Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Addison Wesley
Science Authors
Ray Bowers
Eric Brown
Sadru Damji
Dean Eichorn
Ute Goering-Boone
Art Last
Dale Parker
Robert Perkins
Geoff Rayner-Canham
Mark van Roode
Len Silverman
Gail de Souza
Elgin Wolfe
Rob Young
Advisory Panel
Ray Bowers
Shawna Hopkins
Heather Mace
Philip Marsh
Graham Satterthwaite
Gail de Souza
Elgin Wolfe
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Ray Bowers
Toronto District School Board
Toronto, Ontario
Dean Eichorn
Langley School District
Langley, British Columbia
Len Silverman
Toronto District School Board
Toronto, Ontario
Gail de Souza
Dufferin-Peel Catholic Separate School Board
Mississauga, Ontario
Rob Young
Peel District School Board
Mississauga, Ontario
Contributing Author
Robert Hedges
Peel District School Board
Mississauga, Ontario
Toronto
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Publisher
Susan Green
Production Manager
Theresa Thomas
Managing Editor
Cecilia Chan
Production Coordinator
Sandra Magill
Product Manager
Donna Picheca
Photo Research
Karen Taylor
Developmental Editors
Louise MacKenzie
Eileen Pyne-Rudzik, Ph.D.
Art Direction
Alex Li
Coordinating Editor
Lynne Gulliver
Editorial Team
Vaia Barkas
Dianne Broad
Ellen Davidson
Keith Lennox
Editorial Assistant
Judy Wilson
Indexers
Kate Baltais
Harold Otto
Marketing Manager
Dawna Day-Harris
Cover Design
Anthony Leung
Interior Design
Anthony Leung
Alex Li
Page Layout
David Cheung
Anthony Leung
Illustration
Alan Barnard
Kevin Cheng
David Cheung
Crowle Art Group
Anthony Leung
Cynthia Watada
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Ack n ow l e d g e m e n t s
Curriculum and Assessment Consultant
Reviewers
Ortwin Baldauf
Glendale S.S., Hamilton
Technology Consultant
Mike Newnham
Thames Valley District School Board
Andrew Booth
Cobourg D.C.I. East, Cobourg
Debbie Chambers
North Addington Education Centre, Cloyne
Joe DAmico
St. Mary C.S.S., Pickering
Robert Day
Cardinal Newman C.S.S., Scarborough
Laura Elgar
Stouffville D.S.S., Stouffville
Accuracy Reviewers
Clayton Ellis
Central Technical School, Toronto
Bruce Evans
St. Joan of Arc C.H.S., Maple
L. Kott, Ph.D.
Research Scientist, Canola Breeder/Biotechnologist,
Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph
Pauline Fidler
Chesley D.H.S., Chesley
Safety Reviewer
Brian Ryder
Westmount S.S., Hamilton
Istvan Hegedus
Humberside C.I., Toronto
George Hewitt
Iroquois Falls S.S., Iroquois Falls
Beth Lisser
Rick Hansen S.S. Mississauga
Dave Oehring
Kirkland Lake C.V.I., Kirkland Lake (Retired)
Alison Paul
Northview Heights S.S., North York
Mark Potvin
Sir Robert Borden H.S., Nepean
Catholicity Reviewers
Donna Taylor
Iroquois Ridge H.S., Oakville
Naz Fiscaletti
St. Francis Xavier S.S., Mississauga
Angela Vavitsas
Northern S.S., Toronto
Contributing Writers
Review Panel
Gabriel Roman Ayyavoo, M.Ed.
Francis Libermann C.H.S., Scarborough
Katherine Bellomo
Toronto District School Board
Pearl Bradd
Riverside S.S., Windsor
Zoltan Koritar
Northern S.S., Toronto
Crystal Potvin
Confederation S.S., Val Caron
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Contents
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
CHAPTER 1
The Chemistry of Life
CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure and Function
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure
2.2 Cell Structures
2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles
Case Study Ethics and Stem Cell Research
Investigation 1 Estimating an Objects Size with
the Microscope
Investigation 2 Characteristics of Cells
Chapter Summary
Chapter 2 Review
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles
Case Study Drug Addiction and the Cell
Investigation 1 A Study of Osmosis: Determining
the Solute Concentration of Potatoes
Investigation 2 Effects on Permeability
Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 Review
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
4.1
4.2
6
13
17
21
23
26
29
31
33
34
36
38
41
48
57
58
60
61
62
64
66
68
72
75
79
80
82
83
84
86
88
90
104
105
106
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 1 Review
108
110
112
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
116
CHAPTER 5
Mitosis and Meiosis
118
5.1 Mitosis
Case Study The Demand for Human Tissue
5.2 Meiosis
5.3 Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction
Investigation 1 Observing Cells in the Process
of Meiosis
Investigation 2 Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis
Chapter Summary
Chapter 5 Review
CHAPTER 6
Genetics and Heredity
120
129
131
143
147
148
149
150
152
CHAPTER 7
Genetics and Society
7.1
7.2
7.3
93
95
98
102
103
154
160
168
180
182
183
184
186
188
201
210
v
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225
228
230
231
232
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 2 Review
234
236
238
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324
335
341
345
346
349
354
356
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 3 Review
358
360
362
246
254
256
UNIT 4
Diversity of Living
Things
366
UNIT 3
Internal Systems
242
CHAPTER 8
Nutrition and Digestion
244
8.1 Nutrition
Case Study Health and the Media
8.2 The Digestive System
8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their
Associated Enzymes
8.4 Digestion in Various Organisms
Investigation 1 What Effect Does Temperature
Have on an Enzyme?
Investigation 2 Enzyme Activity in Fruit
Chapter Summary
Chapter 8 Review
267
275
CHAPTER 11
Classification
368
279
281
282
284
CHAPTER 9
Respiration
370
377
382
384
385
386
286
CHAPTER 12
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
and Viruses
388
311
312
314
CHAPTER 10
Circulation
316
vi
Contents
288
294
300
305
306
309
318
323
414
415
416
CHAPTER 13
Protists, Fungi, and Plants
418
420
427
390
400
405
412
413
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CHAPTER 14
The Animal Kingdom
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434
445
446
447
448
450
452
457
462
465
469
477
478
479
481
482
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 4 Review
484
486
488
UNIT 5
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and Functions
492
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants
494
496
502
509
514
519
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523
524
525
526
CHAPTER 16
Plant Structure and Function
528
CHAPTER 17
Plant Growth and Development
530
539
541
545
551
552
553
554
556
558
Exploring Careers
Achievement Task
Unit 5 Review
580
582
584
Appendix
Glossary
Answers to Numerical Questions
Index
Photo Credits and Acknowledgements
589
610
630
633
644
Contents
568
574
576
577
578
vii
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UNIT
1
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of
cell structure and function and the
processes of metabolism and
membrane transport
Demonstrate an understanding of
the relationship between cell
functions and their technological
and environmental applications
Cellular Functions
t all started in 1665 when Robert Hooke first viewed what he called cells
through his homemade microscope. It continues today as biologists use
the latest high-tech electron microscopes to reveal the mysteries of cells.
You dont have to be a biologist, however, to benefit from knowledge about
cells. Whether you realize it or not, issues concerning cells affect you in
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your everyday life. Does that new low-fat diet you want to try actually work
and is it safe? Why is there such controversy surrounding the use of anabolic
steroids in sports? Should the government spend millions of tax dollars to
equip hospitals with MRI machines? What is the best way to clean up an oil
spill? These questions have one thing in common: they can best be answered
using an understanding of cellular functions.
In this unit, you will study the dynamic processes by which nutrients and
waste material are moved in, out, and around cells. You will investigate
molecules that make up the structure of cells and others that play important
roles in cell metabolism. You will examine the structures within cells that not
only ensure the health of each individual cell, but also the health of the
entire organism. You will gain the knowledge about cells necessary to make
important decisions throughout your entire life, decisions that could affect
your health and the world around you.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learning by proposing recommendations to Health Canada
for allocation of funds for public health campaigns. You
will research the diseases most affecting Canadians today
and analyze which disease or diseases could be most
impacted by increased public awareness. You will also
consider the social and economic impacts of public
health campaigns, and how public awareness can be
most effectively achieved. See page 110.
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CHAPTER 1
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
environment.
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Discovering Biology
Water: An excellent solvent
A solvent is the substance in which a solute is dissolved.
1.
Place a small glass on a saucer and fill the glass to the brim with water.
2.
3.
Record how many spoonfuls of salt the water can hold before the glass
overflows.
CHECKPOINT
Brainstorm what you know
about elements and how
they link to one another.
Element
CHAPTER 1
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how atoms, ions, and molecules are important to biological compounds
represent the structure of important biological molecules in different ways
identify and describe the structure and biological functions of water
relate characteristics of acids and bases and the use of the pH scale to conditions in
living organisms
WORD ORIGIN
Atom from the Greek atomos,
meaning indivisible or unable
to divide. Democritus kept
breaking grains of salt into
smaller pieces and asked his
students if the pieces were still
salt. He claimed he would
eventually obtain atoms
pieces that could no longer be
broken.
INFOBIT
Many biological terms in this
unit originate from the Greek
language. This is partially because Greek philosophers such
as Democritus and Aristotle
were among the first to study
science. Present-day scientists
have used words originating
from the Greek language to
create modern scientific words
as a tribute to the work of the
ancient Greeks.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
hydrogen
atom
hydrogen
atom
e
e
hydrogen molecule
oxygen atom
e
e
hydrogen
atom
e
e
e
e
hydrogen
atom
water molecule
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a)
e
electron
transfer
e
salt crystals
b)
Water
Molecular Formulas
Glucose
H2O
C6H12O6
formulas
CHAPTER 1
Contents
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H
H
OH
C
H
O
H
OH
OH
OH
water molecule
a)
glucose molecule
C
R
C
OH
b)
c)
OH
WORD ORIGIN
Polymer and monomer from
the Greek poly, meaning
many, mono, meaning one
and meris, meaning parts.
Polar from the Latin polus,
meaning end of axis.
INFOBIT
PEBBLES (Probes Encapsulated by BioListic Embedding) are
biosensors that allow scientists
to observe chemical processes
within a living cell. These polymer spheres can be as small as
20 nm (1nm = 109 m) in diameter. Dye is placed into the polymer and when the PEBBLE is
injected into the cell, the dye
will become fluorescent if activated by a wavelength of light.
As the targeted ion or molecule
in the cell changes, the fluorescence will increase or
decrease. This technology has
potential applications to the
study of changes in cell chemistry due to diseases or drugs.
FIGURE 1.7
WEBLINK
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Proton behaviour
is responsible
for safer, better
medical imaging
Protons in the nucleus of atoms are
like tiny magnets. Magnetic resonance imaging relies on this property
of protons to create detailed medical
images. In an MRI scanner, a person
is placed into a machine capable of
producing a very strong magnetic
field. When the magnetic field is
turned on, the protons in the atoms
of the persons body tissues line up
with the magnetic field (much as a
compass lines up with Earths magnetic field). When the magnetic field
is turned off, the protons return to
their original position.
As the protons return to their
pre-magnetic state, they emit radio
waves that are received by special
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b)
FIGURE 1.8 a) MRI scans show soft tissue detail much better than b) X rays do.
H
+
electrons
slight negative
charge
slight positive
charge
CHAPTER 1
Contents
INFOBIT
Scientists studying a 175-millionyear-old meteorite from Mars
that landed in India in 1865
have found indications that
water once flowed on the surface of Mars. Grains from the
meteorite contain a high proportion of substances that are
soluble in water. Also, images
from the Mars Orbiter camera
suggest the presence of watercarved gullies on the planet.
These discoveries have piqued
the interest of scientists, who
believe that life cannot evolve
without water.
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+
O
H
O
H
H
+
+
H
H
O
O
+
+ H
+
H
H
+
Hydrogen bond
10
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Van der Waals interactions are nonspecific weak attractive forces between
atoms or molecules that are the result
of random fluctuations in the distribution of electrons. Both polar and
nonpolar molecules have van der Waals
interactions. Hydrophobic interactions
occur because nonpolar molecules are
excluded from mixing with polar
molecules like water and so tend to associate with each other. Hydrophobic interactions are very important in cell
membranes.
H
+
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sodium and
chloride ions
dissolved
in water
water
(solvent)
H
O
H
sodium
chloride
(solute)
Cl
Na+
a)
b)
c)
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H+ concentration
(mol L1)
pH
ACIDIC
battery acid
hydrochloric acid
lemon juice, gastric (stomach) juice
cola, beer, wine, vinegar
tomatoes
black coffee
urine
NEUTRAL
pure water
human blood
seawater
baking soda
Great Salt Lake
household ammonia
household bleach
H2O
H+ + OH
oven cleaner
lye
BASIC
FIGURE 1.12 Common substances and the pH scale. The pH scale measures the
concentration of hydrogen ions per litre of solution. The most acidic substances on
the scale have the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, while the most basic (or
alkaline) substances have the least concentration of hydrogen ions. The scale is logarithmic, so that a difference of one unit on the pH scale means a 10 times difference in concentration. Wine, for example, is 10 times as acidic as tomatoes and 100
times as acidic as black coffee.
M AT H L I N K
The pH value is defined as the
negative log of the concentration of H+ in a solution. For every
unit change in pH, there is a 10
times change in the concentration of H+, so a pH of 4 means a
H+ concentration of 104 mol L1
(0.0001 mol L1), while a pH of 5
means a H+ of 105 (0.00001 mol L1).
The hydrochloric acid in Figure
1.12 is 101 mol L1 (0.1 mol L1).
11
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OH (hydroxyl radical)
rain
cloud
pollution
H2SO4
(sulfuric acid)
SO2
HNO3
(nitric acid)
NO2
NO
acid
rain
a)
b)
FIGURE 1.13 How acid rain forms
a) Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), combine with hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These combine with atmospheric water to create acid precipitation.
b) A stand of trees in Ontario damaged by acid rain
12
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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7.
Figure 1.12 shows the relationship between pH and gastric juice, urine, pure
water, and blood. Propose other possible ways of representing this information.
Making Connections
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Investigation
Refer to page 29,
Investigation 1
WORDORIGIN
CH2OH
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify and describe the structure of carbohydrates
understand the formation of polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis
relate the ability to increase energy stored in muscles to physical training
O H
Key Understandings
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
glucose
drogen, and oxygen. Like many other organic molecules, carbohydrates may be
monomers or polymers. The monomer
forms of carbohydrates are known as
monosaccharides. For example,
glucose is a monosaccharide. The
molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6
(Figure 1.14).
CHAPTER 1
13
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Sweet Tooth
The average Canadian consumes about
57 kg of sugar a year. Your food, soft
drinks, sports drinksjust about every
prepared food you eathas an added
sweetener. Traditionally, most of this
sugar has been in the form of sucrose
refined from sugar cane grown in
Caribbean countries, thus providing an
important economic export for those
countries. Recently a technique has been
HOCH2
HOCH2
O H
H
H
OH
H
OH
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate
molecules (complex carbohydrates) that
are polymers of monosaccharides such
as glucose. Some important polysaccharides include starch, glycogen and
cellulose. Starch is the energy storage
molecule in plants and a good source of
energy for human cells. Glycogen is the
short-term energy storage molecule in
human cells. Cellulose is the molecule
that makes up plant cell walls.
Differences between the polysaccharides
are caused by differences in their molecular structure. Organisms must break
down polysaccharides to obtain usable
glucose molecules. For example, your
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
CH2OH
O OH
HO
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O H HOCH
2
H
HO
OH
OH
maltose
HO
OH
CH2OH
sucrose
glucose
CH2OH
CH2OH
O H
glucose
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
O H
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
Dehydration
Synthesis
Hydrolysis
maltose
CH2OH
water
CH2OH
O H
H
OH
OH
HO
O H
H
O
H
OH
OH
H 2O
OH
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
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potato
a) STARCH
liver
b) GLYCOGEN
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Investigation
Refer to page 31,
Investigation 2
WEBLINK
algae
c) CELLULOSE
CHAPTER 1
15
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2.
3.
Using diagrams illustrate why a dehydration reaction may be considered the reverse of a hydrolysis
reaction.
4.
16
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5.
Making Connections
6. Some people believe that a vegetarian
diet is best for you and for the environment too.
Prepare a PMI chart on this statement.
Include a consideration of dietary fibre
(more technically known as the
polysaccharide cellulose).
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify and describe the structure of lipids
understand the varied functions of lipids in cells
relate types of lipids to their role in a balanced diet
WORDORIGIN
Palmitic acid
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Saturated
(no double bonds)
Oleic acid
H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Monounsaturated
(one double bond)
Linoleic acid
H H H H H H
H H
O H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C H
C C C
C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H
H H
H H H H H H H H
Polyunsaturated
(more than one double bond)
FIGURE 1.20 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
CHAPTER 1
17
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WEBLINK
H
H
OH
HO
C
O
OH
HO
OH H
O
R1
R1
O
R2
O
C
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R2
3 H2O
water
O
R
R3
H
glycerol
3 fatty acids
triglyceride
FIGURE 1.21 Formation of a triglyceride. R1, R2, and R3 stand for the hydrocarbon
chain of the particular fatty acid. For example, R1, R2, and R3 could be palmitic acid,
oleic acid, or linoleic acid as shown in Figure 1.20.
nucleus of
fat cell
adipose
tissue
capillaries
fat cells
FIGURE 1.22 In a microscope slide of adipose tissue the fat cells appear empty
because the lipid contents dissolve during preparation of the tissue.
18
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Cellular Functions
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Discovering Biology
The Hidden Fats: What the Food Labels Dont Tell You
Although Health Canada rules require ingredient labels on food products, they
may not always tell you all of the types of compounds present in a particular food.
1. Obtain labels from fat-containing products such as potato chips, margarine,
cookies, mayonnaise, etc.
2. List the amounts of the various types of fats shown on the food labels in a chart
similar to the one shown.
3. Calculate the amount of hidden fat in the food product in the following way:
Total fat (Polyunsaturates + Monounsaturates + Saturates)
= Amount of hidden fat
The hidden fats are known as trans-fatty acids. These lipids
are produced when hydrogen atoms are added to unsaturated fats, a process known as hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation allows liquid vegetable oils to become
solids at room temperature. Trans-fatty acids are considered by many experts to be quite harmful to your
health. They are not required to be listed on food product labels at the present time, although some manufacturers have started to do so.
Questions:
Which food product had the most hidden fats? Which had the least?
Use print or electronic references to research the health-related effect of
trans-fatty acids and report your findings to the class.
What is your opinion on the labelling of different foods? What changes in
labelling, if any, would you like to see?
WORDORIGIN
Phospholipids
+
a)
nitrogencontaining
group
phosphate
group
polar head
nonpolar tails
b)
like attracts like
phospholipids
oil (nonpolar)
water (polar)
nonpolar, hydrophobic
tails (fatty acids)
polar, hydrophilic
heads
CHAPTER 1
19
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Phospholipids
b) What makes individual steroids unique are the side chains that
are attached to the rings:
CH3
OH
CH3
HC
CH3
CH3
Steroids
CH2
testosterone
CH2
HC
OH
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
cholesterol
estrogen
HO
HO
Anabolic Steroids
Anabolic steroids are artificial versions of the male sex hormone testosterone that some men and women
take to increase their strength and
muscle size. Anabolic steroids are
UNIT 1
CH2
20
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Cellular Functions
females, steroid use can stop menstruation, cause scalp hair to fall out,
and cause body and facial hair
growth to increase. In males, anabolic steroid use can interfere with
the production of natural testosterone, causing the testes to shrink,
sperm count and reproductive ability to decrease, and scalp hair to be
permanently lost.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
2.
3.
You are members of a team assigned to look at the research that currently exists on diet and its effect on
disease. Your team should include a nutritionist, a scientist, a medical doctor, a member of the news media,
and a person who is living with diabetes or cancer. You
will be preparing a presentation to a Health Canada
Committee on your recommendations for revising or
maintaining the current Canadas Food Guide. Your proposal should include an analysis of statistics, and
evidence from current research, as well as a summary
of the perspectives represented within your team.
CHAPTER 1
21
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A Three-dimensional
View of Molecules
The recently developed scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) and
atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are
able to reveal even smaller things
than either transmission or scanning
electron microscopes can. STMs and
AFMs belong to a family of scanning probe microscopes that are
based on mapping interactions between a physical tip and a surface of
interest. STMs map current/voltage
interactions and AFMs map atomic
force interactions.
The invention of the STM was a
Nobel-prize winning discovery at
WEBLINK
Understanding Concepts
1.
Next Section
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. A 100-g health food bar is advertised
as being low in saturated fat.
The total fat is listed as 32.2 g,
while polyunsaturates are 1.2 g and
22
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
insulin.
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Making Connections
7.
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1.4 Proteins
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify and describe the structure of proteins
understand the formation of peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis
relate protein structure and function
H
N
carboxyl
group
OH
R
WORDORIGIN
Protein from the Greek, proteios meaning of the first
rank. The term was first used
by the Dutch chemist Gerard
Johannes Mulder in 1838.
Mulder recognized the primary
importance of proteins.
H
O
H
N
H
H
N
OH
C
OH
ile
H2 O
OH
OH
gln
ala
H
O
H2 O
CH2
tyrosine
H
N
OH
OH
ala
gln
ile
H
O
H
N
OH
CH2
glutamine
C
H2N
ala
le u
s er
glu
glu
his
ala
gln
il e
s er
tyr
a la
ser
glu
glu
Amino acids join together by dehydration synthesis to form polypeptide chains that
fold up to become proteins. The formation of each peptide bond yields water as a
by-product. Here alanine (ala) joins with glutamine (gln), which is then linked to isoleucine
(ile). A typical protein consists of hundreds of amino acids linked together.
