
a dark place. The tape will hold best if the edge of

the dish rests on a shelf.
Problem
In this activity, you will investigate what kind of
response seedlings show to gravity.
5.
Predict the direction of root growth as they emerge

from the seeds.
Materials
6.
Observe the seeds each day and add water as

necessary to keep the towels moist. When the roots
are 34 cm long, mark their location and direction
on the cover with a felt pen.
7.
Rotate the dish clockwise 90 and reattach it to the

wall. Predict what will happen to the direction of
growth.
8.
After 24 h and after 48 h, observe and draw the

pattern of root growth.
For each groups of students:

12 corn seeds soaked
for 48 h
paper towels
Petri dish
masking tape
felt pen
Procedure
1.
2.
Line the bottom of the Petri dish with folded

paper towels. Use enough paper towels so that in
step 2 the seeds will press against the lid firmly
enough to hold them in place. Moisten the towel
and pour off excess water.
Select 12 corn seeds and arrange them in the
dish in a circle with their tips pointing toward
the centre as in Figure 17.33. Place the dish lid
on top.
corn seed
Analyzing and Evaluating

1. In what direction did the majority of stems grow
after emerging from the seeds?
2. After rotating the Petri dish, did the roots continue
in a straight line or did they change direction? If
they changed direction, what was their new
direction?
3. Why was it important to place the seeds in a
circle?
4. If cell growth in an emerging root is uniform,
then there is no reason for a change in the direction of growth. However, if there is a change in the
direction, then unequal cell growth must be occurring. Based on your observations, determine where
in the root cell growth or cell elongation must be
greatest.
FIGURE 17.33
Corn seeds in
a Petri dish
3.
4.
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paper towels squeezing

seeds to lid
While holding the cover firmly in place, turn the

dish on its edge and shake gently. If any seeds
move from their location, open the dish and add
more towels until the seeds no longer move when
the dish is shaken.
Tape the edges shut and tape the entire dish onto
a wall in a cupboard so that the dish is vertical in
UNIT 5
5. Based on your observations, what conclusions

can you draw about a roots response to gravity?
6. Do roots show a positive or negative gravitropism?
Explain.
7. Scientists are very interested in how plants will
grow in space. Explain why it would be important
to know this.
Extending
8. Continue the experiment, observing and recording
the growth of the stem. Predict what happens to
the stem when the dish is rotated clockwise, once
the stems are 12 cm long. Do the stems
respond differently to gravity?
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Key Terms
abscisic acid
apical dominance
auxin
cytokinin
dormancy
ethylene
gibberellin
gravitropism (geotropism)
hormone
macronutrient
micronutrient
nitrogen fixation
phototropism
tropism
turgor response

17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant Growth

Soil, consisting of several layers, contains a number of important nutrients needed by plants.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the major
plant nutrients.
Legumes are able to fix nitrogen from the air by
means of specialized bacteria living in their roots.
The conditions required for seeds to germinate vary,
depending on the plant.
Nutrients within the seed nourish the seedling until
leaves and roots develop.
Plants have developed a variety of adaptations to
overcome excesses or lack of growth factors in their
environments.

Auxins control plant growth responses to light and

to gravity.
Gibberellins promote elongation of roots and stems.
Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation.
Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
Ethylene promotes ripening in fruit.
Phototropism is a plants growth response to light.
Gravitropism is a plants growth response to
gravity.
Turgor responses allow plants to respond rapidly to
stimuli.

1.
Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 557 and review your flow chart outlining growth requirements for
the development of a seed to a mature plant. Revise
the flow chart based on what you have learned in the
chapter.
2.
Draw a concept map to summarize what you have

learned about plant growth and development using the
following key terms: dormancy, germination, zone of
elongation, zone of maturation, radicle, hypocotyl.
3.
Draw a series of unlabelled diagrams illustrating how

a coleoptile responds to a light source directed on one
side of a plant. In your diagrams, indicate the role of
auxin in the growth response.
4.
Reflect on your learning. You completed a lab report for

Investigation 1 (Section 17.1): Factors Affecting the
Growth of Plants. Why is a lab report an effective learning tool?
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1. Seed germination begins with the
a) release of a hormone from the seed embryo
b) release of a hormone from the plant
c) landing of the seed in suitable soil
d) first rain and warm temperature
2. In phototropism, auxins
a) migrate to the illuminated side of the growing shoot
b) stimulate cell division in the shoot
c) stimulate cell elongation on the illuminated side
of the shoot
d) stimulate cell elongation on the dark side of the
shoot
3. During seed dormancy
a) no metabolic processes in the seed occur
b) cell respiration occurs at a slow rate
c) cell respiration ceases
d) the seed is dead
4. The
are
a)
b)
c)
d)
requirements needed by all seeds for germination

light and moisture
moisture and oxygen
heat and light
oxygen and light
13. Explain why crops such as peas and beans do not require fertilizers rich in ammonium compounds whereas
most other crops do require these compounds.
14. Place the following events in proper sequence: cotyledons drop off, radicle emerges, seed coat breaks, leaves
form, hypocotyl emerges.
15. Explain why seeds are called time and space travellers.
16. When a deciduous tree is cut down in midsummer, its
leaves die, shrivel, and turn brown. However, they do
not fall off the branches for months or even years. Explain
why these dead leaves do not fall off.
17. An experiment using radish seeds was set up to investigate gravitropism. Three groups of seeds were planted
in soil. As soon as the radicles emerged, the seedlings
in group 1 were placed so that the radicles were facing
up, group 2 seedlings were placed with their radicles
facing down, and group 3 were arranged with their radicles growing horizontally.
a) Predict what will happen to root growth over several weeks with each group. All of the plants are
provided with ample water and ideal growing
temperatures.
b) Explain briefly how auxin controls root growth response to gravity in each of the three groups of
plants.
5. Which of the following does not belong in the list below?

a) gibberellin
b) ethylene
c) 2,4-D
d) auxin
18. Describe four plant adaptations for living in cold environments. For any one of these, explain how the same
adaptation allows other plants to live in extremely hot
environments.
6. Identify the three layers that make up soil and name the
layer that provides the most nutrients to plants.
19. House plants grown on a window sill should be turned

or rotated one-quarter turn each week. Provide the reason for this advice.
7. Differentiate between the terms micronutrient and

macronutrient.
8. Name the three most important macronutrients for plants
and describe one role of each.
20. A bean seedling is growing in a pot, and its shoot system has emerged from the soil. The pot is knocked on
its side and left in that position. Draw a diagram of the
seedling after having been on its side for three days.
9. Fertilizer designated as 10-6-4 is likely to be used to

promote a lush green lawn. Indicate why this particular
fertilizer would be used.
21. When a seed germinates, the roots always emerge

before the shoots. Explain why this provides an
advantage to the plant.
10. Describe the role of gibberellins in seed germination.

11. Distinguish a plant turgor response from a tropism.
12. Gardeners often pinch or cut off the terminal (apical)
shoots of young plants in order to increase the
bushiness of the plant. Explain why this technique
works.
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UNIT 5
22. Reread the InfoBIT on page 561. This is an extreme

example of dormancy. However, Arctic lupin seeds have
evolved the ability to remain dormant for many years.
Given that this plant lives in the tundra biome, explain
how this adaptation could help the plant.
Previous Section
Applying Inquiry/
23. Research the nitrogen cycle. Explain the role of the
legume family of plants in this important natural cycle.
24. Table 17.4 indicates the nutrient levels in four different
fertilizers. Copy them into your notebook and match one
to each of the desired outcomes: new sod surviving,
shrubs surviving the winter, high-quality vegetables, and
increased growth of evergreen seeds. Explain the reasoning for each of your answers.
TABLE 17.4
Nutrient Levels
in Four Fertilizers
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Mass of seedings (mg)
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40
30
20
10
10
FIGURE 17.35
20
30
40
50
Mass of seed (mg)
27. Using the Internet and other resources, prepare a summary table showing the known functions of each of the
following plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins.
10-20-10
25-3-5
4-4-14
Making Connections
7-7-7
25. An experiment using oat seedlings was carried out to
study the effects of auxin on the growth response of the
the shoots. Examine Figure 17.34 below showing the experimental set up. The wafers used in this experiment
are very thin sections of glass, similar to microscope
cover slips. Predict what the growth response of each
seedling will be. Draw a diagram of your predictions.
Explain your predicted results based on your knowledge
of the action of auxins.
glass wafers
light
28. One of the roles of auxins in some plants is to stimulate

the development of fruit. These auxins are produced in
the seeds of the fruit. Synthetic auxins are applied to angiosperms, such as the tomato plant, to induce the production of fruit without the need for pollination.
a) Relate what is unusual about fruit grown this way.
b) Discuss any practical advantage this technology provides for either the food industry or consumers.
29. The herbicide 2,4-D is widely used to kill weeds. It is especially useful in agriculture since it only kills dicot plants.
Explain the significance of this feature of the chemical
in the spraying of agricultural crops. Include a specific
example of a crop in your answer.
30. It is not possible to supply sufficient soil nutrients for
agriculture by using animal manure only. Thus, industrial, inorganic fertilizers must be used worldwide. Specify
some of the environmental concerns farmers must be
sensitive to in using fertilizers.
31. One of the functions of the plant hormone ethylene is
to cause fruit to ripen. Prepare a brief report on this hormone using the following headings: a) plant production
of ethylene, b) effects on fruit tissues, c) commercial uses
of ethylene.
FIGURE 17.34
26. Figure 17.35 shows the relationship between the mass

of seeds and the mass of seedlings grown from these
seeds after 30 days of growth. Examine the graph to determine the relationship between seed mass and seedling
mass. Propose a hypothesis to explain these results.
32. Irrigation allows farmers to grow crops in parts of

Canada that receive little rainfall. Research the use of irrigation and create a PMI chart on the use of irrigation.
Investigate how irrigation affects society, the economy,
and the environment.
33. In order to have high crop-yielding agricultural land,
farmers around the world have had to supply nutrients
to the soil in the form of fertilizers. Without fertilizers,
the yield of agricultural land is very inefficient. Predict
what the effect(s) would be on the worlds natural habitat if fertilizers were not used on agricultural land.
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EXPLORING CAREERS
After Class
Youve learned how career opportunities in biology are increasing and
changing, as well as how many of these
careers overlap into the other sciences.
Youve practised how to communicate
your science skills to prospective employers and on forms. You may have
found exactly the right match between
your own interests and a particular field
within biology, as well as which
universities offer the most specific
education in that field. But what comes
next? What can you do toward a
career in biology after this class?
Have a look at the excerpts from job
ads shown on this page. Each is a requirement for experience. You already
know the importance of having experience when you apply for a job. If you are
looking for your first job, you can only
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UNIT 5
talk about the experience youve gained

through accomplishments at home and
school. These accomplishments are
important and will certainly help get you
part-time or summer work. But the
moment you start that first job, you will
begin to accumulate specific experience
that can help you obtain the postsecondary education you want and the
career in biology that interests you.
Finding Experience
1.
Choose one of the experience requirements listed. How could you go

about gaining this experience
during your summer break, or after
school?

Make a list of places that could
offer experience. Consider as
many ideas as you can. For example, if you selected working
with animals you might list pet
shops, animal shelters, dog
grooming services, kennels,
breeders, stables, wildlife/conservation groups, farms, groups
supplying therapeutic or companion animals. (Hint: Ask
others for their ideas.)

Obtain a local phone book.
Using this, and your list, look for
places within your community
you could approach for experience. (Hint: Ask others for suggestions but, this time, ask for
specific contact information.)

Call or visit these places to
find out more. Do they hire
students? Do they take on
volunteers? Do they offer
apprenticeships or other
training? Be sure to mention
why you want this experience.
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The Importance of Experience

Experience doesnt just make your
rsum look terrific to an employer. It is
important in applying to university as
well. If your goal is to apply for a university program with a set number of
new students a year, such as medicine
or veterinary science, pharmacology, or
other professions, related experience will
make an immense difference as to
whether you will be accepted.
2.
Use university calendars and other

sources of information about
specific professional schools and
programs to find out what experience is required or recommended
for admission. (Hint: This will be
listed separately from requirements
to enter a B.Sc. program.) Remember,
you need to do certain undergraduate programs or even obtain a B.Sc.
before you apply to medical or other
schools, but you can begin preparing for that application now.

Are there any specific experience requirements? For example,
a valid St. Johns Ambulance
First Aid Certificate is needed
when applying for medical
school. This is something you
can obtain immediately and will
also let you see what it is like to
work in the health field.

Are there any general experience requirements? For example,
admission to veterinary medicine requires demonstrated
experience working with animals
as well as letters of reference
from veterinarians. This is
something you can begin
immediately, by looking for
opportunities to volunteer or
work part-time with a local
veterinarian.
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Get it in writing! When you

do any kind of
work, paid or
volunteer, be
sure to get it
documented.
Make a list of
your duties and
keep it with
your rsum
and other important information. When
you ask for a
letter of reference, explain to
your supervisor
or employer
FIGURE 1 Volunteer work or
that it would be helpful if this letter
summer jobs will gain you
emphasized the experience you gained.
valuable experience.
Most will be very willing to add a
sentence or two, especially if they know
why it is important to your career plans.
Ask for this letter at least a week before
you leave or need it for an application.
Looking Outward
Taking a first aid course is an excellent
idea, whether you are interested in
medicine, human biology, or simply want
to be better prepared for an emergency.
You will also find such a course is recommended or required for many types
of jobs, especially outdoors jobs. Find
out when and where the next St. Johns
Ambulance First Aid Course will be held
in your area. Plan to attend. You will
gain confidence dealing with emergencies as well as knowledge on how to
handle everyday mishaps. (Hint: If you
have previously taken a first aid course
through school, a club, or sports, check
your qualifications. You must upgrade
your training every few years to keep
your certificate valid.)
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Golden Rice: Problem or Solution?

Most Canadians eat a well-balanced diet that
provides all of the vitamins and minerals their
bodies need. In many developing countries
around the world, rice is a large part of peoples
diet, just as wheat is in Canada. However, a
major drawback of rice is that it lacks vitamin
A. In developing countries, the very poor may
eat just a few bowls of rice a day and not much
else. As a result, millions of children around the
world dont get enough vitamin A. Having a vitamin A deficiency is particularly serious. Lack
of vitamin A causes night blindness, and can
leave the body vulnerable to diarrhea and infectious diseases such as measles, which together kill 3.5 million children a year world
wide. It is estimated that 100 million children
suffer from vitamin A deficiency.
Swiss scientist Ingo Potrykus decided to
address this issue by developing a genetically
modified rice that would be rich in beta
carotene, the building block of vitamin A. It took
him many years to perfect this new strain of
rice, which he then offered as new seeds to poor
farmers in India. Instead of being recognized
for having a sense of social responsibility, his
golden rice caused a huge public outcry, and
the warehouse where it was stored had to be
protected against attacks.
Some environmentalists call the golden rice
Frankenfood. They are concerned that golden
rice may interbreed with other varieties of rice.
Because large corporations helped to market
the rice, there is a fear that the profit motive
may overshadow humanitarian goals. Environmentalists and agriculturalists say other
alternatives, such as the distribution of
vitamin A capsules or leafy green vegetables
should be explored before introducing a bio-engineered food.
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UNIT 5

restrictions.
FIGURE 1 Rice being planted. Rice is a staple in many

developing countries.
Golden rice was never meant to be a total solution to vitamin A deficiency. Studies are
needed to assess the long-term effects of all genetically modified foods as they become more
widely used.
SCENARIO
You are attending a summit on world health and
will be presenting a funding proposal for research on genetically modified foods. Your proposal should be based on what you have
researched, and your personal views on the
issue. Your presentation should include: graphics such as charts, tables; summary overheads
to help you communicate your argument; as
well as any additional presentation devices to
add interest and support your proposal.
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Part A: Research the Issue
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Part C: Perspectives
1.
Define the term Frankenfood and explain

how the term is used in the debate on
genetically modified foods.
7.
Evaluate Potrykus golden rice in relation

to safety, cost, availability, and impact on
everyday life and the environment.
2.
In a consequence map, show all the different points of view that exist on the issue
of genetically modified foods.
8.
How do the media affect our thinking on

genetically modified foods. Give examples.
9.
3.
Research the development of golden rice

and analyze the social and economic impacts of your findings, using a PMI chart.
Compare and contrast the points of view of

different cultures around the world on
this issue.
Part B: Analyzing the Data

4.
What methods of experimentation did

Potrykus use to create golden rice?
5.
Using diagrams and charts, show who is

most affected by vitamin A deficiency
around the globe.
6.
Plan and propose a method of testing the

long-term effects of golden rice.
10. Should economics influence the implementation of solutions to world problems like
vitamin deficiency? Explain.
Part D: Summary Sheet

11. Create a summary sheet (12 pages maximum) which outlines the important features
of your research from Part A and from your
presentation. Your summary sheet must
include a bibliography of the sources used.
Attach your PMI chart to the summary
sheet.
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UNIT 5 REVIEW
1. The process mainly responsible for water movement up
vascular plants occurs in
a) roots
b) stems
c) soil
d) leaves
2. Maple sap is tapped in early spring because
a) sugars are manufactured in the leaves as soon as
the weather gets warm
b) sugars are being transported to the roots
c) stored sugars are being moved from the roots to the
tops of the trees
d) in winter the snow is too deep to get to the trees
3. Which of the following fertilizers release their nutrients
into the soil fastest?
a) sheep manure
b) fish meal
c) 10-6-4
d) cow manure
4. Negative gravitropism is demonstrated by
a) roots
b) stems
c) seeds
d) leaves
5. Plant hormones are used commercially as
a) fertilizers
b) insecticides
c) weed killers
d) all of the above
6. Which of the following is designed to prevent water loss?
a) cuticle covering of leaves
b) leaves with small surface area
c) leaves that are needles
d) all of the above
7. Plants that bloom early in the spring and then are gone
until the next spring do so because
a) they usually grow in dense forests and would be
shaded from light by trees all summer
b) the soil is richest in nutrients after the snow melts
c) they grow best in a cool, wet environment
d) they require frost at night during their growing
period
8. Each stage in succession generally creates an
environment
a) less suitable for itself
b) less suitable for the next stage
c) ideal for the conifers
d) ideal for pioneer plants
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UNIT 5
9. The technique of growing many identical plants from a

small group of cells is called
a) grafting
b) cloning
c) artificial selection
d) cross-pollination
10. The plant part that serves as the main food supply for
humans is the
a) seed
b) root
c) stem
d) fruit
11. The property of water molecules being strongly attracted
to each other is called
a) adhesion and is essential in the transport of
sugars
b) cohesion and helps explain the rise of water to the
tops of plants
c) cohesion and explains root pressure
d) adhesion and is essential for transpiration to take
place
12. The choosing of a particular plant variety to cultivate as
a crop is an example of
a) monoculture
b) natural selection
d) phytoremediation
13. Which of the following is not an effect of auxin?
a) stimulates stem and root cell elongation
b) stimulates lateral growth of branches in shrubs
c) prevents leaf abscission
d) stimulates growth toward light
14. A growth response to contact is known as
a) thigmotropism
b) gravitropism
c) turgor response
d) phototropism
15. The ability of plants to re-grow missing parts is the basis
of
a) hybridization
b) grafting
d) cloning of cuttings
16. In steep, mountainous terrain, clear-cut logging of forests
is thought to increase the chance of landslides. When
landslides occur, most of the topsoil and loose rock fragments are washed away. When succession occurs, would
you expect it to be faster or slower than the succession
that occurs in a nearby abandoned (agricultural) field?
Explain.
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17. Name the biomes found in Ontario. For each one,

identify
a) a representative plant
b) a major climatic characteristic
18. Many plants that grow in the tundra reproduce asexually. Suggest several reasons why plants that must
survive in such a harsh environment do not rely on
sexual reproduction as do most plants.
19. Once water moves into the vascular cylinder in the root,
it cannot move back into the tissues it came from. Explain
a) what the significance is of this fact for the plant and
b) the reason(s) why water cannot move back.
FIGURE 1
20. Discuss the non-conducting role(s) of vascular tissues in

angiosperms. In your answer, refer to specific tissues by
name when discussing their role(s).
29. Explain briefly how the structure of a guard cell is

related to its function.
21. a)
30. Describe the process of water transport into sieve-tube

cells.
b)
c)
Name the two main types of stems found in vascular plants.

Outline three differences between the stem types.
Provide three common examples of plants with each
stem type.
22. Relate two structural features of typical angiosperms of

the temperate deciduous biome that help reduce water
loss. Explain how each one helps the plant conserve
water.
23. Explain clearly the difference between a parasitic and
a carnivorous plant. Identify an example of each that
grows in Canada.
24. The average height of a row of corn plants in a field about
half way through the growing season was 0.8 m. Another
row of plants that was sprayed with a particular plant
hormone had an average height of 1.4 m.
a) Determine what hormone was most likely applied
to the corn plants.
b) Explain what effect this hormone has on the tissues
of the plants.
25. Explain why leaf mesophyll tissue must be constantly
moist.
31. Name the three processes responsible for the movement

of water and minerals up plants.
32. Explain how the same auxin can produce the opposite
growth effect in a root as in a stem.
33. Provide several reasons why the practice of monoculture
in forest replanting leads to a decrease in biodiversity.
34. Name three carnivorous plants that grow in Canada.
Explain what nutrients are extracted and the reason
why these plants need to eat insects.
Applying Skills of Inquiry and

Communication
35. A person buys several identical house plants but gets different advice with respect to how frequently they must
be watered. Outline the steps of a simple experiment that
could be done at home to determine an appropriate
schedule for watering the plants.
36.
26. Describe briefly how water gets from the soil to the photosynthetic tissues of mosses and liverworts.
27. The photo in Figure 1 shows nodules on the roots of a
bean plant. These nodules are also found on the roots
of alfalfa. Explain what function they serve.
28. Compare heartwood and sapwood tissue with respect to
a) structure of the cells in each tissue and b) function of
the tissue.
FIGURE 2
Unit Review
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UNIT 5 REVIEW (continued)

Examine the photos in Figure 2. Describe the arrangement of vascular bundles that would be observed in a
cross section of the root of each of these plants. Explain
your reasoning.
37. If a plant is pulled out of the ground and re-planted, it
will often die even though the roots appear to be intact. Describe what damage likely occurred and
explain why the plant does not survive.
38. Predict the likely effect of excess inorganic fertilizer application on a) the germination of a seed and b) the
growth of a mature plant such as a geranium. Explain
each of your answers.
39. Horticulturists growing flowering plants in greenhouses
must be able to produce plants with flowers at any
time of the year even though these times may not be
when the plant normally flowers. Suggest how this is
accomplished.
40.
light
tip separated
by gelatin
block
tip separated
by glass wafer
The diagram in Figure 3 illustrate the results of an experiment to show growth responses of seedlings to light
under three different conditions.
a) Interpret each of the experiments.
b) Based on your knowledge of plant hormones,
account for each of the experimental results.
41. Look back at Table 15.4 on page 527. Predict what types
of trees would likely be found in this field after 100 years
in this Windsor location. If the field were located near
North Bay, would there be different tree species present?
Explain.
42. You are provided with slides of root and stem cross
sections of a plant. Explain how you would be able to
classify what type of plant you are examining from the
slides.
UNIT 5
44. In the fields in which parasitic wasps are used as a biological control for the alfalfa weevil, farmers avoid using
chemical pesticides and herbicides. Outline at least one
reason why each of these chemical controls is not used.
45. Humans have used selection to modify many species including plants like corn and animals like dogs. Select one
agriculturally important domestic plant species and write
a report showing how it has been altered from its wild
state.
46. Integrated forest management allows for animal diversity
to be maintained. Look up this term and explain what is
meant by this statement.
47. The seeds of most plants in temperate climates do not
germinate until they have gone through a dormancy period. The time they remain in dormancy varies from a
few weeks to years. However, there are some temperate
plants in which the seeds germinate as soon as they
fall upon soil. Predict
a) what types of plants you would expect to produce
seeds that germinate immediately after being released and
b) in what environments you would expect to find such
plants
Provide reasons for your answers.
48. Erecting buildings in the tundra is difficult because the
footings or foundations upon which the building rests
cannot be properly built in tundra soil. Discuss the features of the tundra soil that hinder the construction of
buildings.
49. Leaf fall (abscission) is very important in the harvesting of cotton. Research the reasons for its importance
and how growers artificially influence the process.
FIGURE 3
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43. Discuss the idea that plants such as trees can live forever because their living tissue is always young. Provide
evidence for your answer
50. Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles known as

plastids. Research plastids and summarize your findings
in the form of a chart. In your chart, indicate the roles
of each type of plastid and the functions of some of the
molecules found in the plastids, both for plants and animals that eat them.
51. Table 1 contains data from the Canadian Pulp and Paper
Association, showing total sales of Canadian forest products and direct employment in the forest products
industry from 1994 to 1998.
a) Produce a bar graph using the data provided.
b) Try to obtain the latest data to determine if there
are any trends of sales and employment in Canadas
forest products industry.
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Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Sales
Year
Total sales
(millions of dollars)
Direct employment
1994
44 329
242 500
1995
53 959
246 800
1996
51 170
251 700
1997
52 340
253 700
1998
52 602
253 600
52. Select one example of a carnivorous plant native to