CHAPTER 1
23
Contents
M AT H L I N K
How would you calculate the
number of different proteins
150 amino acids long that could
be assembled from the 20 different amino acids available in
cells? Hint: How many choices
are there for the first amino
acid? How many for the second? How many different proteins, then, could be assembled
from two amino acids? Does
the same logic apply to proteins assembled from 150
amino acids?
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a)
amino acid sequence
Secondary
structure
b)
helix
random coil
pleated sheet
FIGURE 1.29 Four levels of
structure in proteins.
c)
Tertiary
structure
folded polypeptide
chain
24
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Quaternary
structure
d)
two or more
polypeptide chains
Contents
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WEBLINK
2.
Provide reasons why proteins are important to cells and cellular functions.
3.
4.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
Making Connections
10. Linus Pauling was one of the few scientists to win the Nobel Prize twice.
Research his work on protein structure
at the library or on the Internet. List at
least two proteins present in common
substances whose structures are precisely known. Relate their function to
their structure.
11. Advertisements for protein supplements are very popular in fitness and
body-building magazines. Identify
claims being made in these ads. Are
they justified? Why?
CHAPTER 1
25
Contents
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify and describe the structure and biological importance of nucleic acids
relate energy release in the cell to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
sugar
(deoxyribose)
nitrogenous
base
NUCLEOTIDE
P
O
O
P
P
O
T
b)
P
P
O
P
P
O
O
P
O
P
sugar-phosphate
backbone
hydrogen bond
phosphate
group
Nucleic acids form the important hereditary molecule DNA, which determines
the formation of substances characteristic of any particular species, and also
its closely related molecular cousin RNA,
which is involved in the synthesis of the
proteins determined by the DNA code.
Nucleic acids are polymers formed from
monomer molecules called nucleotides.
Nucleotides are made of three subunits:
a nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon pentose sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. The sugar is deoxyribose
in DNA or ribose in RNA, and the nitrogen-containing base may be one of
five compounds: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Thymine is
present only in DNA; uracil is present
only in RNA.
As shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31,
in DNA the sugar and phosphate groups
form the outer backbone of the molecule,
while the bases point toward the interior. Hydrogen bonds formed through
P
P
blocks of DNA.
DNA strand
DNA
double helix
26
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Molecular Circuits
CHAPTER 1
27
Contents
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ATP
Hydrolysis
Energy from
exergonic reactions
ation synth
ydr
es
eh
is
Energy for
endergonic reactions
ADP+ P
2.
3.
4.
Explain how the ATP molecule is involved in the storage and release of energy in cells.
5.
6.
28
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
When researchers analyze the structure of DNA, certain patterns are constant. For example, the number of
adenine nucleotides always equals the
number of thymine nucleotides, and
the number of guanine nucleotides always equals the number of cytosine nucleotides. Based on this information,
what might you conclude about the
structure of the DNA molecule?
Investigate the DNA molecule and
check your conclusion.
Examine Figure 1.30. The structure of
DNA is described as a double helix.
What common object does the shape
of the DNA molecule remind you of?
Relate the parts of that object to the
molecules that make up DNA.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
8.
Making Connections
9.
Contents
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
3.
How do carbon atoms and other atoms join to form organic molecules?
Part B Lipids
4. Build a glycerol molecule as shown in Figure 1.35.
Procedure
1.
OH
OH
OH
Part A Carbohydrates
H
FIGURE 1.35 A glycerol molecule
H
H
OH
5.
H
H
CH3 (CH2)nCOOH
OH
OH
OH
OH
2.
Build three molecules of a short fatty acid. The general formula of a fatty acid is:
glucose
CH2OH
CH2OH
O H
H
H
OH
OH
HO
FIGURE 1.34
glucose
OH
O H
H
H
OH
H
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
Dehydration
Synthesis
Hydrolysis
maltose
CH2OH
water
CH2OH
O H
H
OH
OH
HO
O H
H
O
H
OH
OH
H2O
OH
CHAPTER 1
29
Contents
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(continued)
9.
O H H H
HO
C C C C H
H H H
6.
Part C Proteins
7. Proteins are made from different combinations of
the 20 different amino acids. Remember that all
amino acids contain an amino group and a carboxylic acid group. Two of the simplest amino acids
are glycine and alanine. Use Figure 1.37 to help
you build glycine and alanine.
H O
H
N
H
C C O H
N
H
C C
H C H
O H
H
a)
b)
8.
30
Arrange the amino acids so you can bond them together by simulating the process of dehydration
synthesis.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Extending
8. When you consume more food than you require the
mitochondria in the liver are involved in forming
triglycerides from the excess. Why is storage of
triglycerides important?
9. Some excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver
and muscle. Why is it helpful that some glucose
supplies are stored as glycogen instead of all being
converted to triglycerides (fat)?
10. Prepare a flow chart or comic strip to communicate to elementary-school students the importance
of consuming a proper diet with regard to fat.
Contents
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 1.2)
Most of the compounds present in your cells either originate in or are made from the food that you eat.
Therefore you should be able to confirm the presence
of many of these compounds in typical foods.
3.
Problem
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Materials
(per group of 24 students)
safety goggles
disposable gloves
(not latex)
Benedicts solution
Biuret reagent
10% NaOH
starch suspension
glucose solution
Lugols iodine
albumin (egg white)
solution
assorted food items
such as 2% milk,
whole milk, hard
candy, butter,
sunflower seeds
400-mL beaker
10-mL graduated
cylinder
grease pencil
hot plate
eyedropper
8 test tubes
test-tube holder
test-tube rack
mortar and pestle
plain brown paper
dropper
Procedure
1.
Copy Table 1.1 in your lab notebook. You will complete the white sections only.
2.
Test Tube
Contents
Test Results
Starch
Test
Sugar
Test
Protein
Test
Lipid
Test
Control
Starch
Suspension
Glucose
Solution
Albumin
Solution
Oil
Suspension
2% milk
CHAPTER 1
31
Contents
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(continued)
3. Would eating only hard candy or nuts provide a balanced diet? Explain.
Extending
5. Why do you think it is important to know what
compounds are present in food?
6. What application do you think there is for these
tests? Hint: How carefully did you read your breakfast cereal box this morning?
32
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
amino acid
atom
cellulose
cholesterol
compound
covalent bond
disaccharide
double helix
glycerol
glycogen
hydrogen bond
hydrophilic
hydrophobic
inorganic compound
ionic bond
lipid
molecule
molecular formula
monomer
monosaccharide
nucleotide
organic compound
phospholipid
polar molecule
polymer
polypeptide
polysaccharide
primary structure
quaternary structure
R group
saturated fat
secondary structure
starch
steroid
structural formula
tertiary structure
triglyceride
unsaturated fat
Essential Understandings
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells
1.4 Proteins
2.
3.
Explain how chemistry and biology work together to support our understanding of the cell.
4.
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33
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CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Which of the following combinations does not describe
an organic molecule?
a) carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
b) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c) nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus
d) phospholipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid
2. Water molecules are polar because
a) they have north and south poles
b) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time
around the hydrogen atoms than the oxygen atom,
resulting in the hydrogen atom having a slight negative charge and the oxygen atom having a slight
positive charge
c) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time
around the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom,
resulting in the oxygen atom having a slight negative charge and the hydrogen atom having a slight
positive charge
d) none of the above
3. The monomer of all biologically important polysaccharides is
a) an amino acid
b) water
c) a phospholipid
d) glucose
4. Sucrose is commonly known as
a) table sugar
b) a monosaccharide
c) a polysaccharide
d) a nucleic acid
5. The
is
a)
b)
c)
d)
34
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
23. A company manufacturing cookie dough claims that their
new product is fat-free. Upon scientific examination of
the contents of the product at Health Canada, it is found
to contain glucose, sucrose, glycerol, a number of different amino acids, and several molecules containing
long carbon hydrogen chains and carboxyl groups.
According to these results, should the manufacturer be
marketing the product as fat-free? Why or why not?
24. Explain why the formation of a polysaccharide is a dehydration synthesis reaction. Use a diagram to help explain your answer.
25. Unsaturated fats are turned into saturated fats, in a process termed hydrogenation. Explain why this is an appropriate name for this process.
26. Suggest simple experiments to decide if a solid food-like
substance contains lipids, proteins, or carbohydrates.
27. Suggest a method a scientist might use to distinguish between a molecule that was a monomer and one that was
a polymer.
28. Using the Internet and other sources, research the controversy surrounding Olestra. Write a paragraph that informs others of the controversy about this substance.
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29. What foods have you consumed this week that were high
in saturated fat, unsaturated fat, trans-fatty acids. Based
on what you have learned in this chapter prepare a table
similar to the one below and fill in the appropriate information.
Type of fat
Health effects of
the particular fat
Making Connections
32. Write a brief essay explaining how life in Ontario may
be different if ice did not float.
33. Write a supported opinion in favour of one of the
following statements: (1) organic compounds are the most
important compounds in cells, or (2) inorganic compounds, including water, are the most important compounds in cells.
34. Many organizations publish information related to the
amount and types of food you should be eating. These
nutritional guidelines do not always agree. What sort
of characteristics should you use to decide if the recommendations of a particular group are based on fact
or opinion?
35. There is some controversy as to the cause of global
warming. Many scientists believe that the increase in the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is to blame for global
warming. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
by industrial processes, home heating, and automobile
exhaust. It is thought to act like a blanket over Earth
keeping the heat in. Other scientists claim that the temperature increase is just a cyclical variation in our planets
climate, such as the ice ages were. Still other experts are
in doubt as to what the cause is. If you were the minister
responsible for the environment, what recommendations
would you make to the House of Commons regarding the
actions Canada should take to combat the effects of global
warming?
CHAPTER 1
35
Contents
UNIT
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
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UN
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CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure
and Function
FIGURE 2.1 The diagram of a plant cell indicates the importance of the cell wall,
choroplasts, and central vacuole. These are all structures that are not present in
animal cells.
36
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ll living things are made of cells, but despite the amazing diversity of life
on Earth everything from microscopic bacteria to giant squids to
humans all cells contain similar basic parts. Each part or structure has
a specific job or function to perform. For instance, the cell membrane regulates everything that enters and exits a cell, the nucleus controls all of the
cells activities, and vesicles transport materials from place to place within
a cell. If any structure fails, the operation of the entire cell is compromised.
For example, when a basic cell structure called a lysosome malfunctions in
a human cell, it may cause one of thirty diseases collectively known as
lysosomal transport diseases.
In this chapter, you will be introduced to cells and basic cell theory. You
will study the relationship between surface area and volume, which explains
why cells are so small. You will learn to differentiate between the two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. You will investigate the types of
structures mentioned above as well as other important cell structures such
as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and mitochondria. You will
examine how each structure manages a different cell function. As you proceed
through the chapter, you will gain an understanding of some of the serious
health problems that result when any one of the cells structures malfunctions.
Discovering Biology
Cells
What do you remember about cells? You have probably looked at cells under
the microscope in previous science classes. Sketch a diagram of a cell from
memory. Include structures in your drawing and label them. Compare your
drawing with those of other students. Were you reminded of some organelles
you had forgotten by looking at others drawings?
CHECKPOINT
Make a chart to list what
you know about cell structures and how they function.
Structure
Function
37
Contents
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the cell theory
describe the relationship between surface area and volume
understand why cells are small
WEBLINK
Robert Hooke, Antonie van
Leuwenhoek, and Henri
Dutrochet contributed to the
cell theory. Research the role
of each of these scientists and
prepare a written report to
summarize your information.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
M AT H L I N K
Remember the formulas:
a) Volume of a cube = s3
b) Surface area of a cube = 6s2
FIGURE 2.2 From left to right Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow. Each contributed
to the cell theory, in 1838, 1839, and 1858 respectively.
38
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Contents
Previous Section
maximum membrane surface area possible, while at the same time minimizing the distance within the cell that
important molecules have to travel.
Minimizing distance also minimizes the
time taken for cell processes. With this
in mind, it is easy to show mathematically why it is better for cells to be small.
a)
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100 m
blue whale
10 m
human
1m
10 cm
chicken egg
1 cm
frog egg
1 mm
100 m
plant and
animal cells
b)
10 m
cell nucleus
most bacteria
1 m
100 nm
mitochondrion
smallest bacteria
large virus
10 nm
c)
proteins
lipids
1 nm
atoms
1 centimetre (cm)
1 millimetre (mm)
1 micrometre (m)
1 nanometre (nm)
FIGURE 2.3 Hidden life. Microscope enlargements of the point of a pin show living organisms, bacteria, present on an object that we
might think unsuitable for supporting life.
a) 85; b) 425; c) 2100)
CHAPTER 2
39
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TABLE 2.1 The Effect of Size per Cube Side on Surface Area and Volume
Volume (cm )
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
24
48
96
3:1
6:1
12:1
INFOBIT
Understanding Concepts
1. Biologists accept that life begins at the
cellular level of organization. Provide
two pieces of evidence to support this
view.
2. What is the normal size range for most
cells? Explain why it is an advantage
for cells to be small.
3. Calculate the volume and surface area
of 512 cubes with sides of 0.25 cm.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
4. Two different types of cells have the following dimensions. Cell #1 is 2 mm
2 mm 8 mm and cell #2 is 1 mm
2 mm 16 mm.
Investigation
Refer to page 58,
Investigation 1
40
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Making Connections
7.
Contents
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe how cell structures manage various cell functions
explain the fluid mosaic structure of membranes
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
DNA
in nucleoid region
within membrane-bound nucleus
Size
usually smaller
usually larger
Organization
usually single-celled
often multicellular
O2
O2
Metabolism
O2
O2
may not need oxygen
O2
O2
O2
usually need oxygen to exist
Organelles
no organelles
membrane-bound organelles
CHAPTER 2
41
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WORD ORIGIN
Next Section
clude all protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Protists are organisms like
Amoeba and Paramecium.
Eu is a Greek word meaning good.
Therefore eukaryotes have a good or
real nucleus as well as other cell structures. Eukaryotic cells are divided into
compartments by membranes. These different compartments have specific functions and are called organelles. Each type
of organelle has its own unique function.
Throughout the rest of this chapter you
will learn about the structure and function of the various cell organelles.
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phospholipids
cholesterol
cytoskeleton
42
UNIT 1
A double or bilayer of
phospholipid molecules,
with their hydrophilic
heads facing outward,
toward the watery
environment that lies both
inside and outside the cell,
and their hydrophobic
tails pointing inward,
toward each other.
Cellular Functions
Cholesterol molecules
that act as a patching
substance and that help
the cell maintain an
optimal level of fluidity.
proteins
peripheral
protein
integral
protein
a.
b.
a. Structural support,
often when attached to
parts of the cells
scaffolding, or
cytoskeleton.
b. Recognition. Binding
sites on some proteins can
serve to identify the cell to
other cells, such
as those of the immune
system.
Contents
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Waste Not,
Want Not
As it turns out, environmentally
harmful substances that would kill
most organismssuch as crude oil,
gasoline, diesel fuel, and other organic pollutantsserve as a source
of food for other organisms. It is the
Next Section
The phospholipid bilayer is composed of two rows or layers of phospholipid molecules. The hydrophilic
heads of the phospholipids are found on
the outside and inside of the membranefacing the watery environment
located both inside and outside a cell.
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glycocalyx
sugar
chains
c.
d.
4
c. Communication. Receptor
proteins, protruding out from the
plasma membrane, can be the point
of contact for signals sent to the cell
via traveling molecules, such as
hormones.
CHAPTER 2
43
Contents
Previous Section
Membrane Glycoprotein
Chains Play a Key Role
in the Fight Against
Disease
Dr. Harry Jennings of the National
Research Council has contributed to
a medical breakthroughthe production of the first fully synthetic
Next Section
polar
head
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watery
extracellular
fluid
phospholipid bilayer.
A double layer or bilayer of phospholipids
form the plasma
membrane. The hydrophobic tails form
the interior of the
membrane, while the
hydrophilic heads
point toward the watery environment inside and outside the
cell.
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UNIT 1
hydrophilic
nonpolar
tails
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
hydrophobic molecules
pass through freely
a) Phospholipid molecule
Cellular Functions
b) Phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic molecules
do not pass through
freely
watery
cytosol
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Cell Wall
Cell walls are not found in animal cells,
but they are found in Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria, some protists, fungi, and
plant cells. Plant cell walls are mainly
made of the polysaccharide cellulose.
Cell walls are much stronger and thicker
than cell membranes, and in plants provide structural support to the cell. It is
because of cell walls that trees are able
to grow to such enormous heights and
that wood, composed of cell walls with
the compound lignin attached, is as
strong as it is.
cell walls
a) Cell walls play a role in both
living and dead cells. Here they
make up part of the bark.
b) A tree can reach enormous
heights because of the strength
of the wood, which is mostly
made up of lignified cell walls.
b)
a)
Discovering Biology
Caution: Do not do this activity if you have a latex allergy unless you are sure the balloons
are non-latex balloons.
1. Take a party balloon and blow it up until it bursts.
2. Cut a length from the leg of some pantyhose.
3. Take the same type of balloon as used in Step 1 and put it inside the length of
pantyhose.
4. Blow up the balloon as far as possible. Try to make it burst.
5. Observe the result.
The material of the pantyhose acts like the cell wall and prevents the balloon from
bursting. This is due to the cross-linking of fibres that makes the pantyhose very
strong. In a similar way the cell wall prevents the cell membrane in a plant cell
from bursting. Compare this to the animal cell shown in Figure 3.7, page 71.
CHAPTER 2
45
Contents
WEBLINK
Penicillin no longer functions
effectively as an antibiotic for
some people. Research why
this is so, as well as three
alternative antibiotics that can
be prescribed. Summarize your
information in a summary
paragraph and data table,
including the name and
description of the alternative.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
INFOBIT
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nucleolus
nuclear
envelope
DNA
DNA
mRNA
inner membrane
outer membrane
nuclear pore
46
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Contents
Previous Section
Nucleus
The nucleus is the genetic control centre of the cell. It is usually spherical
in shape and is often the most easily
seen structure when cells are viewed
through a light microscope. The nucleus houses the cells DNA. In eukaryotes, the DNA is combined with
proteins into a fine, thread-like structure called chromatin. Occasionally,
just before cell division occurs, the
chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. Chromosomes are also visible
through a light microscope. Because
the nucleus is a large structure that is
easily stained and readily visible under
the light microscope, it was one of the
first cell structures to be studied. In
1882 the German scientist Walter
Flemming discovered chromatin as well
as the stages of cell division (mitosis).
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Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells includes
the interior of the cell between the nuclear envelope and the cell membrane.
Once thought to be composed mainly of
fluid, the cytoplasm has been revealed
by electron microscopy to be a highly organized area. Approximately one half of
the space in the cytoplasm is taken up by
other organelles. The other half of the cytoplasm is the liquid portion known as
the cytosol. The cytosol contains a concentrated mix of ions and molecules such
as enzymes, amino acids, ATP, and carbohydrates.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Imagine that your cell membranes suddenly became cell walls made of cellulose. List three possible effects of this
change.
Making Connections
6. In what ways did the discovery of penicillin affect society?
7.
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47
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how cell organelles manage various cell functions
relate cell functions to the functions of organs
WORD ORIGIN
Vesicle from the Latin
vesicula, meaning little bladder or container.
Endoplasmic from the Greek
endon, meaning within and
plasm, derived from the term
cytoplasm.
The activities in eukaryotic cells are organized in ways that can be compared
to the body as a whole. Using the analogy of the bodys organ systems, structures that perform specialized functions
in cells are called organelles. Your digestive system breaks down food materials into substances accessible to other
parts. There are organelles called lysosomes, that are powerful in digestive
functions within each cell. As your blood
system acts to transport the products of
digestion, so the cells vacuoles and vesicles store and/or transport substances
within the cell. Just as your body has a
system of blood vessels, the cell has
membranous transportation channels
called the endoplasmic reticulum. The
48
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Cellular Functions
Advances in Microscopy
Our understanding of cells and their
functions has increased dramatically due
to improvements in microscopy. The designing of the microscope began with the
work of Dutch lens makers in the 1500s.
Until about 50 years ago scientists were
restricted to using light microscopes.
Clear colour images of living tissue or
prepared and stained non-living tissue,
can be obtained using the light microscope. However, there are limits to the
resolving powerthe ability to distinguish between two closely positioned objects. Also magnification is limited to
about 1000.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM) was invented in 1938 by
Canadian scientists James Hillier and
Albert Prebus, and perfected by John
L. Watson to a point where it was useful for biological research. As the name
suggests, electron microscopes use a
beam of electrons instead of rays of light
to produce an image. The two types of
electron microscopes, scanning electron
microscopes (SEMs) and transmission
electron microscopes (TEMs), work in
different ways and for different purposes. TEMs send a beam of electrons
through a thinly sliced sample of an
object and produce a finely detailed view
of parts of its inner structure. The sci-
Contents
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entist must re-create the three-dimensional relationships of the various structures. SEMs scan the outer surface of an
object and produce pictures that look
three-dimensional. Scanning tunnelling
microscopes (STMs), are one of the latest advances in microscope technology
and provide a three-dimensional view of
molecules. (See Section 1.3.)
nuclear
envelope
ribosomes
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
cisternae
cisternal
spaces
FIGURE 2.11 The rough endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins take shape.
Polypeptide chains made at the ribosomes drop into the cisternal space of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. The chain then folds up into its protein shape and may undergo
processing; for example, the addition of a side chain of carbohydrate. The protein is then
surrounded by a vesicle and transported to the Golgi complex.
membranes
without
ribosomes
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are dense-looking dark granules located on the surface of parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum and also floating
within the cytoplasm. They are made of
a combination of RNA and protein, and
are the sites where amino acids are assembled into proteins in a process known
as protein synthesis.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
ribosomes
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
cisternal
spaces
a)
b)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a series
of interconnected small tubes (tubules)
made of membranes that branch out
from the nuclear envelope. Part of the endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it. The ribosomes give the
endoplasmic reticulum in this location a
rough-looking appearance; therefore, this
portion is known as the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) is where protein synthesis takes place at the ribosomes, particularly the synthesis of those proteins
for use outside the cell (Figure 2.11,
2.12b). Additional membranes are also
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49
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Lysosomes
Both the Golgi complex and the endoplasmic reticulum produce lysosomes.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs
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from RER
cisternae
cisternal
space
Golgi
complex
vesicle
to plasma
membrane
for export
out of cell
to cytosol
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Cellular Functions
2. Vesicle formed
for protein transport.
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Researchers now think that lysosomes may also play a role in the ageing process. Apparently lysosomes
cannot digest all of the outdated material in a cell. As these compounds accumulate within the lysosomes over
time, they cause a decrease in cell functions such as is associated with ageing.
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diseases. Compile a list of the
types of disease, the specific
causes, and the treatments
available. Begin your research
at the Pearson Education Web
site at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
CELLULAR RECYCLING
lysosome
digestive
enzymes
fusion
digestion
molecules
recycled to
make new
organelles
small
molecules
returned to
cytosol
wastes expelled
from cell
CHAPTER 2
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Discovering Biology
Watching a Parameciums Organelles
Interaction between living organisms can show their physiology
1. Prepare and observe a slide of a live Paramecium culture under
the low power objective of a microscope.
2. Obtain a small sample from a yeast solution that has been
treated with an indicator that changes colour as the acidity of
the solution changes. Transfer a small drop of the yeast solution to the edge of the slide using a toothpick.
3. Observe the Paramecium through the microscope for five minutes and record your observations.
What changes did you observe in the Paramecium? What organelles did you see at work within the Paramecium?
Caution: Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
52
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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FIGURE 2.15 Dr. Vett Lloyd studies lysosomal storage and transport diseases.
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
are found in both plant and animal
cells. These organelles play a vital role
in energy-transforming activities.
Mitochondria are composed of an outer
membrane, an inner membrane organized into folds called cristae, and an
inner liquid solution known as the
matrix.
The mitochondrion is the site of cellular respiration in eukaryotic cells. The
process of cellular respiration involves
extracting energy from food molecules
such as glucose and using that energy to
make ATP. In the process CO 2 is produced, to be later excreted by the cell.
mitochondrion
cristae
matria
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Chloroplasts
These green organelles, found only in
cells of plants and some protists (like
algae), are responsible for producing
food for most of the life on Earth. The
organelles produce food by the process
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
enables plants and some protists to
convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
A Unique Gift
from Your Mom,
and Her Mom...,
Mitochondria contain their own DNA,
separate from the DNA in a cells nucleus. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is
inherited from both parents, mitochondrial DNA (known as mtDNA),
is inherited along maternal linesor
in other words, from your mother.
food
oxygen
water
carbon dioxide
ATP
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53
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outer membrane
inner membrane
water
carbon dioxide
minerals
sugar (food)
oxygen
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Microfilaments
7 nm
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due to copyright
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Intermediate filaments
10 nm
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Microtubules
25 nm
Cytoskeleton
The cell membrane gives very little support to an animal cell. Plant cells have a
cell wall to support their shape. However,
animal cells are able to maintain their
shape due to the cytoskeleton: a supportive network of fine protein fibres.
These protein fibres, the microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules
are shown in Figure 2.18. Besides offering support to the cell, the cytoskeleton helps anchor the organelles within
the cytoplasm and may also play a role
in relaying messages back and forth between the cell membrane and the interior of the cell.
INFOBIT
Many of our sensory structures
may have evolved from cilia.
The basic cilia-like form is
found in: the light-sensitive
portions of our eye; the fibres
located in our noses that allow
us to sense smells; and the tiny
hairs of our internal ear that
are used to help us maintain
our balance.
WORDORIGIN
Endosymbiosis from the
Greek symbiosis, meaning living together and endo, meaning within. When combined,
the two words nicely represent
endosymbiosis, meaning one
organism living inside another.
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a)
b)
a) Electron micrograph of protist cell covered with hair-like cilia for locomotion.
b) Human sperm cell; notice the long flagellum on the sperm cell.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The table below shows the observations made of three different cells.
Determine as much as you can about
each type of cell. For example, are
the cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic;
plant or animal?
6.
Cell wall
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Cellular Functions
Making Connections
7.
Nucleus
Cell A
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cell B
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Cell C
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
cells.
What are the ethical perspectives relating to the controversy about stem cell research?
4.
2.
5.
3.
Prepare a risk-benefit analysis to summarize your findings. Write a position paper to address the following
question. If faced with a degenerative or potentially fatal
disease, should a person be able to refuse medical help
because of his or her own moral principles if that help
is available to them?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 2.1)
Problem
How is the compound microscope used to estimate
the size of microscopic specimens?
Materials
microscope
transparent metric ruler
prepared slides
Procedure
1.
Obtain a microscope and place a transparent metric ruler on the stage so that it covers about half
of the stage, as shown in Figure 2.21.
4.
5.
58
2.
Observe the ruler under low power. Adjust the position of the ruler so that its view is similar to
Figure 2.22.
3.
Move the millimetre ruler so that you are measuring the diameter (width) of the low power field
of view from left to right.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
low power
field diameter
low power
magnification
high power
magnification
6.
Record the high power field diameter in micrometres. Show your work.
7.
8.
9.
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(continued)
Field
Magnification
Field diameter
in mm
Low power
From measurement:
High power
From calculation:
Name of object
Extending
13. Make a wet-mount slide of a protist culture.
Choose one protist and observe it under low and
high power. Estimate its length in micrometres.
CHAPTER 2
59
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 2.3)
Characteristics of Cells
Cells are the basic units of structure and function
for all living things. All cells fall into one of two major
divisionsprokaryotic or eukaryotic. How might you
classify an unknown cell? You will determine the differences through an examination of prepared slides.
You will then use these differences to help you classify a test specimen.
Repeat steps 36 for the other prepared slides provided by your teacher.
Problem
Materials
(per group)
microscope
prepared slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
CAUTION: Observe proper technique with the microscope
and slides to ensure safe handling of equipment.
Procedure
1.
Set up your data table in your notebook in a manner similar to Table 2.2.
2. Obtain a microscope.
3. Obtain a prepared slide to examine.
Extending
7. The procedure of DNA fingerprinting relies on extracting DNA from the nucleus of a cell in order
to identify a suspect. Explain why DNA fingerprinting will not work if DNA is extracted from a
blood sample that contains only red blood cells.
8. Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane but contain DNA in the cell. How can these cells carry out
cell activities without a nuclear membrane?
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Cellular Functions
Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic?
Plastids
Vacuoles
Cytoplasm
Nuclear Envelope
Nucleus
Cell Structures
Cell Membrane
Shape
Cell Wall
Cell Specimen
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
cell membrane
cell theory
cellulose
cell wall
chloroplasts
cholesterol
chromatin
chromosomes
cilia
cytoplasm
cytoskeleton
cytosol
endoplasmic reticulum
eukaryote
flagella
fluid mosaic model
Golgi complex
(apparatus)
lysosome
mitochondria
nucleus
nuclear envelope
nucleolus
organelles
photosynthesis
phospholipid bilayer
prokaryote
ribosome
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
surface area
vacuole
vesicle
Location
Function
Surrounds cytoplasm
Within nuclear envelope
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Free-floating in cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Outside cell membrane
Outside cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Processing of proteins
Lipid synthesis
Processing and packaging of protein
Digestion of molecules, bacteria, or damaged organelles
Produce ATP from energy released from glucose
Maintains cell shape and helps hold organelles in place
Permits cell movement
Provides shape and support for the cell
Uses energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates (photosynthesis)
Essential Understandings
Organelles are structures located within the cytoplasm that perform specialized functions for the cell.
Cell organelles include vacuoles and vesicles, ribosomes, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton, cilia, and flagella.
3.
Prepare an analogy to describe the structures and functions of the cell to an elementary school class. Suggest
illustrations or models to support your presentation.
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between the following key terms: cell theory, prokaryote,
eukaryote, organelle, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nucleus.
4.
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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
9. Under a microscope a cell was found to contain many mitochondria, chloroplasts, a nucleus, a cell wall, cytoplasm,
as well as other organelles. This cell is most likely a
a) bacterial cell
b) human cell
c) plant cell
d) none of these
11. Sketch a typical animal cell to show all of the structures and organelles it is likely to contain. Do the same
for a typical plant cell.
12. Which structures are found in plant cells but not in animal cells?
13. Explain the difference between the nucleolus and
nucleus.
14. Living cells are sometimes compared to factories. Explain
what part of a cell may match the function of each of
these: security guard, shipping centre, power plant, factory manager, and storage tank.
15. Sketch a diagram of the cell membrane and identify
the structures present. Using your diagram as a reference, explain why the term fluid mosaic model is appropriate to describe the cell membrane as we know it.
16. Prepare a speech for a meeting of cell biologists. The title
of your speech is to be: It is better for organisms to be
made of many small cells than a few large ones.
17. Compare the information obtained from transmission
electron microscope and scanning electron microscope
images.
20. Explain why secretory cells like the thyroid gland cells
might be expected to have an active Golgi complex?
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UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
19. Make a flow chart to show the way that bacteria may be
used to break down waste materials.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
21. Draw a diagram of three cells with the same volume but
different surface areas.
22. a) Complete the following chart in your notes to perform
a mathematical comparison of surface area (S.A.) and
volume (V) for a hypothetical cube-shaped cell.
Dimensions
of cube
cell (cm)
Surface
Area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm3)
Quit
S.A.:
Volume
(ratio)
Index =
S.A./V
05 0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
25. Robert Hooke coined the term cells while looking at dead
cork cells through his homemade microscope. Some years
earlier, Dutch tailor Antonie Van Leuwenhoek observed
a number of different living specimens using microscopes
of his own design, but did not describe cells. Why do you
think this is so?
26. Liver cells have hundreds of mitochondria, while fat cells
have only a few. Why do you think there is such a difference between the two cells in the number of mitochondria? Provide reasons for your answer.
27. When a specialized white blood cell defends your body
against bacteria many cell systems are involved in the
process. Set up a T-chart to show the organelles involved
and their functions in defense of the body.
Making Connections
b) Plot a graph of your calculated values for the index
versus the length of cube side of the cube-shaped
cell. Plot the index on the vertical axis.
c) Describe the shape of your graph.
d) Now relate this mathematical relationship to the operation of a cell as it increases in size. Why must
the majority of cells ultimately divide using mitosis?
23. Copy the graph below onto a separate piece of paper.
Add data points to the graph for cubes with sides of
2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm. (In order to do this, you
will need to first calculate the surface area for each of
the cubes, and then calculate the surface area to volume
ratio.) Complete the graph and indicate what information can be obtained from the graph.
28. Scientists believe that originally all life on Earth consisted of prokaryotic cells and that eukaryotic cells
evolved later. Based on what you know about the differences between the two cell types, explain why this
view does or does not make sense.
29. a) Explain why an understanding of cell processes is
essential to the development of vaccines.
b) How might this understanding have impact on
Canadas health system and allocation of resources?
Surface area/volume
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
Length of cube side (cm)
FIGURE 2.23
CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 3
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Cell Transport
present informed opinions on advances in cellular biology and possible applications through related
technology (3.1, 3.3)
any cellular functions involve the transport of materials in, out, and
through cells. Cells, particularly those in multicellular organisms, are
surrounded by a complex and constantly changing liquid environment consisting of many dissolved molecules: gases such as oxygen, compounds such
as glucose, ions such as sodium, and chemical messengers such as pro-
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teins. Literally billions of events involving these various molecules must occur
daily to ensure your survival. The cell membrane plays a vital role in these
events: it regulates what enters and leaves the cell; it ensures the cell receives
a non-stop supply of nutrients from its surroundings; and, at the same time,
it steadily allows waste products to pass through it in order to exit the cell.
In the transport of large molecules and even other cells into the cells
interior, the cell membrane rearranges its structure to form a vesicle.
The membranes of organelles within the cell, such as the mitochondrion
and endoplasmic reticulum, must also regulate what substances enter and
leave them. And the membrane of some organelles, such as the Golgi complex, must not only be able to regulate the passage of molecules, but must
also be able to package, send, and receive shipments from other organelles.
This chapter will outline the transport methods used to move materials
such as nutrients, water, and oxygen into cells, and waste products such as
carbon dioxide, out of cells. It will also highlight new information about some
disease states that have their origins in faulty cell processes.
Discovering Biology
Observing Osmosis
The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis.
1.
2.
Observe the apparatus every 60 s for at least five minutes and record the
change in height of the fluid in the tube.
How would you explain the change in height of the fluid in the tube?
What is happening to the material on the inside of the tube?
thistle
funnel
beaker
containing
water
FIGURE 3.2
CHECKPOINT
Draw a diagram of the cell
membrane to illustrate
what you know about how
this structure functions.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
65
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
relate the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure to the function of membranes
explain the importance of permeability to transportation within and between cells
WORD ORIGIN
Permeable from the Latin
permeare, meaning to pass
through.
phospholipids
proteins
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
glycocalyx
cholesterol
sugar
chains
66
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Protein Kinases
For many years the nucleus was considered the exclusive control centre
of the cell. However, within the last
15 years, scientists such as Dr. Tony
Pawson at the University of Toronto,
have learned that the cell membrane
and molecules within the cell, called
protein kinases, have an equally
important role in controlling cell
function and allowing the communication between cells that is necessary
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2.
3.
Describe the different types and functions of the proteins found in the cell
membrane.
4.
Making Connections
5.
6.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how organelles and cell components carry out various cell processes such
as transportation
explain the dynamics of diffusion and osmosis
Investigation
Refer to page 82,
Investigation 2
sa
lt
solute
solvent
water
salt
water
solution
FIGURE 3.4 A solute dissolved by a solvent results in a solution. A small amount of table salt
poured into water results in a solution of sodium
chloride.
Discovering Biology
Diffusion
68
What comments can you make about the speed of the process you have just observed? Suggest an explanation.
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
Diffusion
Particles, even those in solids, are constantly and randomly moving. As a result,
over time, particles tend to spread themselves out evenly. Diffusion is the tendency of particles to move from an area
where they are more concentrated, and
there are more random collisions, to an
area where they are less concentrated and
have fewer collisions (Figure 3.5). When
there is an equal concentration of particles in all areas, equilibrium is achieved.
Movement from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
is known as moving along the concentration gradient. Movement along the
concentration gradient is referred to as
passive transport. A common example
of diffusion occurs when someone is wearing a strong cologne or perfume. Although
the concentrated source is located on their
body, the perfume molecules spread by
diffusion to fill the room.
Diffusion is the driving force behind
the movement of many molecules
through the cell membrane, including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and
small lipids. A number of factors determine whether a molecule can enter a cell
by diffusion. One of these factors is size.
Large molecules cannot squeeze through
the tightly packed phospholipids easily.
Another factor is lipid solubility. If a
molecule cannot dissolve in the oily mixture created by the membrane fatty
acids, it cannot diffuse through the membrane. Physical factors such as the size
of the concentration difference and the
distance the molecule has to travel also
affect the diffusion process.
Your lungs rely exclusively on diffusion to add oxygen to and remove carbon
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water
molecules
dye
molecules
FIGURE 3.5 Diffusion. A few drops of red dye added to a beaker of water are initially very
concentrated in one area. Diffusion, the movement of particles along their concentration
gradient from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, occurs until an
equilibrium concentration is produced throughout the solution.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion.
It is the diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane, such
Cell Transport
69
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lt
sa
a)
solute
solvent
semipermeable membrane
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b)
OSMOSIS
Discovering Biology
300-mL beaker
test tube holders or tongs
scalpel
metric ruler
CAUTION: Wear disposable non-latex gloves and safety goggles when using sodium
hydroxide. Do not allow sodium hydroxide to come in contact with your skin. If it does,
wash it off immediately. Be careful when using sharp instruments.
1. Obtain and measure the dimensions of three different-sized agar blocks.
2. Calculate and record the surface area-to-volume ratio for each block.
3. Place the three blocks of agar in a 300-mL beaker. Add 0.4% sodium hydroxide
solution until it completely covers the blocks.
4. After 8 min, use test-tube holders or tongs to gently remove the agar blocks
from the solution and then blot them dry. Cut each block in half with a
scalpel.
5. Use a metric ruler to measure the distance the pink material has diffused into
each block and record your measurement.
What was the diffusion distance in each block?
Which block had the greatest amount of pink material in it? Can you identify a
pattern between this answer and the surface area-to-volume ratios you
calculated?
Calculate the rate of diffusion in mm/min.
70
UNIT 1
Cellular Functions
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normal cell
Hypertonic
Isotonic
Hypotonic
Very Hypotonic
The concentration
of solutes outside
is higher than it is
inside the cell.
The concentration
of solutes outside
the cell is equal to
that inside the cell.
The concentration
of solutes outside
is lower than it is
inside the cell.
Investigation
Refer to page 80,
Investigation 1
2.
3.
4.
5.
Applying
Inquiry/Communication Skills
6.
7.
Making Connections
8.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how the cell membrane uses proteins to carry out transportation
explain the dynamics of facilitated diffusion
compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport
relate certain disease states to a lack of function of cellular processes
describe how advances in cell biology can be applied through technology
Facilitated Diffusion
Some molecules cannot travel through the
lipid portion of the cell membrane. They
may be too large or may be hydrophilic.
Many of these molecules enter cells by facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion
occurs when molecules enter cells through
channels that exist in special transport
proteins that span the membrane (Figure
3.8). Transport proteins are specialized
to carry only certain molecules into or out
of cells. Because they only transport
materials along the concentration gradient, no energy from ATP is required to
Active transport
facilitated
diffusion
phospholipid
bilayer
transport
proteins
a)
FIGURE 3.8
b)
ATP
c)
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Active Transport
Sometimes cells need to move molecules
or ions against a concentration gradient.
Cells cannot rely on any type of diffusion
to do this since diffusion only moves particles from a high concentration to a low
concentration. Therefore, cells have developed another transport method
known as active transport to move
molecules or ions against a concentration gradient.
Like facilitated diffusion, active transport relies on transport proteins to allow
substances to pass through the membrane. This time, however, the molecules
or ions bind to the proteins and are then
pumped across the membrane. Moving
molecules or ions this way is not without
Diabetes: A Problem
with
Facilitated Diffusion
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Cell Transport
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extracellular
fluid
Quit
Na+
K+
Na+
potassium ion
Na+
Na+
phospholipid
bilayer
Na+
Na+
K+
Na+
Na+
K+
Na+
cytosol
sodium ion
ATP
ADP
2 ATP gives up a
high-energy
phosphate group
to bind to the
transport protein.
Discovering Biology
A Concentration Situation
160
outside
inside
Concentration (mmol.L-1)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sodium
Magnesium
Chloride
Potassium
74
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Cellular Functions
K+
Cystic fibrosis is due to a faulty active transport protein Cystic fibrosis is a devastating inherited disease that affects about
one in 2500 Canadian children. The disease, characterized by the buildup of
mucus in the lungs and other organs,
slowly destroys lung tissue.
The problem is caused by a faulty
membrane-based protein that should
function to actively transport chloride
ion out of the cell. Due to the defect, less
chloride ion is released than normal.
This results in decreased reabsorption
of sodium ion, dehydration of the membranes lining the respiratory and digestive passages, and the formation of a
thick mucus. The abnormal secretions
also have a reduced ability to kill invading bacteria. A cycle of infection and
inflammation takes place.
Research on cystic fibrosis over the
past twenty years included the 1989 discovery of the gene that causes the defect. Improved antibiotics, physiotherapy
and concentration on improving nutritional health have led to better lung
health and an increased life span. Heart
and lung trasnsplants are also a possible treatment. The estimated median
survival age for people born with cystic
fibrosis in the 1990s is 40 years.
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2.
3.
4.
6.
Making Connections
7.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5.
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis of large particles
explain how these processes are related to the function of organs
are too large to fit through a protein carrier they must use another method to
enter or exit the cell.
Endocytosis
Moving material into the cell by
endocytosis involves the pinching in of a
portion of the cell membrane around the
material to be transported into the cell.
The pinched-in portion eventually breaks
free from the cell membrane and forms
a vesicle in the cytoplasm. This allows the
material within the vesicle to travel to its
final destination within the cell.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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WORD ORIGIN
Endocytosis from the Greek,
endon, meaning within, and
kutos, meaning vessel or
cell.
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There are three types of endocytosis. The first type, called phagocytosis
involves the movement of large
molecules and sometimes even whole
cells into the cells interior. Phagocytosis
literally means cell eating. Specialized
white blood cells, known as
macrophages, may phagocytose whole
bacteria as part of your bodys defence
against disease.