Canada. Research the plant and prepare a brief report
covering the following topics: habitat, a simple overview
of the mechanism use to trap its prey, method of killing
its prey.
Making Connections
53. For any four of the following drugs, construct a chart
showing name of drug, plant it is derived from and use
or effect on humans: digitalis, quinine, salicylic acid,
opium, caffeine, atropine.
54. There are companies, some on the Internet, that sell live
organisms to control garden and agricultural insect pests.
For example, a company will sell praying mantis (a carnivorous insect) cultures to use in a home garden to
kill plant-eating bugs. Describe some of the benefits and
some of the potential drawbacks the average gardener
would face in using a biological control such as this.
55. It has been discovered that some plants release chemical substances into the air when they are attacked by
insects. These substances can be detected by certain
predatory insects in the area. The predators are attracted
to the plant and proceed to eat the plant-eating insects.
Scientists are trying to identify the molecular structure
of these chemicals and the genes that are responsible
for their synthesis. Assume a gene for one of these chemicals that attracts predatory insects has been isolated
and can be used by scientists. Propose a plan that will
benefit agriculture using this technology.
56. Ethanol, a component of gasohol, is produced from
wastes of agricultural crops. Currently, in the U.S., gasohol makes up only about one percent of the automobile
fuel market. The costs of bringing gasohol to market are
higher than that of gasoline, even though gasohol reduces air pollution significantly. Using corn as an example, try to identify as many of the costs associated
with the final production of gasohol as you can. Start
with the cost of buying the corn seed. Propose a plan
to significantly reduce the cost of producing ethanol from
plant material so that gasohol can become a more
common fuel source.
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57. As of 2000, over 40 transgenic crop varieties have

been approved and are currently grown in North
America. GM potatoes, tomatoes, and squash are on the
grocers vegetable counter. GM grains such as corn are
also used in commercial products such as cereals and
snack foods. Often these grains are used in small quantities in these products. There has been a call for labelling
of all GM foods and products containing them both in
North America and Europe. The American Medical
Association (AMA) has stated in a December 2000 report that there is no justification for specific labelling of
GM foods. The organization says that without focused
consumer education there is no point to labelling
such products. Based on your knowledge of the types
of characteristics scientists are modifying in agricultural
plants, discuss the following:
a) What the AMA means by focused consumer
education.
b) What pros and cons of labelling GM foods the
AMA probably examined before reaching their
conclusion.
c) Do you think products that contain GM foods should
be labelled? Provide reasons for your opinion.
58. In 1997, it was estimated most prairie farmers spent
about $8000$9000 per year on pesticides. With increased use of insect-resistant GM crops and biological
control methods, one would expect that farmers are
spending less on pesticides. Prepare a brief report on
Western farmers pesticide costs using the most up to
date information you can obtain. In your report, if possible, include a bar graph showing pesticide costs over
the years.
59. Acid precipitation likely causes more serious damage to
plants in the boreal coniferous forest than in the other
Ontario biomes. Using your knowledge of the environmental conditions of this biome, explain why. Research
the current status of acid precipitation in Ontario.
60. It is likely that the biome most affected by global warming will be the tundra. Some scientists have estimated
that the temperature in this biome could rise as much
as 10C. Predict what changes in plant and animal life
will take place as a result of global warming. Decide if
any species, including humans, would benefit from or
would be harmed by this temperature change.
61. Phytoremediation is a form of the technique known as
bioremediation, in which living organisms are used to
clean up environmental contaminants. Research the history of bioremediation and prepare a summary report.
Include its benefits and its drawbacks in terms of cost
and impact on the environment.
Unit Review
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Appendix
Science and Safety
590
The Inquiry Process
594
The Decision-Making Process
599
Using Graphic Organizers
602
Problem-Solving
605
Graphing Techniques
606
Periodic Table of the Elements
609
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Science and Safety
Doing science and learning science occur in the classroom, in the laboratory,
and in the field. Safe practices are essential when students are actively
learning science in all environments. Familiarity with the potential hazards
makes it possible to take proper precautions and develop a safe learning
environment.
Before every investigation, you should review all safety precautions and
understand their importance. If you are unsure of any procedure or safety
instructions, ask your instructor before you proceed.
The Canadian Hazardous Products Act requires chemical manufacturers
to include all hazard symbols and the degree of hazard. You may recognize
the household product symbols shown in the photograph. These symbols
indicate hazard(s), precaution, and first-aid treatment.
Hazardous Product and WHMIS

Symbols
The household hazardous symbols indicate the type
of danger and the degree of danger. They appear in
either a triangle (which means caution), a
diamond (which means warning), or an octagon
(which means danger).
Below are some of the more common symbols.
Flammable
Hazard: Materials
could ignite
(catch on fire) if
exposed to
flames, sparks, or
friction.
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Explosive Hazard:
The materials or
equipment could
explode.
Toxic Hazard:
The material is
very poisonous
and could have
immediate and
serious effects.
Corrosive Hazard:
The material may
corrode (eat
away at) clothing, skin, or other
materials.
Biological
Hazard:
Be alert to the
possibility of
poisoning or
infection from
microscopic and
other organisms.
Electrical Hazard:
Be alert to the
possibility of an
electric spark or
shock.
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Many of the chemical products used in Canadian schools are manufactured in the United States. To standardize the labelling systems, WHMIS
(the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) was developed. The
symbols belonging to this system appear on materials and products used both
in workplaces and our schools.
compressed
gas
dangerously
reactive
material
oxidizing
material
poisonous
and
infectious
causing
immediate
and serious
toxic effects
flammable
and
combustible
material
biohazardous
infectious
material
corrosive
material
poisonous
and
infectious
causing
other toxic
effects
Laboratory Safety
Approach all investigations, especially in the laboratory, with maturity. Before
you begin, read all instructions carefully, noting all safety precautions. In
addition, your teacher may provide other safety reminders and rules pertaining to the laboratory activity. It is your responsibility to inform your teacher
of medical conditions such as possible allergies
to materials used (e.g. plants, plant products,
and latex) or by-products of the activity. If you
wear contact lenses, inform your teacher.
1.
Precautions and Safety Equipment

a) Identify all safety equipment in the laboratory.
b) Know the location of and how to operate safety equipment, including the fire
extinguisher, fire blankets, eyewash
fountains, sand, and the first-aid kit.
c)
Wear appropriate laboratory apparel,

which includes safety goggles, rubber
gloves, and lab aprons.
d) Tie back long hair and loose clothing.

2.
Precautions with Burners or Hot Plates

a) Never leave any burner or hot plate
unattended.
b) Before connecting a burner, make sure
the gas supply valve is completely closed.
Open it only slightly just before lighting
the burner.
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If the flame keeps going out, turn off the gas before you seek your
teachers help.
d) Ensure the use of Borosilicate (e.g., Pyrex) for heating substances.

e)
Use tongs or holders to handle hot glassware or objects.

3.
Precautions with Glassware

a) Check for any chipped, cracked, or
broken glassware.
b) Ensure the glassware is clean before
and after use.
c)
4.
Use only equipment specified in the

laboratory instructions unless advised otherwise by your teacher.
Precautions with Chemicals

a) Never smell, touch, or taste substances in the laboratory without
your teachers instruction.
b) Do not inhale fumes directly.
Instead, wave the air above the substance toward your nose.
c)
Take materials only from labelled

containers.
d) Dilute acids by adding only ACID

to WATER.
e)
5.
Never return unused chemicals to

stock bottles or containers.
Precautions with Live or Preserved Specimens and Micro-organisms

a) Treat all animals (invertebrates and vertebrates) gently.
b) Put on rubber gloves and secure all specimens before dissection.
c)
Always cut specimens away from you.
d) Dispose of all dissected specimens as instructed by your teacher.
6.
e)
Follow all instructions for cleaning the microbiology lab. Use aseptic
techniques. When finished, use disinfectants and paper towels, and
wipe your lab bench surfaces.
f)
Ensure you wash your hands and the lab surface with proper disinfectants.
Precautions with Plants, Soils, and Animals

a) Follow all instructions for touching or smelling any substances under
investigation.
b) Always wash your hands before and after handling plants, soils, and
animals (both live and preserved).
c)
Never put plants or soil in your mouth.
d) Wear protective eyewear and gloves when handling micro-organisms

or compost.
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e)
Wash all surfaces with an appropriate disinfectant such as a bleach

solution.
f)
Do not grow soil bacteria because of the risk of culturing

tetanus-causing organisms.
g)
Wear protective gloves when handling live animals.
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h) Do not use specimens preserved in formaldehyde solutions.
7.
i)
Place dissected remains in bags marked with biohazard symbols and

dispose of them immediately after the dissection. They can be placed
in normal garbage.
j)
Wash your hands.
Precautions with Electrical Sources

a) Do not use 110-V AC equipment if it has a damaged plug (e.g., missing the ground pin) or a frayed cord.
b) Keep water and wet hands away from electrical cords.
c)
Do not touch a person in contact with live electrical currents.

Disconnect the power source first. Then give artificial respiration, if
necessary, and treat burns.
d) When unplugging an electrical device, always disconnect the cord

from the socket by pulling the plug, not the cord, and make sure electrical cords are not placed where someone could trip over them.
8.
e)
Never attempt to recharge a non-rechargeable battery. Always exercise, caution in handling any batteries: allowing them to discharge
quickly, through a short circuit for instance, can generate dangerous
amounts of heat in the wires and in the batteries themselves, and
some kinds of batteries could even explode.
f)
Never cut open batteries. Their contents can be corrosive and

poisonous.
Other Precautions and Accident Procedures

a) All accidents (including breakage and spillage) or injuries must be
reported to your teacher.
b) With your teachers help and supervision, clean up all spills and broken glassware.
c)
If a chemical splashes into your eyes or on your body, wash at the

eyewash for several minutes or add copious amounts of cool water
immediately. Ensure your teacher is notified.
d) At the end of all lab activities, ensure the lab bench is clean.
e)
Put all cleaned apparatus away.
f)
Ensure your hands are washed before you leave the lab.
For any independent investigation:

Before you begin, obtain approval from your teacher for all procedures .
Carefully discuss the apparatus and the procedure with your instructor. Learn
the appropriate safety measures for your work. Never work without your
teachers supervision and never work alone.
APPENDIX A
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The Inquiry Process

Notice a scientific problem or issue, ask a question, and formulate a plan to solve it.
I wonder if? I wonder why?
How can I find out?

Use your skills to put your plan into action.
Did I give all the plants the same amount of water?
Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment

Use suitable tools and materials appropriately.
Would an elodea plant be more suitable
than a bean plant?

Conduct your study in a controlled manner and observe/record
appropriate results.
Did I control all of the variables?
Are my results recorded clearly and accurately?

Use various tools to analyze results and figure out what they
mean.
Should I use a graph or a calculation to examine these results?
What do my results mean?
Why do apples fall from trees? What causes footand-mouth disease? Why do different types of wood
burn to produce different amounts of heat? What
causes leaves to change colours? How can I capture an image on film? Why did the bacteria die
in this Petri plate?
All of these are questions asked by scientists as
they observe parts of the world around them. While
an answer to the last question might be Lets just
throw out this plates results, a scientist named
Alexander Fleming might have asked, What
factors existed in this culture plate to kill these bacteria? It turns out, Fleming had discovered a
mould, called Penicillium notatum, that has a lethal
effect on many harmful organisms. As a result of
his discovery, Oxford researchers Howard Florey
and Ernst Chain were able to isolate the active component penicillin. Today, penicillin is produced by
drug companies to help fight infections and diseases.
Fleming approached the problem from a scientific perspective, using a structured approach to
examine the world and answer his questions.
This approach is called the Inquiry Process. It is
a logical reasoning process used to solve problems
through observation and measurement, experimentation and research, and analysis and dissemination. It attempts to explain phenomena by
examining cause and effect in a controlled situation. Scientists use experiments as a key part of
their scientific work. Working scientifically involves
being precise and accurate when making and interpreting observations and formulating conclusions
from them. It is also important to communicate the
results of experimental work clearly to other scientists. The flowchart on this page outlines some
of the steps involved in the inquiry process.

Make a decision about the experimental results and
communicate them.
Do my results support my conclusion?
Will others be able to understand my work?
Would they be able to repeat my work?
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APPENDIX B
A scientist notices an event or occurrence and

attempts to explain it. If a reasonable explanation
does not exist, the scientist may take further steps.
He or she will develop a question that can be answered through various means. The question should
point to a structured approach to finding the answer or explanation through an experiment, a
model, or research. The scientist will make a prediction (hypothesis) of the answer based on his or
her scientific knowledge and experience. A plan
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must then be devised in order to gather information and drawing appropriate conclusions.
Question: What factors affect the growth of plants?
Hypothesis: Plants require sunlight to grow.
One scientific plan would be to conduct an experiment. A sequence of

steps (method) must be determined to describe how the experiment is to be
conducted. The design of the method is essential to ensure that consistent
and valid results are obtained. The method should be geared toward
collecting data specific to the hypothesis and should identify what tools, equipment, and materials would be necessary. Care should be taken to control as
many variables as possible, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret
correctly. Any safety considerations should also be included in the method.
In addition, the method should be written to allow others to reproduce the
experiment.
Method
1. Select 6 equal-sized bean plants, numbered accordingly, for the
experiment.
2. Choose dark and sunlit locations for each set of plants. Ensure that
the temperature in each location is the same.
3. Place plants 13 in the sunlit location and plants 46 in the dark
area. Water the plants with 50 mL of water every second day.
4. Measure the height of the plants, from the soil level to the tip of
the stem, daily for 4 days.
To ensure reliable results, the method should also clarify the number of
plants used, the frequency and length of data collection, and the difference
in the amount of light used. All of these factors should be reflected in the procedure for the experiment.

To conduct an experiment on distinguishing plant growth, for example, you
would need to control a number of variables that may affect the results. The
type of plant, amount of water, type of soil, and temperature may all affect
plant growth. So it is important to use proper technical skills in applying your
method, to ensure that the variables are indeed controlled and that the data
obtained are valid. Determining the best way to observe results is also a technical decision that could affect the accuracy and interpretation of the data.
Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment

In a laboratory, using tools, materials, and equipment safely and correctly is
essential to ensure a secure environment for all. Safety is everyones
responsibility. If you see a fellow student struggling to use equipment properly, it is your responsibility to offer assistance or notify the lab supervisor
(your teacher). A review of specific safety considerations and proper use of
apparatus may be necessary at the outset of an experiment. Working
responsibly includes knowing what to do and when to ask for help.
Materials
6 equal-sized bean plants
ruler
dark location
sunny location
APPENDIX B
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While performing an experiment, use your scientific and technical skills to
follow the identified method, gathering and recording both qualitative and
quantitative observations in your lab notes. The critical functions of lab notes
are to state what was done and what was observed. The greatest flaw
found in lab notes, even with experienced scientists, is that they are often
unreadable. Hard as it is to believe, even the author of a notebook often cannot understand his or her own notes after a few years. The problem is not
usually one of legibility, but rather of poorly labelled entries and incomplete
descriptions. Writing in complete sentences, indicating units of measurement,
and noting possible sources of error are excellent ways to ensure a
high-quality record of the experiment.
A table is one method to present results; it offers an organized structure
to present experimental results/data. For the plant growth example, a quick
analysis of the quantitative observations shows that the plants kept in a sunlit location appear to have grown taller than the plants kept in a dark location. The data can be manipulated through graphing or calculations to find
further relationships.
Observations
The plants that were selected each had a starting height of 5.0 cm.
Daily results were recorded in Table B.1. Qualitative observations were
recorded in Table B.2 on the last day.
Table B.1: Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions

Environment
Sunlit
Dark
Plant #
Daily Plant Height (cm)

1
5.2
5.5
5.9
6.2
5.5
5.7
6.1
6.4
5.4
5.8
6.2
6.5
5.0
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.3
Table B.2: Plant Appearance After 4 Days
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Environment
Plant Appearance
Sunlit
Bright green colour

Strong, straight stems
Large leaves
Dark
Faded green colour

Weak, bent stems
Small, wilted leaves
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A collection of numbers or a list of observations is not sufficient to address
your hypothesis. It is necessary to use appropriate analysis tools to find meaning in your experimental results. The tools may include a graphical representation of results, a calculation, a comparison to known data, and an
identification of patterns or trends. Often visual representations of data
simplify the identification of relationships that exist in data.
Analysis
The qualitative observations show that the plants in the sunlit
environment were generally healthier than the plants in the dark
environment. The average growth was calculated for each day (Table B.3);
the data were then graphed and a line of best fit was drawn for each
set (Graph B.1).
Table B.3: Average Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions
Environment
Daily Plant Height (cm)

1
Sunlit
5.4
5.7
6.1
6.4
Dark
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
Plant Height (cm)
Graph B.1: Average Daily Plant Growth

6.6
6.4
6.2
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2
5.0
Sunlit
Dark
The data, as illustrated, show a clear trend

within each plant group. The plants in the
sunlit environment grew significantly taller than
the plants in the dark environment.
Day

Use your completed analysis to draw conclusions that support or refute
your hypothesis. Your conclusion should be written in such a manner that it
is clearly linked to your analysis and results. Any errors noted should be
addressed, indicating their effect on the observed results.
Your overall inquiry process should be organized in order to communicate your results. Regardless of the form they take, the information and ideas
should be communicated with a high degree of clarity and precision, using
the correct terminology, symbols, conventions, SI units, and number of significant figures. It may be necessary to use technology to support the communication of your inquiry process; you may choose to use computers, or
media tools to enhance your work.
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Conclusions
The amount of sunlight available to plants is one of the factors
affecting their growth. The qualitative and quantitative data collected
in this experiment clearly show that plants receiving inadequate sunlight
show poor growth, are wilted, and have unhealthy plants and stems.
You can use the following Inquiry Process Checklist to guide your work.
Inquiry Process Checklist

Purpose

poses a question
question can be answered by following an inquiry process
Hypothesis
hypothesis specifically predicts the answer to the question stated in the

purpose
Method

written in logical steps

reproducible by other scientists
data collected are connected to the hypothesis
variables controlled where necessary
diagram included where appropriate
Inquiry Skills

demonstrate knowledge of proper use of tools, materials, and

equipment
use apparatus properly
use apparatus safely
help others to work safely and properly

follow method
qualitative observations written with adequate detail
quantitative observations include appropriate units and significant figures
use table, chart to organize results
note errors or discrepancies

include a visual representation of results

calculations where necessary; clearly organized, units shown
Conclusion

stated to link hypothesis with results

hypothesis supported or refuted
error analysis
Overall

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spelling and grammar correct

written in clear, precise language
scientific terms used correctly
neat presentation
technology used where necessary
Contents
C.
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The Decision-Making Process
Adam Nash was born on August 29, 2000 because

of his genetic make-up. His parents had used preimplantation genetic diagnosis during in vitro fertilization. The Nashs chose the healthy embryo that
became Adam so that he could donate compatible
blood cells from his umbilical cord to his sister.
Adams sister has fanconi anemia, a bone-marrow
disorder, with a survival rate that increases significantly with donations from a brother or sister.
The unusual circumstances surrounding
Adams birth typify the many different issues facing science and scientists today. Some of these issues are ethical in nature, requiring analysis of ones
beliefs and values. Others require a consideration
of safety issues. This type of issue and the questions it raises require an informed decision to be
made. Some decisions are easier than others. How
does one make an informed decision and analyze
its validity? Scientists often use an approach called
the Decision-Making Process as they strive to make
prudent choices. The flowchart on this page outlines this process.
Defining the Issue

The issue should be articulated using a brief statement or question. For example, in vitro genetic
screening is the issue from the above example and
the broad question might be: Should parents and
scientists be permitted to use this process in fertility practices?
Defining the Issue

Identify an issue and its context.
Is this ethical? Is this acceptable?
What are the options and which one is better?

Establish criteria to use as the basis for making a final decision.
On what criteria will I base my decision?
What factors are important in making this decision?

Find as much information as possible to make an
informed decision.
What sources of information can I use?
Are my sources reliable?
Have I considered all aspects of the issue?
Select the relevant information, organize it, manipulate it,
and examine it.
How can I best present the information?
What method should I use to analyze the data?

Make a decision.
Have I considered all of the relevant factors?
Have I put the possible courses of action in the right order?

Assessment criteria should be established before
you research and analyze the issue; this will make
the decision-making process more objective. Some
possible criteria include cost, societal implications,
precedents, norms, environmental impact, and/or
feasibility. In this example, one might base a decision on the costs versus benefits to support or refute in vitro genetic screening.

Determine whether the information supports your decision.
Is there enough support for my decision to allow others to
reach the same conclusion?
What will I do if my course of action is turned down?
Check for the consequences or impact of the decision.
What are the consequences of this decision?
Have I weighted the consequences in an appropriate way?

To make an informed decision, all related factors
must be identified and described. A researcher
might consult journals, articles, the Internet, experts, available data, past practice, or precedents
to find information, impacts, factors, norms, and

Decide how you will communicate your findings.
Who is my intended audience?
How will I communicate my findings?
What visuals will I include in my work?
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connections to other fields. Relevant ethical, moral, and social perspectives

should be noted. If relevant information is overlooked, the wrong decision
may be reached. For example, the following questions may arise in the case
of Adam Nash:
non-natural fertility techniques: Should scientists be tampering with natural reproduction?

genetic screening: Should potential parents have the right to design
their offspring?
genetic engineering for organ/tissue harvesting: When does an individual have the right to refuse or choose their cells being used?
cost versus benefit to individuals/society: Are too many funds being
allocated for too small a gain?
rights of the unborn child and children: Should children have to donate
cells based on their parents decisions?
accessibility to the general public: Is this technology only available to a
certain social class?

The information must be organized in a structured manner to facilitate analysis. Methods for organizing information might be a chart comparing pros
and cons, a cost-benefit analysis, a chart of consequences or responsibilities,
a statistical analysis, a graphical representation, or a flowchart to illustrate
the issue.
Once organized, information can be easily analyzed using the assessment
criteria. During analysis, one should consider the relative importance of the
factors and how each affects the outcome of the decision in order to weight
them accordingly within the decision-making process. For example, the rights
of the unborn child and genetic screening factors may carry more weight in
a decision than the cost versus benefit factor.

Taking into account all available research and its analysis, an objective course
of action must be chosen. For example, an ethics committee has rendered its
decision that pre-implantation genetic screening may be used in applications
of fertility practices for medical reasons only.

Your course of action should be directly supported by your analysis of the
research. To justify your course of action, it is necessary to evaluate its effect or impact on society. The evaluation can be conducted from two perspectives:
1) the validity of the decision in comparison to the data and criteria (Did
you make the best decision possible with the available information and
financial resources?)
2) the impact and effect of a decision over an extended period of time (How
has the course of action affected a population? Were there unforeseen
consequences?)
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This analysis could be accomplished through public polls, expert analysis, or

a study of success rates. The method of analysis will depend on the scope of
the issue. The argument presented should appeal to the readers intellect
through logic and reason.

Any good research project requires clear communication of the work and results. The communication should summarize the goal, the process, and the
recommendations of the work in a succinct and concise manner. Regardless
of the form used for communication, there are key components to include:
an introductory statement of the issue, an accurate and precise description
of relevant background information and the research undertaken, an analysis of the information, and a conclusion clearly supported by the analysis.
There are various ways to communicate your work, both orally and in written format. A number of forms of communication are outlined in the table
below. The form used should be supported by visual aids to enhance the communication. In addition, the tone and perspective of the work should be
matched to its intended audience. For example, an editorial may contain more
personal views than a news report.
Forms of Communication
Oral
Written
debate
presentation (e.g., town meeting, school council)
radio spot
TV spot
editorial
position paper
poster
pamphlet or brochure
You can use the following Decision-Making Process Checklist to guide your
work.
Decision-Making Process Checklist

Issue
clearly articulated as a statement or question
Assessment Criteria

clearly identified
enables objective, fact-based decision making
Research

relevant factors identified

factors described in detail
a variety of sources used
Analysis

appropriate method(s) used

easily interpreted
weighted according to relative importance
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Decision

objective course of action chosen

supported by data
Evaluation

predicted possible impact or consequence of decision

checked validity of decision with respect to data
Communication (Overall)

D.
information presented clearly and precisely

spelling and grammar correct
scientific terms used correctly
approach appropriate to intended audience
content appropriate to intended audience
structure of content appropriate to communication form
use of technology enhances presentation
Using Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are effective tools that can help you learn. They enable you
to problem solve and think critically through analyzing similarities and differences, inferring sequences, and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
They generate discussion and negotiation of ideas, extend comprehension of
a concept, theme, or topic, and lead to organized representation and presentation of understandings. You can use them to brainstorm, demonstrate what
you know, and organize your thoughts before writing a report or essay or planning a presentation. The following chart outlines a number of graphic organizers, their intended purposes, and how to use them as you study science.
Type of Graphic Organizer
Purpose
Method
Concept Map
Brainstorm ideas and link together

from big to small with arrows and
linking words.
Used to clarify relationships and

linkages between concepts,
events, or ideas

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Purpose
Method
Venn Diagram
Used to visualize similarities and

differences between two or more
ideas, topics, or concepts
Brainstorm similar traits to both

topics and list in the overlapping
section of the two circles. Repeat for
unique traits and list in the nonoverlapping sections.
Web Diagram
Used to clarify concepts and

ideas by clustering them
Cluster words and/or information

around a central object, concept, or
idea.
Pie Chart
Used to estimate the relationship

of parts to the whole
Estimate/research the importance

or amount of proportionate time of
each aspect of an event in relation
to the whole.
Flowchart/Sequence Chart
Used to map out your thinking

about an issue or to organize
ideas for an essay or report
Brainstorm aspects of the whole

event. Select important aspects and
put them into sequential order.
Ranking Ladder
Used to rank ideas in order of

importance
Brainstorm ideas and rank them in

order from most important (bottom
rung), to least important (top rung).

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Purpose
Method
Fishbone Diagram
Used to identify cause-and-effect

relationships
Identify a problem to be solved. List

the effect at the head of the fish.
Brainstorm possible causes in
each bone. Rank the causes and
circle the most probable ones with
justification.
Right-Angle Diagram
Used to explore the implications

of ideas and reflect on
applications of those ideas
Identify an event and show it on the

horizontal arrow. Brainstorm traits
and list them to the right of the
horizontal arrow. Expand on one trait
and list details about it along the
vertical arrow. Describe social
impacts of that trait below the
vertical arrow.
Target Diagram
Used to weigh the importance of

facts and ideas
Brainstorm facts and ideas. Rank

their importance and place the most
important facts/ideas centrally and
the least important ones toward the
outer ring.
Agree/Disagree
Chart
Used to organize data to support

a position for or against an idea
or decision
List a series of statements relating

to a topic or issue. Survey
agree/disagreement
before
discussion. Survey again after
discussion/research.
PMI (Plus, Minus,

Interesting) Chart
Used to summarize the positive

and negative aspects of a topic
or issue, as well as identify
interesting aspects of the topic
for possible further research
Sort ideas or information about a

topic or issue in a three-column
chart that has the following
headings: Plus (+), Minus (-), and
Interesting.
Used to make distinctions

between ideas or events
Gather information on a number of

ideas or events and arrange it on a
grid. Each idea or event is assigned
to a separate row. Analyze the
information according to selected
criteria in each specific column.
Used to identify and sequence

the subordinate concepts
needed to understand a higherorder concept
Place the higher-order concept at

the top of a page. Then consider the
question, What concepts need to
be understood before the higherorder concept above can be
grasped? The same question is then
asked for each of the subordinate
concepts identified and a hierarchy
of connected concepts is created.
Gathering Grid
Concept Hierarchy Diagram
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Problem Solving
Solving Conceptual Problems

Have you ever been curious about an idea that you have discussed in class?
Have you ever questioned an assumption that you or a fellow student have
made while examining an idea? Have you ever wondered on what basis a
newspaper journalist has stated his or her position on a science topic?
Have you ever tried to determine the difference between factual information
and opinion?
These are questions that are important to scientists. The ability to answer such conceptual questions is important to solving problems in science.
As you study science using this text, you will discover that your attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about what science is and what it should accomplish will
influence how you learn. You will discover that science is much more than
finding the right answers, and that doing science is much more exciting
than memorizing the facts.
As a scientist, you will find that your explanations about what happens
in the world come partly from what you observe and partly from what you
think. Sometimes you may have different explanations for the same set of observations, and your assumptions may change, or your conclusions may vary.
In the end, you will experience that scientific knowledge is subject to modification as new information is gathered and new problems are solved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In order to solve a conceptual problem, you need to do the following:

Identify the problem and describe it in a way that can be understood.
Determine what the outcome of solving the problem might be.
Explore possible solutions and apply them to the problem.
Evaluate the possible solutions and revise solutions if they do not pass
the test in other similar situations.
As you work through this text, you will have numerous opportunities to
apply your problem-solving skills through
applying biological concepts to solve new problems
conducting investigations on well-defined testable questions of your own
design
designing your own investigations
evaluating experimental designs
collecting quantitative as well as qualitative measurements
analyzing quantitative data for specific as well as general patterns
(Quantitative data analysis frequently includes numerical calculations to
produce graphs that are appropriate to represent the data.)
interpreting experimental data in light of your original question
and justifying your interpretations using evidence to support your
inferences
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Solving Numerical Problems
Step 1: Identify the Given Data

Read the problem carefully, extract the data, represent physical
quantities with appropriate symbols and units, and write the data
in standard form to the correct number of significant figures.
Step 2: List What Is Required

Identify what the problem is asking you to do and identify the
units of the final answer.
As mentioned above, the quantitative analysis of

data in investigations frequently includes numerical calculations. The following flowchart outlines
steps used in solving numerical problems. This approach to solving numerical problems is called
the GRASS approach. The steps are easy to remember and apply because the first letters of the
key words spell GRASS.
Step 3: Analyze the Problem

Draw a sketch, write down possible relationships, list
assumptions, look up any constants needed, identify any
inconsistent units, and look up any unit conversions required.
Step 4: Work out the Solution

Perform the necessary unit conversions, substitute appropriate
data into the relationship, simplify the results, check the math
calculations, and check the significant figures of the final answer.
Step 5: Write the Concluding Statement

Write the answer to the original problem in a complete sentence.
Check that the original problem has been answered.
F.
Graphing Techniques
Biologists make extensive use of graphs to convey information and to help

determine how one physical quantity is affected by another. To review simple graphical analysis techniques, we will use the data for an experiment
recently performed to compare the effects on patients of giving cortisol
intravenously versus by mouth (Charmandari, et al.). The experiment was
designed to answer the question, Does orally administered cortisol provide
adequate concentrations of the drug in a patients bloodstream? The
research group used 16 patients and administered cortisol both orally and
intravenously. The total cortisol concentration in their bloodstream was
measured over a period of 6 h and the median of these concentrations was
then determined.
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The Data Table

A data table is the most practical way to record quantitative data. Table F.1
shows the data from an experiment similar to that obtained by the research
group. Note that the name of each variable, the symbol, and the unit of measurement are recorded at the top of each column. The unit is enclosed in
round brackets.
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TABLE F.1 Total Cortisol

Concentrations in Patients over a
Period of Time
Time
(min)
Concentration of
nmol
Cortisol ( L )
Oral
The Title of the Graph
10
Figure F.1 shows a sample graph for the cortisol experiment. Every graph
needs a title to describe what it is about. We place the title at the top of the
graph or in a box on a clear area above the graph.
20
0
315
Graph of Concentration of Cortisol vs. Time
60
625
80
1050
1100
550
70
Intravenous
Oral
1400
1200
50
2000
0
1760
30
40
Intraveneous
900
890
500
875
800
Concentration of Cortisol (
nmol
L
90
100
1500
550
110
1000
500
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
815
700
120
505
650
160
400
520
200
390
390
240
260
270
280
130
135
320
100
115
360
50
110
360
Time (min)
FIGURE F-1 Median total cortisol concentrations in patients after being given cortisol
intravenously and by mouth.
The Axes of the Graph

In graphing, we plot the independent variable on the horizontal x-axis and
the dependent variable on the vertical y-axis. The variable that we change
intentionally is called the independent variable. Time was the independent
variable in Charmandaris experiment, since the research group chose the
intervals of time over which they would measure total cortisol concentrations.
The variable that the experimenter observes and measures is called
the dependent variable. This experiment measured the total cortisol
concentration in a patients bloodstream at a given time, thus making it the
dependent variable.
We label each axis with the name, symbol, and unit of the variable being
plotted, as shown in Figure F.1. The graphs in this text have origins of (0, 0).
Scales are chosen for each axis to spread the measured values across the
APPENDIX F
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graph paper without making the plotting difficult and without wasting too
much graph paper. The scale on each axis usually has equal divisions and
each division represents a whole number.
The maximum value of the total cortisol concentration in Figure F.1 is
1760. Each major vertical division has been made to represent 500. The maximum time value in Figure F.1 is 360 min. The horizontal axis has been divided into 12 divisions in order to show 30-min intervals.
Plotting the Data

Use a pencil to plot the data points. Mark the data points with a small visible dot. In this text, we assume that all measured quantities have an error
no larger than plus or minus one-half of the smallest division on the measuring instrument. In Charmandaris experiment, the researchers measured
the time to the nearest whole minute. The error here is plus or minus
0.5 min. Similarly, the error in the cortisol concentration is plus or minus 0.5.
Then the error is no larger than plus or minus 0.5 mm. With experience,
people can read instruments to plus or minus a tenth of the smallest division.
Figure F.2 shows this for a ruler calibrated in centimetres.
Drawing the Line of Best Fit

Once all of the data points have been plotted, a line of best fit or a curved line
is drawn where appropriate. It is important to consider the data set in
order to determine what type of line should be drawn through all the data
points. A line of best fit is a line that shows the trend of the points. Do not
try to have the curve or straight line go through all the dots since most data
points have some error. The scatter of the data points from the smooth line
indicates the extent of the errors in the data.
Where a point is far off the line, a serious error may have been made. If
this occurs, measure the data for that point again. If the same result is obtained, a factor other than those under investigation may be the cause.
Interpolating from the Graph

Interpolation is the process of finding intermediate values between the known
or measured points. To interpolate, locate the given value of the variable on
its axis. Draw a straight line perpendicular to this axis to intersect the graph.
Draw a line at the intersection point perpendicular to the second axis. Read
the value of the second variable from this axis.
There is some risk of inaccuracy involved in interpolation, since it is assumed that the trend of the line continues between the measured points. This
assumption is not always valid. Figure F.1 shows an exponential decrease
in cortisol levels; however, data was not recorded at all times. From the graph,
could you interpolate the cortisol level after 45 min had elapsed?
Reference
Charmandari, E., et al. 2001. Bioavailability of oral hydrocortisone in patients with
congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Journal of
Endocrinology 169, 6570.
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APPENDIX F
Fr
88
226.03
Radium
Ra
s block
(223.02)
Francium
2
8
18
32
18
8
1
137.33
Barium
Ba
56
2
8
18
32
18
8
2
2
8
18
18
8
2
(262.11)
Lawrencium
Lr
103
174.97
Lutetium
Lu
71
2
8
18
32
9
2
2
8
18
9
2
2
8
9
2
2
8
18
32
10
2
2
8
18
10
2
2
8
10
2
(227.03)
2
8
18
32
18
9
2
2
8
18
18
9
2
232.04
Thorium
Th
90
140.12
Cerium
Ce
58
(262.11)
Dubnium
Db
105
180.95
Tantalum
Ta
73
92.91
Niobium
Nb
41
50.94
Vanadium
23
VB
2
8
18
32
18
10
2
2
8
18
19
9
2
2
8
18
32
11
2
2
8
18
12
1
2
8
11
2
2
8
18
32
12
2
2
8
18
13
1
2
8
13
1
231.04
Protactinium
Pa
91
140.91
2
8
18
32
20
9
2
2
8
18
21
8
Praseodymium 2
Pr
59
(266.12)
Seaborgium
Sg
106
183.84
Tungsten
74
95.94
Molybdenum
Mo
42
52.00
Chromium
Cr
24
VI B
Synthetic element
Element name
Average atomic mass
(For unstable elements a value
for the longest lived isotope is
shown in parentheses.)
VII B
2
8
13
2
238.03
Uranium
92
144.24
Neodymium
Nd
60
2
8
18
32
13
2
2
8
18
13
2
2
8
18
32
21
9
2
2
8
18
22
8
2
26
(237.05)
Neptunium
Np
93
(144.91)
Promethium
Pm
61
(265.13)
Hassium
Hs
108
190.23
Osmium
Os
76
101.07
Ruthenium
Ru
44
55.85
Iron
Fe
d block
(264.12)
Bohrium
Bh
107
186.21
Rhenium
Re
75
(97.91)
Technetium
Tc
43
54.94
Manganese
Mn
25
2
8
18
32
22
9
2
2
8
18
23
8
2
2
8
18
32
14
2
2
8
18
15
1
2
8
14
2
Transition metals
(244.06)
Plutonium
Pu
94
150.36
Samarium
Sm
62
(268.14)
Meitnerium
Mt
109
192.22
Iridium
Ir
77
102.91
Rhodium
Rh
45
58.93
Cobalt
Co
27
VIII B
2
8
15
2
2
8
18
32
24
8
2
2
8
18
24
8
2
2
8
18
32
15
2
2
8
18
16
1
63
2
8
18
32
25
8
2
2
8
18
25
8
2
64
(247.07)
Curium
Cm
96
157.25
Gadolinium
Gd
f block
(243.06)
Americium
Am
95
151.96
Europium
Eu
(272.15)
Unununium
*Name not officially assigned.
(272.15)
Ununnilium
*Uuu
*Uun
196.97
Gold
Au
79
107.87
Silver
Ag
47
111
2
8
18
32
17
1
2
8
18
18
63.55
Copper
Cu
29
IB
110
195.08
Platinum
Pt
78
106.42
Palladium
Pd
46
58.69
Nickel
Ni
28
2
8
16
2
2
8
18
32
25
9
2
2
8
18
25
9
2
2
8
18
32
18
1
2
8
18
18
1
2
8
18
1
Cd
48
65.39
Zinc
Zn
30
II B
(247.07)
Berkelium
Bk
97
158.93
Terbium
Tb
65
(277)
Ununbium
*Uub
112
200.59
Mercury
Hg
80
112.41
Cadmium
Semimetals or metalloids
Lanthanoids and actinoids
2
8
18
32
27
8
2
2
8
18
27
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
2
2
8
18
18
2
2
8
18
2
(251.08)
Californium
Cf
98
162.50
Dysprosium
Dy
66
113
204.18
Thallium
Tl
81
114.82
Indium
In
49
69.72
Gallium
Ga
31
26.98
Aluminum
Al
2
8
18
32
28
8
2
2
8
18
28
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
3
2
8
18
18
3
2
8
18
3
2
8
3
(252.08)
Einsteinium
Es
99
164.93
Holmium
Ho
67
(289)
2
8
4
2
8
18
32
18
4
2
8
18
18
4
2
8
18
4
2
8
18
32
29
8
2
2
8
18
29
8
2
Ununquadium
*Uuq
114
207.2
Lead
Pb
82
118.71
Tin
Sn
50
72.61
Germanium
Ge
32
28.09
Silicon
Si
14
167.26
Erbium
(257.10)
Fermium
Fm
100
2
8
18
32
18
5
2
8
18
18
5
2
8
18
5
2
8
5
2
5
2
8
18
32
30
8
2
2
8
18
30
8
2
VI A
2
8
18
31
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
6
2
8
18
18
6
2
8
18
6
2
8
6
2
6
(258.10)
Md
2
8
18
32
31
Mendelevium 8
2
101
168.93
Thulium
Tm
69
(289)
Ununhexium
*Uuh
116
(208.98)
Polonium
Po
84
127.60
Tellurium
Te
52
78.96
Selenium
Se
34
32.07
Sulfur
16
16.00
Oxygen
p block
Er
68
115
208.98
Bismuth
Bi
83
121.76
Antimony
Sb
51
74.92
Arsenic
As
33
30.97
Phosphorus
15
14.01
13
N
Nitrogen
C
12.01
VA
Carbon
2
4
IV A
10.81
2
3
Boron
III A
(259.10)
Nobelium
No
102
173.04
Ytterbium
Yb
70
117
(209.99)
Astatine
At
85
126.90
Iodine
53
79.90
Bromine
Br
35
35.45
Chlorine
Cl
17
19.00
Fluorine
VII A
2
8
18
32
32
8
2
2
8
18
32
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
7
2
8
18
18
7
2
8
18
7
2
8
7
2
7
(293)
Ununoctium
*Uuo
118
(222.02)
Radon
Rn
86
131.29
Xenon
Xe
54
83.80
Krypton
Kr
36
39.95
Argon
Ar
18
20.18
Neon
Ne
10
4.00
Helium
2
8
18
32
18
8
2
8
18
18
8
2
8
18
8
2
8
8
2
8
Next Section
Actinium
Ac
89
Actinoids
138.91
Lanthanum
La
57
Lanthanoids
(263.11)
Rutherfordium
Rf
104
178.49
Hafnium
Hf
72
91.22
Zirconium
Zr
40
47.87
Titanium
Ti
22
IV B
Tc
22.99
Sodium
He
Previous Section
87
132.91
Cesium
Cs
2
8
18
18
8
1
88.91
55
Yttrium
39
87.62
2
8
18
8
2
Strontium
Sr
38
85.47
2
8
18
8
1
Rubidium
Rb
37
44.96
40.08
Sc
Scandium
Calcium
Ca
21
III B
39.10
2
8
8
2
2
8
2
2
2
Potassium
20
24.31
19
Magnesium
2
8
8
1
22.99
Mg
12
Sodium
Na
2
8
1
9.01
6.94
11
Be
Beryllium
Li
Lithium
II A
2
1
1.01
Hydrogen
Other nonmetals
Other main group metals
Element symbol
Na
Halogens
11
Noble gases
01
Alkali metals
21
Alkaline earth metals
31
Electrons in each
energy level
41
51
61
Atomic number
71
2
8
1
81
11
s block
G.
IA
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Periodic Table of the Elements
APPENDIX G
609
Contents
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G LO S SA RY
A
abdomen posterior arthropod body segments that contain
most of the internal organs
algae (singular, alga) plant-like protists, usually unicellular

and autotrophic, that contain chloroplasts and
photosynthesize
abdominal cavity region beneath the diaphragm that

contains the stomach, liver, intestines, and other organs
alimentary canal open-ended muscular tube that forms a

digestive tract between the mouth and the anus of an
organism
abrasion scratching or otherwise physically damaging a

seed coat; required for seed germination
allele one form of a gene for a specific trait
abscisic acid (ABA) plant hormone that inhibits growth

and induces dormancy
alternation of generations succession from the haploid

gametophyte generation to the diploid sporophyte
generation in the life cycle of plants and some fungi
abscission layer cell layer at the base of a leaf stalk that

weakens, allowing the leaf to separate from the stem
alveoli (singular, alveolus) air sacs in the lung where gas

exchange occurs
absorption uptake of nutrients through the skin, mucous

membrane or cell membrane of an animal
amino acid organic molecule made up of carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms; is the monomer
of proteins
acellular slime mould single-celled, fungus-like protist

with many nuclei
achondroplasia inherited disorder characterized by
abnormal bone growth that produces short individuals
acid compound that releases hydrogen ions into solution
acoelomate an organism that lacks a body cavity between
the gut and the outer body wall
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) disease
caused when the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
enters human white blood cells, destroys the cells, and
cripples the immune system of the host
amniocentesis extraction of amniotic fluid from the uterus

to diagnose genetic defects in the fetus
amoeboid cell sponge cell that digests nutrients, produces
reproductive cells, and builds an internal skeleton
anabolic reaction see anabolism
anabolism synthesis of a compound from simpler
substances
anaerobe organism that needs no oxygen to produce
energy
activation energy energy required to activate a reaction
anaerobic methanogen bacterium that lives in an

oxygen-free environment and releases methane gas
active site part of an enzyme that binds to a substrate

during a reaction
anaerobic respiration see fermentation
active transport movement of molecules or ions across a

membrane against a concentration gradient; requires
energy from ATP
adaptation modification of a structure or function in an
individual that allows the organism to adjust to a new
environment or condition
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) nucleotide that releases
stored energy in a cell
adhesion tendency of unlike of molecules to stick together
anal pore opening that discharges undigested food from a

Paramecium
anaphase third phase of mitosis; paired chromatids
separate
anaphylactic shock allergic reaction that causes the
smooth muscles of a bronchiole to swell, blocking the
passage of air to the lungs
anatomical dead space space within the trachea, the
bronchi and the bronchioles that holds oxygen-poor air
adipose tissue type of connective tissue that stores

triglycerides in its fat cells
anemia inadequate oxygen transport throughout the body

resulting from a decrease in blood hemoglobin or red
blood cell number
adventitious root root that emerges from an unusual

location on a plant, such as a stem or leaf
aneuploidy possession of an abnormal number of

chromosomes
aerobe organism that uses oxygen to produce energy

through cellular respiration
angina pain, especially in the chest, caused by an

inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart muscle
aerobic cellular respiration use of oxygen to break down

food molecules and produce energy; see cellular
respiration
angioplasty treatment for coronary artery disease that reduces the narrowing of the artery by inserting a balloon
and inflating it inside the artery
air sac in birds, an outgrowth of a lung that receives

oxygen; in insects, an enlargement at the end of a
tracheal tube
angiogram x-ray that shows the degree of arterial blockage in the heart
alcoholic fermentation breakdown of pyruvic acid into

alcohol and carbon dioxide
610
Glossary
angiosperm plant that produces flowers and forms seeds

within an ovary that develops into a fruit
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Animalia kingdom containing heterotrophic, eukaryotic,

multicellular organisms whose cells lack cell walls
astral ray tiny protein fibre that forms around a centriole

during mitosis
annual ring layer of xylem that forms in woody plant

stems every year
atherosclerosis decreased diameter and elasticity of blood

vessels due to accumulation of fatty deposits in the lining
anorexia nervosa medical and psychiatric condition

characterized by a fear of weight gain
antenna (plural, antennae) sensory appendage attached
to the anterior body segments of many invertebrates,
especially arthropods
anther structure on the stamen of a flower that produces
pollen
atom smallest unit of matter

ATP see adenosine triphosphate
atrioventricular (AV) valve valve between the right
atrium and the right ventricle of the heart that prevents
blood flow back into the atrium
antibiotic substance that inhibits the growth of bacteria
atrium (plural, atria) thin-walled chamber of the heart

that receives blood
anus opening at the end of the rectum that expels waste

from the body
autosome chromosome not involved in determining the

sex of an organism
aorta large artery that conveys blood from the heart to

other arteries
autotroph organism that makes its own food
aortic semilunar valve valve between the left ventricle

and the aorta that prevents blood flow back into the
heart
aortic valve see aortic semilunar valve
apical dominance hormonal inhibition of plant bud
growth by the highest bud on a stem
apical meristem meristem at the end of a shoot or root;
see meristem
appendix extension of the vertebrate cecum
Archaebacteria kingdom containing prokaryotic singlecelled organisms that are genetically different from
those in the kingdom Eubacteria; found mostly in harsh
habitats
auxin type of plant hormone that promotes cell growth or

elongation
B
bacillus (plural, bacilli) rod-shaped bacterium
bacterium single-celled prokaryote that belongs to the
kingdom Archaebacteria or the kingdom Eubacteria
bark tissue layers outside the vascular cambium of a
woody plant stem
base compound that takes up hydrogen ions from solution
basidium (plural, basidia) club-like reproductive structure
that produces spores in a basidiomycete fungus
benign tumour that remains in one place in the body
archegonium (plural, archegonia) female reproductive

structure on a fern that produces eggs
beriberi disease caused by a thiamin (vitamin B1)

deficiency
arteriole branch of an artery that conveys blood to a

capillary
bicuspid valve valve between the left atrium and the left
ventricle of the heart that prevents blood flow back into
the atrium
artery thick-walled vessel that conveys blood from the

heart to other parts of the body
artificial selection intervention by humans who select
and then breed certain individual organisms with desired characteristics to produce offspring with those
characteristics
ascospore fungus spore produced within an ascus
through sexual reproduction
ascus reproductive sac that produces ascospores in an
ascomycete fungus
asexual reproduction production of a new organism by a
single parent without the participation of eggs and
sperm
bilateral symmetry body plan of an animal with body

parts that mirror each other on opposite sides of an
imaginary line drawn down the middle of the body from
the anterior to the posterior end
bile mixture of salts, acids, cholesterol, phospholipids,
fatty acids and water that the liver secretes into the
small intestine to digest food
binary fission division of an organism into two identical
individuals through a type of asexual reproduction
binomial nomenclature classification system that assigns
a two-part Latin name of genus and species to an
organism
aster centriole surrounded by tiny protein fibres during

mitosis
biodiversity variety and number of species in an

ecosystem; variation between individuals within a
species
asthma allergic reaction that causes the smooth muscles

around airways to contract, restricting air flow to the
lungs
biological control use of a natural parasite or predator to

control or eliminate a pest
Glossary
611
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biopharmaceutical compound produced by a bacterium

containing recombinant DNA, which is extracted and
purified for medical use
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C
caecum chamber of the large intestine that receives
chyme from the small intestine
biosphere all areas of the earth inhabited by living

organisms
callus wound tissue that develops at the end of a cut stem
biotechnology manipulation of living organisms or their

cells to manufacture products that perform useful tasks
calorie amount of heat energy needed to increase the

temperature of one gram of water by 1C; used to
measure energy
blastula early stage of animal development in which a

single layer of cells forms a hollow sphere
Calorie a kilocalorie, sometimes called a dietetic calorie;

1 Cal = 1000 cal
blending theory of inheritance nineteenth-century

hypothesis that seeds control hereditary traits and
blend with each other when they pass to the next
generation
canine sharp tooth that shreds and tears food
blood pressure force that blood exerts against the walls of

blood vessels
cap top of a mushroom, shaped like an umbrella, that

contains gills with spores
BMI body mass index; relates body mass to height; measured in kg/m2
capillary microscopic blood vessel that conveys blood

from an arteriole to a venule and allows the exchange
of dissolved gases between the blood and body tissues
or alveoli
body plan layout of an animals structures

bolus moist mass of food in the mouth, partially digested
by the teeth and salivary glands before swallowing
bone marrow soft tissue in the cavities of bone
bony plate structure that joins with others to form the
dorsal or ventral shell that covers a turtle or tortoise
cambium layer of meristematic plant tissue that produces

new cells (see vascular cambium)
carapace thick exoskeleton that covers the cephalothorax

of a crustacean
carbohydrase enzyme secreted by the pancreas that
breaks down carbohydrates
book lung highly folded membrane used for gas exchange

in arachnids
carbohydrate organic molecule formed by carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen atoms; used as a major energy
source for body functions
brachial artery artery in the arm that a

sphygnomanometer constricts to measure blood
pressure
carbon element that forms the main component of living

systems and builds strong, stable covalent bonds
bronchiodilator substance that increases the diameter of

a bronchus to allow air to pass through
cardiac catheterization injection of dye through a

catheter into the arterial system to test for the presence
of coronary artery disease
bronchiole thin tube that branches from a bronchus

within a lung
cardiac cycle alternating contraction and relaxation of the

heart at regular intervals
bronchitis inflammation of the bronchial lining
cardiac sphincter ring of smooth muscle that contracts

and relaxes around the opening between the esophagus
and the stomach to control the passage of food
bronchus (plural, bronchi) hollow tube, supported by

cartilage, that branches from the trachea and enters a
lung
carnivore meat eater
bryophyte plant that lacks true roots, stems, leaves, and

xylem and phloem to transport materials
carpel female reproductive structure that contains the

ovaries in a flower
budding outgrowth and detachment of buds from an

organism; a type of asexual reproduction
cartilage ring structure that encircles and supports the

trachea
bulb small underground stem surrounded by layers of

short, thick modified leaves that store food
Casparian strip waterproof tissue that surrounds the

endodermal cells of a plant root and controls the
passage of water into the roots center
bulimia medical and psychiatric condition characterized

by a habitual alternation between binge eating and
fasting or purging
Bundle of His specialized muscle fibres that convey
electrical impulses through the heart
bypass surgery extraction of a leg vein and its
incorporation into the arterial system to redirect blood
flow around a diseased heart artery
612
Glossary
catabolic reaction see catabolism

catabolism breakdown of a compound into simpler
substances
catalyst substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
without itself changing in the process
cell membrane structure that surrounds a cell and
regulates the passage of materials between the cell and
its environment
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cell plate membrane that forms in a dividing plant cell

and develops into a cell wall that separates the
daughter cells
cell theory assumption that cells compose all living things
and arise only from pre-existing cells
cell wall structure that surrounds, protects and supports,
the cell membrane in all living organisms except
animals and some protists
cellular respiration breakdown of sugar molecules to
release chemical energy that a cell can use
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chorionic villus sampling removal and analysis of cells

from a membrane that surrounds the fetus in the uterus
chromatid each of the two identical chromosome strands
in a replicated chromosome attached by their shared
centromere
chromatin thread-like structure made up of DNA and
proteins in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
chromosome structure in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
that carries genes, formed when chromatin condenses
cellular slime mould single-celled, fungus-like protist that

joins with others in a multicellular mass to reproduce
chromosome theory of heredity theory that genes, the

units of heredity, are carried on chromosomes; suggests
a physical basis for Mendels laws of inheritance
cellulose complex carbohydrate that forms the main

component of a plant cell wall
chyme paste that results after the stomach partially digests food
centrifuge machine that spins a substance in a test tube

to separate the substance into its components
cilia (singular, cilium) hair-like structures that project

from a cell and beat to produce movement
centriole paired structure in animal cells that organizes

the mitotic spindle
ciliate protist that has cilia
centromere union point of two chromatids that join to

form a chromosome pair
circular smooth muscle muscle layer that encircles the

lumen of the digestive tract and contracts to constrict
the lumen
cephalization concentration of sense organs and nerve cells

at the anterior end of a bilaterally symmetrical animal
circulatory system group of organs that deliver oxygen

and nutrients through the blood to the body tissues
cephalothorax arthropod body part formed by the fusion

of the head and the thorax
class taxon containing closely related orders
cheliped large, claw-like crustacean appendage that grabs

food and protects the animal
classification key system of branching divisions that a

biologist uses to place an organism into the appropriate
taxon
chemical digestion breakdown of food particles by

digestive fluids; see digestion
cloaca common opening for the digestive, excretory, and

reproductive tracts in all vertebrates except mammals
chemoautotroph organism that uses energy from oxidizing inorganic materials to manufacture organic compounds from carbon dioxide; see autotroph
clone genetically identical copy of an organism
chemoreceptor receptor that detects chemical changes in

the body
cloning vector agent, such as a plasmid or a virus, that

scientists use in genetic engineering to transfer
recombinant DNA to another organism
chemotherapy injection of drugs into the body to treat

cancer
closed circulatory system circulatory system that pumps

blood through contained vessels between the heart and
the rest of the body organs
chemotroph organism that needs no light energy to break

down compounds to produce its own food
clot mesh of fibrin molecules that blocks blood flow from

a damaged vessel
chemotropism plant growth response to certain chemicals
cnidocyte specialized ectoderm cell on a cnidarian

tentacle that releases a toxic substance to paralyze prey
chiasma (plural, chiasmata) site on a tetrad where

chromatids separate and reunite
coccus (plural, cocci) spherical bacterium
chitin strong, waterproof carbohydrate molecule found in

arthropod exoskeletons and the cell walls of fungi
co-dominance complete expression of two different alleles

of a gene in a heterozygote
chlorophyll molecule that captures light energy in a

chloroplast
coelom internal animal body cavity lined with mesoderm
chloroplast organelle that contains chlorophyll and