A second type of endocytosis, called
pinocytosis or cell drinking, involves
the transport of liquids into vesicles.
From the descriptions and Figures 3.11
and 3.12, you can see why phagocytosis
and pinocytosis are well named.
The third type of endocytosis is
known as receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME), and it is the way a number of
nutrients and proteins, such as the hormone insulin, enter the cell. During RME,
the molecule that is to enter the cell binds
to special receptor proteins located on the
outside of the cell membrane. These receptor proteins move within the cell
membrane towards other identical receptor-molecule complexes. Once enough
molecules have gathered in an area, the
cell membrane pinches in, forming the
vesicle that will transport these molecules
into the cell. (Figure 3.13)
RME is currently the subject of extensive research. One reason for interest in RME is that cholesterol molecules
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Phagocytosis
bacterium
(or food particles)
pseudopodium
vesicle
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Pinocytosis
extracellular fluid
plasma membrane
vesicle
cytosol
FIGURE 3.12 Pinocytosis. In pinocytosis, the cell membrane sinks in to surround
molecules in the extracellular fluid. The membrane then fuses to pinch off a vesicle
that can then move within the cell.
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis and is used to export large molecules
out of the cell (Figure 3.14 on the next
page). Large molecules such as proteins
are surrounded by a membrane at the
Golgi complex and a vesicle is formed.
In this vesicle the substances make their
way to the cell membrane where the
vesicle membrane joins with the cell
membrane and the large molecules are
expelled from the cell. Exocytosis, like
endocytosis, also requires energy from
the breakdown of ATP molecules.
Exocytosis, like endocytosis, is a
common process in many cells in our
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
receptors
captured
molecules
coated
pit
vesicle
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Cell Transport
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extracellular fluid
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protein
plasma membrane
cytosol
transport vesicle
a)
b)
FIGURE 3.14 Movement out of the cell
a) In exocytosis, a transport vesicle moves to fuse with the cell membrane. The cell
membrane rearranges, opens, and releases the contents of the vesicle outside the cell.
b) Material being expelled by exocytosis.
2.
3.
4.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5.
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6.
7.
Making Connections
8.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
Whatever the causes of drug addiction, once addictive drugs are introduced into the body, the chemistry of brain cells is altered. Scientists believe that
mesolimbic dopamines, neurotransmitters in the
central nervous system (CNS), control a persons
mood. These specialized molecules control communication from one neuron to another.
Some addictive drugs enhance mesolimbic
dopamines role in the brain, which elevates a persons mood, giving them a high. Heroin, for example, increases the rate at which nerve cells in the
CNS release dopamine. As a result, those who use
heroin experience a brief feeling of extreme euphoria, followed by an extreme low. In order to maintain the same level of response, they must take
higher doses of the drug to achieve the same high.
This is due to the way brain cells adapt to the ongoing use of the drug.
Scientists believe that, over time, the actual number of dopamine receptors is reduced. As a result,
not only does the user require more of the drug more
frequently, but other activities such as being with
friends no longer bring pleasure. This also contributes to the frequency and amount of drug used
by the addict.
The turning point for the addict is the decision
to end the addiction. There are a variety of therapies available to help combat addiction. Some people believe that addiction can be overcome with
willpower and strength of personal character. Others
loneliness.
2.
3.
4.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 3.2)
10
10
Problems
Materials
test tubes
10-mL graduated cylinder
2 100-mL beakers
10-mL, 5-mL, 2-mL pipette
test-tube rack
#5 cork borer
single-edged razor blade or scalpel and handle
ruler
centigram balance/electronic balance
potato
1 mol L1 sucrose solution
distilled water
marker for test tubes
grid paper
paper towels
CAUTION: Work carefully with sharp instruments.
Procedure:
Part 1: Preparation of the solutions
potato
board
potato section
FIGURE 3.16 Set up for preparation of potato sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Prepare six test tubes, each with a different solute concentration, as follows:
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1.
2.
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Cellular Functions
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(continued)
TABLE 3.2
Test Tube #
Solute
Concentration
(mol.L1)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Initial Mass
I (g)
F I I 100
= % change in mass
(Any negative signs from step 6 will cause a negative result here, too.)
8.
Final Mass
F (g)
Change in Mass
(F I) (g)
Percent Change
in Mass
(F I)
100
I
Extending
7. Explain why it is important for intravenous fluids
to be of the same solute concentration as human
blood.
8. If you prepared a solution with the same solute concentration as you determined in question one, what
change in mass would you expect to find from a
potato section that had soaked in that solution for
24 hours? Explain your answer.
9. Road salt that has been accidentally spilled on grass
often kills the grass. Use the knowledge you have
gained in this investigation to help explain why this
happens.
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(section 3.2)
Effects on Permeability
Your teacher will demonstrate a model of a selectively permeable membrane made from simple household materials. The demonstration will consist of a
solution of cornstarch added to a plastic bag that is
placed in a beaker of distilled water with 20 drops of
iodine added to it.
Problem
What factors or variables might influence diffusion or
osmosis in this experimental system?
Experimental Design
1.
2.
Write a list of the variables that you think might influence the diffusion or osmosis across the membrane.
6. Describe which observations you felt provided evidence as to how much diffusion or osmosis had
taken place.
3.
Write a hypothesis for how each variable would affect the movement of particles.
4.
5.
Extending
9. Using what you have learned from this activity, devise a method to get rid of unwanted weeds in the
cracks of a driveway.
6.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
active transport
concentration gradient
diffusion
endocytosis
exocytosis
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
passive transport
permeable
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
selectively permeable
Summary table
Name of Transport Method
Description
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (along a
concentration gradient) until equilibrium is established
Osmosis
Facilitated Transport
Active Transport
Endocytosis
The cell membrane forms a vesicle around large objects that must enter the cell. This method
requires energy from ATP.
Exocytosis
A vesicle fuses with the cell membrane to rid the cell of large objects. This method requires energy from ATP.
Essential Understandings
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell
In active transport, cells use energy to move substances against their concentration gradients.
Water enters or leaves cells by the process of osmosis, the diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane in response to its concentration gradient.
In facilitated diffusion, substances move from regions of high concentration to low concentration by
means of carrier proteins in the membrane. No energy use is needed.
Revisit the Checkpoint on page 65 and review your diagram of the cell membrane. Revise your drawing based
on what you learned in this chapter.
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between the following key terms: cell membrane, permeability, diffusion, molecules, concentration gradient,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, glucose, and proteins.
3.
4.
Cell Transport
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CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The process in which molecules of a substance other
than water move from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration is called
a) osmosis
b) diffusion
c) selective permeability
d) active transport
2. Energy from ATP is needed in
a) active transport
b) diffusion
c) facilitated diffusion
d) osmosis
3. Materials that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane
can be brought into the cell by
a) endosymbiosis
b) osmosis
c) endocytosis
d) exocytosis
4. In the fluid mosaic bilayer, the term fluid refers to the
a) shifting phospholipids in the cell membrane
b) the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell
c) the fluid portion of the cytoplasm known as the
cytosol
d) the liquids that enter the cell by the process of
pinocytosis
5. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane
may
a) function as transport proteins to help molecules
enter and exit cells
b) bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural
support
c) have carbohydrate chains that are involved in cell
communication attached to them
d) all of these
6. Solutes are
a) fatty acid molecules present in the cell membrane
b) substances dissolved in a fluid
c) the liquid portion of a solution
d) molecules that can only move against the concentration gradient
7. Molecules that can diffuse through the cell membrane
are
a) small
b) lipid soluble
c) water soluble
d) both a and b
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carbon dioxide
Substances tested
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alcohol
glucose
27. Prepare a working model of the cell membrane. Use materials such as Styrofoam, marbles, string, thread spools,
or other equipment. Label the structures that you are using
to represent the phospholipid bilayer, transport proteins,
etc. Add the functions of each structure as well.
glycerol
oxygen
water
0
FIGURE 3.17
50
100
150
200
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
21. Design an experiment to test the effect of temperature
on the rate (speed) of diffusion. Use the following materials in your experimental design: food colouring and
three beakers of water. One of the beakers is at room
temperature, the other is filled with ice-cold water and
the third is filled with hot water. Predict what will happen to the water and include an experimental control.
22. The container in the following diagram has a selectively
permeable membrane separating two solutions. Assume
that the starch molecules are too large to pass through
the membrane. What will happen to the water level on
either side of the membrane? Explain your answer.
pure
water
starch
solution
Making Connections
29. One way of growing crops in particularly dry areas of
the country, such as the prairie provinces, is to irrigate
the crops. However, the water tends to contain salts that
are left behind in the soil as the water evaporates. Based
on what you know about the movement of salts and
water, explain what might occur as a result. Predict the
long-term economic effects on the area. Propose solutions to this problem.
30. Protein kinases, the important molecules of communication within cells, are being heavily researched because
of the possibility that they can be used to stop the spread
of cancer and treat diseases like diabetes. Propose a way
to prioritize the focus of research on specific diseases.
FIGURE 3.18
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport
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CHAPTER 4
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Cells at Work
illustrate and explain important cellular processes including their function in the cell, the ways in which
they are interrelated, and the fact
that they occur in all living cells
(4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
undamental molecular principles and mechanisms control energytransforming activities in all living things. Most life on Earth depends on
the sun, the energy source for photosynthesis. The amazing amount of energy provided daily by the sun is about 15 billion times more than the total
yearly amount of electricity generated in Canada. Photosynthesis is the
Catch: Cells 60
FIGURE 4.1 Almost all life on Earth depends on the energy of the Sun. This elk is
a herbivore and depends on vegetation for food.
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process that plants, some bacteria, and some protists use to capture the suns
energy and produce carbohydrates. Only about 1% of the suns energy is
actually captured through photosynthesis.
Plants are not the only organisms to benefit from this arrangement.
Although photosynthetic organisms can make their own food, other organisms must obtain their food in some other way. This is usually by eating plants
or eating other organisms that eat plants, or both. This chain of consumption means that practically all living things on Earth rely on the Sun as their
ultimate energy source.
Life also depends on the interconnection between the energy-converting
systems of photosynthesis and cell respiration. The products of photosynthesis, oxygen and sugars, are the reactants for cell respiration and the products of cell respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are reactants in
photosynthesis. This chapter will focus on ways in which cells work to
convert energy and to use the energy in protein synthesis.You will also be
introduced to the alternative methods some cells have developed to metabolize nutrients.
Discovering Biology
Identifying a Substance Produced During
Energy Reactions in Cells
Every reaction in your body uses reactants and produces products that
must be reused or removed. Perform these tests to identify end products of
metabolism.
1.
What happens when you exhale on the surface of a mirror? What substance forms on the surface of the mirror?
2.
Place a plastic bag over some leaves on a plant and seal the bag with a
tie or elastic band. Place the plant in sunlight. What substance eventually forms on the inside of the bag?
CHECKPOINT
Draw a cycle diagram to
show what you know about
the stages of photosynthesis. (Your diagram may
include more stages than
are shown in this example.)
Photosynthesis
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
list the fundamental molecular principles and mechanisms involved in energytransforming reactions in cells
describe how ATP functions as the energy molecule of cells
glycogen
molecule
ENDERGONIC
REACTION
ENERGY
IN
ENERGY
OUT
EXERGONIC
REACTION
glucose
molecules
UNIT 1
ATP is a molecule made from a nucleotide. It consists of adenine, the fivecarbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate
groups. It is the energy molecule of cells
and is necessary for cell membrane functions like active transport and also for
muscle contraction.
ATP is well suited to its role as the
energy molecule. It contains specialized
bonds, known as high energy bonds, between its phosphate groups. It is also a
small molecule and releases energy in
small enough quantities to be useful to
the cell. Cells are very efficient in their
energy use. Consider a carbohydrate such
as glucose to be equivalent to a dollar coin
and the smaller ATP molecule to be equivalent to a penny. When the cell needs energy, it can spend an appropriate number
of small ATP molecules and not waste
extra energy by spending the larger carbohydrate or lipid molecules.
When energy is needed for a reaction in a cell, the bond is broken between
the second and the third phosphate
group in the ATP. Once this phosphate
has been removed, the molecule has two
phosphates and is referred to as adenosine diphosphate or ADP. The result of
this conversion is the release of about
30kJ of energy per mole of ATP. This reaction is commonly represented as
ATP ADP P Energy
Product
contains more
energy than
the reactants.
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Cellular Functions
Product contains
less energy than
the reactants.
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NH2
Adenine
O
N
ON
Adenosine
O
O
Ribose
OH
O
O
P
O
Phosphate groups
OH
ATP
Energy is stored.
Energy
N
O
ON
O
O
O
OH
ADP
NH2
N
Energy is released.
O
O
Energy
OH
Activity
1.
2.
Define metabolism.
running
3260
walking
660
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
swimming
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8.
cycling
340
2240
Making Connections
9.
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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4.2 Enzymes
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the importance of enzymes to the metabolic reactions of all living cells
understand why enzymes act on specific reactions
INFOBIT
Some enzymes require helper
molecules called coenzymes in
order to function properly.
Vitamins often function as
coenzymes. This is why an appropriate amount of vitamins is
important in the diet. A lack of
vitamins in the diet can cause
diseases such as scurvy, rickets, or certain forms of anemia.
WEBLINK
Enzymes can be used in cleaning up oil spills on the ocean
by metabolizing or breaking
down organic chemicals.
Research how this process occurs and describe the process
using a flow chart diagram.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
enzyme
enzyme-substrate
Complex
Substrate
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products
Contents
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Canadian
Biotechnological
Breakthrough
Many species of micro-organisms
produce enzymes that are important
in cleaning up waste materials
including oil spills and other toxic
wastes. An enzyme known as
xylanase is produced naturally
by fungi such as Trichoderma
harzianum and bacteria such as
Bacillus circulans. Xylanase was
being used in pulp and paper mills to
Next Section
presence of the enzyme makes the obstacle, or hill, smaller, and as a result,
the reaction can occur faster; more energy is available to be used in more reactions, rather than being wasted on
overcoming the obstacle.
Thousands of different chemical
reactions must occur in cells to make life
possible. Each reaction requires its own
specialized enzyme in order to proceed
efficiently. For example, cellular respiration and photosynthesis are both complex metabolic processes that involve
many reactions and therefore many enzymes. The digestion of food also requires the production of enzymes,
known as digestive enzymes, by specialized cells located in the stomach,
small intestine, and pancreas.
Quit
a) Without enzyme
sucrose
glucose
+
fructose
activation energy
without enzyme
b) With enzyme
sucrase
sucrose
glucose
fructose
activation energy
with enzyme
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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2.
3.
If more substrate is added to a reaction vessel, what happens to the number of enzyme molecules?
4.
5.
6.
7.
The text compares the amount of activation energy to be overcome in a reaction with an obstacle or hill. Propose
a second analogy that helps to clarify
the meaning of activation energy.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8.
Making Connections
9.
that codes for synthesis of the insulin protein is inserted into the DNA
of an organism that reproduces
quickly and can be grown cheaply,
such as yeast or bacteria. Since DNA
is DNA, no matter what organism it
comes from, the yeast or bacteria now
have the instructions to make the new
protein, in this case insulin, and they
begin to manufacture it. The insulin
is then extracted from the organism,
purified, and packaged for delivery to
pharmacies and clinics.
Many other proteins have also
been prepared in a similar manner
to fight diseases such as cystic fibrosis, and different forms of cancer.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
illustrate the process of protein synthesis
explain how cell organelles work together
describe how organelles carry out transportation
Protein Synthesis
Proteins are essential to the life of the cell.
They have many functions. The cytoskeleton provides support. Enzymes catalyze reactions. Intrinsic proteins in the
cell membrane act as chemical receptors
and transport substances. Hormones provide chemical communication between
cells. A continuing supply of new protein is therefore needed for the health of
the cell. All the organelles of the cell work
together to produce protein through the
process of protein synthesis.
The manufacture and export of a
protein is a complex process (Figure 4.6).
However, protein synthesis can be considered as two main steps. In the first
step, known as transcription, the protein-making instructions on DNA are
copied into a molecule of RNA called
messenger RNA (mRNA). This form of
RNA is transcribed from one of the
strands of the DNA molecule. The mRNA
is then carried to the ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER). Here, the second step, known as
translation, occurs. During translation
another form of RNA, known as transfer RNA (tRNA), brings the required
amino acids one at a time to build the primary structure of the protein according
to the instructions on the mRNA
molecule. Each amino acid links to the
next by a peptide bond. For this reason,
the protein at this stage may be called a
polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide has been assembled at the ribosome it enters the
RER. In the RER the molecule assumes
the final shape of the protein. This may
involve several protein subunits coming
together in a quaternary level of structure.
nucleus
Instructions from
DNA are copied onto
mRNA.
mRNA moves to
ribosomes, where
instructions are read.
Protein moves to
Golgi complex for
additional processing
and for sorting.
Protein moves to
plasma membrane
for export.
ribosomes
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
complex
plasma
membrane
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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Contents
WEBLINK
Nuclear medicine has an
important role in diagnosing
disease. Write a report on how
nuclear medicine is used in the
treatment of cancer. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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X-ray Crystallography
of Proteins
Dr. Gil Priv loves his career as an Xray crystallographer at the University
of Toronto. Dr. Priv studies the structure and function of the protein
molecules found in cells, and his special interest is proteins found in cell
membranes.
As opposed to electron microscopes, which use a beam of electrons to form an image, the process
of X-ray crystallography uses X rays,
special sensors, and computer technology to allow scientists to view the
smallest level of detail in molecules.
Dr. Priv describes X-ray crystallography as the perfect intersection of
physics (the X rays), chemistry (the
structure of the molecule), and biology (the problem you are trying to
solve with regard to the molecules
function).
Recently, Dr. Priv and his colleagues discovered the structure of a
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drink a glass of water containing radioactive iodine (131I). The hormone produced by the thyroid gland is a protein
that consists of many iodine-containing
amino acids. Radioactive iodine will be
taken up and incorporated into this protein. In a normal thyroid gland the radioactivity is soon detectable and is
captured on film by a special nuclear
medicine camera. Images of the thyroid
gland are taken over a period of time.
The length of time it takes for the radioactivity to appear and the amount
of radiation detected in the thyroid gland
both provide important information to
physicians about the health of the thyroid gland and its ability to produce hormone molecules.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6.
Outline the steps necessary for a pancreatic cell to manufacture and export the protein-based hormone insulin
into the blood. Include a diagram in
your answer.
Making Connections
7.
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
illustrate and explain the process of photosynthesis
describe organisms that do not depend on photosynthesis as their source of energy
Investigation
Refer to page 104,
Investigation 2
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Cells at Work
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water
glucose
light energy
oxygen
glucose + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
Discovering Biology
Joseph Priestly, an 18th-century English clergyman and scientist, proved the existence of oxygen by the decomposition of mercury II oxide. Priestly also performed a famous experiment with plants.
1. Light a candle, place it on a plate, beside a small potted plant, such as mint,
and place a large beaker upside down over the candle. After a short time the
candle will go out.
2. Place the apparatus near a sunny window for two to three days.
3. Remove the beaker just enough to re-light the candle. The candle should light
and burn temporarily.
What substance was consumed by the candle?
What must have been added to the beaker to allow the candle to burn the sec-
ond time?
Where did the oxygen come from?
What would happen if the apparatus were put back in the window for a fur-
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Alternative Forms of
Food Production:
The Chemoautotrophs
Photosynthetic organisms are called
autotrophs, meaning they can make
their own food. Most other organisms
are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs must
eat other organisms to obtain energy.
However, another highly specialized
method of energy acquisition does exist.
Because of that we must say that technically, not quite all life on Earth relies
on photosynthesis. Certain species of
bacteria, known as chemoautotrophs,
do not rely on either photosynthesis
or the products of photosynthesis to
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Making Connections
1.
7.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6.
8.
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Cells at Work
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the results of cellular respiration
explain the flow of energy between photosynthesis and respiration
state the advantages and disadvantages to an organism or tissue of using aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration
INFOBIT
36 or 38? Cellular respiration
can produce different amounts
of ATP; some cells are better at
making ATP than others. In the
human body, the cardiac
(heart) muscle cells produce 38
ATP molecules per glucose
molecule. All of the other cells
in our bodies are less efficient
and produce only 36 ATP per
glucose molecule. It is not surprising that heart muscle cells
are so efficient considering
how important your heartbeat
is to maintaining your life.
The metabolic process of cellular respiration supplies cells with energy in the
form of ATP. ATP is used to provide energy for important cellular processes such
as active transport, muscle contraction,
and all other endergonic reactions occurring in the cells of all living things.
Cellular respiration also provides the heat
to keep warm-blooded animals, such as
humans and other mammals, warmer
than their environment.
Glucose is the fuel for cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, the covalent bonds in glucose are slowly broken
down in a series of reactions that are
overall exergonic. The energy released is
used to make ATP. The process of
cellular respiration can be summarized
by the equation in the diagram below.
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
water
Reactants
glucose
Products
2 ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
2 pyruvic acid
further processing
cytosol
mitochondrial
membrane
6 carbon dioxide
6 oxygen
34
FIGURE 4.10 The harvest of
energy from cellular
respiration
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mitochondrion
6 water
ATP
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Sources of Energy
Although glucose is the cells most efficient source of fuel to make ATP, cells
may also use other molecules for energy.
For example, polysaccharides are polymers of glucose; therefore they can be
easily broken down to glucose and used
for energy. Such polysaccharides are
often called complex carbohydrates.