converts sunlight into chemical energy in the cells of
plants and some protists
cholesterol compound in some animal tissues that helps
maintain the fluidity of the cell membrane
chordae tendinae fibrous connective tissue structures in
the ventricle that stabilize the atrio-ventricular valves
during systole
coelomate animal possessing a body cavity lined with

mesoderm
coenzyme substance associated with an enzyme that activates the enzyme
cohesion tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick
together
colchicine alkaloid that inhibits mitosis by preventing the
formation of the mitotic spindle
Glossary
613
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coleoptile sheath that encloses the shoot and leaves of

monocot seedlings
collar cell sponge cell that beats a flagellum to circulate
water
collenchyma parenchyma tissue made up of thick-walled
cells that strengthen a plant
companion cell type of small phloem cell adjacent to sieve
tube cells that appear to control sugar transport in the
phloem
compensation takeover of a body function by an organ to
make up for the inadequate functioning of another organ
competitive inhibitor molecule that inhibits enzyme
activity when it binds to an enzyme in place of the
substrate
complement one half of a complementary base pair;
adenosine is the complement of thymine, and cytosine
is the complement of guanine
complementary base pair pair of particular nitrogen
bases that link together in the DNA molecule; adenosine
links with thymine and cytosine links with guanine
compound substance formed by the bonding of atoms of
more than one element
concentration gradient difference within a given area
between the highest and lowest concentration of a
particular chemical substance
condensation reaction see dehydration synthesis
cone reproductive structure of a gymnosperm
congenital defect mutation present at birth
conidium (plural, conidia) asexually-produced spore of an
ascomycete fungus
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) unsaturated fatty acid that
may benefit human health, found in some meat and
dairy products
conjugation transfer of DNA between two bacterial or
protist cells that unite in a type of sexual reproduction
connective tissue tissue that supports and binds body
structures and may also store food or form blood cells
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countercurrent flow opposed directional flow of water

and blood through the gills of a fish, allowing efficient
gas exchange
covalent bond bond formed between atoms that share
one or more pairs of electrons
cristae (singular, crista) folds of the inner membrane of a
mitochondrion
critical value value at which some condition undergoes a
change; value above or below which a reaction may be
expected
Crohns disease inflammation of the digestive tract,
localized in the small intestine
crop enlarged chamber that stores food in the alimentary
canal of birds and some invertebrates
cross-pollination transfer of pollen from the anther of one
plant to the stigma of another plant of the same species
crossing over exchange of chromosome segments
between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
cuticle waterproof, noncellular protective layer or covering in some invertebrates; waxy, noncellular, waterproof coating that covers a plants leaves and stems
cutting section of plant tissue capable of growing into a
new plant
cystic fibrosis inherited disease caused by the failure of a
specialized protein to transport sodium and potassium
across the cell membrane; results in mucus build-up
that destroys lung tissue
cytokinesis division of a cells cytoplasm into two distinct
cells
cytokinin plant hormone that promotes cell division and
differentiation
cytoplasm interior of a cell between the nuclear envelope
and the cell membrane that contains organelles and
cytosol
cytoskeleton network of fine protein fibres that supports
a eukaryotic cell
cytosol liquid portion of cytoplasm that surrounds
organelles
conservative describes the production of a DNA molecule

without the inclusion of strands from the original
molecule; see semiconservative
continuous distribution range of expression of a

multifactorial trait
daughter cell one of two genetically identical cells

produced when a cell divides by mitosis
controlled breeding see selective breeding
defecation expulsion of feces from the rectum through the

anus
cork water-resistant protective layer, dead a maturity,

produced in the outer regions of stems and roots of
woody plants
cork cambium meristematic tissue that produces cork in
a woody plant stem; see cambium
coronary circulation delivery of oxygenated blood from
the aorta to the heart tissue
cortex parenchymal tissue in the root or stem primarily
used for storage
614
Glossary
dehydration synthesis formation of a polymer from

monomers that link together; water is removed as each
bond forms
deletion chromosome that lacks genetic information due
to the failure of a chromosome fragment to attach to its
homologous chromosome during crossing over
density mass of a substance per unit volume
deoxygenated describes a living system or an
environment that has released or lost oxygen
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deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nucleic acid, encoded with

instructions to produce proteins, that stores and
transmits genetic information from one generation to
the next
diabetes disease caused by the inability of the body to
transport glucose into cells
diaphragm muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from
the abdominal cavity
diastole relaxation stage of the cardiac cycle that allows
blood to flow into the heart chambers
diatom single-celled photosynthetic protist with a cell wall
that contains silica
dicot short for dicotyledon (Dicotyledoneae), a class of
flowering plants whose seeds have two seed leaves
differentiation structural and functional divergence of
cells as they specialize
diffusion spontaneous movement of particles from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
digestion mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
into molecules that the body can absorb
digestive system group of organs that work together to
break down food, take in nutrients, and expel waste
dihybrid an individual who is heterozygous for two traits;
represented by the genotype AaBb for example
dihybrid cross mating of two individuals both
heterozygous for two particular traits
dinoflagellate single-celled photosynthetic protist with
two flagella
diploid number (2n) number of chromosomes in a body
cell of an organism; the number characteristic of a
species, having two chromosomes of each type per cell.
disaccharide carbohydrate formed from two
monosaccharides
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dorsal vessel main vessel that conveys blood along the

upper surface of an earthworm
double helix shape formed when the two chains of
nucleotides link in the DNA molecule
Down syndrome condition that results from the possession
of an extra copy of chromosome 21 (also called trisomy
21)
duodenum first section of the vertebrate small intestine
duplication attachment of a chromosome fragment to a
homolog that is already complete during crossing-over
E
ecological succession process whereby a community of
plants in an area gradually changes, often following an
ecological disturbance
ectoderm outermost of three cell or tissue layers in an
animal
ectotherm animal that regulates its internal body temperature by absorbing heat from the environment
egg see ovum
electrocardiogram (ECG) graphic representation of the
hearts electrical activity
electrocardiograph device that detects the hearts
electrical activity
electrode instrument that senses the hearts electrical
currents and transmits them to a machine
elimination discharge of waste from the digestive tract
through the anus
emphysema respiratory disorder that results in stiffening
of the normally elastic alveoli
emulsify to break down a substance physically without
changing its chemical structure
endergonic reaction reaction that requires energy
discontinuous distribution interrupted range of

expression of a trait controlled by only one gene pair
endocardium tissue that lines the inside of the heart

chambers
dissociation ability of a molecule to break down into its

ions
endocytosis uptake of large particles or molecules by formation of a vesicle from the cell membrane; requires
energy from ATP
disulphide bridge covalent bond formed between the

sulphur atoms of two amino acids
diuretic substance that increases urine excretion
division another word for phylum; used only with the
plant and fungi kingdoms
DNA see deoxyribonucleic acid
dominance expression of one allele of a gene over the
other
dominant allele that is expressed in a heterozygous
individual
dormancy period of growth inactivity in an organism
endoderm innermost of three cell or tissue layers in an

animal
endodermis wax-coated inner layer of the cortex of a
plant root
endoplasmic reticulum network of membrane tubes that
branch from the nuclear envelope and circulate
materials throughout the cell
endoscopy insertion of an endoscope through a natural
body opening or a small incision to investigate an organ
or cavity
dorsal upper side of a bilaterally symmetrical organism
endoskeleton rigid internal skeleton of an echinoderm or

a vertebrate that supports and protects the animal
dorsal fin fin along the midline of the back of a

chondrichthyan or osteichthyan
endosperm angiosperm tissue, formed during fertilization,

that stores nutrients for the developing seed
Glossary
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endospore thick wall produced in some bacteria in

unfavourable conditions to enclose its DNA and
cytoplasm
exocytosis release of molecules from a vesicle that fuses

with the cell membrane to export the molecules from
the cell
endosymbiotic theory hypothesis that mitochondria and

chloroplasts evolved from the symbiotic associations
between eukaryotic cells and the bacterial and algal
cells that lived inside them
exoskeleton hard external coat of chitin that covers and

protects an arthropod and provides a surface for muscle
attachment
endotherm animal that uses metabolic energy to maintain

a high, stable internal body temperature
endotoxin poisonous substance released when certain
bacteria split open in a host, causing fever, vomiting,
and diarrhea
enzyme protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical
reaction without itself changing in the process
exotoxin poison produced by a micro-organism that diffuses through the cell membrane into its surroundings
expiratory reserve volume volume of air that can be
exhaled from the lungs after tidal exhalation; see tidal
volume
external respiration diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the alveoli and the blood
extracellular fluid fluid found between cells
enzyme-substrate complex structure formed when an

enzyme binds to a substrate during a reaction
eye spot light-sensing organ on the head of a planarian
epidermis outermost cell layer of plants and animals
epiglottis small flap of connective tissue that moves

between the esophagus and the trachea to separate the
materials that pass to the digestive tract from the
materials that pass to the respiratory tube
epi-pen instrument that delivers epinephrine to a person
experiencing anaphylactic shock
epithelial tissue (epithelium) tissue that lines body
organs and cavities
equator linear region across the middle of a cell
F1 (first filial) generation offspring of two P generation

individuals in a study of inheritance
F2 (second filial) generation offspring of two F1
generation individuals in a study of inheritance
facilitated diffusion diffusion of molecules across a membrane through channels in certain proteins; does not
require energy from ATP; see diffusion
factor unit of inheritance; now called a gene
erythrocyte see red blood cell
facultative anaerobe organism that can produce energy

with or without oxygen; see anaerobe
esophagus long, muscular tube that receives food from

the pharynx and passes it to the stomach
family taxon containing closely related genera
essential amino acid amino acid that an organism needs

to function
fat lipid, formed by fatty acids and glycerol molecules,

that protects body structures, insulates the body, and
provides energy
essential nutrient nutrient that an organism needs to

function
estrogen steroid hormone that maintains the female
reproductive system
ethylene gaseous plant hormone that inhibits growth and
promotes fruit ripening
euglenoid flagellated unicellular organism with plant and
animal characteristics
eukaryote organism made of one or more cells that have
both a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles
Eubacteria kingdom containing prokaryotic single-celled
organisms; contains most species of bacteria
evolution genetic modification in a population of organisms over time, which sometimes results in the
development of a new species
exercise stress test measurement of ECG and blood
pressure during physical activity to test for the presence
of coronary artery disease
exergonic reaction reaction that releases energy
exhalation (expiration) expulsion of air from the lungs
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Glossary
fatty acid molecule formed by a chain of carbon and

hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl (COOH) group at one end
feather outgrowth of the bird epidermis that forms part of
the outer body covering
feces solid waste product of digestion
fermentation breakdown of sugar molecules without the
presence of oxygen to produce energy
fertile describes an organism that can produce normal
gametes
fibrin strand-like molecule that joins with others to form a
blood clot
fibrous root thread-like, branching root system found in
monocot plants
flagella (singular, flagellum) long whip-like cellular
projections that beat to produce movement
flower reproductive structure of an angiosperm that
typically includes both male and female parts
fluid mosaic model description of the arrangement of
protein molecules in the fluid double layer of the cell
membrane
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fluke parasitic flatworm in the class Trematoda

food vacuole cavity formed when a cell membrane
pinches off and surrounds food particles
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genetic engineering techniques that scientists use to alter

the DNA of an organism
genetic recombination see crossing over
foot muscular mollusk structure that usually moves or

feeds the animal
genetic variation differences among individuals caused

by the recombination of genetic material during meiosis
foreign substance recognized as not being part on an organisms make up
genetics science of heredity
frond leaf of a fern

fruit mature angiosperm ovary that contains fertilized seeds
fruiting body reproductive structure that produces spores
by meiosis in some fungi and fungus-like protists
Fungi kingdom containing eukaryotic, multicellular,
heterotrophic organisms that have cell walls containing
chitin; includes mushrooms, yeasts, and moulds
G
G1 (first gap) phase period of cell growth before mitosis
G2 (second gap) phase period of cell preparation for
division before mitosis
gallbladder muscular sac that stores bile and releases it
into the small intestine
gamete specialized reproductive cell that unites with
another of a different sex to produce a zygote through
sexual reproduction; eggs and sperm
genotype genetic make up of an organism

genus (plural, genera) taxon containing closely related
species; first part of the two-part scientific Latin name of
an organism
geotropism see gravitropism
gibberellin plant hormone that interacts with auxins to
control plant growth and fruit development
gill in a mushroom, a thin sheet that hangs from the cap
and bears thousands of basidia; in fish, a feather-like
extension of the body surface that specializes in gas
exchange
gill arch skeletal structure that supports a fish gill
gill capillary tiny vessel that conveys blood through a fish
gill to take in oxygen
gill filament structure that projects from a gill arch of a
fish and increases the surface area for gas exchange
gizzard thick-walled structure that grinds food in the
alimentary canal of birds and some invertebrates
gametophyte haploid plant generation that produces

haploid gametes
glucagon hormone, released by the pancreas that

stimulates the liver to release glucose
gastrodermis lining of the gastrovascular cavity in a

cnidarian; made of endoderm
glucose common monosaccharide with the molecular

formula C6H12O6; monomer of polysaccharides
gastrovascular cavity sac with only one opening that

functions in digestion, circulation, or gas exchange in
some invertebrates
glycerol organic molecule formed from three carbon

atoms, each with a hydroxyl group attached; bonds with
fatty acid to form fat
gene segment of DNA that carries the code for a specific

protein
glycocalyx see glycoprotein
gene linkage transmital of genes on the same

chromosome that fail to sort independently of one
another and are inherited together
gene map representation of the location and order of
genes on a chromosome
gene mapping determination of the location and order of
genes on a chromosome
gene pool all the alleles of a specific trait in a population;
all the genes in a population at any one time
gene splicing insertion of one piece of genetic material
into another
gene therapy use of a gene product or manipulation of
abnormal DNA to treat a genetic condition
genetic describes a relationship to genes or heredity
genetic continuity transmission of hereditary information
from a parent cell to the daughter cells in mitosis or
from generation to generation in sexual reproduction
glycogen polymer made of glucose monomers; storage

compound in animal cells
glycolysis breakdown of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvic acid, first step of cellular respiration
glycoprotein protein combined with a carbohydrate,
embedded in the cell membrane, that functions in cell
communication or recognition
Golgi complex or apparatus flat stack of membranes that
receive, modify and trasport proteins throughout a cell
grafting attachment of a plant shoot to the rooted stem of
another plant
gram stain dye made of crystal violet and iodine that
biologists use to classify bacteria based on the
organisms reaction to the stain
grana (singular, granum) flat structures, formed by
internal chloroplast membranes, that trap light energy
gravitropism plant growth response to gravity
green algae freshwater protists with biflagellated cells
and chloroplasts
Glossary
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guard cells specialized epidermal cells that swell and

contract to control gas exchange through the stoma of a
leaf
guttation exuding liquid water from the leaves of some
plants as a result of root pressure
gymnosperm vascular plant that does not enclose its seed
within a fruit
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homologous chromosome (homolog) one of a pair of

chromosomes that each carry genes for the same trait
at the same location on the chromosome; one chromosome is inherited from the mother, the other from the
father
homozygous describes an organism with two identical
alleles of a certain gene
hormone complex chemical that travels from its
production site to other sites in an organism where it
produces an effect
H
halophile organism that lives in a high-salt environment
haploid number (n) number of chromosomes in a cell
that contains a single set of chromosomes; present in
gametes; one-half the diploid number
heart attack blockage of a coronary artery that prevents
the flow of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue and
kills heart muscle cells
heartburn irritation of the mucous lining of the esophagus
when stomach acids enter the esophagus
heart murmur sound caused by turbulent blood flow
through a disfunctional heart valve
heartwood inner region of xylem in woody stems filled
with complex substances making it non-conducting
heme group iron compound that links to a hemoglobin
molecule in blood and binds oxygen
hemochromatosis genetic disorder characterized by high
iron absorption that damages tissue
hemocoel blood cavity that bathes the internal organs in
the arthropod circulatory system
hemoglobin protein-based molecule that contains iron
and binds oxygen in a red blood cell
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) retrovirus that

causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in
humans as it destroys white blood cells and cripples the
immune system
hybrid offspring from a cross between two different varieties of organism or different species
hybrid vigour superiority of a hybrid over either parent
for any given trait, e.g., resistance to disease, size
hybridization formation of an offspring from two parents
of different varieties or different species
hydrochloric acid digestive substance that stomach lining
glands secrete into the stomach
hydrogen bond weak bond formed between the
negatively-charged atom of a polar molecule and the
positively-charged hydrogen atom of another polar
molecule
hydrolysis reaction in which a compound reacts with
water and is split into two parts
hydrolytic enzymes enzymes, particularly in lysosomes,
that digest substances by hydrolysis of bonds
hydrophilic describes a molecule that dissolves in water
hemophilia human genetic disease caused by the failure

of blood to form clots
hydrophobic describes a molecule that does not dissolve

in water
herbaceous describes a soft plant stem with little or no

woody tissue
hydrophobic interaction association between non-polar

molecules that results from their inability to associate
with polar molecules
herbivore plant eater

heritable describes the relationship between total
variation in the phenotype and total variation in the
genotype; trait capable of being inherited
hermaphroditic describes an organism that has both
male and female reproductive organs
heterotroph organism that cannot manufacture its own
food and so depends on other organisms as food
sources
heterozygous describes an organism with two different
alleles for a certain gene
homeostasis state of constancy in an organisms internal
environment despite changes in the external environment
homogeneity possession of a homozygous genotype
homologous in anatomy, similar in fundamental structure
and development but may have a different function
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Glossary
hydrotropism chemotropic plant growth toward water;

see chemotropism
hypercholesterolemia disease characterized by an excess
of cholesterol in the blood
hypertension persistently high blood pressure
hypertonic describes a solution that has a higher solute
concentration than another solution
hyphae (singular, hypha) thread-like filaments that make
up the body of most fungi
hypocotyl stem that emerges below the seed leaves of a
germinating seed
hypotonic describes a solution that has a lower solute
concentration than another solution
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iron key component of a red blood cell
ileocaecal valve valve that controls the passage of chyme

from the small intestine into the large intestine
isotonic describes a solution that has the same solute

concentration as another solution
ileum third part of the vertebrate small intestine

immunosuppressant substance that suppresses the
immune system
J
jejunum second part of the vertebrate small intestine
immunotherapy use of chemicals produced naturally in

the immune system to fight cancer
joule (J) metric unit that measures energy
inbreeding mating of closely-related individuals
incisor flat, blade-like tooth in the front of the mouth that

snips and bites off food
karyotype number and form of chromosomes in a cell
incomplete dominance incomplete expression of two

different alleles of a gene in a heterozygote; results in
intermediate expression
kilojoule (kJ) metric unit that measures energy; equal to

1000 joules (J)
kingdom taxon containing closely related phyla or divisions
indoleacetic acid (IAA) naturally-occurring auxin
inferior vena cava large vein that conveys oxygen-poor

blood from the lower body to the heart
lactic acid product of lactic acid fermentation
inflammatory bowel disease disease that affects the

lining of the small and large intestine; see Crohns
disease and ulcerative colitis
ingestion uptake of food into the body
lactic acid fermentation anaerobic process that converts

pyruvic acid to lactic acid
lactose intolerance inability to digest lactose; caused by
the absence of lactase, a digestive enzyme
inhalation (inspiration) uptake of air into the lungs
lamella (plural, lamellae) flat structure in a gill filament of

a fish that increases the surface area for gas exchange
inorganic compound compound that often contains no

carbon, usually formed by ionic bonds and rarely found
within a living organism
large intestine organ that removes water from

unabsorbed material in the small intestine
inorganic fertilizer plant nutrients produced industrially

from inorganic compounds
inspiratory reserve volume additional volume of air that
the lungs take in during a deep breath
instar intermediate stage of insect metamorphosis
larva (plural, larvae) immature developmental stage of an

invertebrate that differs structurally from the adult form
larynx structure at the top of the trachea that contains the
vocal cords
Law of Independent Assortment describes the independent segregation of genes for different traits when a
gamete forms
insulin hormone that binds to a protein on the cell

membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell by
facilitated diffusion
Law of Segregation separation of the members of an

allele pair when a gamete forms
integral protein protein embedded in the cell membrane

that performs a specific function
laxative substance that helps the passage of stool through

the rectum
intercellular communication communication between

cells
leaf pull force that pulls water up from the roots of a

plant as water evaporates from the leaves
internal respiration diffusion of oxygen and carbon

dioxide between blood in the capillaries and the cells in
body tissue
left anterior descending artery one of two main

branches of the left coronary artery that conveys
oxygenated blood from the aorta to the heart tissue
interphase period of the cell cycle between cell divisions
left circumflex artery one of two main branches of the

left coronary artery that conveys oxygenated blood from
the aorta to the heart tissue
intracellular communication communication within a

single cell
intrinsic protein see integral protein
inversion reversed order of attachment of a chromosome
fragment to a homologous chromosome during crossing
over
invertebrate animal that lacks a backbone
ion atom that has gained or lost an electron and acquired
a negative or positive charge
ionic bond bond formed by the attraction between ions
with opposite charges
legume any member of the pulse family, a large group of

dicots that includes beans, peanuts, and alfalfa
leucocyte see white blood cell
lichen symbiotic association of a fungus with either a
cyanobacterium or an alga
light-dependent reactions sequence of reactions during
photosynthesis; depend on light energy and break down
water molecules with the release of hydrogen and
oxygen
Glossary
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light-independent reactions sequence of reactions during

photosynthesis; do not depend on light; carbon dioxide
and hydrogen atoms combine to form glucose
lignin complex molecule that hardens around xylem cells
to form a major component of a woody stem
linkage group genes on the same chromosome that fail to
sort independently of one another and are inherited
together
lipase enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down
lipids
lipid organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms but with relatively more hydrogen than a
carbohydrate
liver large organ that secretes bile to digest food and
extracts nutrients and toxins from blood
lobe rounded division of an organ
locus (plural, loci) specific location of a gene on a
chromosome
longitudinal smooth muscle muscle layer along the
digestive tract that contracts to shorten the tract
lower esophageal sphincter see cardiac sphincter
lumen hollow interior of a vessel or tube, such as the alimentary canal
lung vertebrate organ specialized for gas exchange
lysis bursting of a host cell infected by a replicating virus
lysogeny insertion of viral DNA into the DNA of a
bacterial host
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maternal set all chromosomes, one from each

homologous pair, inherited from the mother
matrix liquid solution inside a mitochondrion
maxilla (plural, maxillae) crustacean appendage that
gathers food
maxilliped crustacean appendage that senses the
environment and searches for food
mechanical digestion breakdown of a solid food mass into
smaller components by muscular activity; see digestion
medulla oblongata region of the vertebrate brain that
regulates involuntary body functions
medusa (plural, medusae) free-swimming sexual stage of
the cnidarian life cycle
meiosis cell division process that involves two divisions
with only one duplication of chromosomes; results in
haploid (n) gametes containing one chromosome from
each homologous pair
meristem region of a plant with meristematic tissue
meristematic tissue plant tissue whose cells divide by
mitosis to generate new cells
mesoderm middle of three cell or tissue layers in an
animal
mesoglea jelly-like layer that sits between the
gastrodermis and epidermis of a cnidarian
mesophyll tissue inside a leaf, made up of thin-walled
cells containing chloroplasts
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that encodes the
information on a DNA molecule to build proteins
lysosome organelle containing enzymes that digest food,

destroy bacteria, or break down damaged organelles in
a eukaryotic cell
metabolism sum of all chemical reactions that occur in

the cells of an organism
metamorphosis change in shape that some animals undergo as they develop from an egg to an adult
macronucleus larger of two types of nuclei in a ciliate

macronutrient substance that an organism requires in
relatively large amounts
metaphase second phase of mitosis; chromosomes line up

across the middle of the cell
metaphase plate see equator
macrophage specialized white blood cell that consumes

bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis
metastasis spread of cancer cells from the initial site to

other parts of the body
malignant life-threatening; describes tumours that are capable of spreading throughout the body
micronucleus smaller of two types of nuclei in a ciliate
maltose disaccharide formed by two glucose molecules
micronutrient substance that an organism requires in

minimal amounts
mammary gland gland in a female mammal that

produces milk to nourish young
microvilli (singular, microvillus) microscopic projections of

villi in the small intestine
mandible crustacean appendage that crushes food
mineral inorganic nutrient that an organism requires in

small amounts
mantle thin membrane that covers the body and gills of a

mollusk and secretes a protective shell
marsupial mammal that gives birth to immature offspring
that develop in a pouch on the mothers abdomen
maternal serum screening (MSS) blood test used in
pregnant women to identify abnormal hormone levels
seen in pregnancies with an increased chance of certain
genetic defects (Down syndrome, trisomy 18, open
neural tube defects)
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Glossary
mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) organelle that

performs cellular respiration in a eukaryotic cell
mitosis in cell division, division of a nucleus into two
genetically identical nuclei; divided into five stages
mitotic spindle network of protein fibres that help move
chromosomes during the first phase of mitosis
mitral valve see bicuspid valve
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molar posterior tooth that grinds and crushes food

molecular formula representation of a compound that
shows the number of each type of atom present
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negative feedback response that regulates the stimulus

that produced it to maintain balance within a system
negative tropism plant growth away from an external
stimulus
molecule smallest unit of a compound formed by covalent

bonds that retains all the chemical properties of that
compound
nematocyst stinging structure in the cnidocyte of a

cnidarian
monocot short for monocotyledon (Monocotyledoneae), a

class of flowering plants whose seeds have one seed leaf
nerve cord dorsal hollow elongated tube made of nerve

fibres; found in tunicates, chordates, and vertebrates
monoculture cultivation of a single crop variety in a large

area
nerve net network of nerves in a cnidarian
monohybrid cross mating of two individuals both

heterozygous for a particular trait
monomer molecule that bonds with others to form a
polymer
monosaccharide simple sugar monomer that bonds with
others to build a carbohydrate
nervous tissue tissue that forms the organs of the nervous

system
net equation representation of the steps of a reaction,
including reactants and products
nicotine addictive substance that stimulates the heart and
increases blood pressure
monosomic describes an individual who lacks a

chromosome
nitrogen fixation process by which atmospheric nitrogen

is converted to nitrogenous compounds that plants can
use
monosomy possession of only one of a homologous pair of

chromosomes in an otherwise diploid cell
nitroglycerine medication that dilates blood vessels to

treat angina and cardiovascular disease
monotreme mammal that lays eggs
nodule swelling that contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria on a

legume root
moulting periodic shedding and replacement of an

arthropod exoskeleton to accommodate growth
mRNA see messenger RNA
nondisjunction failure of chromosomes to separate or

move apart during meiosis
mucosa lining of intestine where absorption occurs
non-virulent describes an organism that does not cause

disease
mucus substance secreted by mucous cells to line and

protect an organ
norm see set point
multifactorial describes a trait whose expression is controlled by genes found at many loci; expression of this
trait may also be influenced by other contributing factors
multiple allelism when there are more than two possible
alleles for a given gene (at a specific locus)
muscle fibre single muscle cell
muscle tissue specialized tissue that forms muscle
mutagen substance or agent that causes a mutation
mutation change in the DNA of a gene
mycelium tangled mass of filaments formed by the
hyphae of a fungus
mycorrhizae (singular, micorrhiza) fungus mycelium that
forms a symbiotic association with plant roots
myocardium muscle that forms the heart wall
N
nasal cavity region of the respiratory tube lined with
mucus and cilia that receives, moistens, and filters air
inhaled through the nose
natural selection difference in the survival or reproduction among individuals in a population based on how
well their traits suit them for their environment
notochord flexible dorsal rod that runs along the length of

a chordate between the digestive tract and the nerve
cord
nuclear envelope double membrane with pores that
surrounds and separates the nucleus from the rest of
the cell
nuclease enzyme secreted by the pancreas for digestion
nucleic acid complex molecule made up of nucleotides
that forms DNA and RNA
nucleolus dense structure in the nucleus of a eukaryotic
cell that contains DNA and is involved in forming
ribosomes
nucleotide organic molecule, made up of a nitrogen base,
a sugar, and a phosphate group; monomer for nucleic
acids
nucleus (plural, nuclei) organelle that contains DNA and
controls cell activity
O
obligate aerobe aerobe that needs oxygen to survive; see
aerobe
obligate anaerobe aerobe that can live only in the
absence of oxygen; see anaerobe
omnivore plant and meat eater
Glossary
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oogonium (plural, oogonia) cell that produces eggs in the

ovary
open circulatory system system in some animals that
pumps blood through open-ended vessels into the body
cavity containing organs, then drains the cavity
operculum (plural, opercula) flat bony plate that covers
the gills of a fish
oral cavity region that receives food and also air inhaled
through the mouth
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pangenesis outdated theory that suggested that traits

could be modified during a persons lifetime and these
modifications could be passed on to his or her offspring
parapodium (plural, parapodia) outgrowth of the body
wall that functions in gas exchange and locomotion in
some annelids
parasite organism that lives in or on another organism
and absorbs or consumes nutrients from the organism
to obtain energy
order taxon containing closely related families
parenchyma type of unspecialized fundamental or ground

tissue in plants that serves a variety of functions see
collenchyma and sclerenchyma
organ group of tissues that work together to perform a

specific function
parent cell cell that divides by mitosis into two genetically

identical cells
organ system group of organs that work together to

perform a specific function
passive transport movement of substances along the concentration gradient; process that does not require ATP
organelle structure that performs a specific function in a

cell
paternal set all chromosomes, one from each homologous

pair, inherited from the father
organic compound compound that contains carbon; see

compound
pathogenic causing disease
oral groove structure in a ciliate that receives food
organic fertilizer plant nutrients derived from decaying

plant or animal matter
pectoral fin anterior fin of a chondrichthyan or an

osteichthyan
oscula (singular, osculum) openings that expel water from

the body of a sponge
pedigree representation of the transmission patterns of a

heritable trait across generations of parents and
offspring
osmosis diffusion of water across a selectively permeable

membrane
pellicle outer membrane that covers some protozoans
ovary female organ that produces eggs in a plant or an

animal
oviviparous describes a vertebrate that retains fertilized
eggs within its body without nourishing them, and gives
birth to live young
ovule oval body in the ovary of a flower, which develops
into an embryo that develops into a seed after
fertilization
ovum larger of two cells produced by the unequal division
of the secondary oocyte in a female during meiosis
oxygenated describes a living system or an environment
that has received oxygen
pelvic fin posterior fin of a chondrichthyan or

osteichthyan
penicillin chemical produced by the green fungal mould
Penicillium, that prevents the growth of bacteria
pepsin enzyme, converted from pepsinogen, that breaks
down protein in the stomach
pepsinogen digestive substance that glands of the stomach
lining secrete into the stomach
peptide bond bond that forms between amino acids in a
polypeptide
peristalsis coordinated muscle contractions that move
food through the digestive tract
permeable describes a membrane that allows some
substances to pass through it
P
P generation parent individuals that produce offspring in
a study of inheritance
pacemaker specialized muscle in the right atrium that
generates an electrical signal and maintains the hearts
pumping rhythm; device that generates electric signals
to stimulate the heart to contract
petal colourful, leaflike structure on a flower

phagocytosis type of endocytosis that moves large particles
into a cell; see endocytosis
pharynx muscular tube that connects the mouth to the
rest of the digestive tract; in terrestrial vertebrates, it
also connects the nasal cavity to the rest of the
respiratory tube
palisade layer layer of densely-packed, column-shaped

mesophyll cells in a plant leaf
phenotype physical characteristics of an organism
pancreas organ that secretes digestive enzymes into the

small intestine and hormones into the blood
phenotypic ratio proportion of individuals in a generation

that express a certain trait
pancreatic enzyme enzyme, produced by the pancreas,

that digests macronutrients in the small intestine
phlebotomy weekly removal of blood to lower iron levels

and treat hemochromatosis
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phloem vascular tissue that transports carbohydrates

from the leaves to other parts of the plant
phospholipid lipid found in a cell membrane; formed by
two hydrophobic fatty acids and a hydrophilic head
containing a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing
group
phospholipid bilayer double layer of outward-facing
phosphates and inward-facing fatty acids that form a
cell membrane
photoautotroph organism that uses light energy to make
organic compounds from inorganic substances; see
autotroph
photosynthesis use of light energy to convert carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates, carried out by
the chloroplasts of plants and some protists
phototropism plant growth toward or away from a light
source
phylogenetic tree diagram that represents the
evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms
phylogeny evolutionary history of a group of organisms
that share a common ancestor
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polar covalent bond bond formed between atoms that

share electrons unequally and acquire partial opposite
electric charges
polar molecule molecule made of atoms joined by polar
covalent bonds
pole partially-charged end of a polar molecule
pollen cone male cone that produces pollen grains in a
gymnosperm; see cone
pollination transfer of pollen from an anther of a stamen
to a stigma of a pistil
polygenic describes a trait that is controlled by genes
found at many loci
polymer large molecule formed by identical or similar
monomers
polyp aexual, sessile stage of the cnidarian life cycle
polypeptide chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds;
forms a protein
polyploidy possession of more than two sets of
chromosomes
phylum taxon containing closely related classes
polysaccharide large carbohydrate formed by many

monosaccharides
phytoremediation use of plants to extract toxic

substances from soil or water
polysomy possession of an extra copy of a particular

chromosome
pinocytosis type of endocytosis that moves a liquid into a

cell; see endocytosis
population genetics study of the frequencies of genes and

genetic defects in populations
pioneer species first species to grow in an area that lacks

soil
positive tropism plant growth toward an external stimulus
placental mammal that incubates its young in its uterus
predisposition genetic condition that increases an

individuals chance of developing a certain condition
Plantae kingdom containing multicellular autotrophic organisms
pre-meiotic S period of genetic information synthesis

before meiosis
planula free-swimming larva of a cnidarian
premolar tooth that grinds and crushes food
plaque accumulation of fatty deposits in a vessel that

hinders blood flow and increases blood pressure
prenatal diagnosis testing of a fetus to determine its

condition in the uterus
plasma liquid component of blood that contains salts,

proteins, hormones, and dissolved nutrients and gases
pressure-flow theory explanation of plant nutrient

transport from leaves to other parts of the plant, driven
by the pressure build-up of hypertonic solution in leaf
phloem
plasma membrane see cell membrane

plasmid small ring of DNA in a bacterium; often used in
genetic recombination
plasmodium wall-less mass of cytoplasm of an acellular
slime mould
plastid group of organelles that photosynthesize, store
nutrients, and give colour to a cell; found in plants and
some protists
platelet fragment of a bone marrow cell that helps to clot
blood
pleiotropy change in the expression of many genes
caused by a defect in one gene
pleura membrane that covers and connects the lungs to
the walls of the thoracic cavity
polar body smaller of two cells produced by the unequal
division of cytoplasm in a female during meiosis
primary growth plant growth in height (length) due to cell

division and differentiation from apical meristem tissue
primary structure specific sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide, representing the first level of protein
structure
primary succession ecological succession that takes place
over a long time period on land that was not previously
inhabited by plants
probability ratio of the number of times an event is expected to occur to the total number of events; the likelihood of an event occurring
prokaryote single-celled organism that lacks a
membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed
organelles
Glossary
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prophase first phase of mitosis; chromatin condenses and

duplicated chromosomes become visible; mitotic spindle
begins to form
prostomium head projection of some annelids, used to
burrow
protease enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks
down proteins
protein large molecule formed by amino acids that directs
chemical reactions in the body
protein kinase molecule in a cell that transmits a
message to another molecule to regulate cellular
processes
protein structure shape of a protein molecule, classified
into four levels, which determines the function of the
molecule; see primary structure, secondary structure,
tertiary structure and quaternary structure
protein synthesis assembly of amino acids into proteins
in a cell based on instructions encoded on a DNA
molecule; see transcription and translation
protist eukaryote, usually single-celled, that falls outside
the plant, fungi or animal kingdoms
Protista kingdom containing mostly unicellular eukaryotic
organisms
protozoan animal-like protist
pseudocoelomate animal that has a body cavity that is
only partially lined with mesoderm
pseudoheart muscular structure that pumps blood
through an earthworm
pseudopod temporary extension of cytoplasm that an
amoeba projects to move and feed
pseudopodia (singular, pseudopodium) strands that
extend as a network from the plasmodium of an
acellular slime mould
puff region on a chromatin engaged in transcription as it
appears in a stained preparation
pulmonary artery vessel that conveys blood from the
heart to a lung
pulmonary circuit low-pressure system that conveys
blood from the heart to the lungs
pulmonary semilunar valve valve between the right
ventricle and the pulmonary trunk of the heart that
prevents blood flow back into the heart
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purebred describes an organism bred to express a

particular form of a trait
Purkinje fibres specialized muscle fibres that convey
electrical impulses through the heart
pus combination of white blood cells and dead bacteria
pyloric sphincter ring of smooth muscle that contracts
and relaxes around the opening between the stomach
and the small intestine to control the passage of food
pyruvic acid product of glycolysis containing three
carbons
Q
quaternary structure shape that results when two or
more polypeptide chains join to form a protein,
representing the fourth level of protein structure
R
R group group of atoms in an amino acid whose specific
biological properties distinguish one amino acid from
another
radial symmetry body plan of an animal with body parts
that repeat around one main axis point
radiation therapy use of radiation on specific sites in the
body to upset mitosis and kill cancer cells
radicle embryonic root that emerges from a germinating
seed
radula flexible piece of tissue lined with spines used for
feeding in some mollusks
random assortment separation and independent
alignment of homologous chromosome pairs during
meiosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) type of
endocytosis that moves a specific molecule into a cell
when the molecule binds to a protein on the cell
membrane
recessive describes the form of a trait that is only expressed in the homozygous condition (for example,
aa)
recombinant chromosome produced by the exchange of
chromosome segments between homologous
chromosomes during crossing-over
pulmonary trunk main vessel that conveys blood from the

heart
recombinant DNA DNA molecule formed when a biologist

splices and combines portions of DNA from two
different sources
pulmonary valve see pulmonary semilunar valve
rectum last section of the large intestine
pulmonary vein vessel that conveys blood from a lung to

the left atrium of the heart
red blood cell blood cell with hemoglobin that transports

oxygen throughout the body
pulse pressure difference between the systolic pressure

and the diastolic pressure of a heart
reduction division first division of meiosis, resulting in

the reduction by half (from 2n to 1n) of the number of
chromosomes in a cell
pure breeding describes plants that produce offspring

identical to the parent plant for a particular trait; now
known to be homozygous for the gene determining the
trait
624
Glossary
reflux backflow of food from the stomach into the

esophagus
Contents
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rennin enzyme in a childs stomach that clots milk to slow

its passage through the digestive tract
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replication duplication of DNA before mitosis or meiosis
S (synthesis) phase period of genetic information

duplication before mitosis
residual volume amount of air that the lungs retain after

maximal expiration
salivary amylase enzyme that breaks down starch in the

mouth
resolving power measure of the ability of an optical

instrument to distinguish two objects as separate
salivary gland gland that secretes saliva
respiratory system group of organs that work together to

exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and its environment
saprobe organism that obtains its nourishment from dead

or decaying matter
respirometer instrument that measures the vital capacity

of the lungs
sapwood the outer, most recent layer of xylem that conducts water in a woody stem
restriction enzyme bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign

DNA; used in genetic engineering to create recombinant
DNA
saturated fat substance, solid at room temperature,

formed mainly of saturated fatty acids
reticulum second chamber of a ruminant stomach
saturated fatty acid fatty acid, solid at room temperature,

formed by carbon atoms that bond to hydrogen atoms
at every available bond; no double bonds present
retrovirus RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its

RNA into DNA, which it then inserts into the host cells
DNA
scale thin, flat, light protective structure that forms part of

the covering of some vertebrates
rhizoid hypha that extends from a fungal mould into a

food source and absorbs water and sugars
sclerenchyma parenchyma tissue made up of thick-walled

cells that contain lignin and strengthen a plant
rhizome thick, fleshy stem that grows below the ground
scolex head of a cestode that has suckers and hooks to

attach it to the inside of a hosts intestine
ribbon diagram computer-generated representation that

highlights a certain area within a molecule
ribonucleic acid nucleic acid made of a single strand of
nucleotides; involved in protein synthesis
ribosome organelle in cytoplasm that is the site of protein
synthesis
ribs bones that make up the rib cage in the thoracic cavity
risk group category of individuals susceptible to a certain
genetic abnormality
RNA see ribonucleic acid
RNA virus virus whose genetic material is RNA rather
than DNA
root hair extension of a specialized epidermal cell on a
plant root, which absorbs water and minerals
screen negative normal hormone levels diagnosed by a

maternal serum screening
screen positive abnormal hormone levels diagnosed by a
maternal serum screening
scurvy disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency
secondary growth growth in plant width that primarily
results from cell division in the vascular cambium
secondary oocyte larger of two cells produced by the
unequal division of cytoplasm in a female during
meiosis
secondary structure pattern of coils or pleated sheets in a
polypeptide, representing the second level of protein
structure
root pressure upward force exerted on water in the xylem

in the roots of some plants
secondary succession gradual development of a plant

community in a disturbed area that still has soil; see
ecological succession
rough endoplasmic reticulum portion of endoplasmic

reticulum with ribosomes that make proteins; see
secretin hormone secreted by the small intestine that

signals the pancreas to secrete a digestive enzyme to
neutralize stomach acid
roughage nutritional fibre that aids digestion
seed mature fertilized ovule enclosed within the fruit of an

angiosperm
rugae (singular, ruga) folds in the stomach

rumen first chamber of a ruminant stomach
ruminant mammal with a four-chambered stomach
containing bacteria that digest cellulose
seed cone female cone that produces ovules in a

gymnosperm; see cone
segmentation movement alternate contraction and
relaxation of parts of the small intestine to mechanically
digest chyme
segmented body division of the body of some animals
into segments that repeat or specialize
Glossary
625
Contents
Previous Section
selective breeding human selection of certain individual

organisms with desirable traits to breed and produce
offspring with those traits, creating a new variety of a
species
selectively permeable describes a membrane that
controls the passage of substances through it
self-pollination fertilization of a plant egg cell by pollen
from the same plant; see pollination
semiconservative describes the production of two
identical DNA molecules through replication, each
molecule containing one of the two strands of the
original molecule; see conservative
seminal receptacle small sac in a female crustacean that
receives sperm from the male to fertilize the eggs
sepal modified leaf that helps form a protective covering
over the flower before it opens
septum muscular tissue that separates the left and right
sides of the heart
serosa connective tissue that separates the digestive tract
from other abdominal organs
sessile describes an organism that stays fixed in one place
set point normal level or range of a variable
setae (singular, seta) stiff bristles that extend from the
parapodium of an annelid worm
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somatic cells general body cells; have the diploid number

of chromosomes
source according to the pressure-flow theory, cells that
manufacture carbohydrates in plants
space-filling model three-dimensional representation of
the surface shape of a molecule
species taxon containing a group of organisms that share
similar structures and can interbreed in nature to
produce fertile offspring; second part of the two-part
scientific Latin name of an organism
specific heat amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1C
spermatid one of four cells produced by a male after
meiosis that differentiates into a sperm cell
spermatogonium (plural, spermatogonia) cell that
produces sperm in the testis
sphygnomanometer instrument that measures blood
pressure
spina bifida congenital defect in which the spinal column
does not close completely during embryonic development and leaves the spinal cord exposed
spindle pole bodies structures in yeast cells that are analogous to centrioles in animal cells
spiracle tiny opening in the air sac of an insect that
allows air to pass through
sexual reproduction fusion of the sex cells of two

individuals to form an offspring that inherits genetic
information from both parents
spirillum (plural, spirilli) spiral-shaped bacterium
shell hard coat that surrounds an animal egg; hard

covering that encloses some invertebrates and
vertebrates
spongy layer layer of loosely-spaced mesophyll cells in a

leaf
shock shutdown of vital organs that results from

inadequate blood circulation following physical or
emotional trauma
sickle cell anemia inherited disorder caused by abnormal
hemoglobin; characterized by abnormally-shaped red
blood cells that block capillaries and damage other red
blood cells, restricting oxygen transport in the blood
spleen body organ that stores red blood cells
spontaneous generation outdated theory that living organisms could be generated from non-living matter
sporangium (plural, sporangia) case-like reproductive
structure that produces spores in a zygomycete fungus
or on the underside of a fern frond
spore asexual reproductive cell that can grow into an
adult plant or fungus without fusing with another cell
sieve tube cell elongated phloem cell that connects with

others to form a conducting tube in a plant
sporophyte diploid plant generation that produces haploid

spores
sieve tube member see sieve tube cell
sporozoan non-motile, parasitic protist that produces

spores
simple development maturation of an animal from an egg

to an adult in which the body plan stays the same
sink according to the pressure-flow theory, cells that receive carbohydrates in plants
sinoatrial node see pacemaker
small intestine organ that chemically digests and absorbs
chyme from the stomach
smooth endoplasmic reticulum portion of endoplasmic
reticulum that lacks ribosomes and makes lipids; see
sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) pump specialized protein in
a cell membrane that transports sodium ions out of a
cell and potassium ions into a cell against their
concentration gradients
626
Glossary
spring ephemeral herbaceous plant that blooms in early

spring before the forest canopy blocks sunlight
stamen male reproductive structure of a flower
starch complex carbohydrate; the major form of carbohydrate storage in plant
stem cell cell that can divide and differentiate
sternum breastbone in many vertebrates
steroid lipid made up of four rings of carbon atoms; forms
cholesterol and certain sex hormones
stethoscope instrument used for listening to sounds of the
heart, lungs, and other internal organs
stigma part of an angiosperm carpel that receives pollen
Contents
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stomata (singular, stoma) pores that allow gases to pass

through the epidermis of a leaf
stomach organ that receives, partially digests, and
temporarily stores food from the esophagus
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telson tail of a crustacean

tentacle flexible arm-like structure that extends from the
mouth region and carries food to the mouth
stool see feces
teratogen environmental agent that causes a congenital

defect
strand of DNA one of two base-pair chains that link to

form a DNA molecule
tertiary structure overall folded shape of a polypeptide,

representing the third level of protein structure
stroke inadequate supply of oxygen to the brain caused by

a blocked or damaged blood vessel
test cross mating of an individual of unknown genotype

with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a
certain trait
stroma thick fluid containing enzymes, enclosed within

the inner membrane of a chloroplast
structural formula representation of a compound that
shows the positions and bonds between atoms
submucosa layer of connective tissue that supports the
vessels and nerves of the digestive tract
substrate substance that an enzyme binds to in a reaction
succession see ecological succession
sucker cup-shaped structure for attachment or food gathering found on some animals
sucrose disaccharide formed by a glucose molecule and a
fructose molecule
superior vena cava large vein that conveys oxygen-poor
blood from the upper body to the heart
surface area total external surface of an object
Sutton-Boveri hypothesis suggestion that chromosomes
carry genes and that meiosis separates allele pairs
during gamete formation
swim bladder large sac that helps suspend an
osteichthyan in water
swimmeret appendage on the abdomen of a crustacean
that helps the animal swim
sympatric speciation coexistence of more than one
species in the same area
synapsis pairing of duplicated homologous chromosomes
during meiosis; crossing over may occur at this stage
systemic circuit high-pressure system that conveys blood
from the heart to the rest of the body
systole contraction stage of the cardiac cycle that expels
blood from the heart chambers
T
taproot long, thick primary root that grows straight
downwards, from which secondary roots emerge
taxon (plural, taxa) taxonomic group of any size
taxonomy science of naming and classifying organisms
into groups based on shared structural characteristics
telophase fourth phase of mitosis; the nuclear envelope
reforms, the chromosomes uncoil and the nucleoli
reappear
testis (plural, testes) male vertebrate reproductive organ

that produces sperm
testosterone steroid hormone that maintains the male
reproductive system
tetrad paired set of homologous chromosomes, each chromosome with two chromatids, four chromatids total
tetraploid (4n) describes a cell or an organism with four
sets of chromosomes
thermophile organism that lives in a hot, acidic
environment
thigmotropism directional plant growth response to touch
thoracic cavity region above the diaphragm that contains
the lungs and the heart
three-chambered heart amphibian heart that receives
both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in a common
chamber
tidal volume volume of air that passes into and out of the
lungs in one breath
tissue group of similar cells that perform a specific
function
total lung capacity maximum amount of air that the
lungs can hold
toxin substance that kills or causes disease
trace element element that an organism requires in small
amounts
trachea tube that branches from the pharynx and leads to
the bronchi
tracheal tube insect respiratory tube that conveys air to
body cells
tracheid type of elongated xylem cell that conducts water
and provides support
tracheophyte plant with conducting tissues that transport
water and nutrients
trans fatty acid lipid produced when hydrogen atoms are
added to an unsaturated fat through hydrogenation
transcription production of a messenger RNA molecule
(the protein-making instructions) from the DNA template; represents the first step of protein synthesis
transfer RNA (tRNA) form of RNA that brings amino
acids to the ribosome during protein sysnthesis; links
with mRNA
Glossary
627
Contents
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transgenic organism organism that contains DNA from

another organism
valve structure that opens and closes to permit the flow of

a substance in one direction only
translation formation of a protein from the instructions

encoded on an mRNA molecule at the ribosome, representing the second step of protein synthesis
vascular bundle strand of xylem, phloem, and associated

tissues in a plant
translocation attachment of a chromosome fragment to a

nonhomologous chromosome during crossing over;
transport of carbohydrates in plants
transpiration loss of water from leaves through
evaporation
transpiration pull see leaf pull
transposon segment of DNA that can move from one
place to another on the chromosomes and influence the
activity of a neighbouring gene
vascular cambium meristematic tissue layer that

produces new xylem and phloem in a plant stem; see
cambium
vascular cylinder central area of a plant root, that
contains conducting tissues
vascular plant common name for a tracheophyte
vegetative reproduction cloning of plants by asexual
methods
tricuspid valve see atrioventricular valve
vein in an animal, a vessel that conveys blood from a

venule to the heart; in a plant, a vascular bundle
containing xylem and phloem in a leaf
triglyceride glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids
ventral lower side of a bilaterally symmetrical organism
triploid (3n) describes a cell or an organism with an extra

set of chromosomes
ventral vessel main vessel that conveys blood along the

under surface of an earthworm
trisomic describes an individual with an extra

chromosome
ventricle heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart
tRNA see transfer RNA

tropism plant growth response to an external stimulus
trypsin enzyme secreted by the pancreas that digests
proteins in the intestine
tuber enlarged underground stem that stores food
tuberous sclerosis disease, caused by a single-gene that
affects the expression of many genes, characterized by
epileptic seizures, delayed development, and benign
tumour development in many areas of the body
tumour mass of abnormal cells that result from
uncontrolled cell division
venule vessel that conveys blood from a capillary to a vein

vertebrate animal that has a backbone
vesicle membrane-enclosed sac that transports materials
throughout a cell
vessel element xylem cell that connects with others to
form a tube that conducts water and minerals in an
angiosperm
viable describes the ability to survive to maturity
villi (singular, villus) finger-like extensions of the inner
surface of the small intestine
virulent describes an organism that causes disease
virus non-cellular particle of DNA or RNA surrounded by
a protein coat, that lives as a parasite within a host cell
U
ulcer hole in the lining of the stomach
ulcerative colitis inflammation of the rectum that spreads
back through the large intestine
ultrasound technique that uses sound waves to produce
an image of the fetus in the uterus
unsaturated fatty acid fatty acid, liquid at room
temperature, that has one or more double bonds
between the carbon atoms
uropod flattened appendage on the telson of a crustacean
visceral mass fleshy part that contains the internal organs

of a mollusk
vital capacity maximum amount of air that the
respiratory system can expel without impairing lung
function
vitamin organic nutrient required by an organism in small
amounts, and usually functions as a coenzyme
vitamin deficiency disease disease caused by a deficiency
or absence of a vitamin
uterus internal vertebrate structure that retains fertilized

eggs; in mammals, it also incubates young
vocal cord elastic fold of tissue in the larynx that vibrates

and produces sound when air exhaled from the lungs
rushes past it
vacuole membrane-enclosed sac within a cell
walking legs appendages that a crustacean uses to move
van der Waals interaction weak attraction between

atoms or molecules caused by random fluctuations in
their electron distribution
water mould aquatic, fungus-like protist that decomposes

dead organic matter
628
Glossary
white blood cell blood cell that helps to protect the body
from disease and infection
Contents
Previous Section
wing cover hardened coat that covers the front wing of

some insects
woody describes a hard, tough plant stem that increases
in diameter every year
X
xenotransplantation transplantation of an animal organ
into a human
XX genotype of a female describing the sex chromosomes
in humans
XY genotype of a male describing the sex chromosomes in
humans
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Z
zone of elongation region in a root above the apical
meristem where new cells enlarge
zone of maturation region in a root where new cells
differentiate and mature
zooflagellate animallike protist with one or more flagella
zygospore spore formed by conjugation between two
zygomycete fungi
zygote union of gametes that produces the first cell of a
new organism
xylem vascular tissue that conducts water and minerals

from the roots to the leaves of a tracheophyte
Glossary
629
Contents
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A N S W E R S TO N U M E R I C A L Q U E S T I O N S
UNIT I
UNIT 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 Review
Chapter 1
Chapter 5
Chapter 1 Review
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. d
8. c 9. b 10. d
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. b
8. c 9. d 10. d
Chapter 4
12. 1/32
Section 4.1
Section 5.3 Review
8. 28 min; 136 min; 265 min; 40 min
7. 63
Section 2.1
Chapter 4 Review
3. 8 cm3; 192 cm2
Chapter 5 Review
1. d 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. c
7. b 8. c
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. c
Chapter 2
4. a) 32; 32 the same
Section 5.2 Review

11. 16 combinations
12. (SEE TABLE BELOW)
b) 72; 100
17. 2.08 x 1011 red blood cells per day
Unit 1 Review
c) 2.25:1; 3.125:1
1. d 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. a 6. c 7. b
8. d 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. d 13. c
14. a 15 d
Chapter 2 Review
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. a 7. d
8. c 9. c 10. d
Chapter 6
Section 6.1 Review
5. 3:1; 1:2:1
22.
7. 9:3:3:1; 4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1
Dimenisons of
cube cell (cm)
Surface Area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm2)
SA : Volume
(ratio)
Index = SA/V
0.5 0.5 0.5
1.5
0.125
1.5/0.125 12:1
12
111
6/1
1.5 1.5 1.5
13.5
3.375
13.5/3.375 4:1
2.0 2.0 2.0
24
24/8 3:1
2.5 2.5 2.5
37.5
15.625
37.5/15.625 2:4:1
2.4
3.0 3.0 3.0
54
27
54/27 2:1
Section 6.2 Example 1

Practice Problem,
genotypic ratio 1:2:1; AA: Aa: aa phenotypic ratio 3:1 pigmented: albino

Practice Problem,
The grey mice are Gg.