Other molecules, such as lipids and
proteins, may also be used for energy.
These substances can enter the cellular
respiration pathway but at different
stages from where carbohydrates enter
the pathway. Generally, cells will use carbohydrates for energy first, fats second,
and then finally break down proteins in
order to continue the cellular respiration
process. Without a steady supply of ATP
molecules, cells die within seconds.
Figure 4.11 shows the entry of different
types of molecules into the cellular respiration pathway.
food
proteins
carbohydrates
amino acids
sugars
fats
glycerol
fatty acids
glycolysis
glucose
pyruvic acid
NH3 (ammonia)
FIGURE 4.11 Molecules other than glucose can enter the cellular respiration pathway. These
reactants enter the respiratory pathway at different stages.
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WORD ORIGIN
Aerobic from the Greek, aer,
meaning air, bios, meaning
life and suffix ikos meaning
of the nature of. The an in
anaerobic is from the Greek for
not.
INFOBIT
If you like murder mysteries,
you may have heard of the
poisons arsenic and cyanide.
Both are deadly, and although
arsenic works slowly and
cyanide works very quickly,
they both affect cellular
respiration in the mitochondria:
they prevent certain reactions
of cellular respiration from
occurring and, therefore, prevent ATP formation.
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Forms of Respiration
The summary equation for cellular respiration, shows that oxygen is required.
See Figure 4.10, page 98. Cellular respiration using oxygen is known as aerobic
cellular respiration. However, most cells
are able to continue to produce some ATP
without oxygen. Producing ATP in the
absence of oxygen is often called anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria use a
number of different strategies to accomplish anaerobic respiration. Eukaryotic
cells usually rely on one of two pathways:
lactic acid fermentation or alcoholic
fermentation.
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acid. Lactic acid fermentation is inefficient when compared to aerobic cellular respiration, but it remains in humans
as a way to get a little extra energy in
an emergency situation.
Lactic acid fermentation is also used
in the dairy industry to make cheese and
yogurt. The process involves providing
a suitable carbohydrate source to the
proper species of bacteria under anaerobic conditions. The products are harvested once the fermentation has been
completed. Fermentation by bacteria, a
Lactobacillus, results in the production
of yogurt and sour cream.
Alcoholic Fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation
When faced with anaerobic conditions,
many eukaryotic cells can convert the
pyruvic acid obtained from glycolysis
into another product, called lactic acid.
This conversion, known as lactic acid
fermentation, occurs in the cytoplasm.
Although lactic acid fermentation does
not add to the ATP already produced by
glyolysis, it is necessary in order to
regenerate a coenzyme that allows
glycolysis to continue.
pyruvic acid lactic acid
Investigation
Quit
Did you ever wonder why your muscles hurt after exercise? Fermentation is
the reason. When you exercise vigorously, your circulatory system cannot
provide enough oxygen to your muscle
cells. As a result, your muscles rely on
the anaerobic process of lactic acid
fermentation to provide at least a little
bit more energy. However, the product
lactic acidis toxic to the cells and
causes pain as it continues to accumulate in the muscles. Because of its poisonous effect, the lactic acid must be
changed back to pyruvic acid in the
presence of oxygen. This explains why
you need to breathe deeply after intense
exerciseyou are supplying the oxygen needed to break down the lactic
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Making Connections
1.
8.
2.
3.
4.
9.
5.
6.
7.
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Cells at Work
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
Ethanol, a clean-burning fuel, is a renewable resource made from the fermentation of sugar or
starch. Cheap agricultural waste, like corn stalks
and straw are used in this process as a sugar source.
Until now, ethanol has been more expensive to produce than gasoline or diesel fuels. However, with increased understanding of the effects of fuel emissions
on the environment, ethanol is becoming a more
cost-competitive alternative. Over 500 service stations in Canada sell ethanol blends. Benefits to the
environment of a 10 % ethanol blend include reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 30 %
and reduction of carbon monoxide emissions up to
10 %. Ethanol is also high octane. In fossil fuels,
octane enhancers like methyl manganese trycarbonyl (MMT) are used. Manganese is a neuro-toxin
and has recently been banned.
In 1997, Canada and over 160 other countries
met in Kyoto, Japan and established the Kyoto
Protocol. These countries agreed to target
reduced green-house gas (GHG) emissions to fight
climate change. Canadas target is to reduce GHG
2.
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3.
In groups, have a round-table discussion about sustainability and the long term impact on the planet of use
of current and alternative fuel-types. Every member of
the group should have an opportunity to express his or
her opinion. When you have heard the opinion of every
person in the group, come to a consensus about whether
or not Canada should have a plan for implementation of
alternative fuels for the future.
4.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 4.5)
yeast suspension
3 test tubes
test tube rack
6 beakers
bromothymol blue
stopwatch or clock with second hand
rubber stoppers with rubber tubing attached
graduated cylinder
thermometer or temperature probe
CAUTION: Bromothymol blue stains skin and clothing.
Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
TABLE 4.1
Beaker Temperature
(C)
cold
room temperature
warm
2.
4.
5.
6.
Record the time taken for each beaker of bromothymol blue to change colour in Table 4.1 in your
notebook.
Procedure
1.
Obtain six beakers. Add an equal volume of bromothymol blue solution to each of three of the
beakers. Each beaker should be approximately half
full.
Materials
3.
Problem
What is the effect of temperature on alcoholic fermentation by yeast?
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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(continued)
Extending
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(section 4.4)
Problem
How could the Elodea test system be used to investigate
a factor or variable that affects photosynthesis?
CAUTION: Wash your hands after handling living organisms.
Experimental Design
2. Write a list of the variables that you think might influence the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Write a hypothesis about the way each variable
would affect the reaction rate.
4. Design a procedure to test your hypothesis about
each variable. include your materials and safety
considerations.
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CU H
4 Cell Functions
at Work
N AI TP T1E R Cellular
Extending
6. What application of this investigation could be used
by farmers and agriculturalists?
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
active site
activation energy
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
aerobic respiration
alcoholic fermentation
anaerobic respiration
catalyst
cellular respiration
coenzymes
endergonic reaction
enzyme
enzyme-substrate complex
exergonic reaction
fermentation
glycolysis
lactic acid fermentation
metabolism
mRNA
net equation
photosynthesis
protein synthesis
pyruvic acid
tRNA
transcription
translation
Essential Understandings
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy
4.2 Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that function as chemical catalysts to speed up chemical reactions.
Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration; glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic
acid with the formation of two molecules of ATP.
Protein synthesis consists of two main steps: transcription (occurring in the nucleus) and translation (occurring in the cytoplasm).
2.
Construct a concept map to show the relationship between cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
3.
issues using the following categories: social, ethical, economic, environmental, technological.
4.
CHAPTER 4
Cells at Work
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CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Which of these is the cells main energy-carrying
compound
a) enzymes
b) proteins
c) vitamins
d) ATP
2. Pyruvic acid is a final product of
a) cellular respiration
b) photosynthesis
c) fermentation
d) glycolysis
3. During strenuous exercise, the bodys muscles produce
a) alcohol
b) lactic acid
c) glucose
d) starch
4. Photosynthesis occurs in
a) chloroplasts
b) mitochondria
c) prokaryotes only
d) muscle cells
5. An
a)
b)
c)
d)
6. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
7. Anaerobic respiration
a) only occurs in bacteria
b) ends with glycolysis
c) requires oxygen
d) yields no ATP
8. C6H12O6 + 6 O2
a)
b)
6 O2 + 6 H2O + energy
c)
d)
6CO2 + 6 H2 + energy
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10. What is the role of enzymes in providing energy for living systems?
11. Compare aerobic respiration and fermentation with
respect to energy input and energy output. Which
process is more efficient and why?
12. Explain how energy flows between cellular respiration
and photosynthesis.
13. How are proteins important to the overall survival of a
cell? Of an organism?
14. Identify a biologically important endergonic reaction,
and explain why it is so important to supporting life.
15. Describe how a competitive inhibitor affects an enzyme.
16. Define activation energy for a reaction. Use diagrams to
show how the presence of a competitive inhibitor will
affect activation energy in an enzyme-catalysed
reaction.
17. Compare and contrast autotrophs, heterotrophs, and
chemoautotrophs. Write a supported paragraph on the
contribution of each form to the environment.
18. Why do you suppose chemoautotrophs still exist on Earth
today?
19. What accounts for any differences in ATP production
among different kinds of cells?
20. What advantage is there to having anaerobic respiration
available for certain human cells?
21. Do you think yeast cells would grow more quickly
when respiring aerobically or anaerobically? Explain
your answer.
22. Heart attack victims often have trace amounts of lactic
acid in the blood vessels leaving their heart. If you were
a medical researcher, what would this lead you to believe about the cause of heart attacks?
23. Set up a Venn diagram to relate the terms: anabolism,
catabolism, endergonic reaction, exergonic reaction,
metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration.
24. Explain why the minimum number of carbon dioxide
molecules needed to make a glucose molecule in photosynthesis is six.
25. Some desert dwellers, such as kangaroo rats, never have
to drink water. Use your knowledge of cellular
metabolism to identify how kangaroo rats obtain the
water they need from their diet of dry seeds.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
26. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Characteristic
Aerobic
Cellular
Respiration
Anaerobic
Respiration
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Pathways Involved
End Products
Energy Produced
27. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Characteristic
Photosynthesis
Cellular
Respiration
Starting Reactants
(substrates)
Location of Process
within the Cell
Endergonic or
Exergonic
Sample Organism
that Carries Out
this Process
32. If you eat an extra donut every day and do not increase
your activity, what happens to the extra energy that you
consume? If you want to work off the extra energy how
long would you have to exercise by a) running,
b) walking, c) cycling, d) swimming? Use the table to help
determine your answers. Assume your excess intake
was 1200 kJ.
Activity
running
3260
walking
660
cycling
340
swimming
2240
Making Connections
Conditions
Energy
converted
into
% of energy
converted
Glucose
Burned in
a fire
Heat, light
100
Glucose
Used in
cellular
respiration
ATP
40
Gasoline
Burned in
car engine
Motion
25
33. The worlds oil supplies cannot last forever, and since oil
is a non-renewable resource within human lifespans,
scientists are searching for other sources of fuel for
automobiles and other motorized vehicles. One possible
solution is to use yeast to ferment plant waste such as
wheat straw into alcohol. What questions should be
considered in deciding whether this is a worthwhile
solution? How could some of these questions be
answered?
34. The process of biotechnology using recombinant DNA
techniques allows scientists to make a number of human
proteins to treat diseases. What other human protein
products would you like to have available to humans?
Explain your answer.
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Cells at Work
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EXPLORING CAREERS
paleontology
P H Y S I C S
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Looking Outward
2.
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
SCENARIO
Choose one of the two suggested below.
1. You are members of a team hired by Health Canada to review potential public
health campaigns that publicize awareness of diseases that commonly affect
Canadians. Decisions to fund these campaigns will be based on your recommendations.
2. You are members of a group submitting a proposal requesting funding from
Health Canada. The funds will be used for a public health campaign on one of
the diseases that commonly affect Canadians. Decisions to allocate funding will
be based on your submission.
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Contents
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2.
3.
Next Section
5.
Part C: Reflection
6.
7.
8.
Breast cancer
Parkinsons Disease
AIDS
Muscular dystrophy
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 1 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Which is an ionic compound?
a) water
b) sugar
c) carbon
d) sodium chloride
2. A disaccharide is an example of a
a) lipid
b) protein
c) carbohydrate
d) nucleic acid
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
c)
d)
8. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
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20. The hydrogen bond is particularly important in biochemistry. Illustrate this statement with regard to:
a) fish in the Canadian winter
b) the secondary structure of a protein
c) DNA structure
21. Define dehydration synthesis. Use diagrams to show the
importance of dehydration synthesis in:
a) formation of a complex carbohydrate
b) formation of a protein
22. Phospholipids contain glycerol bonded to one or two fatty
acids and to an organic base that is attracted to water.
Explain how this chemical structure is essential to the
structure and function of the cell membrane.
23. Demonstrate the formation of a peptide bond by drawing a diagram. Use the structural formulas for glycine
and alanine in your diagram.
24. The polypeptide chain formed at the ribosome may not
be ready to function in the cell. Discuss the role of the
Golgi apparatus in producing the final, active protein.
25. Set up a T-chart to compare the types of information obtained from transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
26. Explain why you should not place an unopened bottle of
pop in a freezer.
27. Which molecule is larger, ATP or ADP? Explain how you
know this and why there is a size difference.
28. Compare covalent, ionic, and polar covalent bonds.
29. List the components of the cell membrane. Indicate how
hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties are important
for entry of substances through the cell membrane.
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30. Draw a diagram to show how the structure of water contributes to its properties as a solvent.
47. Outline the importance of the cell membrane to the survival of the cell. Explain why it is important for the cell
membrane to be selectively permeable.
32. List three similarities and three differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
33. Name and describe the cellular structure that contains
digestive enzymes. Explain the importance of this structure to the cell.
34. Draw a flow chart of protein synthesis.
35. Draw a timeline of observation and discovery during the
19th century that led to the development of the cell
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
49. Some antibiotics act by binding to enzymes of the
disease-causing bacteria.
a) Draw a diagram to show one way that the antibiotic might affect the activity of the enzyme.
b) What effect of this binding on the bacteria would
you expect?
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50. Consult Canadas Food Guide or another nutritional information source to determine the recommended consumption of saturated and unsaturated fat for a person
of your age. Then maintain a dietary journala record
of what you eat for five days. Consult reference sources
to determine your approximate intake of saturated vs.
unsaturated fats. What changes, if any, should you make
to your diet in light of your findings. What are the
likely benefits to your health of making a change to the
amount of fat you consume?
51. Use a T-chart to show the possible positive and negative
effects of constructing computer processors and other
circuits out of molecules as opposed to constructing them
out of elements as they are currently made?
52. Design an experiment to compare the speed with which
polar and nonpolar compounds dissolve in water. Nonpolar compounds include vegatable oil and sugar. Polar
compounds include acetone and hydrogen chloride.
Predict the results of your experiment.
53. Imagine that a Canadian scientist has discovered a
new and greatly improved microscope that can greatly
increase the magnification and resolution of microscopes.
What effects might this have on our understanding of
cells?
54. People who have nearly drowned in sea water have to
be kept under medical supervision for several hours after
they have been revived. Using your understanding of osmosis, explain why this is necessary.
55. Briefly describe a plan that would allow you to observe
the effects of water moving into a plant cell by osmosis.
56. The table below shows the different amounts of energy
released from glucose by two different processes.
Compare the amount of energy released for each process. Explain what has happened to energy that appears
to have been lost.
Fuel
Fuel use
Efficiency of
energy conversion
Glucose
burned in laboratory
experiment
100%
Glucose
metabolized during
cellular respiration
40%
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Anaerobic
Respiration
Substrate
Products
Energy (# of
ATP produced)
Surface area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm3)
Surface area
Cube/Volume ratio
1
2
3
4
5
60. The average human requires 2200 kcal per day to
meet their energy demands. If a person were to regularly consume 2500 kcal what effect would this have
on their body? Express these values in kilojoules.
61. All human cells metabolize glucose and human bones
actively metabolize calcium. Cancerous cells often metabolize at much faster rates than normal cells. Read the
section: Nuclear Medicine: using the knowledge of cell
functions and technology on page 94, and then describe
how you would design further nuclear medicine tests
to determine cancer in any body tissue as well as cancer in bones.
62. Use the table on the next page to answer the following:
a) What food in the table has the highest ratio of proteins to lipids? The lowest ratio of proteins to lipids?
b) If you were advised by your doctor to eat a low fat
diet, which of the foods listed should you eat less
of?
c) Calculate the number of grams of proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates in the following breakfast: 1 cup
of orange juice, 1 boiled egg, 2 slices of fried bacon,
2 slices of whole wheat toast, and 10 g of margarine.
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Proteins (g)
Lipids (g)
Carbohydrates (g)
1.9
3.0
24
0.4
8.5
0.4
1.9
7.8
17
2.2
5.2
1.2
2.6
1.0
13.0
2.3
4.0
0.25
8.0
0.1
6.5
5.8
0.5
1.8
0.5
26
carrot (1)
0.5
0.1
4.9
2.4
0.3
16.3
Making Connections
63. Stem cell research is based on the principle that some
cells are capable of dividing and giving rise to different
types of differentiated cells. The object of this research
is to have transplanted stem cells assume the role of essential functions missing or lost due to diseases like
Alzheimers. Other research studies factors that may prevent such diseases. Research dollars are limited.
Set up a PMI chart to investigate support for these two
types of research. Consider:
a) data available currently from the two types of research
b) short-term effects on society
c) long-term effects on society
64. Research possible chemical-based and biological-based
alternatives to fossil fuels. Set up a PMI chart for each
method you research. Include a consideration of:
a) the cost of the research
b) the likely time-frame before the alternative fuel is
commercially available
c) effects on the environment
d) effects on the Canadian economy
65. Imagine that you are the director of medical imaging for
Health Canada. Recent research results point strongly to
the possibility of harmful effects on humans through exposure to strong magnetic fields. Outline at least five recommendations you would make in this circumstance to
hospitals and clinics that are currently using MRI scanners. What other medical diagnostic tool may serve to
provide some guidelines for writing your proposal?
66. The function of molecules is often dependent on their threedimensional shape, which leads to yet another story about
performance enhancing drug use by Mark McGwire.
Besides using creatine phosphate, during his home-run
hitting record breaking season, he was also using androstenedionea legal steroid hormone that is identical
to testosterone except for the placement of a single hydrogen atom. While other anabolic steroids are banned
from use, androstenedione is not. What is your opinion of
McGwires use of this performance enhancing substance?
Do you think he should be entitled to keep his record? If
you were a personal trainer to a world class athlete, what
would your advice be regarding the use of androstenedione? Write a supported paragraph on this topic.
67. Compose a letter to the bottlers of Coca-Cola outlining
your opinion of their use of HFCS sweeteners in their
products.
68. You have recently been assigned to the federal government cabinet position of Minister of Health. Draft a statement outlining your official policy on performance
enhancing drugs, such as anabolic steroids.
69. Dr. Harry Jennings invented the first synthetic vaccine.
Other vaccines may cause the inoculated person to contract the disease they are supposed to be protected against.
This is a rare occurrence. Synthetic vaccines do not cause
diseases. Imagine you are a medical researcher. What
other diseases would you suggest for the development of
synthetic vaccines? List the reasons for your choices.
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UNIT
Genetic Continuity
ow does a single cell manage to divide and eventually become a complex multicellular organism, such as an elephant or a giraffe? How
does a species pass all of its special traitsa leopards spots, a zebras
stripes,from one generation to the next? These abilities, found only in
living things, are known as genetic continuity. They are one of lifes great
mysteries. Or at least they were until recently. Scientists are now busy
mapping the chromosomes, genes, and DNAthe hereditary information
inside the nucleus of all
b)
cellsof many organisms including humans.
This new found genetic
knowledge is already
revolutionizing many
aspects of our lives.
Genetic engineering
has been used to create
clones and to develop
designer organisms.
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
demonstrate an understanding of
the necessity of meiosis and
describe the importance of genes
in transmitting hereditary
characteristics, according to
Mendels model of inheritance
c)
d)
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a)
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Genetic screening techniques have been used to detect birth defects in the
developing fetus. Research is being done with gene therapy to cure inherited
disorders such as certain cancers, hemophilia, heart disease, and cystic
fibrosis.
However, the ability to understand and manipulate DNA does have its
downside. How would you feel if you were denied a job because a DNA test
showed that you have a certain genetic defect? What if that blood sample
your doctor ordered fell into the wrong hands and was used to find out everything about you, without you even knowing it? What if a genetically
modified organism multiplied out of control in the wild and drastically altered
the natural ecosystem? These are just a few of the fears some people have
about unlocking the secrets contained in the genes.
Properly assessing the many pros and cons associated with genetic technology requires a good understanding of genetic continuity. In this unit, you
will examine mitosis, the process that ensures genetic continuity within an
individual from cell to cell. You will study meiosis, the process that ensures
genetic continuity from one individual to the next, from generation to generation, within a particular species. You will investigate the science of genetics, the study of how genes operate, and the complex interaction between
genes and their environment. You will look at the various techniques and
technologies that have evolved to study and manipulate DNA. Finally, you will
examine some of the moral and ethical issues that surround these new
technologies. By the time you finish the unit, you will be better equipped to
form your own opinion about the proper use of genetic information.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learning by providing recommendations to an ethics panel
about the potential applications of genetic technologies.
You will analyze the social, ethical, and economic impact of their use and propose a course of action for future application. See page 236.
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CHAPTER 5
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
demonstrate an understanding of
the process and importance of
mitosis (5.1)
b)
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a)
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Discovering Biology
The Chromosome Numbers Game
Imagine an organism that has a characteristic chromosome number, the
diploid number, of six.
1.
On a sheet of paper, sketch one of the cells of this organism and draw six
lines inside the cell to represent the six chromosomes.
2.
Sketch two of these cells to represent the sex cells of this organism,
with each cell containing six chromosomes.
3.
Sketch the results of fertilization involving these two cells. How many
chromosomes does the fertilized egg now contain?
4.
Sketch what would happen if this pattern were repeated for three more
generations.
Predict the effect this sequence of events would have on the characteristics of this imaginary organism.