Practice Problem,
a) 3/16 b) 1/4 c) 1/4 d) 3/8 e) 1/8 f) 0
Section 6.2 Review

2. a) 1; T b) 2; T, t c) 4; TR, Tr,
tR, tr d) 1; Tr e) 2; tR, tr
f) 8; TRS, TRs, TrS, Trs, tRS, tRs,
trS, trs
3. a) 2x2 b) 4x4 c) 8x8
d) 4x2
6. a) 1/16 b) 1/4
Organism
Diploid
number
Haploid
number
Number of chromosomes
in daughter cells of mitosis
Number of pairs
of homologs
Number ofchromosomes
in meiosis, prophase I
in meiosis at telophase I
in meiosis at telophase II
Cotton
52
26
52
26
52
26
26
Fruit fly
Horse
64
32
64
32
64
32
32
Toad
36
18
36
18
36
18
18
Chicken
78
39
78
39
78
39
39
Goldfish
94
47
94
47
94
47
47
630
Answers to Questions
Contents
Previous Section
7. a) all Tt; all tasters b) 1:2:1, TT:

Tt: tt; 3:1 tasters: non-tasters
c) 1:1 (TT:Tt); all tasters;
8. a) 3/4 b) all of them c) 3/16
d) 1/8
9. a) 1/4 b) 3/8 c) 1/4
10. Bb; 2/3
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. c
10. 4; ABc, Abc, aBc, abc; 1/4
11. AaBb
12. 1/2
16. AEFCBD
17. a) IBIB IAi b) IBi IAi c) IBi ii
d) IAIB IBIB e) IBi IBi
f) IAIB IBi
18. The genes for height and colour
are linked. The TtRr plant has T
linked with r and t linked with
R. recombination frequency is
18%.
20. 1, B; 2, D; 3, C; 4, A
22. Total 816 For one possible
hypothesis 2 1.21
c) 1:1:1:1 (XRXR: XRXr: XRY: XrY)

; 2:1:1 (red-eyed females: redeyed males: white-eyed males)
Chapter 8
d) 1:1:1:1 (XRXr: XrXr: XRY: XrY) ;

1:1:1:1 (red-eyed female: whiteeyed female :red-eyed male:
white-eyed male);
5 a)
Practice Problem,
a) 1/2 b) 1/4 c) 1/8 d) 0
Section 7.1 Review

3. 1/2
8. 1:1 (XXc:XcY) ; 1:1 (normal
daughter: colour-blind son);
10. a) 1:1 (XRXR:XRY); All of the F1
red eyes
Group
Daily Energy
Requirement (kJ)
12 012
10 045
Age 1619
14 021
9 208
Chapter 7 Review
Adult office worker
10 045
8 790
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. d
Adult construction worker
17 998
12 012
17. a) 0; b) 1
19. a) 3/8 ; b) 1/8 ; c) 1/2
6. Breakfast 732.5 kJ; walk 400 kJ
20. 4 out of 64
7. The chicken burger; total Calories

366
22. RrSs; red eye, straight wing; F2

red eye with straight wing; red
eye with curved wing; sepia eye
with straight wing; sepia eye with
curved wing; 9:3:3:1
Section 8.2 Review

8 b) 2.0
Section 8.3 Review

6 a) 4.6
Unit 2 Review
Chapter 8 Review
1. c 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. c 7. a
8. b 9. d 10. c
1. a 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. d
13. a) 2 b) 23 c) 2
14 b) pH 8.0
26. 1 Gg; 2 Gg; 3 GG; 4 GG or Gg

32. a) 1/32 b) 1/32 c) 5/16
Chapter 9
33. a) 1/16 b) 3/4
Section 9.2 Review
34. 9:3:3:1 (black with short hair:

black with long hair, brown with
short hair, brown with long hair
37. Cell 1 B; Cell 2 D; Cell 3 A;
Cell 4 C
5. 240
Section 9.4 Review

8. 21%
38.
T p = 6/10
Chapter 7
Section 8.1 Review
Age 1315
f) 1:1 (XrXr: XrY) ; 1:1 (whiteeyed females: white-eyed males)
2. 1:2:1; 1:2:1
Chapter 6 Review
UNIT 3
Female
Section 6.3 Review
9. Set 1, O; Set 2, B; Set 3, A ;

Set 4, AB
b) 1:1 (XRXr: XRY); All of the F1

red eyes
Male
A, B, D, E, C, F
8. a) 1:1 (blue:white); 1:1 (Bb:bb)

b) 1:1 (black:blue); 1:1 (BB:Bb)
c) 1:2:1 (black:blue:white); 1:2:1
(BB:Bb:bb)
Quit
e) 1:1 (XRXr: XrY) ; 1:1 (red-eyed

females: white-eyed males)
Practice Problem,
7. 50% crossover
Next Section
t q = 4/10
T p = 6/10
TT p = 36/100
Tt
pq = 24/100
t q = 4/10
Tt
tt
q2 = 16/100
pq = 24/100
40. Baby A, parents #3; Baby B. parents # 2; Baby C, parents #4;

Baby D, parents #1
41. A E C B F D
42. XR Xr Ll XRY Ll (could also be
written as X Xwv X Y v)
Chapter 9 Review
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c
22. 180 more breaths per hour.
631
Contents
Chapter 10
Section 10.1 Review
11 mL
Section 10.2 Review
Previous Section
Unit 4 Review
30. 5.76 L/min
1. a 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d
31. a) 6720
6. b 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. a
b) 11.2 minassuming pulse rate

running is 150 beats/min
32. d) 64 beats/ min
8. c) 75%
43. a) 6L/ min
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. b
8. a 9. d 10. a
18. 1:767
20. a) 15 times heavier
23. 7949 L/ day
Unit 3 Review
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. d
8. b 9. a 10. b
26. 1.8288; 95.3kg
27. 6L/ min
28. 720 beats
632
Quit
29. 22 crackers
2. 6L/ min
Chapter 10 Review
Next Section
Chapter 15 Review
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. c
b) 21.45 L/min
Chapter 16 Review
c) 90mL
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. c
Chapter 11 Review
Chapter 17 Review
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. d
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. c
Chapter 12 Review
Unit 5 Review
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. c
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. d 7. a
8. a 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. c 13. b
14. a 15. d
Chapter 13 Review
1. b 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. c
Chapter 14 Review
1. b 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. c
Contents
Previous Section
Next Section
Quit
INDEX
2,4,5-T (chemical) 570
2,4-D (chemical) 56970
A
abalones 463
abdomen 295, 4667
abnormal chromosome number. See
aneuploidy.
abscisic acid (ABA) 568, 571
abscission layer 569
Acetabularia sp. 40
acetylsalycilic acid (ASA) 520, 522
and heart attack 522
achondroplasia 153, 205
acid 11
rain 12
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) 389, 404
activation energy 90
active site 90
adenine 26, 27, 88, 195
adenosine deaminase (ADA) 410
deficiency 220
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 278,
889
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 278,
48, 53, 72, 767, 889, 98100,
275, 287, 317
adhesion 546
aerobes, obligate 393
aerobic respiration 98, 100, 562
ageing process 51
agent orange 570
agriculture 495, 507, 561
AIDS. See acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome.
air sacs 467
alanine (ala) 23, 30
albumin (egg white) 31
alcohol 100
alfalfa 507, 511
algae 15, 54, 419, 4256, 434
multicellular 426
alimentary canal 256
alkaloids 520
allele(s) 131, 157, 160, 163
allelism, multiple 169
alveoli 69, 288, 292
gas exchange in 296
amaranth 504
amino acids 234, 30, 49, 248
essential 248
structure 23
amino group (NH2) 23
ammonium compounds 558
amniocentesis 214
amoeba 42, 55, 275, 421
digestion in 275
amphibian 12, 471
life cycle 471

amphibian populations, declining 12
amylase, salivary 271
pancreatic 272
anabolic steroids, effects of 20
anabolism 8
anaerobes, facultative 393
obligate 393
anaerobic methanogens 396
respiration (fermentation) 100,
102, 429
anaphase 123
anaphylactic shock 292
ancestor-descendant relationships 377
Anderson, Judy 193
anemia 320. See also sickle-cell
anemia.
anemones 456
aneuploidy 139, 203
angina 335. See also heart.
angiogram 337, 339
angioplasty 337
angiosperm 440-4, 530, 542
life cycle 440
animal(s) 15, 369, 375, 452, 457
body plan of 452
characteristics common to all
452
definition of 452
evolution of 452
kingdom 450
joint-legged 465
radially symmetrical marine
(phylum Echinodermata) 464
simple 452
simplest (phylum Porifera) 453
species in plant succession 501
two-layered (phylum Cnidaria)
454
with a shell (phylum mollusca)
462
with an exoskeleton (phylum
arthropoda) 465
with an internal skeleton
(phylum Chordata) 469
wormlike 457
See also:
amphibians
birds
fish
mammals
marsupials.
animallike protists 421
Anopheles mosquito 520
anorexia nervosa and bulimia 2513
antennae 466
anther 441
anthrax 398
anti-cancer drugs 522
anti-G suit 329

antibiotic(s) 467, 395, 4312
antihistamines 521
antioxidants and cancer 521
anus 264, 272, 275, 277
aorta 326, 328
aortic valve 327
apical: dominance 569
meristems 543
appendix 264
apple, Macintosh 506
aquatic plants
leaves of 540
arachidonic acid 248
arachnids 466
Archaebacteria 45, 369, 374, 38991,
396
Aristotle 371
arterioles 326, 328
artery 326, 328
brachial, 3323
disease 21
left anterior descending 326
left circumflex 326
pulmonary 325
arthropods 465
body plan 4656
artificial selection 379
ASA. See acetylsalycilic acid.
ascospores 429
ascus 4289
asexual reproduction 119, 143, 380
asters 123
asthma 300
astral rays 123
astronauts 298
atherosclerosis 335, 339
athletes 323
athletes foot 432
atoms 5, 6
ATP. See adenosine triphosphate.
ATPase 27
atrioventricular (AV): nodes 330
valve 324
atrium (atria) 324
atropine 521
autosomal recessive inheritance 207
autosomes 189, 207
autotrophs 97, 392
auxins 56870
AZT 389
B
baby (infant) formula 16
bacillus 391, 396
bacteria 3, 6, 39, 457, 38991, 393,
399, 407
aerobic 393
anaerobic 101
Index
633
Contents
and purification of oil 23

characteristics of 390
classification of 391
gas-exchange mechanisms in
393
in ecosystems 397
lactic acid 399
mutation rate 394
non-virulent strain of 194
nutritional patterns of 392
pathogenic 398
recombinant DNA 407
reproduction 394
sewage treatment by 398
structure 391
virulent strain of 194
waste management with 398
See also eubacteria.
baking 429
Banting, Frederick 73, 270
bark 535
barley 503
Barr body 194
Barr, Murray 194
base pairs 27, 198
complementary 27
bases 11
basidia 428, 430
basidiomycota 430
beans 503
beetles, scarab 366
beginnings of life 390
Benedicts solution 31
benefits of regular exercise 339
beriberi 250
Best, Charles 73, 270
Bethune, Norman 299
Bhatia, Micki 57
bicuspid (mitral) valve 325
Bigelow, W.G. 332
bilateral symmetry 457
bilaterally symmetrical animals 457
bile 267, 272
binary fission 394, 422
binding sites 42
biochemistry 6
biodiversity 366, 369, 496, 522
succession and 501
biological pest control 507
biome 498
Ontario biomes 500
biopharmaceuticals 408
bioremediation technology 43
biosphere 370
portion of Earths mass 370
biotechnology 43, 92, 129, 273, 389,
405
birds (avians) 276, 473
bones of 474
634
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
digestion in 276
lungs 474
Biuret reagent 31
bivalves 463
Black Death 398
blood 288, 31719
colour 25
groups (types), human 16970,
320
human 11
vessels 328
See also plasma.
blood pressure 3323, 3278, 3357
for men and women at different
ages 347
blood sugar 269
regulation of 26970
blue whale 476
body mass index (BMI) 317
body plan 4624
features 476
bond 6, 7, 911, 17, 24, 248
ionic 6
polar 10
bone marrow 320, 321
book lungs 466
boreal forest 564
succession in a 499
botulism 398
Boyd, Douglas 337
breast milk 16
breathing 288, 2956
coordinated by chemoreceptors
296
regulation of 295
breeding 210
controlled or selective 210
strategies, traditional 210
See also:
pure-breeding
inbreeding.
bronchi 291
bronchiodilators 300, 302
bronchioles 292
bronchitis 300
Brown, Alan 252
bryophyte (non-vascular plant) 419,
4356, 550
importance of 436
life cycle of 436
budding 429
bulbs 536
bulimia 2513
bundle of His 330
bypass surgery 337. See also heart.
C
caffeine 520
calcium 5, 251, 559
Quit
Callaghan, John C. 332

calorie 246
cancer 21, 52, 128, 130, 214, 5212
predisposition to 214
cap 430
capillary 69, 326, 328
action 546, 550
carapace 466
carbohydrates 5, 7, 1314, 29, 44, 53,
99, 2467, 271
building block model 14
complex 1415, 99, 247
catabolism 8
carbon 6, 7, 13
chain 17
dioxide 100, 287, 317, 328,
537, 571
molecule 7
carbon/oxygen cycle 397
carbon-hydrogen bonds 17
carboxyl group (COOH) 23
cardboard 514
cardiac: catheterization 337
contractions 330
cycle 327
output 328
See also heart.
careers in biology 108, 234, 358, 484,
580
carnivores 258
carpel 441
cartilaginous fish 470
caselike fungi 428
Casparian strip 533
castor bean oil 516
catalysts 90
cecum 264
cell 2, 67, 13, 39, 43, 57, 65, 93
amoeboid 453
blood 48, 317, 31921, 328
classification 43
collar 453
compounds 33
cycle 121
daughter 120
division 1201
egg 136
embryonic 57
epithelial 256, 453
eukaryotic 98
functions 23
human 17
membrane 17, 20, 23, 38, 424,
656
mesophyll 538
metabolism 7, 15
muscle 16
nerve 457
organelles in plants and
Contents
Previous Section
animals 61
parent 120
plant 45, 126
plate 126
processes 1011, 65
respiration 878, 98100, 244,
247, 2879
sex 1312, 139, 173
sieve tube 542
size and shape 40
sperm 136
stem 57, 220, 410
structure 412, 45
transplant 3
transport 64
walls 456
xylem 541
cellular: recycling 51
slime moulds 424
cellulose 14, 15, 47, 126, 2478, 434,
542
fibre 516
centipedes 468
centrioles 123
centromere 123
cephalization 457
cephalopods 463
cephalothorax 466
cestodes 458
characteristics 452, 469
common to all animals 452
genetic 205
inherited 152
chelipeds 466
chemical: pest control 507
substances 519
chemistry 5, 6
chemoautotrophs 97, 392
chemoreceptors 296
chemotherapy 130
chemotropism 572
chiasmata 133
chilopod 468
chitin 465
chlorophyll 54, 393, 424
chloroplasts 534, 5367
chocolate 503
cholecystokinin (CCK) 267
cholera 305
cholesterol 17, 201, 44, 76, 335, 339
chondrichthyans 470
chordates 469
key characteristics 469
chorionic villus sampling (CVS) 216
chromatid 123
chromatin 47, 123, 189
chromosomal puffs 199
chromosome 47, 119, 1201, 128,
140, 187, 380
abnormalities 203
characteristic number 128
colchicine treatment of 189
Next Section
crossing over of genes on 380

homologous (homologs) 131
maternal set 131
paternal set 131
random assortment of
homologous 380
structure, abnormal 140
chyme 261
cilia 55, 422
ciliates 422
circulation 316
coronary 326
circulatory system 2423, 316, 318,
341, 470
closed 341
double 325, 354
earthworm 341
fish 342
frog 343
grasshopper 342
human 318
in various organisms 341
in plants 343
open 341
pulmonary circuit of 324
systemic circuit 325
clams 463
class 372
classification: keys 375
Linnean system of 3723
of cells 41
of plants 444
systems 3712
climate 565
climax community 497
cloning 223
technique 506
vector 407
clostridium 396
club mosses 437
club-like fungi 430
cnidarians 455
life cycle 455
cnidocytes 454
co-dominance 169
coal 518
cocaine 520
coccus (plural: cocci) 391
codeine 521
coelom 452, 457
development of 460
coenzymes 249
cohesion 10
water 547
colchicine 189
coleoptile 568
colitis, ulcerative 264
collenchyma 542
colour blindness 193
commercial logging 501
comparison of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes 420
Quit
competitive inhibitors 90
complementary base pairs 27
compounds 57, 558
inorganic 7
organic 7
structual formula 14
concentration gradient 68, 723
condensation reaction 14
congenital defects 201
conidia 429
coniferous forest 498
species in 501
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) 18, 21
conjugation 3945, 423
contamination 539
contractile vacuoles 71
corals 456
cork 535, 544
cambium 544
oak (Quercus suber) 544
corn 503, 510
coronary circulation 326
cotton 516
covalent bond 6, 10
polar 7, 9
crabs 4667
crayfish 466
Crick, Francis 195
cristae 53
Crohns disease 264
crop 275
cross-pollination 441
crossing over of genes on
chromosomes 380
crustaceans 466
cuttings 506
cyanobacteria 393, 419
cystic fibrosis 745, 202, 205, 301
cytokinesis 121, 126
cytokinins 568, 571
cytoplasm 47, 121
cytosine 267, 195
cytoskeleton 42, 55, 93
cytosol 47, 51
D
daffodils 536
dairy products (foods) 18, 399
daisy 530
dandelions 531
Darwin, Charles 159, 379, 381, 569
Darwin, Francis 569
DDT (insecticide) 507
de Vries, Hugo 139, 140
dead space 297
degree of saturation 178
dehydration synthesis 14, 23, 26, 30
density 11
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 267, 41,
50, 534, 923, 1201, 12831,
1949, 201, 216, 218, 226, 367,
390, 394, 396, 401, 4034, 4068,
Index
635
Contents
476, 508, 510, 521, 559

complementary pairing in
1956
and diversity of species 186
nucleotide 26, 195, 197
profiling 224
replication of 197
strands of 197
structure 26
deserts 561
diabetes 3, 26970
diaphragm 294
diastole 327
diatoms 425
dichotomous key 384
dicots 530, 5345, 551
diet 14, 2523
low-fat 18
differentiation 126
diffusion 68, 293
facilitated 72
digestion 11, 244, 258, 2757
accessory organs of 267
chemical 258
mechanical 258
segmentation movements in
262
digestive system 15, 2423, 245,
25665, 282
accessory organs 257
amoeba 275
birds 2767
earthworm 275
jellyfish 275
organs of 259
plants 2767
ruminants 2767
summary of 282
digitalis 5201
dihybrid (cross) 158
dinoflagellates 425
diphtheria 398
diplococci 391
diploid 138, 1413, 435
number 128, 131, 132, 139
diplopods 468
disaccharides 14, 247
disease 21, 51, 59, 202, 250, 264,
326, 335, 398, 404
dissection 349
dissociation 11
disulphide bridges 25
diuretics 335
diversity of living things 186, 366
DNA See deoxyribonucleic acid.
Dolly (cloned sheep) 223
dominance 569
dominance, incomplete 168. See also
co-dominance.
dominant trait 156
dormancy 561
double helix 27, 195
636
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
down (feathers) 474

Down syndrome 139, 2035
and maternal age 204
Drake, Theo 252
Drosophila 175, 201
Drosophila melanogaster. See fruit
flies.
drug: addiction 79
research in plants 521
Duchenne muscular dystrophy 191,
205
duodenum 262
dye 517
E
E. coli 367, 394
earthworm 275, 3412, 4596
digestion in 2756
ECG. See electrocardiogram.
echinacea 493, 521
echinoderms 464
body plan 464
reproduction 464
ecological succession 497
ecosystems 366, 496, 529
ectoderm 454
edible oils 503
egg with a shell 472
electrocardiogram (ECG) 331, 337
electron micrograph 388
electron microscope 22
embryo 377
embryonic cells in the treatment of
disease 57
emphysema 300
emulsify 272
endangered species 486
endergonic reactions 28, 88
endocardium 324. See also heart.
endocytosis 75, 421
types of 76
endodermis 533
endoplasmic reticulum 4950, 65
endoscopy 272
endoskeleton 464
endosperm 442
endospore formation 396
endosymbiosis 55
theory 54
endotoxins 398
energy: activation 90
equation for release of 287
flow on Earth 99
from plants 518
requirements of men and
women 246
energy-providing molecule of the cell.
See ATP.
environment 170, 381, 558, 5634
enzyme 16, 23, 43, 902, 248, 2702,
562
human digestive 270
Quit
hydrolytic 50
lock and key model of action 90
lysosomal 52
pancreatic 271
restriction 217
See also coenzymes.
enzyme-substrate complex 90
epidermis, 532
of the root 532
epiglottis 259, 290
erthrocytes (red blood cells) 320
erythropoetin (EPO) 323
esophagus 259
Essential Understandings 33, 61, 83,
105, 149, 183, 231, 283, 313, 355,
385, 415, 447, 481, 525, 553, 577
estrogen 20, 521
ethanol 100, 102, 518
as alternative to fossil fuels 102
ethics 226
of genetics 154
ethylene 568, 571
eubacteria 369, 374, 3901, 3967,
419
phylogenetic groups 397
Eucalyptus oil 524
Euglena 55
euglenoids 424
eukaryotes 37, 42, 48, 374, 420
evolution 452
exercise 339
effects on circulatory system
338
stress test 337
exergonic reaction(s) 28, 88
exhalation 288, 294
exocytosis 77
exoskeleton 465
exotoxins 398
extracellular fluid 251
eyes 466
F
family 372
farmers 502
fat(s) 1718, 2468, 271
saturated 18, 21, 248
unsaturated 18, 248
fatty acid(s) 17, 18, 29, 66, 248
associated with health problems
18
essential 18, 21
saturated 17, 18
unsaturated 17, 18, 21
See also trans-fatty acids.
feathers 474
contour 474
feces (stools) 264
Fedoruk, Sylvia 338
feedback, negative 269
fermentation 1001, 429, 518
alcoholic 100
Contents
Previous Section
importance of 101
ferns 434, 437
fertilization in angiosperms 442
fertilizers 560
fetal pig dissection 349
fibre 330, 516
dietary 15
fibrin 321
fibrous roots 530
filaments, intermediate 55. See also
microfilaments.
fins 470
fish 306, 342, 4701
farms 382
fission 394
flagella 55, 391
flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes)
458
flax 5156
Fleming, Sir Alexander 46, 431
Flemming, Walter 47
flies 467. See also fruit flies.
flower(s) 4401, 530
flowering plants 434, 440, 565
fluid mosaic model 42
flukes 458
food: dairy 18, 399
inorganic 246
irradiation of 508
novel 511
organic 246
plants 5034
production, and land available
for 502
transport in vascular and nonvascular plants 54850
vacuole 422
See also Frankenfood.
foolish seedlings 570
forest 4978, 564
fires 500, 564
products 514
secondary growth 544
fossil fuels 102
Frankenfood 582
Franklin, Rosalind 195
frogs 12, 307, 343, 471
fronds 438
fructose 247
fruit 440, 442, 503
simple 442
fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)
52, 161, 1723, 175, 190
fruiting bodies 424
fungus 45, 369, 374, 419, 4278,
4302
bracket 430, 431
case-like 428
characteristics 427
club-like 430
imperfect 431
reproduction 428
Next Section
sac-like 42831
structure 430
funguslike protists 424
G
galactose 247
Galapagos Islands 379, 381
gallbladder 267
gametes 1312, 137, 160, 381
gametophyte generations 435
gangliosidosis 52
gas-exchange mechanisms in bacteria
397
gasohol 518
gastrodermis 454
gastrointestinal tract. See alimentary
canal.
gastropods 463
gastrovascular cavity 458
gene 131, 157, 163, 171, 377, 380
identification of 171
interactions 170
linkage 1723
map 175
mapping in humans 175
operator 200
pool 204
regulator 200
smart 172
splicing 407
structural 200
therapy 218, 220, 221
generation(s) 156, 435
F1 (first filial) 156
F2 (second filial) 156
P (parent) 156, 158
alternation of in plants 435
spontaneous 38
sporophyte 435
genetic: abnormalities 212
cloning 408
continuity, 120
counselling 211
determination of intelligence
172
disorders 201, 205, 410
engineering 407, 410, 411
recombination 133
screening 211
types and characteristics 205
variation 369, 3801
See also phylogenetic tree.
genetically modified (GM): crops 493,
511
monkey 476
organisms 367
plants 495, 508, 510
super weeds 493
See also Frankenfood.
genetics 116, 153, 176, 210, 226
application of 210
ethics in 226
Quit
history of 176
population 204
genome(s) 221, 222
number of genes in 221
sequencing of 222
See also human genome
project.
genotype 157, 160, 189
genus 372
geotropism 571
German measles (Rubella) 201
germination 5612
required environmental
conditions 558
gibberellins 568, 570
and fruit development 570
gills 307, 430, 467, 4701
capillaries of 342
gizzard 275
glands 94, 267
glucagon 269
glucose 13, 1516, 289, 31, 72, 88,
99, 247, 317
glutamine (gln) 23
glycerol 18, 2930
glycine 30
glycocalyx 66
glycogen 8, 1416
storage 156
glycolysis 98
glycoproteins 44
glycosides 520
golden rice 582
Golgi complex 50, 63, 77, 94
grafting 506
Graham, Robert K. 137
grains 530
Gram, Hans Christian 392
Gram stain 392
grasses 498, 530
grasshopper 342
grassland 497
gravitropism 571
greenhouse 557
group(s) 469, 473, 475
heme 25
linkage 173
guanine 26, 195
guttation 546
gymnosperms 43940, 444
H
habitat 496, 501
hairs 532
halophiles 397
haploid 132
hardwood 514
head 4667
healthy eating 252
heart 336, 522
attack 326, 336, 522
cycle 327
Index
637
Contents
disease 21, 326, 335

human 324
rhythm, control of 331
sounds 328
structures, mammalian 354
valves 327
See also:
coronary circulation,
myocardium.
heartwood 534
helicobacter pylori 262
helix 27, 1957
heme group 25
hemochromatosis 212
hemocoel 4656
hemoglobin 5, 25, 202, 320
hemophilia 1901, 202, 205, 321
hemp (Cannabis sativa) 493, 516
henna 517
hepatitis 404
herbicides 501
herbivore (plant eater) 248, 258
hereditary formation. See genetic
continuity.
heterotrophs, heterotrophic 392
organisms 97
heterozygous 158
high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) 14
hitchhikers thumb 153
HIV. See human immunodeficiency
virus.
homeostasis 256, 269, 276, 296
homogeneity 211
homologous structures 377
homozygous 157, 202
honey 503
Hooke, Robert 2, 38
Hopps, John C. 332
hormones 20, 23, 249
estrogen, 20, 521
plant 562, 56871
sex 17, 20
testosterone 5
hornworts 435, 550
human genome 176
project 175, 176, 221, 226
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
3889, 404
humans (homo sapiens) 6, 15, 475
humus 558
Hurler syndrome 52
hybridization 211, 505
hybrids 156
vigour of 211
hydrases 269
hydrochloric acid 261
hydrogen 6, 13
bonds 9, 11
ions (H+) 11
hydrogenation 19, 516
hydrolysis 1415, 28, 271
hydrophilic (water-loving) 19, 20
638
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
molecules 66
hydrophobic (water-hating) 19, 20
interactions 10
hydroponic cultivation 557
hydrotropism 572
hydroxide ions (OH) 11
hydroxyl groups 18
hypercholesterolemia 76
hypertension 335. See also blood
pressure.
hypertonic solution 69
hyphae 428
hypocotyl 562
hypotonic solution 70
I
IAA. See indoleacetic acid.
ice 11
ileocecal valve 262, 264
ileum 262
immune: function 21
system 44
immunosuppressents 273
immunotherapy 130
imperfect fungi 431
inbreeding 211
indoleacetic acid (IAA) 569
infants 16
infection 398
inflammatory bowel disease 264
influenza 404
inhalation 288, 294
inheritance: autosomal dominant 207
autosomal recessive 207
blending theory of 155
sex-linked see X linkage.
X-linked recessive 208
inherited characteristics 152
inorganic compounds 250
essential for cell metabolism 7
insect(s) 306, 342, 465, 467, 510
bodies 467
insulin 3, 22, 73, 77, 26970
intelligence 1712
genetic determination of 1712
interphase 1212
intestine: large 264
small 257, 262
intracellular communication 67
invertebrates 451, 462
iodine 31
ionic bond 6
ions 5, 7, 9, 11, 25
Irish potato blight 512
iron 25, 320
isotonic solution 69
Ivanovsky, Dimitri 401
J
jejunum 262
jellyfish 275
Quit
Jennings, Harry 44
Jeon, Kwang 54
jute 516
K
kangaroo (marsupial) 475
kapok 516
karyotype 186, 189, 215
Key Terms 33, 61, 83, 105, 149, 183,
231, 313, 355, 385, 415, 447, 481,
525, 553, 577
kidneys 71
kinases 67
kingdom(s) 369, 3725, 378, 41921,
450
Klinefelter syndrome 194, 203, 205
koala 475
Kurosawa, Ewiti 570
L
lactic acid, 100
Lactobacillus 100
lactose 247
lamella 307
larva 455, 467
larynx 290
latex 517
Law of Independent Assortment 158
Law of Segregation 157
laxatives 265
leaching of metals 12
leaf 5301, 5368
compound 537
simple 537
pull 547
specialized 540
legumes 503, 511
Lemieux, Raymond 11, 252
lemon juice 11, 250
lentils 503
leprosy 398
leucocytes (white blood cells) 320
leukemia 321, 521
lichen(s) 393, 4323, 498
structure of 433
life cycle 4356, 440, 455
life kingdoms, six 369
lignin 45
limpets 463
linkage groups 173
Linnaeus, Carolus 372
Linnean system of classification
3723
linoleic acid 1718, 21, 248
linseed oil 516
lipases 269, 272
lipid 5, 7, 1719, 31, 99, 248, 335
role of in human body 18
solubility 68
See also:
fat
Contents
Previous Section
fatty acids
phospholipids
Liu, Peter 127
liver 1516, 2678, 273
and alcohol 268
liverworts 435, 436, 550
lizards 473
Lloyd, Vett 52
lobsters 466
locus 131, 163
Lugols iodine 31
lumen 2567
lungs 68, 288, 292, 470, 474
anatomical dead space 297
book (in spiders) 466
capacity 297, 309
expiratory reserve volume 297
inspiratory reserve volume 297
residual volume 297
vital capacity 297
See also pleura.
lysis 402
lysogenic cycle 403
lysogeny 403
lysosomal enzymes 52
lysosome(s) 502, 422
in human disease 51
lytic cycle 4023
M
Macintosh, John 506
Macleod, John J.R. 73, 270
macronucleus 422
macronutrients 247, 249, 558
macrophages 50, 76
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 3,
9
malaria 305, 4223, 520
maltose 14, 29
mammal(s) 4756
heart structures 354
mandibles 466
maple syrup 548
Margulis, Lynn 54
marsupials 475
Masui, Yoshio 127
maternal serum screening (MSS) 216
matrix 53
maxillae 466
maxillipeds 466
McClintock, Barbara 219
measles 404. See also German
measles.
medicine, nuclear 94, 338
medulla oblongata 295
medusa 455
mefloquine 520
meiosis: I and II 119, 1314, 163,
203, 380
mistakes in 139
related to Mendels findings 163
stages of 132
Next Section
membrane 38, 42, 69, 293

permeable 69
See also:
cell
plasma
respiratory system.
Mendel, Gregor 153, 155, 159
Mendels Crosses 157
Mendels Law of Independent
Assortment 158, 159, 164, 172
Mendels Law of Segregation 157,
159, 163
meningitis 44
meristematic tissue 542
meristems 543
mesoglea 454
mesophyll 5378
messenger RNA (mRNA) 93, 199
metabolism 7, 8, 11, 15, 88
human 24
metamorphosis 467
metaphase 1234
methanogens 396
micro-organisms 389
microfilaments 55
micrograph, electron 2, 388
micronucleus 422
micronutrients 247, 249, 5589
microscope, microscopy 2, 22, 389,
489
microtubules 55
microvilli 257, 263
mildew 429
millipedes 468
minerals 247, 24951
mites 466, 524
mitochondria 534, 65, 98, 123, 287
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 53
mitosis 11826
phases of 1226
mitotic spindle 123
mitral valve 325. See also heart.
molecular: electronic circuits 27
formulas 7
model 29
switches 127
molecules 5, 7, 27, 64, 66
biologically important 7
carbon dioxide 7
dissolved 64
long-term energy storage 17
organic 29
polar 9, 10
water 7
mollusks 462
body plan of 462
Monera 374
monococci 391
monocots 5301, 551
and dicots, differences in structure
531
monoculture 512
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monohybrid 158
monomer 8, 13, 15, 27
monosaccharides 134, 247
monosomy, monosomic 140, 230
Mooress Law 27
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 1723
morphine 520
mosaic 42
mosses 4347, 498, 550
mould 427, 429, 432
acellular slime 424
Penicillium 46, 4312
moulting 466
movement of solutes 68
MRI. See magnetic resonance
imaging.
mRNA. See messenger RNA.
mucus 257, 261
Mulder, Gerard Johannes 23
Murkin, John 337
muscle: cells 16
circular smooth 257
fibres 454
longitudinal smooth 257
tissue 256
mushroom(s) 427
life cycle of 430
reproduction 430
mussels 463
mutagen 201
mutation 143, 2012, 394
diseases produced by 2023
in sex cells 201
mycelium 428, 430
mycoplasma 40
mycorrhizae 433
myocardium 324
N
nasal: cavity 290
sprays 301
natural gas 518
natural selection, theory of 379
nature preserves 501
nematocysts 454
nematodes 459
nerve net 454
nervous tissue 256
neurotransmitters 79
neutrophils 50
nicotine 520
effects of on the heart 336
See also:
smoke
smoking
tobacco.
nitrates 558
nitrogen 6, 23, 511, 55960, 565
absorption by plants 558
fixation 397, 558
nitrogen-fixing bacteria 511, 559, 565
nitroglycerine 336
Index
639
Contents
nondisjunction 140, 203

nuclear envelope 49
nucleases 272
nucleic acids 5, 7, 26
nucleolus 467
nucleotide(s) 267, 88, 1958
nucleus 467. See also micronucleus.
nutrients 5589, 565
essential 248
See also:
macronutrients
micronutrients.
O
oats 503
occupational hazards 302
asbestos 302
recycled air 302
silica 302
octopus 463
oils 516, 524
cooking 516
edible 503
linseed 516
olive 516
unsaturated 516
oleic acid 17
omnivores 258
onions 536
oocytes 137
oogonia 132
operculum 471
opium 520
opossom 475
oral cavity 259
order 373
organ: system 256
transplants 273
organelle 412, 4755, 61, 65, 93,
121, 123
organic compounds 7
organisms 87, 496
autotrophic 97
circulatory systems of 341
colchicine treatment of 128
common ancestry of 377
living 6
multicellular 242
number of 371
photosynthetic 87
sessile 453
sexually reproducing 1434
single-celled 242
transgenic 408
See also micro-organisms.
oscula 453
osmosis 65, 69, 546, 548, 550
osteichthyans (bony fishes) 471
ovary 132, 4402
ovoviviparous 470
ovule 441
ovum (egg) 137
640
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
oxygen 6, 13, 287, 317, 320, 328,

339, 537, 562
oysters 463
P
pacemaker 332
palisade layer 538
palmitic acid 17
pancreas 2689, 2712
pancreatic juice 11, 272
pangenesis 155
paper 514
paramecium 52, 55, 420, 4223
parasites 393, 4589, 461
natural 507
parasitic flowering plants 565
Pawson, Tony 67
peanuts 503
peas 503
peat 436
pedigrees 2069
in human genetics 206
pellicle 422
penicillin 467, 4312
Penicillium mould 46, 4312
Penninger, Josef 127
peppered moth 383
pepsin 261, 271
pepsinogen 261
peptide bonds 24, 248
perfume, 68, 517
peristalsis 25960
permeability 66
selectively 66
pest control 507
petals 441
pH 11, 12
scale 11, 12
phages 400
phagocytosis 76, 275
pharynx 259, 290, 458
phases 122
G1 (first gap) 122
G2 (second gap) 122
S 122, 128
See also:
anaphase
interphase
metaphase
prophase
telophase
phenotypes 156
continuous and discontinuous
distribution of 170
phloem 437, 533, 538, 5415
phospholipid(s) 17, 1920, 44, 66
bilayer 424, 66, 72, 74, 248
phosphorus 6, 55960
photosynthesis 534, 868, 959,
276, 393, 4246, 434, 519,
52930, 5367, 542, 550, 563
and food production 957
Quit
products of 87
phototropism 571
phycocyanin 393
phylogenetic: groups 378, 397
tree 378, 469
phylogeny 369, 377
phylum 373, 462
Annelida 459
Arthropoda 465
Chordata 469
Cnidaria 454
Echinodermata 464
Mollusca 462
Nematoda 45960
Platyhelminthes, 458
Porifera 453
phytoremediation 533, 539
pigmy shrew 476
pioneer species 498
placentals 475
plant 53, 276, 308, 343, 374, 418,
426, 434, 492, 495, 541
adaptation to different
environments 563
agricultural 502
alternation of generations in
435
carnivorous 565
classification 444
cool climate 565
cultivation 502
definition 434
desert 563
digestion 276
diversity, determined by the
climate 496
fibres 516
fire 564
flowering 440
food supply 503
for clean-up of contaminated
soil, sediments, and water
(phytoremediation) 533, 539
fossilized 518
herbaceous 534
history 519
hormones 562, 56871
in nature 496
land 434, 537
life cycle 435
main varieties of 434
medical 519
non-vascular 435
nutrient poor soil 565
nutrients 5589
parasitic flowering 565
productivity 505
productivity, increasing 505
protein 518
protein synthesis 559
providing habitats for other
organisms 496
Contents
Previous Section
seed-producing 438
specialized structures 529
spore-producing vascular 437
stems of 530, 5345
structure and function 530
succession, timber management
altering 501
technology trade-offs 513
tissue, protective 544
tissues 541
used to clean up contaminated
soil, sediments, and water
See phytoremediation.
varieties, preserving old 512
viruses 401, 405
wet environments 564
woody 534
plantlike protists 424
plant-protist divide 426
plasma 251, 31920
membrane 38, 42, 72
See also mycoplasma.
plasmid 217, 394
Plasmodium 4223
life cycle 423
plastids 54
platelets 31921
platypus 475
pleura 294
Pneumococcus 194
pneumothorax 299
polar body 137
polar covalent bond 7
polar molecules 9
pollen cones 439
pollination 438, 441
polymer(s) 8, 13, 15
polyp 455
polypeptide 24, 25, 93
chain(s) 23, 25
polyploidy 140, 203
polysaccharide(s) 1416, 99
polysomy 140
populations 12, 204
Porifera 453
potassium 276, 559, 560
potato 15, 50910, 536, 545
Potrykus, Igno 582
pox/shingles 404
pre-meiotic S 133
prenatal diagnosis 214
prescription drugs 520
pressure 546
pressure-flow theory 5489
Priv, Gil 94
probability 167
prokaryotes 37, 41, 374, 3901, 397,
420
prokaryotic, lack of mitochondria 98
prophase 123
proteases 269, 272
protein(s) 5, 7, 234, 32, 42, 44, 49,
Next Section
934, 99, 195, 198, 199, 246,

2489, 2701, 518, 559
carrier-assisted transport 724
complexed with metal ions 25
functions of 249
in plants 559
in seeds 523
integral or intrinsic 44
kinases 67
molecules 66
structure: primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary
245
synthesis 93, 199
transport 73
See also glycoproteins.
protists 42, 45, 556, 369, 374,
4202, 424, 426
protons 9
protozoans 421
pseudomonas 3
pseudopods 275, 421, 424
puffballs 4301
pulmonary circuit 324
semilunar valve 324
valve 327
veins 325
Punnett square(s) 1606
pure-breeding 156
Purkinge fibres 330
pus 321
pyruvic acid 98
Q
quinine 520
R
R group 24
radiation therapy 128
radicle 562
radula 463
random assortment 380
Ray, John 371
rays 470
receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME)
76
recombinant DNA 92, 2168
recombinants 174
recreational drugs 520
marijuana 520
rectum 264
recycling materials of life 419
red blood cells 46, 31921, 323, 328.
See also blood, hemoglobin, sicklecell anemia.
red meat 18
red tide 4256
reduction division 133. See also
meiosis I.
reflux 259
rennin 261
Quit
replication 122
reproduction 394, 428, 430, 438,
454, 464
asexual 119, 143, 380
cycle of viruses 401
sexual 119, 143, 145, 369, 380,
438
vegetative 436
reptile groups 4723
RER. See rough endoplasmic
recticulum.
resistance, antibiotic 395, 432
insect, in GM crops 510
respiration 286
aerobic 98, 286301, 562
aerobic cellular 98, 100, 288
anaerobic (fermentation) 1001,
429
external 288
internal 288
physiology of 2946
See also:
cell respiration
exhalation
inhalation.
respiratory system 242, 2879, 306
anatomy of 28993
bird 308
disorders of 3002
fish 306
frog 307
functions of 288
insect, 308
membrane 69, 292
physiology of 2948
plant 308
summary table 312
retroviruses 404
reverse transcriptase 404
rhizoids 428
asexual and sexual
reproduction in 428
rhizomes 438, 536
ribbon diagrams 7
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 267, 49, 93,
123, 195, 401, 404
base pairing 198
nucleotides 198
structure 26
ribosomes 49, 123
rice 510
risk factors for heart disease 335
RNA. See ribonucleic acid.
root 530
adventitious 532
epidermis 532
fibrous 530
hair 532
pressure 546
secondary and tertiary 532
tissues 532
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Index
641
Contents
Previous Section
934. See also endoplasmic

reticulum.
roughage (nutritional fibre) 247
roundworms (phylum Nematoda) 459
rubber 517
rusts 4301
S
Sasaki, Takehiko 127
salamanders 12, 471
salicylic acid 520
salivary glands 267
sand dollars 464
saprobes 393, 427, 431
saturated fatty acids 17
sapwood 534
scales 471
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
48
scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
22, 49
sclerenchyma 542
scolex 458
scorpions 466
scurvy 250
sea cucumbers 464
sea stars 464
sea urchins 464
seaweeds 426
secretin 269
seed(s) 4414, 523, 561
cones 439
dispersal 443
germination 558, 5612
oils 516
storage 512, 561
structure 531, 562
SEM. See scanning electron
microscope.
seminal receptacle 466
sense organs 457
sepals 441
serosa 257
sex determination 18990
sexual reproduction 119, 143, 145,
369, 380
advantage of 380
compared with asexual 143
in pollination 438
theory of 145
sharks 470
shellfish 463
shock 292, 3212
shrimp 466
shrubs 4989
sickle-cell anemia 5, 202, 205, 320
sinoatrial node 327, 330
sisal 516
skates 470
skeleton 469. See also cytoskeleton,
endoskeleton, exoskeleton.
skin. See ectoderm
642
Index
Next Section
endodermis
epidermis
gastrodermis.
skull 470
sleeping sickness 421
slime moulds 424
slugs 4623
Sly syndrome 52
Smith, Michael 73
smoke, smoking 3023
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. See
endoplasmic reticulum.
smuts 4301
snails 4623
snakes 4723
snapdragons 169
sodium 5
sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) pump
734
soil 5589, 565
nutrients 558
solutes 5, 68
solvent 5, 68
properties 11
soy milk 503, 518
soybeans 503, 518
space life-support system 298
species 3712
specific heat 10
sperm cells 136
spermatids 136
spermatogonia 132
sphincter, lower esophageal 259
pyloric 261
sphygmomanometer 333
spices 503
spider silk 409
spiders 466
spina bifida 215
spindle pole bodies 123
spiny anteater 475
spirillum 391
spleen 320
sponges 4534
spongy layer 538
sporangium 428
spores 428, 4301, 435
sporozoans 422
squash 504
squids, giant 4623
St. George-Hyslop, Peter 218
stamen 441
Staphylococcus 431
starch 13, 15, 31, 49, 247
Starzl, Thomas 273
stem(s) 530, 546, 551
herbaceous 534
of plants 534
specialized 535
woody 534
See also meristems.
steroids 17, 20, 521
Quit
anabolic 20
structure of 20
stigma 441
STM. See scanning tunnelling
microscope.
stomach 261
stomata 5378
storage 178, 561
streptococci 391
Streptococcus pneumoniae 398
stroke 336
stroma 54
structural formulas 7
structure 20, 234, 26, 141, 354, 377,
430, 433, 52831
cell, 41
chromosome 141
DNA 26
seed 5301, 562
submucosa 257
substrates 90
succession 499501
primary 498
secondary 5001
sucrose 14
sugar 13, 14, 247, 496, 503, 537,
54850, 565
beet 503
cane 503
phosphate chain 26
See also:
blood sugar
disaccharides
galactose
glucose
lactose
monosaccharides
polysaccharides
sucrose
sulfur 6, 559
sunflower 573
Sung, Wing Lam 91
superior vena cava 326
surface area to volume ratio 40
Sutton-Boveri hypothesis 161, 172
swim bladders 471
swimmerets 4667
symmetry 457
radial 454
sympatric speciation 141
synapsis 133
synthesis 14, 23, 26, 923, 199, 559
protein 923, 199
See also photosynthesis.
systole 327
T
tRNA. See transfer RNA.
tall oil 515
tapeworms 4589
taproots 530, 531
taxonomy 369, 3723. See also
Contents
Previous Section
classification.
Tay-Sachs disease 51, 205
teeth 2589
telophase 123
telson 467
TEM. See transmission electron
microscope.
tentacles 454
teratogens 201
test cross 166
testosterone 20
tetanus 398
tetrad 133
thermophiles 397
thigmotropism 572
Thompson, Margaret 207
thoracic cavity 294
thorax 4667
thymine 26, 195
thyroid gland 94
ticks 466
Tisdall, Fred 252
tissue 5323, 5412, 544, 552
connective 256
digested by lysosomes 52
fundamental or ground 542
meristematic 542
nerve 256
plants, protective 544
vascular 541
toads 12, 471
tobacco 336
tomato 530
tonoplast 49
tortoises 473
trace elements 251
trachea 259, 2901, 4667
tracheids 5412
tracheophytes 419
traits: multifactoral 170
dominant 156
recessive 156
trans-fatty acids 19
transcription 93, 1989
of DNA 198
transfer RNA (tRNA) 93
transgenic salmon 367
translation (protein synthesis) 93, 199
transmission electron microscope
(TEM) 48
transpiration 538
pull 5478
transplantation 273
liver 273
transport 725, 318
cell 64
and exchange systems in
human body 318
method 83
passive 68, 72
transposons (jumping genes ) 219
trees 45, 514
Next Section
determining the age of 529

rubber 517
trematoda 458
tricuspid valve 324
triglyceride 18, 248
trillium 567
trisomic 203
tropical rain forests 4967
tropisms: negative 571
positive 571
trypsin 272
Tsui, Lap-Chee 203
tuberculosis 299, 305, 398
tubers 536
tulips 536
tumour 128
tundra 498
turbellaria 458
turgor responses 5713
Turner syndrome 194, 205
turtles 473
twins 171
tyrosine 23
U
ulcers 2612
ultrasound 214
unsaturated fatty acids 17
uracil 26, 198
uropods 467
V
vaccine 44
vacuoles 49, 71, 422
valves 262, 264, 3245, 327
heart 327
See also bivalves.
Van der Waals interactions 10
vascular: cambium 534, 543
cylinder 533
vegetables 503
veins 326
in plant leaves 538
varicose 32930
vena cava, inferior 326
ventricles 324
venules 329
Venus flytrap 566, 572
vertebrate(s) 377, 451, 470
evolutionary ancestordescendant relationships 469
groups 469
vesicle(s) 49, 50, 52, 75, 77
viability 157
villi 263
vinegar 11
viruses 388405, 407, 412
and genetic engineering 410.
classification 400
discovery of 401
See also:
Quit
animal viruses
HIV
plant viruses
retroviruses.
vitamins 24950
C (ascorbic acid) 250
and minerals required in the
human diet 250
deficiency diseases 250
water-soluble 249
vocal cords 2901
vulcanization of rubber 517
W
Wakarchuk, Warren 16
walking legs 466
water 5, 6, 811, 251
and food transport in the
bryophytes 550
as a solvent 11
transport in vascular plants
5458
Watson, James 195
waxes 17
weed killers 510, 569
weeds 510
West, Lori 273
wheat 503, 505
whelks 463
white blood cells 319, 321
wing covers 467
wings 467
wood products 514
Worton, Ronald 193
X
X chromosomes 189, 190
X linkage 1902
and hemophilia 190, 208
and red-green colour blindness
190
X-rays 9, 195
xenotransplantation 273
xylem 2767, 437, 534, 541, 5446
cells, types of 541
sap movement 543
secondary 548
Y
Y chromosome 18990
yeast 100, 429
infections 429
Z
Zasloff, Michael 472
zone: of elongation 562
of maturation 562
zooflagellates 421
Zygomycota 428
zygospore 429
zygote 132, 435
Index
643
Contents
Previous Section
Next Section
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Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 207 Robert Young; p. 210
J. Alan Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 213 top Robert
Brenner/Photo Edit; p. 213 bottom Robert Young; p. 214
Science VU/Visuals Unlimited; p. 216 K. G. Murti/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 218 Canadian Press/Maclean'sRich Chard; p. 219
left Courtesy of Dr. Nina Fedoroff, Pennsylvania State University;
p. 219 right Canadian Press/AP/Ron Frehm; p. 220
Jackson/Visuals Unlimited; p. 221 top David Parker/Science
Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 221 bottom David
Parker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 223 top
Canadian Press/AP; p. 224 Courtesy of Cellmark Diagnostics,
Germantown, Maryland; p. 225 Michael Newman/Photo Edit;
p. 234 AJA Productions/The Image Bank.
Unit 3: Internal Systems

p. 242 Hossler, Ph.D./Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 244
Prof. P. Motta/Dept. of Anatomy/University "La Sapienza",
Rome/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 251
Yoav Levy/PHOTOTAKE; p. 252 John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS;
p. 253 From Canadas Food Guide to Healthy Eating, Health
Canada, 1992. Minister of Public Works and Government
Services Canada, 2001. Cat. No. H39-166/1990E, ISBN: 066217438-0; p. 254 Mark E. Gibson/Visuals Unlimited; p. 259
Prof. P. Motta/Dept. of Anatomy/University "La Sapienza",
Rome/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 260
Fred E. Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p. 265 ISM/PHOTOTAKE;
p. 272 top G-1 Associates/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 272
bottom Keith/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 273 By courtesy
of Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto; p. 275 left M.
Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; p. 286 & 289 1994 Art Siegel/Custom
Medical Stock Photo; p. 290 VU/Veronika Burmeister/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 292 right Fred E. Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p.
295 Jeff Greenberg/Visuals Unlimited; p. 300 1992 Kevin
Beebe/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 301 Damien
Lovegrove/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 303 O.
Auerbach/Visuals Unlimited; p. 305 George Hall/
CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 316 GCA/CNRI/PHOTOTAKE; p. 320
David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 321 top left Fred
Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p. 321 top right John
Forsythe/Visuals Unlimited; p. 321 bottom VU/David M.
Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 323 Larry Prosor/SuperStock; p.
328 James King-Homes/Science Photo Library/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 330 Keith/Custom Medical Stock Photo;
p. 331 Mednet/PHOTOTAKE; p. 332 NIH/Custom Medical
Stock Photo; p. 337 Courtesy of Dr. Murkin; p. 338 The Leader
Post, Regina, SK; p. 339 top left Elena Rooraid/Photo Edit; p.
339 top middle GCA/CNRI/PHOTOTAKE; p. 339 top right
GCA/CNRI/PHOTOTAKE; p. 339 bottom Michael Newman/Photo
Edit; p. 346 Richard T. Nowitz/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 358
Richard Kellaway/PC Services.
Next Section
Quit
Unit 4: Diversity
p. 366 Gary Braasch/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 368 Roman
Soumar/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 369 left Corel; p. 369 top
right Richard Ellis/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 369 middle right
John Cancalosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 369 bottom right Robert
C. Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 370 top left NASA; p. 370 bottom left Corel; p. 370 middle Mike Abbey/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 370 top right Ian Davis-Young/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 370 bottom right Albert Kuhnigk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 371 left & right
Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 375 top left Visuals
Unlimited; p. 375 top middle D.M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 375 top right Ken Wagner/Visuals Unlimited; p. 375 bottom
left R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; p. 375 bottom middle
Corel; p. 375 bottom right Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS;
p. 376 top from top left J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS,
Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS, James R. Page/VALAN
PHOTOS, Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 376 bottom
from left John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited, Wayne
Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS, Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS,
Joseph R. Pearce/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 379 top left A. Morris/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 379 top right Wayne Lankinen/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 379 centre Michel Bourque/VALAN PHOTOS; p.
379 bottom left Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 379 bottom right Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 382
Simon Fraser/SPL/Publiphoto; p. 383 John Fowler/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 388 NIBSC/SPL/Publiphoto; p. 390 WHOI, D.
Foster/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391 left Fred Hossler/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 391 top right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 391 middle right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391
bottom right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 392 Jack
Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited; p. 393 Biophoto Associates/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 395 bottom Fred Marsik/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 396 Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 397 Fritz Polking/Visuals Unlimited; p.
399 Alan Towse/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 401 left Norm
Thomas/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 401 right K.G. Murti/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 404 Kathy Merrifield/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 410 Keith Wood, Promega, Madison, Wisconsin.; p. 412
Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 418
Valerie Giles/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 421 top Jerome
Paulin/Visuals Unlimited; p. 421 bottom Eric Grave/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 424 top Bill Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p.
424 bottom Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 425 top left
M. Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; p. 425 right Arthur Strange/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 426 top left Eric Grave/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
p. 426 top right Bill Bachman/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p.
426 bottom Hal Beral/Visuals Unlimited; p. 427 left Harold
V. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 427 right George Musil/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 428 J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 429
left Owen Franken/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 429 right
Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 431 top left Leornard Lee Rue
III/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 431 top right A. J. Bond/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 431 bottom Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 432
top left Christine Case/Visuals Unlimited; p. 432 top right
645
Contents
Previous Section
Ken Greer/Visuals Unlimited; p. 433 Len Silverman/LHS