CHECKPOINT
Draw a comparison chart to
list what you know about
mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
CHAPTER 5
Meiosis
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5.1 Mitosis
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
briefly outline the cell cycle and the stages of mitosis
distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis
understand how one technique for cancer treatment depends on the scientific understanding of mitosis
M AT H L I N K
The first cell of a new organism, the zygote, divides by mitosis to produce a ball of cells
known as a blastula. In animals where the egg has little
yolk, the total number of cells
doubles every round of division. How many rounds of division are necessary to produce
a blastula with 1024 cells?
Hint: the mathematical formula
is 2n = x where n is the number
of divisions and x is the total
number of cells.
DNA
chromatin
Chromatin folds up
to make chromosomes
duplicated chromosome
cell
FIGURE 5.2 The chromosomes. The hereditary material in the nucleus is made up of long
strands of DNA that are condensed, folded and, in association with proteins, formed into
chromosomes.
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Genetic Continuity
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a)
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b)
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
INFOBIT
During interphase the cells of
an organism are actively
producing proteins. These
proteins may be used to
produce structures within the
cell or they may act to regulate
processes in the organism.
For example, the cells of the
pancreas produce the protein
insulin that leaves the
pancreas via the bloodstream.
This chemical then influences
the metabolism of glucose in
cells throughout the body.
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Cell growth
G1 phase
Cyt
nes
is
Telop
hase
Cell
division
Anaphase
hase
Metap
nt
se
ha
rop
e p li
catio
is
M it o s
Chromosome
division and
distribution
erphase
oki
G2 phase
Pr
ep
ara
tion
for
m
DN
Ar
S phase
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FIGURE 5.4 The cell cycle can be divided into mitosis, cytokinesis, and the three
phases of interphase
centromere
a)
b)
chromatids
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WEBLINK
Anaphase Anaphase begins with the separation of the chromatids at the centromere to produce two identical
single-stranded chromosomes. Each separate chromosome is now slowly pulled
toward opposite poles as the protein fibres attached to the centromeres shorten
by a decrease in microtubule sub-units.
Anaphase ends as a complete set of chromosomes arrives at each of the poles.
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pair of
centrioles
nucleus
nucleolus
END OF
INTERPHASE
DNA has already duplicated
back in the S phase. Centrioles have
doubled.
spindle fibres
(microtubules)
mitotic
spindle
PROPHASE
metaphase
plate
METAPHASE
FIGURE 5.6 Mitosis and cytokinesis in animal cells. Note that mitotic cells always have
an even number of chromosomes called the diploid number, although only three
individual chromosomes are shown here and in the diagrams of plant cells in Figure 5.9.
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cleavage
furrow
separating
chromosome
ANAPHASE
Separation. Sister chromatids are
moved to opposite poles in the
cell by the disassembly of the
microtubules they are attached
to. Each chromatid is now a fullfledged chromosome.
nuclear
envelope
forming
TELOPHASE AND
CYTOKINESIS
Exit from mitosis. Chromosomes
decondense, the mitotic spindle
breaks down, and nuclear envelopes
form around the two separate
complements of chromosomes.
Meanwhile, a cleavage furrow begins
to form near the middle of the cell.
COMPLETION OF
CYTOKINESIS
One cell becomes two.
The cell membrane pinches
together completely, the
membranes on either side fuse
together, and the one cell
becomes two. These two cells
now enter the G1 phase of
interphase.
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After Mitosis
FIGURE 5.8 A dividing frog egg. In animal cells cytokinesis begins with the
formation of a cleavage furrow.
CYTOKINESIS IN PLANTS
cell wall
two
daughter
cells
vesicles
cell plate
plasma
membrane
Membrane-lined vesicles
accumulate near the
metaphase plate. The
vesicles contain precursors
to the cell wall.
FIGURE 5.9 Plant cells complete cytokinesis by building a cell wall between the daughter cells.
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cell wall
b) Metaphase. Chromosomes
are lined up at the equator of the
cell. Asters are not present.
Molecular Switches
Control Cell Activity
Yoshio Masui spent over 30 years isolating and studying factors in the cell
that control the cell cycle and trigger
cell division. Dr. Masui, along with
the many students that he worked
with at the University of Toronto, designed equipment and techniques to
pursue their studies and stretch a
limited budget. They were able to
identify two key proteins in the cytoplasm of the cell that control the process of cell division in all organisms.
One of these, the maturation promoting factor (MPF), initiates cell division. The second key protein, the
cytostatic factor (CSF), stopped cell
division. The role of each of these
chemicals was identified using
Masuis own microinjection technique
to transfer controlled amounts of
each factor into cells under study. The
contributions of his research to the
understanding of the regulation of cell
division were recognized in 1992
a)
FIGURE 5.11 a) Dr. Yoshio Masui
b)
b) Dr. Josef Penninger and his colleague
Dr. Takehiko Sasaki prepare an extract.
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WORD ORIGIN
Karyotype from the Greek,
karyon, meaning a nut,
kernel, or nucleus and tupos,
meaning a stamp, a model or
a pattern.
WEBLINK
Find out how the mitotic
division of cancer cells is
abnormal. Research the
various forms of cancer treatment to determine how they
are directed at this abnormal
cell division in cancer cells.
Identify the success rate of
different methods of treating
various forms of cancer.
Begin your research at:
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
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Discovering Biology
Mitosis in Onions
3.
4.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
2.
Prepare a consequence map, using the following categories: scientific, social, economic, political, ethical, and
any additional categories that you feel should be
considered.
Research the ethical and cultural perspectives that influence points of view on this issue. Explain how they
affect public opinion and government policy.
3.
What could some of the future social and economic impacts of marketing human tissue be?
4.
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INFOBIT
It is estimated that there were
approximately 132 100 new
cases of cancer and 65 000
deaths from cancer in Canada
in the year 2000. Men
outnumbered women for both
new cases (67 900 versus 64
200) and deaths (34 600 versus
30 400). Three types of cancer
accounted for at least 50% of
these new cases in each sex:
prostate, lung, and colorectal
cancers in males, and breast,
lung, and colorectal cancers in
females. Almost one-third of
the cancer deaths in men and
almost one-quarter of the
cancer deaths in women were
due to lung cancer.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
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Making Connections
9. Research immunotherapy using a variety of print and electronic resources.
Explain the proposed advantages of
this form of cancer therapy. Based on
your research, do you believe that
immunotherapy will be a beneficial
treatment. Why? Why not?
10. A knowledge of cell division and the
controls determining the rate of cell division may be important in our understanding of the ageing process. Should
society pursue this type of research in
an effort to lengthen the human life
span? Write a supported opinion.
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5.2 Meiosis
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the need for meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually
explain the importance of chromosome number and structure
describe the key events of meiosis
distinguish between the formation of egg cells, and sperm cells
compare mitosis to meiosis
a) A person with
attached earlobes
b) A person with free
earlobes
a)
b)
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attached
earlobes
Next Section
attached
earlobes
free
earlobes
chromatid
blond
hair
blond
hair
blond
hair
blond
hair
sister chromatids
matched by their length, centromere position, and the patterns of banding that
result from staining the chromosomes.
Figure 5.15 shows the characteristics of
homologous chromosomes in a colchicine
metaphase preparation.
The process of meiosis produces
gametes that contain one of each of the
homologous pairs of chromosomes. The
number of chromosomes in each gamete
is one-half of the diploid number. This is
called the haploid number, designated
n. In humans n is 23. When fertilization
occurs in sexual reproduction in humans,
two haploid gametes, the egg or ovum
(female) and sperm (male), join to make
multicellular
diploid
adults
1n
egg
sperm
fertilization
2n
mitosis and
development
zygote
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
FIGURE 5.16 The human life cycle. The diagram relates the roles of meiosis and mitosis in
our life cycle. The diploid phase is shaded blue.
UNIT 2
free
earlobes
centromere
meiosis
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Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis ensures that sex cells have the
right type (one of each homologous pair)
and number (haploid) of chromosomes.
As a result, when the gametes come
together in fertilization, the zygote will
receive the right type and number of
chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in the
reproductive tissues of sexually reproducing organisms. In humans, sperm are
produced by special cells called spermatogonia in the male testes, while eggs
are produced in the oogonia in the
female ovaries. In plants pollen and
ovules are produced.
Mitosis consists of a single division
of the nucleus. Meiosis is characterized
by two major divisions, called meiosis I
and meiosis II. Each division is further
subdivided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Meiosis I and
meiosis II show some similarities to mitosis but also have some unique features.
Study Figure 5.18 as you read the description of meiosis. The diploid number
for the hypothetical organism shown in
Figure 5.18 is 4. Compare this number
with the diploid number of 46 in humans.
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tetrad
a chiasma
FIGURE 5.17 Chiasmata visible in the first division of meiosis in the grasshopper. The tetrad is
composed of four chromatids.
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Plant cells and yeast do not have centrioles as part of their division spindles.
In late prophase I, the tetrads move
toward the equator of the cell.
As metaphase I begins, the tetrads
(homologous pairs) move onto the spindle and line up with their centromeres
at an equal distance from the equator of
the spindle. Anaphase I now begins. In
mitosis, the chromatids of a single chromosome move apart at this point. In
meiosis, the chromatids do not separate
in meiosis I. Instead, the homologous
pairs move apart as they separate, with
one chromosome going to each pole.
During telophase I, the chromosomes
condense slightly and a nuclear membrane may form. At the end of the first
division of meiosis, there are two daughter cells, each with exactly half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
As a result, meiosis I is often called the
reduction division because the number
of chromosomes has been reduced by
half: from 2n to n or, in the example
shown in Figure 5.18, from four chromosomes to two.
Investigation
Refer to page 147,
Investigation 1
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MEIOSIS I
Diploid
END OF
INTERPHASE
DNA has already
duplicated
PROPHASE I
Microtubules
move homologous
chromosomes
to metaphase plate.
Crossing over
occurs.
Independent
assortment
occurs.
CROSSING OVER
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.
duplicated
maternal
chromosome
duplicated
paternal
chromosome
tetrad
sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids
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METAPHASE I
Homologous
chromosomes
link as they
condense, forming
tetrads.
ANAPHASE I
Microtubules
separate homologous
chromosomes
(sister chromatids
remain together).
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MEIOSIS II
Haploid
cytokinesis
cytokinesis
TELOPHASE I
Two haploid
daughter cells
result from
cytokinesis.
PROPHASE II
METAPHASE II
(Brief)
Sister chromatids
line up at new
metaphase plate.
ANAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
Sister chromatids
separate.
Four haploid
cells result.
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Random alignment of
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
METAPHASE I
METAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
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WEBLINK
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Random Assortment of
Chromosomes
During the separation of the doublestranded chromosomes at anaphase I of
meiosis, there is no necessity for chromosomes that came from the father (the
paternal set) to stay together or for chromosomes that came from the mother
(the maternal set) to stay together.
In other words, there is random
assortment of the chromosomes (Figure
5.19). Some gametes may receive all
paternal chromosomes. Some may
receive all maternal chromosomes.
These results are unlikely according to
meiosis
Discovering Biology
Random Assortment of Chromosomes
During meiosis chromosomes assort randomly. Model random
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis in an organism with
2n = 8. Use modelling clay, pipe cleaners, strips of differentcoloured paper, or materials of your choice. Make the four
chromosome pairs different lengths and use a different colour for
maternal and paternal sets. Demonstrate the different possible
combinations of chromosomes in gametes.
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Sperm Banks
Reproductive technologies pose ethical, moral, and legal questions for
individuals, as well as society as a
whole. For example, the use of
sperm banks is a controversial issue.
Couples who are unable to conceive because the male is infertile
may consider obtaining donor sperm
from a sperm bank. In such cases,
offspring will receive 50% of their
genetic make-up from the mother
and 50% from the sperm donor.
Genetic information about sperm
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a)
b)
FIGURE 5.21 The second division of meiosis in the egg of a marine worm.
Figure 5.22 on the next page for the differences in gamete formation in animals.
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SPERMATOGENESIS
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OOGENESIS
oogonium
spermatogonium
primary
oocyte
primary
spermatocyte
meiosis I
polar
body
secondary
spermatocytes
secondary
oocyte
meiosis II
spermatids
polar bodies
(will be degraded)
a)
b)
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egg
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Chromosome Numbers
Cabbage
Number of
Chromosomes
in Daughter
Cells of Mitosis
Diploid
Number
Haploid
Number
Number of
Pairs of
Homologous
Chromosomes
Prophase II
Telophase II
18
18
18
Trillium
Black Bear
38
Human
23
Fruit fly
Peanut
8
40
Mistakes in Meiosis
Meiosis is an elegant process but in any
organism errors in meiosis sometimes
occur. These errors may be the result of
mistakes in separation of the chromosomes during division or of an incorrect
exchange of genetic information during
chiasma formation. Many genetic disorders in humans can be traced back to
errors in the formation of the gametes in
meiosis. Mistakes in meiosis can result
in an abnormal number of chromosomes
in an egg or sperm cell. If this egg or
sperm is then involved in fertilization, the
zygote will exhibit an abnormal number
of chromosomes. The child produced
from this zygote (following mitosis and
differentiation) will have cells with too
few or too many chromosomes, a
condition known as aneuploidy. Down
syndrome is an example of aneuploidy.
In another abnormality, chromosomes exchange information incorrectly
during the crossing-over process of
meiosis. The resulting sex cells, and
ultimately the fetus produced from
fertilization involving these cells, will
have the correct number of chromosomes, but the genetic information may
be altered or the chromosomes may
contain duplications or deletions of
genetic material.
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genetic garden
Investigation
Refer to page 148,
Investigation 2
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FIGURE 5.24
Nondisjunction results
in an abnormal
chromosome number.
Nondisjunction, the
abnormal separation of
chromosomes, can
occur in either meiosis I
or meiosis II. If
nondisjunction happens
in meiosis I all the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
If it happens in meiosis
II, only half of the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
nondisjunction
in meiosis I
normal
meiosis I
normal
meiosis II
nondisjunction
in meiosis II
gametes
24
24
22
abnormal number of
chromosomes
100%
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22
23
23
normal
50%
22
24
abnormal number
of chromosomes
50%
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normal chromosomes
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
duplication
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
V W
inversion
C D
V W
A B
A B
C D
V W
A B
C D
WORDORIGIN
Sympatry from the Greek Sun
meaning together and
patria meaning father land:
refers to species that co-exist
but cannot produce fertile
offspring.
translocation
A B
deletion
A B
INFOBIT
V W
C D
V W
CHAPTER 5
d) a translocation moves a
segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous
one.
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Mitosis
Meiosis
Function of Process
Location of Process
Number of Divisions
1 division
2 successive divisions
Meiosis I reduction division
Meiosis II similar to mitosis
Number of Cells
Produced in Animals
Number of
Chromosomes per Cell
at End of Process
diploid number 2n
46 in humans
haploid number n
23 in humans
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
11. A diploid cell contains 4 pairs of chromosomes designated #1, #2, and #3
#4. Each pair contains a paternal and
maternal chromosome (1p and 1m, 2p
and 2m, 3p and 3m, 4p and 4m).
Illustrate the possible combinations
of chromosomes that could be observed
in the haploid gametes resulting from
meiosis in this cell. Use a diagram and
a table.
12. An organism has a diploid number of
10. Calculate the probability that
a gamete will contain five paternal
chromosomes.
Making Connections
13. Geneticists can intentionally disrupt the
meiotic process in plants and animals
to produce new mutations or abnormal
chromosome numbers in the sex cells
of these organisms. The intent is to
produce a new organism that possesses
a new desirable combination of traits.
Should scientists be tampering with life
in this manner? Should consideration
be given to the type of organism that
undergoes this manipulation? In paragraph form outline two advantages and
two disadvantages that could result
from this type of research. Support
your statements with research.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain how genetic continuity is maintained in asexual reproduction
describe several different methods of asexual reproduction
explain the importance of genetic recombination and the necessity of meiosis
describe the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction
Characteristics of Sexual
Reproduction
Meiosis produces haploid gametes containing one of each of the homologous
pairs of chromosomes. The products of
meiosis are different from each other
because of the random assortment of
chromosomes and also because of the
genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I. There are thousands of
possibilities for each gamete. When
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Method of
Asexual
Reproduction
Organisms
Utilizing This
Method
Description
Binary Fission
Bacteria
Amoeba
Paramecium
Illustration
Budding
Yeast
Hydra
Fragmentation
Flatworms
Sea stars
b) Budding in Hydra. The genetically identical bud will eventually separate from the parent Hydra to form a new individual.
Vegetative
propagation
Wide range of
plants
Spores
Ferns
Bread moulds
Mushrooms
Specialized spores contain genetic information inside of tough outer casings. They may
be stored in spore cases, called sporangia,
until released.
If a spore lands where conditions are
favourable the spore will grow into a new organism.
e) Sporangia containing spores on the back
of a fern leaf.
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A Theory of Sexual
Reproduction
Many theories have been put forward attempting to account for the importance
of meiosis and the advantages of sexual
reproduction. Success of a species is a
different thing from the life of an individual of the species. Sexual organisms
may not produce many offspring but
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a) Penguins
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b) Gannets
FIGURE 5.27 Populations and variability. These populations do not appear to have
a great deal of variety in external appearance. However, each individual is unique in
its combination of internal physiology and chemical makeup. What advantage might
these populations gain by maintaining diversity among their members?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
Making Connections
8. Reproductive technologies are becoming more common in todays society.
List the ethical issues raised by the use
of these technologies. Propose an argument for and against the use of reproductive technologies. Write an
argued, supported paragraph that expresses your point of view.
9. Couples who have the potential to produce a child with a serious genetic defect should be discouraged from having
children. Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Present your answer as a supported opinion.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 5.2)
Cells undergoing meiosis can be preserved on microscope slides. Photography through the microscope allows study of the stages of meiosis and the comparison
of plant and animal material. Figure 5.18 illustrates
the events in hand-drawn pictures.
4.
Problem
6.
Materials
animal LAL1
meiosis and plant meiosis microslide and
microslide viewer
microscope slides of spermatogenesis in grasshopper testes
drawing materials
Procedure
8.
Prepare a full-page chart similar to the one you prepared for Part A.
9.
Examine your slide to find cells undergoing meiosis. Using high-power magnification, make drawings of cells in the eight stages of meiosis that you
identified in the microslide material used in Part A.
1.
2.
3.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TABLE 5.9
Name of Stage
Shown
10. Observe chiasmata in cells in late prophase of meiosis I. Carefully draw one tetrad in which one
chiasma is visible and one tetrad in which several
chiasmata are visible. See Figure 5.17.
Description of Key
Events
1. Which of the stages in meiosis are easiest to identify in the microslide material and the grasshopper
material? Why?
2. What was the diploid number for the animal and
plant shown on the microslides, and for the
grasshopper? What was the haploid number for
each?
3. Meiosis differs in plant and animal cells. Highlight
the differences in the process of meiosis in the plant
cells and the animal cells that you observed.
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(continued)
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 5.2)
3.
For the purposes of your model assume that the organisms sex is to be determined the way it is in
humans, with X and Y chromosomes. Choose a low
diploid number for the species and chromosome
sizes and centromere positions to simplify the modelling process.
4.
5.
Problem
How can you illustrate mistakes in meiosis? How can
you determine whether an abnormality will result after
fertilization involving these gametes?
Experimental Design
148
1.
Identify the mistake in crossing over and the mistake in segregation of the chromosomes that you
wish to illustrate.
2.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
adaptation
anaphase
aneuploidy
asexual reproduction
asters
cancer
cell cycle
cell plate
centromere
chiasmata
chromatid
chromatin
chromosome number
clone
crossing over
cytokinesis
daughter cells
deletion
diploid, 2n
DNA
duplication
fertilization
gametes
gene
genetic continuity
genetic recombination
haploid n
homologs
interphase
inversion
locus
meiosis
metaphase
mitosis
monosomy
nondisjunction
oogonia
polar bodies
polyploidy
polysomy
prophase
reduction division
replication
sexual reproduction
spermatogonia
S phase
synapsis
telophase
tetrad
translocation
zygote
Essential Understandings
5.1 Mitosis
5.2 Meiosis
2.
3.
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CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
2. An organism with a diploid number of 32 would produce gametes with ____ chromosomes.
a) 16
b) 32
c) 64
d) a variable number of
Organism
cotton
fruit fly
Diploid
Number
Haploid Number of
Number Chromosomes
in Daughter Cells
of Mitosis
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Prophase I
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Telophase I
Number of
Chromosomes
in Meiosis at
Telophase II
4
64
toad
18
chicken
78
goldfish
UNIT 2
Number of Pairs
of Homologous
Chromosomes
52
horse
150
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Genetic Continuity
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13. Draw a cell in the following phases of mitosis or meiosis. Clearly indicate the number of chromosomes and
chromatids present.
a) metaphase of mitosis for a cell with 2n = 6
b) anaphase of meiosis II for a cell with 2n = 8
c) telophase of meiosis I for a cell with 2n = 6
14. Explain why an organism would gain an advantage if it
could reproduce both sexually and asexually.
15. Produce a concept map entitled The Human Life Cycle
relating the roles of mitosis, meiosis, cell differentiation,
diploid number, haploid number, fertilization, sexual reproduction, gametes, and genetic continuity.
16. Look at the dividing cells in Figure 5.28
a) Is the organism an animal or a plant? Explain your
answer.
b) Identify the stage of division in cell A.
c) Identify the stage of division in cell B.
d) Identify the stage of division in cell C.