Consulting; p. 434 top left V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS;
p. 434 top right Stephen Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 434
bottom left Harold V. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 434 bottom
right Kennon Cooke/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 436 top left V.
Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 436 bottom left Glenn
Oliver/Visuals Unlimited; p. 436 right John D. Cunningham/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 437 top Michel Bourque/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 437 bottom left Kennon Cooke/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 437
bottom centre Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 437 bottom
right Bill Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 439 top left Corel; p.
439 top centre Corel; p. 439 top right Joyce Photographics/
VALAN PHOTOS; p. 439 bottom right Stephen Krasemann/
VALAN PHOTOS; p. 441 top Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p.
441 centre Harold B. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 441 bottom
Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 442 Nuridsany &
Perenou/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 443 Pam Hickman/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 444 left Tom W. Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 444
right V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 450 Rudiger
Lehnen/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 453 top & bottom
Paul L. Janosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 454 David Wrobel/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 456 left Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals Unlimited; p.
456 top right R. LaSalle/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 456 bottom
right Paul L. Janosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 458 top left Michael
Abbey, Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 458 right
G. Shih & R. Kessel/Visuals Unlimited; p. 458 bottom L.
Newman & A. Flowers/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 459 top G.
Shih & R. Kessel/Visuals Unlimited; p. 459 bottom R. F.
Ashley/Visuals Unlimited; p. 460 Paul L. Jenosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 461 left John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 461 right
Pascal Geotgheluck/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 463 top
Marty Snyderman/Visuals Unlimited; p. 463 middle Paul L.
Janosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 463 bottom left Alex Kerstitch/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 463 bottom right Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 464 R.L. La Salle/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 466 Len
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 467 left S. Krasemann/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 467 right Ray Bowers; p. 468 Rob & Ann
Simpson/Visuals Unlimited; p. 470 left Paul L. Janosi/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 470 right Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals Unlimited; p.
471 top J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 471 bottom left
Paul L. Janosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 471 bottom right John
Mitchell/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 472 Will & Deni McIntyre/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 473 left Robert C. Simpson/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 473 right Joe McDonald/Visuals Unlimited; p. 475
top left Stephen Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 475 top middle Albert Kuhnick/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 475 top right Stephen
J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 475 bottom left John
Cancalosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 475 bottom right William
Grenfell/Visuals Unlimited; p. 476 Corel; p. 477 Rob Young;
p. 486 Corel.
646
Next Section
Quit
Unit 5: Plants
p. 492 Mach II Stock Exchange; p. 494 salad John
Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 coffee & donut Peter Jermolow;
p. 494 ASA John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 jeans Roger
Cole/Visuals Unlimited; p. 494-495 cereal Peter Jermolow; p.
495 tire J. R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 496 Tom W.
Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 497 J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 498 James R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top left
V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top centre Dr. A.
Farquhar/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top right Albert
Kuhnigk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 bottom Dr. A. Farquhar/
VALAN PHOTOS; p. 501 Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 503 top Ken Patterson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 503
bottom Wouterloot-Gregoire/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 504 Inga
Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 505 Rob Young; p. 506 top John
Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 506 bottom 3 images A.
Scullion/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 507 top E. Webber/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 507 bottom Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 508 left John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 508 right Bud
Nielsen/Visuals Unlimited; p. 509 V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 510 Canadian Press/Ray Smith; p. 512 top Klaus
Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p.
512 bottom Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 516 top right
James P. Blair/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 516 bottom Ryan
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 517 top Charles O. Cecil/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 517 bottom left Peter Jermolow; p. 517 bottom
right Barnabas Bosshart/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 518 Ryan
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 519 top right Courtesy of Cushing
Memorial Library, Texas A&M University Libraries; p. 519 bottom left Jean-Loup Charmet/Science Photo Library/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 520 top Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 520 middle Schalkwijk/Art Resource, NY; p. 521 Joyce
Photographics/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 522 Peter Jermolow; p. 524
Andrew Syred/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 528
Larry Mellichamp/Visuals Unlimited; p. 529 J.R. Page/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 531 top Robert Calentin/Visuals Unlimited; p. 531
bottom Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited; p. 532 top Bill
Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 532 bottom left Harold V.
Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 532 bottom right S. Elems/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 533 Corel; p. 534 left & right Cabisco/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 535 James W. Richardson/Visuals Unlimited; p.
536 top Aubrey Lang/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 536 bottom left
Steve Callahan/Visuals Unlimited; p. 536 bottom middle Bill
Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 536 bottom right E. Webber/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 537 bottom right John D. Cunningham/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 538 Gerald Van Dyke/Visuals Unlimited; p. 539
Martin Bond/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
p. 540 left William J. Weber/Visuals Unlimited; p. 540 middle
Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 540 right
Corel; p. 541 Peter Arnold; p. 542 left Randy Moore/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 542 middle A.J. Karpoff/Visuals Unlimited; p.
542 right Dennis Drenner/Visuals Unlimited; p. 543 top
Randy Moore/Visuals Unlimited; p. 543 bottom John D.
Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 544 top Harold V.
Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 544 bottom Charles Preitner/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 545 Corel; p. 546 Gary Carter/Visuals Unlimited;
Contents
Previous Section
p. 548 Phil Norton/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 549 Ken Cole/VALAN

PHOTOS; p. 550 J. R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 551 top & bottom Corel; p. 556 John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 557 Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 559 left E.
Webber/Visuals Unlimited; p. 559 right Ken Wagner/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 560 Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 561 left
Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 561 right David
Sieren/Visuals Unlimited; p. 562 Visuals Unlimited; p. 564 left
Corel; p. 564 top right Daphne Kinzler/Visuals Unlimited; p.
564 bottom right Phil Norton/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 565 left
Albert Kuhnigk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 565 right John
Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 top left Cabisco/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 566 top right Tom W. Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS;
Next Section
Quit
p. 566 middle left Dayton Wild/Visuals Unlimited; p. 566 middle centre Herman H. Giethoorn/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 middle right V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 bottom Len
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 567 left Corel; p. 567 right
Francois Morneau/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 569 Len Silverman/LHS
Consulting; p. 570 top Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited; p.
570 bottom Corel; p. 571 E.R. Degginger/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 572 Pam Hickman/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 573 top left &
right David Sieren/Visuals Unlimited; p. 573 bottom Inga
Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 581 Steve Skjold/Photo Edit, Inc.;
p. 582 Owen Franken/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 585 top
John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 585 bottom left
Corel; p. 585 bottom right Corel.
Illustration
Krogh, D., BIOLOGY: A Guide to the Natural World, 2000.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458:
p. 6 Fig 1.2; p. 7 Fig 1.3; p. 8 Fig 1.7; p. 9 Fig 1.9; p. 10 Fig 1.10;
p. 10 Fig 1.11; p. 11 Fig 1.12; p. 12 Fig 1.13; p. 14 Fig 1.17; p.
15 Fig 1.18; p. 17 Fig 1.20; p. 18 Fig 1.21; p. 19 Fig 1.23; p. 20
Fig 1.24; p. 23 Fig 1.27; p. 23 Fig 1.28; p. 24 Fig 1.29; p. 26
Fig 1.30; p. 29 Fig 1.34; p. 36 Fig 2.1; p. 39 Fig 2.4; p. 41 Fig
2.5; p. 4243 Fig 2.6; p. 44 Fig 2.7; p. 46 Fig 2.9; p. 49 Fig 2.11;
p. 50 Fig 2.13; p. 51 Fig 2.14; p. 53 Fig 2.16; p. 54 Fig 2.17; p.
55 Fig 2.18; p. 66 Fig 3.3; p. 68 Fig 3.4; p. 69 Fig 3.5; p. 70 Fig
3.6; p. 72 Fig 3.8; p. 74 Fig 3.9; p. 76 Fig 3.11; p. 77 Fig 3.12;
p. 77 Fig 3.13; p. 78 Fig 3.14; p. 88 Fig 4.2; p. 91 Fig 4.5; p. 93
Fig 4.6; p. 99 Fig 4.11; p. 120 Fig 5.2; p. 124125 Fig 5.7; p. 126
Fig 5.9; p. 132 Fig 5.16; p. 13435 Fig 5.18; p. 138 Fig 5.22; p.
140 Fig 5.24; p. 156 Fig 6.5; p. 159 Fig 6.7; p. 168 Fig 6.14; p.
175 Fig 6.21; p. 190 Fig 7.5; p. 196 Fig 7.13; p. 198 Fig 7.17;
p. 198 Fig 7.18; p. 199 Fig 7.19; p. 202 Fig 7.20; p. 203 Fig 7.23;
p. 290 Fig 9.4; p. 292 Fig 9.10; p. 297 Fig 9.16; p. 312 Fig
9.10; p. 318 Fig 10.2; p. 319 Fig 10.3; p. 325 Fig 10.9; p. 326
Fig 10.10; p. 329 Fig 10.13; p. 354 Fig 10.38; p. 372 Fig 11.7;
p. 377 Fig 11.12; p. 377 Fig 11.13; p. 378 Fig 11.14a); p. 378
Fig 11.14b); p. 380 Fig 11.16, Fig 11.17; p. 395 Fig 12.7; p. 400
Fig 12.13; p. 402 Fig 12.16; p. 430 Fig 13.18; p. 430 Fig 13.19;
13.38; p. 440 Fig 13.40; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p.
442 Fig 13.45; p. 443 Fig 13.46; p. 530 Fig 16.3; p. 537 Fig 16.14;
17.23
647
Back to Achievement Task
Achievement Task Rubric 1

Unit 1 Achievement Task: Health Care Research: Making Informed Decisions
Students Name: _____________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- facts related to
cause, affected cells,
symptoms, prognosis,
detection and
prevention, incidence
Inquiry
- chooses and
analyzes data re:
likelihood of cure and
social impact of
research
Communication
- clarity and precision
of presentation
including statistics
and diagrams as
needed
- use of scientific
terminology
- awareness of
audience and
purposechoice and
presentation of facts
and arguments creates
intended impact
(public awareness)
Making Connections
- assesses the impact
of public awareness
campaigns on medical
research (i.e., cure,
prevention, focus on
high-profile diseases)
- analyzes the social
and economic impact
of directing funds to
medical research
Date: ________________________
Level 1
limited information
on a few aspects of
chosen diseases, some
inaccurate or missing
information
Level 2
information on some
aspects of chosen
diseases, some
inaccuracies
Level 3
accurate information
on most aspects of
chosen diseases
Level 4
thorough and precise
information on all
aspects of the chosen
diseases
inappropriate or too
little data; limited
analysis
some appropriate
data; some accurate
analysis
appropriate data;
analyzes data
accurately
extensive, wellchosen data;

analysis is thorough
and insightful
limited clarity and

precision
moderate clarity and

precision
considerable clarity
and precision
high degree of clarity

and precision
terminology has
limited accuracy
(often relies on
general rather than
scientific terms)
limited sense of
audience and purpose;
campaign lacks
impact
terminology has some

accuracy (may
substitute general
terms in places)
terminology is
accurate and
effective; may adjust
for audience
terminology is used
with precision as
appropriate for
audience
some sense of
choice and
and arguments has
some impact
clear sense of
choice and
and arguments has
considerable impact
strong sense of
insightful choices of
facts and arguments
make campaign
highly effective
explains impact of
public awareness on
medical research with
limited understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
some understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
considerable
understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
thorough
understanding
explains social and

economic impacts
with limited
effectiveness
explains social and

economic impacts
with moderate
effectiveness
effectively explains
most obvious social
and economic impacts
thoroughly and
effectively explains
obvious and subtle
impacts

Unit 2 Achievement Task: Genetics and Discrimination
Students Name: _________________________
Date: ________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- understanding of
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
- providing sufficient
information on the
chosen genetic
disorder to complete
the task
- applying concepts
correctly to explain
genetic technologies
Level 1
limited understanding
of the concepts
underlying the
transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 2
some understanding
of the concepts
underlying the
transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 3
considerable
understanding of the
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 4
thorough
understanding of the
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
limited accurate and

relevant information
some accurate
sufficient accurate
and relevant
information
detailed accurate and

has difficulty
applying concepts
applies some concepts

applies concepts
Inquiry
- researching different
perspectives
identifies few
perspectives, relies on
limited research, may
use own opinions
instead
identifies a few
possible misuses of
genetic information
identifies some of the

different perspectives
on the issue, does
some research
identifies most of the

on the issue, does
considerable research
applies a thorough
knowledge of
concepts to give
detailed explanations
of genetic
technologies
identifies many
on the issue, does
thorough research
identifies some
possible misuses of
genetic information
identifies several
possible misuses of
genetic information
communicates with
limited clarity and
precision
communicates with
precision
communicates with
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy, may
use general rather
than scientific terms
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy, may
substitute general
terms in places
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
- identifying possible
social misuses of
genetic information
Communication
- communication of
information and
recommendations
- use of scientific
terminology
/2
identifies many
possible misuses of
genetic information
based on insightful
interpretations of both
social and scientific
factors
communicates with a
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
-2Making Connections
- quantifying the size
of potential benefit or
risk (e.g., in form of
number of lives
affected, dollar figure,
scale of 15)
- estimating the
probability of events
recurring
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of
benefits and risks may
be unrealistic
chooses a form and

quantifies benefits
and risks fairly
realistically
chooses an
appropriate form and
quantifies benefits
and risks realistically
makes thoughtful and

insightful choices
about form and
effectively quantifies
benefits and risks
has difficulty
estimating the
makes reasonable
estimates about the
- calculating the
probability values for
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
has difficulty
calculating
risks
decides on a
recommendation that
does not follow
logically from the
risk/benefit analysis
makes estimates about

the probability of
events, may be
somewhat unrealistic
calculates probability
of individual events
and totals for benefits
and risks, may have
some inaccuracies
makes accurate and

thoughtful estimates
about the probability
of events
accurately calculates
probability of all
risks
decides on a
recommendation that
is based on some
aspects of the
decides on a
recommendation that
follows logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis
- deciding on a
recommendation
about the future of
genetic research
probability of most
risks
decides on a
recommendation that
follows logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis and shows
insight

Unit 3 Achievement Task: Dissection in Science Education
Students Name: ____________________
Date: __________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- understanding of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
- providing sufficient
information
alternatives to
dissection to complete
the task
Inquiry
- identifying technical
skills used in
dissection
- identifying safety
procedures related to
formaldehyde
preservative
- organizing and
displaying data from
research on
perspectives
Communication
- communication of
information and ideas
- showing awareness
of audience (i.e.,
school board trustees)
- accomplishing
purpose
Level 1
limited knowledge of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
Level 2
some knowledge of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
Level 3
sufficient knowledge
of comparative
anatomy and
physiology
Level 4
thorough knowledge
of comparative
anatomy and
physiology
limited accurate and

some accurate and

sufficient accurate
and relevant
information
detailed accurate and

identifies few
technical skills used
in dissection
identifies some
in dissection
identifies most
in dissection
identifies all technical

skills used in
dissection
identifies safety
procedures only with
assistance
identifies some safety

procedures, may omit
safe disposal
identifies all
appropriate safety
procedures
identifies safety
procedures in detail
organizes data
ineffectively, may
choose inappropriate
form
limited clarity and
precision
organizes some data

appropriately
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate analysis

precision
and precision

and precision
limited sense of
audience
some sense of
audience
clear sense of
audience
strong sense of
audience
establishes limited
sense of purpose; it is
not accomplished
clearly establishes and

accomplishes purpose
- follows rules and

conventions of a letter
demonstrates limited
command of the rules
and conventions of
letter writing
establishes some
sense of purpose that
is partially
accomplished
demonstrates some
and conventions of
letter writing
establishes and
with a high degree of
effectiveness
demonstrates
extensive command
of the rules and
conventions of letter
writing
/2
demonstrates
considerable
and conventions of
letter writing
-2Making Connections
- provides relevant
information about
perspectives on
dissection (i.e.,
ethical/moral, social,
economic, political,
environmental)
- evaluating
information and
alternatives
collects limited
information about
perspectives, may use
own opinions instead
collects some
information about
perspectives, may
omit one or two
collects considerable
information about
each perspective
collects thorough
information about
each perspective
may have difficulty

analyzing the issue
analyzes obvious
aspects of the issue
with moderate
effectiveness
analyzes most aspects

of the issue with
considerable
effectiveness
- quantifying the size

of potential cost or
benefit (e.g., dollar
figures, scale of 15)
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of costs
and benefits may be
unrealistic
has difficulty
calculating totals for
costs and benefits
chooses a form and

quantifies costs and
benefits fairly
realistically
chooses an
quantifies costs and
benefits realistically
calculates totals for

costs and benefits,
may have some
inaccuracies
uses some supporting
information to justify
recommendation
totals for costs and
benefits
analyzes both obvious

and subtle aspects of
the issue with a high
degree of
effectiveness
insightful choices
about form and
cost and benefits
accurately and
efficiently calculates
totals for costs and
benefits
uses thoughtful,
insightful
interpretation of
supporting evidence
to justify
recommendation
- calculating totals for

costs and benefits
- using supporting
recommendation
uses personal opinion

or limited information
to justify
recommendation
uses considerable
supporting
recommendation

Unit 4 Achievement Task: Saving Endangered Species
Students Name: ________________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- applying biological
concepts (e.g.,
meiosis) to explain
reproductive
technologies
- applying biological
concepts (e.g.,
variability, taxonomy)
to predict possible
outcomes of
reproductive
technologies
- defining and
distinguishing
between terms
- provides sufficient
information to
complete tasks
Inquiry
- researching using
appropriate sources
- organizing data for
comparison
Communication
- communication of
- using scientific
terminology
Date: __________________
Level 1
has difficulty
applying concepts
reproductive
technologies
Level 2
correctly applies
concepts to explain
some reproductive
technologies
Level 3
correctly applies
concepts to explain
most relevant
reproductive
technologies
Level 4
correctly applies
concepts to make
detailed explanation
of all relevant
reproductive
technologies
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to predict
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to predict
some possible
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic predictions
about several possible
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic and insightful
predictions about
many possible
outcomes
defines few key terms

accurately
defines some key

terms accurately
provides limited
accurate and relevant
information
uses few appropriate
sources; may rely on
remembered
information
organizes data
ineffectively; form
may be inappropriate
for comparison
communicates with
limited clarity and
precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy; may
rely on general rather
provides some
information
uses some appropriate
resources
accurately defines and

distinguishes between
most key terms
provides sufficient
information
uses a variety of
appropriate resources

key terms
provides detailed
information
uses appropriate
sources extensively
organizes some data

appropriately
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate comparison
communicates with
precision
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy; may
substitute general
terms in places
communicates with
and precision
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
communicates with a
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
/2
-2- accomplishing
purpose
establishes limited
not accomplished
Making Connections
- choosing a form for
quantifying the size of
potential benefit or
risk to biodiversity
- estimating the
recurring
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of
benefits and risks may
be unrealistic
has difficulty
estimating the
- calculating the
risks
has difficulty
calculating
risks
decides on a course of
action that does not
follow logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis
- deciding on a course
of action
establishes some
is partially
accomplished
chooses a form and
quantifies benefits
and risks fairly
realistically

makes estimates about

the probability of
events, may be
somewhat unrealistic
calculates probability
of individual events
and totals for benefits
and risks, may have
some inaccuracies
makes reasonable
estimates about the
action that is based on
some aspects of the
action that follows
logically from the
chooses an
quantifies benefits
and risks realistically
probability of most
risks
establishes and
effectiveness
insightful choices
about form and
benefits and risks
makes accurate and
thoughtful estimates
about the probability
of events
probability of all
risks
action that follows
logically from the
and shows
considerable insight

Unit 5 Achievement Task: Golden Rice: Problem or Solution?
Students Name: _______________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- applying concepts to
predict possible
environmental and
social outcomes of
genetically modified
food
- defining and
distinguishing
between terms
- provides sufficient
information to
complete tasks
Inquiry
- researching using
appropriate sources
- organizing data
(e.g., consequence
map, diagrams, PMI
chart)
- identifying relevant
questions about the
long-term effects of
golden rice
- planning a method
of testing the long
term effects of
golden rice
Communication
- communication of
- using scientific
terminology
Date: __________________
Level 1
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to predict
outcomes
Level 2
correctly applies
concepts to predict
some possible
outcomes
Level 3
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic predictions
about several possible
outcomes
Level 4
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic and insightful
predictions about
many possible
outcomes
defines few key terms

accurately
defines some key

terms accurately
provides limited
information
uses few appropriate
sources; may rely on
remembered
information
organizes data
ineffectively; may
choose inappropriate
form
identifies few relevant
questions
provides some
information
uses some appropriate
resources

most key terms
provides sufficient
information
uses a variety of
appropriate resources

key terms
provides detailed
information
uses appropriate
sources extensively
organizes some data

effectively
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate analysis
identifies some
relevant questions
identifies many
relevant questions
identifies a specific,
comprehensive set of
relevant questions
provides a limited
plan with a general
strategy
provides a clear plan

including steps and a
timeline
provides a detailed
plan with clear steps
and timelines
limited clarity and

precision
provides a moderately
clear plan including
some steps; may not
identify timeline
precision
and precision

and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy; may
rely on general rather
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy; may
substitute general
terms in places
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
/2
-2- shows awareness of

audience (i.e., summit
on world health)
- accomplishing
purpose
limited sense of
audience
some sense of
audience
clear sense of
audience
strong sense of
audience
establishes limited
not accomplished

- includes required
features (e.g., charts,
tables, summary
overheads,
bibliography)
Making Connections
- connecting science
and technology
includes few required

features
establishes some
is partially
accomplished
includes some
required features
establishes and
effectiveness
includes all required
features
describes the science

concepts that underlie
genetic modification
with limited accuracy

with some accuracy
- connecting scientific
concepts and
environmental
outcomes
makes limited
connections between
scientific concepts
and environmental
outcomes
identifies a limited
number of
perspectives; perhaps
only ones in direct
opposition
assumes most sources
of information are
credible; may
recognize obvious
exceptions
offers limited, often
inaccurate,
assessment of key
factors
makes some
connections between
scientific concepts
and environmental
outcomes
identifies some
obvious perspectives
accurately describes
the science concepts
that underlie genetic
modification with
limited accuracy
makes connections
between scientific
concepts and
environmental
outcomes
identifies most
obvious perspectives

accurately and
thoroughly
makes insightful
connections between
scientific concepts
and environmental
outcomes
identifies many
perspectives,
including some that
may not be obvious
attempts to confirm
some facts, but may
not consider
perspective and biases
of writers
offers some
competent assessment
of key factors
identifies claims that

require support,
attempts to confirm
key facts, considers
bias
assesses key factors
competently
thoroughly and
insightfully evaluates
sources of
information
may have difficulty

identifying trade-offs
analyzes obvious
trade-offs with
moderate
effectiveness
bases opinions on
some relevant
evidence
analyzes trade-offs
with considerable
effectiveness
analyzes trade-offs
effectiveness
bases opinions on
sound interpretation
of evidence
bases opinions on
thorough, insightful
interpretation of
evidence
- identifying
perspectives
- evaluating sources
of information for
credibility, bias, and
relevance
- assessing key factors
(e.g., safety, cost,
benefits to health,
availability,
environmental
impact)
- analyzing trade-offs
- use of evidence
bases opinions on
limited or
misinterpreted
evidence
includes most
required features
assesses key factors

thoroughly

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A d d i s o n We s l e y p r e s e n t s

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Open Student Text

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

Cover Image: Doug Struthers/Stone

Marietta (Mars) Bloch

Senior Science Consultant

Christopher J. Clovis, B.Sc. (Hons), B.Ed., Ph.D.

Ellen Larsen, Ph.D.

Sister Gabriel Riddle, cps

Gabriel Roman Ayyavoo, M.Ed.

1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells

Cell Reactions and Energy

4.3 Protein Synthesis

6.1 The Origins of Genetics

Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

Case Study What Genes Can Tell Us

10.2 The Structure and Function of the

11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life

9.1 The Respiratory System

10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the

12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and

13.1 The Protists

13.3 The Plants

14.1 Simple Animals

15.1 Plants in Nature

Investigation 1 A Test for Protein in Seeds

16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function

17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations

Investigate the fundamental

b) Scanning electron micrograph

a) A replica of Hookes microscope

c) Scientist studying cells through a

Cell Transplant Procedure Seen as Major

Lack of MRI Machines Tests the Patience of

Oil Company Uses Single-Celled Microbe to Purify

The Chemistry of Life

By the end of this chapter,

identify and describe the structure

view and manipulate computergenerated, three-dimensional

carry out biological tests for

explain how the scientific

analyse ways in which societal

FIGURE 1.1 All life depends on the reactions of molecules in a watery

ntelopes and grasshoppers, fish and Douglas fir. Life occurs in an

Slowly add salt to the glass one spoonful at a time.

What changes have taken place?

How can the water hold so much salt without overflowing?

The Chemistry of Life

1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells

To understand how cells work it is necessary to understand some chemistry.

FIGURE 1.2 Covalent bonding. A covalent bond

a) Two atoms of hydrogen have come together,

Sodium atom (Na)

another atom (Figure 1.3). This transfer

Representation of Molecules Rather than

Chlorine atom (Cl)

Sodium ion (Na+)

Chloride ion (Cl)

FIGURE 1.3 Ionic bonding

Another symbol system represents

FIGURE 1.4 Molecular