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Making Connections
A
B
FIGURE 5.28
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
17. The oxygen-carrying red blood cells in our bodies are
replaced approximately every 120 days. New cells are
produced in the red bone marrow by mitosis. Calculate
how many red blood cells are produced each day. Blood
contains about 5 million red blood cells per
cubic millimetre and an average person has about 5 L
(5000 cm3) of blood in their body. To calculate this value,
determine the number of red blood cells in the body and
assume that this number would be totally replaced over
a 120-day span.
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CHAPTER 6
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
ikeness between human parents and offspring has intrigued scientists and
physicians through the ages. Descriptions of many physical characteristics, which we now know to be inherited, have been documented for thousands of years. However, these descriptions were almost always given without
any insight into how the characteristics were inherited. For example, ancient
FIGURE 6.1 A Inheritance of physical characteristics is obvious in parents and their offspring.
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Egyptians made statues of very short individuals with short extremities and
unusually shaped skulls, which we now recognize as the characteristics of an
inherited disorder called achondroplasia. These statues preceded descriptions of this disorder in scientific literature by some 3000 years.
The tendency for a defect to recur within families went apparently unnoticed for generations. One wide-spread explanation of malformations in a
newborn was the idea of maternal impressions. If the mother saw some
ugly or frightening sight during her pregnancy, it might influence the development of her unborn baby. For this reason, many mothers in ancient Greece
spent their time gazing at beautiful statues around the city, hoping that the
features of their unborn infants would be as attractive.
Probably the earliest inkling that diseases could be inherited through families is recorded in ancient Hebrew writings, where it was stated that brothers and male cousins of boys with bleeding disorders were not to be
circumcised. Obviously, some implications about the inheritance of hemophilia
were recognized.
It is only in the last 50 years or so that we have truly understood how
these family traits are passed from generation to generation. The explanation of this transmission of traits is the basis of the branch of science called
genetics, the study of heredity. When Gregor Mendel outlined his nowfamous laws of heredity in the 1800s, he had no knowledge of chromosomes
and the process of meiosis. Today, knowledge of the process of meiosis is key
to our understanding of the inheritance of traits. Mendels laws and the patterns he described can be used to explain inheritance through dominance,
co-dominance, incomplete dominance, recessiveness, and X-linkage. They
also explain the patterns of inheritance of many human genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology
A Human Characteristic
Hold your thumb and hand in a position that you would use if you were hitchhiking. Note the shape of your thumb. If the last joint of your thumb bends
backwards you have inherited a hitchhikers thumb. If it does not bend
backwards then your thumb is described as being straight. Pool the data
for your whole class.
How many of your classmates are hitchhikers and how many are
straight? The inheritance pattern of this trait is explained by a simple
scheme of inheritance first outlined by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s.
Although the inheritance of many traits in humans is complex, numerous traits can be explained using Mendels patterns of inheritance.
If you were to study seven of these types of traits in your classmates,
where each student is described in one of two ways for each trait, how
many different combinations of traits would exist for the seven traits that
you study?
Would you expect any two of your classmates to possess the same combination of traits for the seven studied? Explain your answer.
CHECKPOINT
Scientific discovery is a
process that follows a
particular methodthe
scientific method. In a
sequence diagram, show
the steps involved in
researching a hypothesis.
Researching a
Hypothesis
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain why Mendels attempts to explain inheritance patterns were successful
describe the steps in Mendels work
use correct terminology to explain dominance, recessiveness and Mendels laws of
inheritance
FIGURE 6.2 Every organism inherits certain traits from its parents. What traits do
you think the baby moose inherited from its mother?
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imals such as rats and mice was not acceptable: that would be breeding vermin!
What about plants? Their pollination
could be controlled easily, but no one used
plants for scientific purposes before 1750.
One of the major stumbling blocks was
that scientists of the time had to become
accustomed to the notion that plants had
sex! Religious naturalists who expected
to learn good morals from nature wrote
of their surprise in finding such an abundance of pollen grains (males) and so
few seed chambers (females). In spite of
a doubting society and religious restrictions, written accounts of inheritance
patterns started to appear more frequently in the 18th century.
In the 1800s there were numerous
attempts made to account for the transmission of specific traits from one generation to the next. One of the most
strongly supported explanations was that
there was some information in the blood
of both parents that was mixed at conception. Therefore offspring would be
expected to show some combination of
parental features. Although this belief
was eventually discounted, we still use
the term bloodline to indicate relationship between two individuals. This
concept was not based on careful scientific observation and experiment.
Although our knowledge of inheritance patterns has expanded rapidly in
the last 200 years, a great deal of debate
still exists when people consider explanations of heredity. Differing opinions
also exist when society considers the
ethics of the many possible applications
of genetic knowledge.
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Mendels Success
It is believed that the first scientific attempt to explain the scheme of inheritance was made in the middle of the
nineteenth century by a Moravian monk
named Gregor Mendel. Mendel spent
several years at the University of Vienna
studying science in order to become a
high school teacher. He eventually returned to a monastery in what is now
the Czech Republic, where he performed
his famous experiments in genetics.
Mendels success in demonstrating
the basis of heredity is not surprising.
He was armed with some of the most advanced scientific and mathematical
knowledge of the day. He knew that duplicating his experimental crosses thousands of times would lend validity to his
results and his explanations as well.
Mendels applications of mathematics,
and in particular of probability, were
rare in the field of science in the mid1800s. However, a consideration of probability strengthened his work. Although
Mendel observed crosses in mice, bees,
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and several plants, he centred his attention on the common pea plant, Pisum
sativum. Because the common pea plant
is normally self-pollinating, Mendel
found it easy to control the parental
crosses. (See Figure 6.4.) In addition,
this annual plant was easily grown and
matured quickly, producing many seeds.
In this way, many generations could be
studied over a relatively short period of
time. Most important was the fact that
pea plants show several pairs of obvious, contrasting traits. For example,
some plants grow tall while others are
dwarf plants and some have round,
smooth seeds while others have wrinkled seeds. These contrasting traits are
shown in Figure 6.5.
INFOBIT
Most of society in the 1860s
supported two notions about
inheritance. The blending
theory of inheritance
suggested that the seeds
that controlled hereditary traits
were blended together from
generation to generation.
Pangenesis suggested that
hereditary traits could be
modified throughout a persons
lifetime. If a person practised
a particular skill throughout his
or her lifetime then his or her
offspring would inherit the
improvement in this skill. The
work of Gregor Mendel would
eventually refute both of
these notions.
a) Stamens
removed from
purple flower
b) Pollen from
stamens of white
flower transferred with paint
bush to carpel of purple flower
FIGURE 6.4 Mendel was able to control the crosses of different varieties of pea
plants by using an artists brush to transfer pollen (the male sex cell) from one plant
to the egg-bearing carpel of another plant. The seeds produced in this cross could
then be planted to observe the next generation.
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Contents
Character
Studied
Previous Section
Dominant Trait
Next Section
Recessive Trait
Stem Length
Tall
Dwarf
Seed Shape
Smooth
Wrinkled
Seed Color
Yellow
Green
Inflated
Wrinkled
Green
Yellow
Flower
Color
Purple
White
Flower
Position
On stem
At tip
Pod Shape
Pod Color
FIGURE 6.5 This chart illustrates the seven pea plant characteristics studied by
Mendel. Note that the two forms of each trait are easily distinguished from one
another.
Mendels Experiments
Mendel eventually identified and used the
seven pairs of contrasting traits shown
in Figure 6.5. Observable characteristics
or traits are called phenotypes. Mendel
spent several years self-pollinating the
pea plants in order to establish pure
lines or purebred plants. Tall plants
were repeatedly self-fertilized until
Mendel was sure that he had tall plants
that would yield only seeds that would
produce tall plants. The same process
was carried out with the dwarf plants.
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plants for each dwarf plant, a mathematical ratio of 3:1. This meant that the
hybrid tall plants were somehow different from the purebred tall plants. (See
Figure 6.6.) Mendel carefully repeated this
experiment for each of the other six pairs
of contrasting traits. In every case the results were similar. The F2 generation displayed a phenotypic ratio very close to
3:1. For each of the seven traits studied,
3/4 of the F2 generation exhibited the
dominant trait and 1/4 exhibited the recessive trait. His findings are summarized
in Table 6.1. The average ratio for all of
the traits in the F2 generation was 3:1.
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Characteristic
Dominant
Trait
Recessive
Trait
F2 generation
Dominant:
Recessive
Mathematical
Ratio
Flower colour
purple
white
705:224
3.15:1
Flower position
on stem-axial
at tip-terminal
651:207
3.14:1
Seed colour
yellow
green
6022:2001
3.01:1
Seed shape
smooth/round
wrinkled
5474:1850
2.96:1
Pod shape
inflated
wrinkled
882:299
2.95:1
Pod colour
green
yellow
428:152
2.82:1
Stem length
tall
dwarf
787:277
2.84:1
INFOBIT
Inheritance in animals as well
as plants can be explained
by the principles discovered
by Mendel. The first
demonstration of this came in
1902 from William Batesons
experiments with chickens.
Bateson was the first person
to use the term genetics.
WORDORIGIN
Genotype from the Greek,
genos meaning race or kind
and tupos meaning model or
pattern
Phenotype from the Greek
phainein meaning to show
or to appear and tupos
meaning model or pattern
157
Contents
Generation
Previous Section
Genotypes
Next Section
Phenotypes
Parental
P Cross
tall dwarf
both purebred
TT
tt
homozygous homozygous
tall
Gametes
formed
all t
all T
dwarf
Tt
F1
heterozygous
Dominance is
operating.
Tt
F1 Cross
Gametes
formed
Tt
TT
Tt
Tt
tt
homo- hetero- hetero- homozygous zygous zygous zygous
F2
3/4 tall
Ratio in F2
Genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1
1TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
1/4 dwarf
Phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1
3 tall : 1 dwarf
FIGURE 6.6 A summary of Mendels cross involving tall and dwarf pea plants. T
represents the tall allele and t the dwarf allele.
Investigation
Refer to page 182,
Investigation 2
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combinations,
,
,
and
.
When two F1 plants were crossed, 16 or
(4 4) combinations had to be considered. Mendel observed an F2 generation
with 9/16 of the plants tall with round
seeds (2 dominant traits), 3/16 tall with
wrinkled seeds (1 dominant and 1 recessive trait), 3/16 dwarf with round
seeds (1 recessive and 1 dominant trait),
and 1/16 dwarf with wrinkled seeds (2
recessive traits).
This ratio of F 2 phenotypes of
9:3:3:1 is found in all dihybrid crosses
that involve fully dominant and
recessive alleles. Figure 6.7 shows the
result for the dihybrid cross of smooth
yellow seeds with wrinkled green seeds.
Mendels laws are summarized in
Table 6.2.
Mendel first presented his findings
in 1865 to the Natural Science Society
and published his formal paper shortly
thereafter. It was ignored for the most
part because at that time few scientists
could grasp the mathematical reasoning
and implications of his research. It is interesting to note that at that time the
work of Charles Darwin in his On the
Origin of Species (published 1859) had
scientists looking at the importance of
gradual change and small differences instead of sharp discontinuities such as
those seen in Mendels tall and dwarf
peas. The significance of Mendels results was not realized until after 1900,
when independent experiments carried
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Investigation
P generation
wrinkled
green
WEBLINK
crosspollination
x
F1 generation
315
9
smooth
yellow
101
108
32
3
:
3
:
1
wrinkled
smooth
yellow
green
wrinkled
green
Mendels Laws
Mendels First Law The Law of Segregation
During gamete formation two alleles of a gene pair segregate or separate from each other. A heterozygous plant that is Tt forms gametes that are
and
in equal numbers. The gametes are not
a blend of the two traits.
Mendels Second Law The Law of Independent Assortment
Segregation for different pairs of alleles occurs independently. A plant that is heterozygous for two
pairs of alleles, for example Tt Rr, can form four types of gametes:
,
,
and
.
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7.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Explain how Mendels Law of
Segregation is actually based on meiosis. Use diagrams to illustrate your
answer.
9. In a flow chart, outline the process of
experimentation used by Mendel.
Making Connections
10. Why do you think it was so difficult for
society of Mendels time to grasp and
accept his explanations of heredity?
11. If Mendels findings had been accepted
immediately, do you think that our
knowledge of genetics and genetic technologies would be more advanced
today? Outline several points to support your argument.
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
understand how Punnett squares can be used to illustrate Mendels findings
construct Punnett squares to solve problems involving monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
explain the importance of meiosis to the inheritance patterns outlined by Mendel
INFOBIT
The Punnett square approach
to genetic problems is named
for the geneticist Punnett who,
with his colleague Bateson,
investigated the genetics of
chickens in the early years of
the 20th century.
WORD ORIGIN
Allele, a shortened form of the
term allelomorph, from the
Greek allele meaning one another and morphe meaning
form
160
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Constructing
Punnett Squares
Mendels experiments began with a cross
between a purebred tall plant (TT) and
a purebred dwarf plant (tt). These
Genetic Continuity
Contents
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Gametes
t
TT
Gametes
Tt
Tall
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Tt
Gametes
Tt
Gametes
TT
Tall
Tt
Tall
Tt
Tall
tt
Dwarf
The Sutton-Boveri
Hypothesis
The rediscovery of Mendels work
around the turn of the twentieth century,
together with cytological studies of meiosis, led scientists to the understanding
that the segregation of Mendels factors
mirrored the movement of chromosomes
in meiosis. Contributions by a number
of investigators resulted in the SuttonBoveri hypothesis of 1902. This
hypothesis suggested that genes were
carried on the chromosomes and that
segregation and independent assortment
of factors were the results of the physical process of meiosis. The members of
pairs of alleles segregate or separate independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. The different
chromosome pairs also separate independently of each other during meiosis
due to the random orientation of the
tetrads on the spindle at metaphase of
meiosis I. Sutton and Boveris chromosome theory of heredity was a major
breakthrough because it pointed out the
physical basis for Mendels rules.
Experimental data in support of this
hypothesis came a few years later when
in 1910, T. H. Morgan demonstrated that
the inheritance of a particular trait of
eye colour in male fruit flies was associated with a particular chromosome.
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Discovering Biology
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Each kernel in an ear of corn represents an offspring that resulted from a separate
fertilization. Working with a partner, count the number of purple and yellow
kernels on an ear of genetic corn. Mark row 1 with a coloured pin or thumbtack
and count along the rows in an orderly sequence.
What ratio of purple to yellow kernels does your ear of corn have? Compare
your ratio with the ratios found by several other groups. Is there any agreement between the ratios?
Try to explain why your ear has more kernels of one colour and fewer of the
other. Compare your explanation with that of several other groups.
EXAMPLE 1
Single Trait Analysis
In humans, the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), T, is dominant to nontasting, t. Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios resulting from
a cross between a heterozygous taster and a non-taster.
Given: T is dominant to t. Therefore, a heterozygote is Tt and a non-taster is tt.
The parental genotypes are Tt and tt.
Required: The genotypic and phenotypic ratios expected in the offspring
Analysis:
The cross is Tt tt
Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
T tasting
t non-tasting
and
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In humans, the allele A, for
pigment formation is dominant to the allele a, for inability to form pigment. aa
individuals are albino.
Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios
expected from a cross between two individuals heterozygous for this trait.
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tt
Gametes
1/2
1/2
Tt
1/2
tt
1/2
Taster
Non-taster
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WEBLINK
For links to sites that show
examples of genetic analysis
using Punnett squares, go to
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
1/2
with T
1/2
with t
T
T
T
T
T
t
T
t
t
t
t
t
prophase I
anaphase I
metaphase II
gametes
FIGURE 6.10 The segregation of chromosomes and alleles. The gametes formed during
meiosis in a Tt plant will either contain T (probability of 1/ 2) or t (probability of 1/2 ). Notice
that each homologous chromosome has replicated and that pairing (synapsis) has occurred to
form the tetrad. The tetrad is made of two chromosomes each made up of two chromatids as
the chromosomes enter prophase 1.
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EXAMPLE 2
Recognizing Hybrids
A geneticist crosses two parent plants that have the dominant trait of purple
flowers. When the resulting seeds are planted the geneticist observes that 145 of
the F1 plants have the recessive trait of yellow flowers and 430 of the F1 plants
have purple flowers. How can you explain these results? What are the genotypes
of the parent plants and the F1 plants?
Given: F (purple flowers) is dominant to f (yellow flowers). Both of the P1 plants
possess at least one F gene: F__ F__
Required: The genotypes of the parents and F1 plants
Analysis:
The key to this question is the appearance of the ff (yellow plants) in the F1.
Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
The appearance of the recessive trait in the phenotype of the F1 plants can only
occur if they are homozygous recessive (ff). This can only happen if both of the purple parent plants are heterozygous and each parent contributed the recessive
allele to these yellow plants. In addition, recognize that the ratio of purple plants
to yellow plants is approximately 3:1. This ratio indicates a monohybrid cross.
Ff
Gametes
F
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/2
FF 1/4
Ff
1/2
Ff
ff
Ff
Gametes
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In mice, G for grey coat colour
is dominant to g. The gg individuals are black. Two grey
mice are mated to produce
nine grey mice and two black
mice. Explain these results.
These observations are the result of a monohybrid cross. Both parents are
Ff. The 145 F1 plants with yellow flowers are homozygous recessive (ff) while
the 430 F1 plants with purple flowers are either heterozygous (Ff) or homozygous dominant (FF). You would expect 1/3 of the purple-flowered plants
to be homozygous dominant and 2/3 to be heterozygous. This prediction is
based on the Mendelian genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
Genetic Continuity
1/4
(145 given)
Statement:
164
1/4
,
,
, and
. This result is simply a reflection of how genetic material
that is carried on chromosomes separates in meiosis. As long as the genes for
plant height (T,t) and seed type (R,r) are
on different homologous pairs of
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TtRr
Gametes
TR
Tr
tR
tr
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
TR 1/4
TTRR
TTRr
TtRR
TtRr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
Tr 1/4
TTRr
TTrr
TtRr
Ttrr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
tR 1/4
TtRR
TtRr
ttRR
ttRr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
tr 1/4
TtRr
Ttrr
ttRr
ttrr
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
TtRr
Gametes
line of first
meiotic division
Next Section
gametes
produced
T
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
meiosis
t
t
r
R r
T
r
meiosis
t
t
R
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Tr
tR
tr
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
TtRr
Ttrr
ttRr
ttrr
1/4 Tall,
Round
1/4 Tall,
Wrinkled
1/4 Dwarf,
Round
1/4 Dwarf,
Wrinkled
Quit
tr 1/4
EXAMPLE 3
Questions Involving More Than One Trait
In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. What fraction of F1 mice would you predict to have grey coats
and short tails when a male ggTt parent is crossed with a female GGtt parent?
Given: G is dominant to g. T is dominant to t. Therefore:
GG or Gg grey coat
g g white coat TT or Tt long tail
tt short tail
Required: The fraction of F1 mice expected to have grey coats and short tails;
that is, to be of genotypes GGtt or Ggtt
PRACTICE PROBLEM
In pea plants tall (T) is dominant to dwarf (t) and round
seeds (R) is dominant to wrinkled seeds (r). Use a Punnett
square to determine what
fraction of the offspring produced in each of the following
crosses you would expect to
be tall with wrinkled seeds.
a) TtRr TtRr (This is a dihybrid cross! Use your
ratios.)
b) TtRr ttrr
c) TtRr TTRr
d) TtRr Ttrr
e) TtRr ttRr
f) TTrr ttRR
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Analysis:
The cross is ggTt GGtt.
Produce a Punnett square.
Solution:
The ggTt parent produces two types of gametes
and
Female Gt 1
gametes
1/2
gt
1/2
GgTt 1/2
Ggtt 1/2
Grey long
Grey short
Statement:
In the F1 mice that are produced, half of the mice will be expected to have
the genotype Ggtt and as a result, half of the F1 mice will exhibit the grey
coat and short tail phenotype combination.
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b) Tt
c) TtRr
d) TTrr
f) TtRrSs (a trihybrid)
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. The product rule of probability states
that the probability of a series of events
occurring simultaneously is the product of each of the individual probabilities. Use this rule to calculate the
probability of each of the following:
a) The probability of an AaBbCcDd
parent producing a gamete with the
genotype ABCD
b) The probability of an AabbccDd parent producing a gamete with the
genotype Abcd
7.
Making Connections
11. In your opinion, should all family practitioners have a general background in
genetics? Explain.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe incomplete dominance and co-dominance
explain the inheritance of blood types in the ABO blood group system in humans
explain what is meant by multifactorial inheritance
outline the effects of linkage and crossing over on inheritance patterns
solve problems involving incomplete dominance and co-dominance
Incomplete Dominance
RR
Red
rr
White
P
generation
Rr
100% pink
F1
generation
Mendel had used the concept of dominance to explain his results in pea plants
but he saw instances in nature where
strict dominance did not apply. In other
species of plants that he experimented egg
sperm
R
R
with, the patterns observed were distinctly different from those seen in the
pea, Pisum sativum. In one species of
r
r
RR
snapdragon, when he crossed whiteflowered plants with red-flowered plants,
the F1 plants that resulted were neither
Rr
Rr
red- nor white-flowered plants, as he
would have predicted. All of the F1 plants
were pink.
F2
Under dominance the dominant
generation
rr
allele can hide the expression of a recessive allele in the heterozygous condition. However, in the determination of
1
:
2
:
1
some traits, the different alleles of a gene
red
pink
white
may be expressed in the heterozygous
FIGURE 6.14 Incomplete dominance. Notice
condition to produce an intermediate
how the red and white phenotypes disappear in
phenotype. When neither gene is comthe F1 generation but reappear in the next
generation.
pletely dominant over the other, we say
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Co-dominance
A slightly different form of inheritance is
observed in horses and shorthorn cattle where two alleles are expressed at the
same time. If one parent is homozygous red and the other homozygous
white, the offspring will be a pinkish
colour termed roan, a blend of red and
white. However, in this instance, each individual hair in the coat of the animal
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nor IB can dominate the other. If a person has the genotype IAIB, then his or
her phenotype is blood type AB. The possible genotypes and corresponding phenotypes in the ABO blood group system
are listed in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3 Co-dominance and Multiple Allelism
in the ABO Blood Group System
Genotype
Phenotype
IAIA or IAi
Type A
IBIB or lBi
Type B
IAIB
Type AB
ii
Type 0
WEBLINK
Multifactorial Traits
In humans and other higher organisms,
most traits show a very wide range of
phenotypic expression. In large families,
characteristics such as height or hair
colour show a large number of different
phenotypes. Multiple allelism cannot
explain this wide range of variation. The
term multifactorial is used for traits
whose phenotypic expression is
controlled by genes found at many loci
(polygenic). The expression of a multifactorial trait is often influenced by other
contributing factors including the persons internal and external environments. Many multifactorial traits show
a continuous distribution of phenotypes
(for example, heights from 140 cm to
200 cm for the students in your school),
a) Discontinuous distribution
of phenotypes occurs when
one pair of alleles showing
dominance is involved.
b) Continuous distribution of
phenotypes occurs in multifactorial inheritance.
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while traits where only one pair of alleles is involved show discontinuous distribution (for example, tall or dwarf
peas, red, pink, or white flowers in snapdragons, or blood types in the ABO system).
A satisfactory genetic interpretation
of traits with a wide range of expression was in fact first suggested by
Mendel. In addition to his famous
experiments with peas, he performed
crosses between white and purple-red
flowering beans. The hybrids had flowers with less intense coloration than the
purple-red parent. In the second generation resulting from a hybrid cross,
Mendel did not find two phenotypes in
a simple 3:1 ratio. Instead he obtained
a whole series of different colours, ranging from white through pale violet to
purple-red. His tentative explanation was
that more than one pair of genes determined flower colour. Mendel realized
that other possible systems apart from
the complete dominance seen in pea
plants might exist. The hypothesis of
multifactorial inheritance was tested in
the early 1900s in an analysis of seed
pigmentation in wheat crosses. A multigenic model was perfected.
100
Percent phenotype in F2
Quit
dominant
phenotype
75
50
recessive
phenotype
25
0
aa
AA or Aa
Distribution of phenotype
average
phenotype
Number of individuals
INFOBIT
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Distribution of phenotype
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The Use of
Identical Twins
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INFOBIT
The fact that genes work
together in some complex
interaction is illustrated clearly
by the condition known as
tuberous sclerosis. Although
this is a single-gene defect,
people who suffer from this
disease develop benign
tumours in many areas of the
body including the brain, eyes,
heart, kidney and skin. They
are also characterized by their
epileptic seizures and
delayed development. This
non-functioning gene has
influenced the expression of
many other interrelated genes.
When one gene causes many
effects like this, the result is
termed pleiotropy.
FIGURE 6.17 What could produce different phenotype expression in these identical twins?
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A Gene Today
Since the time of Mendel geneticists have
been working toward a definition of the
gene. Science progresses by defining
units, but these are helpful tools that
may be modified as more information
becomes available. In the 1940s Beadle
and Tatum suggested that one gene determines one enzyme. Today geneticists
know that a sequence of nucleotides on
the DNA may code for a protein chain
that may act as a structural component
of tissues, a regulatory chemical, or an
influence on other structural or regulatory proteins. The role of a protein may
be influenced by many factors in the environment. Many interactions within the
genome remain to be clarified.
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GgWw
Gametes
ggww
Gametes
GW
gw
GgWw
Ggww
ggWw
ggww
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
Phenotype
grey, normal
black, normal
Expected percent
25
25
25
25
1/4
Gw
1/4
gW
1/4
1/4
gw
if independent
Observed
41.5
8.5
8.5
41.5
percent
chromosomes of parents
gametes possible
If A is linked with B
and a with b
A
B
A
B
a
b
a
b
A
B
A
B
a
b
a
b
A
b
A
b
a
B
a
B
meiosis
If A is linked with b
and a with B
A
b
A
b
a
B
a
B
1/2
ab
meiosis
1/2
aB
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chromosomes of parents
Aa
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a
meiosis
Bb
WEBLINK
174
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Genetic Continuity
2 parental
gametes
A B and a b
2 recombinant
gametes
A b and a B
Gene Mapping
Sturtevant extended his studies of fruit
flies to create gene maps that identified
the location of genes on specific chromosomes. He reasoned that genes at opposite ends of a chromosome are more
likely to be separated by crossing over
than genes that are located close together. The farther apart two linked
genes are, the greater the chance of a
crossover. The frequency with which certain genes turned up together in the fruit
flies enabled Sturtevant to determine the
extent to which these genes were linked.
If two traits always appeared together,
he assumed that these genes were on
the same chromosome and very close together. If these two traits appeared together in 90% of the fruit flies, it would
suggest that although the two genes
were linked, some crossing over had
taken place between them, allowing recombinants to appear 10% of the time.
In 1915, Sturtevant who was a
university student at the time produced
the first gene map outlining the location
of 85 genes on the chromosomes of the
fruit fly. By studying linkage and
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III
II
IV
WILD TYPE
MAP UNITS
MUTANT
0
long
aristae
short
aristae
13
long
wings
long
legs
grey
body
red
eyes
full
wings
short
wings
31
48.5
54.5
67
short
legs
black
body
purple
eyes
miniature
wings
75.5
straight
wings
curved
wings
FIGURE 6.21 A genetic map of a chromosome. The map units reflect the frequency of recombination between genes not the physical distance between them.
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Year
Scientist(s)
1856-63
Gregor Mendel
1866
Gregor Mendel
1871
Fredrich Miescher
isolated a substance from the nucleus that he called nuclein (now known as DNA)
1900
1902
1910
identified the first X-linked gene in fruit flies, where a trait was linked to the sex of the fly;
experimental support for the chromosomal theory of heredity
1911
described gene linkage where the genes for different traits were on the same
chromosome
1913
Alfred Sturtevant
1928
Frederick Griffith
described a substance responsible for giving bateria new hereditary information; called
this agent the transforming principle
1931
Harriet Creighton,
Barbara McClintock
1944
Oswald Avery
1951
Barbara McClintock
described transposition, the first demonstration that a gene could move through the
genome; the forerunner of the concept of transposons
1953
Rosalind Franklin
1953
1989
discovered the genetic site for gene for cystic fibrosis , a fatal autosomal recessive condition
1990
started the Human Genome Project in an effort to map and sequence the entire human
genome
1996
2001
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EXAMPLE 4
A Mapping Problem
Genes A, B, C, D, E, and F are known to be linked. The following information has
been determined experimentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the chromosome?
B crosses over with A 20% of the time
A crosses over with F 10% of the time
F crosses over with C 15% of the time
B crosses over with D 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 35% of the time
E crosses over with F 20% of the time
C crosses over with B 25% of the time
D is at one extreme end of the chromosome
Given: A combination of crossover frequencies for the six linked genes.
Required: To identify the correct sequence of the six linked genes. Because D is
at one extreme end of the chromosome the final answer will be in the form
D __ __ __ __ __ with the letters A, B, C, E and F being placed in the blanks in the
appropriate sequence.
Analysis: The solution is based on the relationship between crossover frequencies
and linkage. The larger the crossover frequency, the more crossovers occur and
the further apart the linked genes must be.
Solution:
Construct a horizontal line that will represent the length of the chromosome where
these six linked genes are found. Measure off equal units starting with 0 at one end
(0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 ) and up to 55 or 60 at the other end. Place D at 0; its
location has been identified at one extreme end.
D
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Let the crossover frequencies represent a distance on your number line. Start with
genes that can be placed easily on the number line. For example B crosses over
with D 15% of the time. This information places B at 15 on the number line. As
you satisfy each piece of information about crossover frequencies, put a tick mark
beside it. B crosses over with A 20% of the time. This means that A must be placed
at 35 on the line because there is no room to the left on the line. In the same
manner, C must be at 40 on the number line. At this point your line looks like this.
D
0
B
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
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The placement of genes F and E is a little more difficult. A crosses over with F 10%
of the time. This means that F could be at 25 or at 45. Write F at both of these locations below the line.
D
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
F crosses over with C 15% of the time. In order to satisfy this piece of information
F must be located at 25 on the number line. Your line now looks like this.
D
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
In a similar fashion, E crosses over with F 20% of the time. This means that E could
be at 5 or at 45. Write E at both of these locations below the line.
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are
known to be linked. The following information has been
determined experimentally.
What is the sequence of the
genes on the chromosome?
A crosses over with B 10% of
the time
B crosses over with C 20% of
the time
D crosses over with C 10% of
the time
F crosses over with D 15% of
the time
F crosses over with E 10% of
the time
E crosses over with B 15% of
the time
A crosses over with E 25% of
the time
A is at one extreme end of the
chromosome
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Genetic Continuity
45
50
55
60
However, note that C crosses over with E 35% of the time. In order to satisfy
this piece of information, E must be located at 5 on the number line. Your
line now looks like this. Your answer is complete.
D E
0
B
10
15
F
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Keep in mind that your line does not pinpoint the loci for each of the six linked
genes on the chromosome. All you have identified is the correct sequence of
these genes and the relative location of the six. The correct arrangement of
these six linked genes on the chromosome is D, E, B, F, A, C.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Two genes are linked on the same
chromosome. In spite of this, they
assort independently. What can you
conclude about their relative locations
on the chromosome?
7.
Parent Set
Children
1. O x O
AB
2. AB x O
3. A x O
4. AB x A
Making Connections
11. Predict the social, political, and
economic impact of the Human
Genome project.
12. Most nature/nurture studies involve reuniting identical twins that have been
brought up in different environments.
The identification of suitable twins for
this type of study by geneticists requires
a search of personal medical and adoption records. The twins often dont even
know about the existence of their identical sibling until they are contacted by
the researchers. What problems or ethical issues could arise when this type
of research is allowed?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 6.1)
Problem
To study the inheritance of several traits in corn.
Materials LAL1
3 different cobs of corn: 1) purple and white kernels
(a monohybrid cross) 2) purple with smooth (starchy)
kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a
dihybrid cross) 3) purple with smooth (starchy) kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a dihybrid back cross to the homozygeous recessive)
T pins
Calculator or Graphic Calculator with Lists function
Type of
Cross
#1
#2
#3
Cross #1 This cob illustrates the result of a monohybrid cross involving the trait of kernel colour. Purple
kernels are the result of the production of the pigment
anthocyanin. Purple in kernels is dominant to yellow
kernels. Use the symbols R for the purple allele and r
for the yellow. A homozygous purple plant was crossed
with a yellow plant in the parental cross. Two of the
resulting F1 plants were then crossed to produce the
F2 cob that you will study. Fill in the first three columns
of your chart for this cross.
Procedure
Copy the chart below into your notes. Record your observations as you study the three different cobs of corn.
2.
3.
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(continued)
The chi-square test Scientists have a method of evaluating to what degree observed ratios deviate from the
expected ratios (often called the norm). They must
determine if this deviation is by chance or due to
uncertainty in their assumptions. This method is called
a chi-square test and is represented mathematically by
the equation:
2 = (oe)2/e
If the observed frequencies are close to the expected frequencies, then the chi-square value will be
small, less than a predetermined value obtained from
a chi-square table. In this case, there is no reason to
reject the explanation of the pattern of inheritance suggested. When the chi-square value is higher than the
value obtained from the tables, then there may be reason to reject your hypothesis.
A sample chi-square calculation is illustrated below
for hypothetical monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
a) Monohybrid Cross with 1000 individuals tested
Expected Observed
phenotypic (o)
ratio
numbers
of each
phenotype
3/4
740
1/4
260
Expected
(e)
numbers
of each
phenotype
3/4 1000
= 750
1/4 1000
= 250
Deviation
(oe)
740 750
= 10
260 250
= +10
Total = 1000
(oe)2 (oe)2/e
(10)2 100/750
= 100
= 0.13
(+10)2 100/250
= 100
= 0.40
2 = 0.53
Expected Deviation
(e)
(oe)
numbers
of each
phenotype
563
+15
197
187
167
187
58
63
Total = 1000
+10
20
5
(oe)2 (oe)2/e
225
degrees of freedom
Chi-square value
1
3.84
2
5.99
3
4
7.82 9.49
0.40
100
0.54
400
2.14
25
0.40
2 = 3.48
Extending
7. Why did you use the results tabulated for the
class rather than those from your single cob of
corn?
8. Scientists often use statistical methods like the chisquare test to analyze their data. What advantages
are gained by using these types of calculations?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 6.1)
Problem
What human traits follow the patterns of inheritance
outlined by Mendel?
notebook
LAL1
calculator or graphing calculator
grid papers
PTC test paper
Experimental Design
1.
2.
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3.
4.
Materials
Genetic Continuity
1. For how many of the traits do you show the dominant phenotype? the recessive phenotype?
2. When is it possible to identify your genotype as a
single specific combination? When is it possible that
you have one of two genotypic combinations but you
cannot specify which one? In the latter situation,
how could you determine your specific genotype?
Extending
7. Select any one of the traits that you have studied
and produce a pedigree for this trait covering as
many generations as possible. If your family is small
or this information is difficult to obtain, use the family of one of your classmates.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
allele
co-dominance
continuous distribution
crossing over
dihybrid (cross)
discontinuous distribution
dominant trait
environment
F1 generation
F2 generation
gene
gene map
genetics
genotype
heredity
heterozygous
homozygous
Human Genome Project
incomplete dominance
law of segregation
law of independent
assortment
linkage
linkage groups
monohybrid (cross)
multiple allelism
multifactorial inheritance
phenotype
P generation
pleiotropy
Punnett square
purebred
recessive trait
recombinant
Essential Understandings
Gregor Mendel performed extensive scientific experiments in the mid-1800s on the common pea
plant in order to determine patterns of inheritance.
A hybrid cross involving dominance produces offspring that have a 3:1 phenotypic ratio and a
1:2:1 genotypic ratio in the F2 generation.
A dihybrid cross involving dominance produces offspring that exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2.
A Punnett square can be used to outline the possible outcomes (offspring) that could result from a
particular cross.
2.
3.
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CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. If A is linked with B and a is linked with b, how
many different phenotypic combinations would be observed
in the offspring resulting from the cross AaBb aabb?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 4
d) 6
e) 8
2. The genotype of an individual that shows the dominant
phenotype can be determined by crossing it with an individual that is:
a) heterozygous dominant
b) heterozygous recessive
c) homozygous dominant
d) homozygous recessive
3. If a male produces 400 sperm cells and his genotype is
AABb, on the average, how many sperm of each kind
will he produce? The A gene and the B gene are not
linked.
a) 200 AB, 200 Ab
b) 300 AB, 100 Ab
c) 100 aB, 100 ab, 100 Ab, 100 AB
d) 100 AB, 300 Ab
4. If a gene b is lethal in the recessive condition bb, then
from a cross AaBb AaBb, how many offspring out of
16 would you expect to die? The genes are not linked.
a) 1
b) 4
c) 8
d) 16
5. Alleles for the same trait separate during:
a) fertilization
b) mitosis
c) meiosis I
d) meiosis II
6. The relationship of a genotype to a corresponding phenotype is sometimes compared to the relationship that
exists between a blueprint and the appearance of the
building produced from the blueprint. Why do you think
this is a good comparison?
7. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a) purebred and hybrid
b) heterozygous and homozygous
c) dominant and recessive
d) phenotype and genotype
8. Explain why it is not necessary to produce a Punnett
square whenever you are asked about the phenotypes
that result from a dihybrid cross.
9. If a trait shows incomplete dominance, what type of
expression is observed in the hybrid?
10. How many different types of gametes would an organism
with the genotype AaBbcc produce? List the different
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
16. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked. The
following information is provided.
A is at one extreme end of the chromosome
A crosses over with C 35% of the time
B crosses over with C 5% of the time
B crosses over with F 20% of the time
A crosses over with E 10% of the time
B crosses over with E 30% of the time
E crosses over with D 35% of the time
D crosses over with F 25% of the time
What is the correct sequence of the genes on the
chromosome?
17. Determine the genotypes of the parents in each of the
following crosses involving the ABO blood group system.
Parental
Phenotypes
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
a) B x A
b) B x A
1/4
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
c) B x O
1/2
d) AB x B
1/2
e) B x B
3/4
f) AB x B
184
1/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
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95
85
405
Corresponding
genotypes
MM
Rh (positive)
RR, Rr
NN
Rh (negative)
rr
MN
MN
The identities of 4 babies in a hospital nursery are confused during an evacuation of the hospital. Using your knowledge of the
three blood group systems (ABO, MN and Rh), match the parent
sets to the proper child.
Baby
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Straight
Leaves
Crinkled
Leaves
Curly
leaves
Number of
Offspring
192
410
214
a)
b)
c)
d)
Expected Observed
phenotypic numbers
ratio
(o) of
each
phenotype
2=
Total =
Making Connections
Parental Pairs
A. AB/N/Rh+
1. O/MN/Rh-
B/M/Rh+
B. O/MN/Rh+
2. AB/N/Rh+
AB/MN/Rh+
C. B/M/Rh-
3. A/MN/Rh-
AB/MN/Rh-
D. A/MN/Rh-
4. AB/N/Rh-
A/N/Rh+
21. Polygenic inheritance can be illustrated by a hypothetical inheritance of height. Assume height is determined
by five pairs of genes found at five different loci. Capital
letters(A,B,C,D,E) represent alleles that contribute to
height, while lower case letters (a,b,c,d,e) represent alleles that do not. The table shows the relationship between the presence of a capital letter in the genotype
Height
Example
Above average
610
AABbCcDDEe
Average
AaBbCcDdEe
Below average
04
aaBbccDdEe
23. Measure and record the heights of at least 50 individuals of the same sex in your age group (within one
year). Produce a graph (number of people versus height)
for your data. Explain the shape of your graph in terms
of the genetics involved for this trait.
24. Pretend that you are about to interview Gregor Mendel
in 1866 just after the publication of his work. Design ten
questions to ask him in order to write a news article outlining his thoughts and work. Write an article that could
have appeared in a paper at the time.
25. Studies in human genetics are much more difficult to
carry out than studies in plants or fruit flies. Give five
reasons why this is so.
26. Many scientists including Mendel have had their work
go unnoticed by other scientists of their time. Give an
explanation why new discoveries are often ignored by
the rest of the scientific community.
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CHAPTER 7
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
hen you look at the world around you, you see a great diversity of different animals and plants. What makes one different from another?
Why is a cat different from a dog, or a worm different from a human? The
biological answer lies in the genes, the chromosomes, and specifically the
DNA. The power of the DNA molecule to self-replicate and to direct the
formation of other cell compounds make genetic continuity possible.
FIGURE 7.1 Karyotypes are important diagnostic tools. The karyotype illustrated
here is of a male with a rare condition known as Cri-du-Chat (cry of the cat). This
condition results from the deletion of part of chromosome 5, as indicated by the
arrow.
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Discovering Biology
Advances in Genetics
The media tend to portray each genetic advance today as an incredible landmark in biotechnology. In groups of four to six, identify several examples of
genetic advances that have received a great deal of attention in the media. Is
the impact of these dramatic cases being exaggerated? As a group, come to
consensus about the degree of impact and present your opinion to the rest
of your class in a one- to two-minute presentation.
CHECKPOINT
In groups, brainstorm
genetic advances that are
in the news. Create a web
to summarize your
discussion.
Genetics
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain how the number and form of the chromosomes identify a species and how
karyotypes are used
explain how sex is determined in humans
use Punnett squares to explain why a disorder linked to the sex chromosomes is more
common in males than females
describe the history of DNA research and how the understanding of the structure of
DNA led to the modern concept of the gene
explain the key role of DNA replication in mitosis, meiosis, and the transmission of
hereditary characters
WORD ORIGIN
Chromosome from the Greek
chroma, meaning colour, and
soma meaning body, derives
from the fact that chromosomes take up stain quickly
and become obvious coloured
bodies while the other cell
structures remain faint.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
centromere position
satellite
FIGURE 7.2 The human karyotype serves as a reference to the draft of the complete map of the
human genome. Each chromosome shows a distinctive banding pattern and centromere position.
Chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 have satellites.
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Sex Determination
satellite
centromere
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.3 The three types of human chromosomes based on centromere placement:
a) metacentric
b) submetacentric
c) acrocentric. The knobs on the acrocentric
chromosomes are called satellites.
karyotype
INFOBIT
It is interesting to note that the
ratio of male newborns to
female newborns is not 50:50
as most people assume. The
world average for births over
the last 20 years is 106 boys
for every 100 girls, that is,
51.5% of newborns are sons.
However, statistics for Canada
show that this rate has fallen
over the same period with a
decrease of 2.2 males per
1000 births. Studies of this sort
were launched following an
explosion of a pesticide plant
in Italy in 1976 that coincided
with a significant increase in
girls born to families that were
exposed to the pesticide.
Discovering Biology
Preparing a Human Karyotype
A karyotype is a chart of the chromosome makeup of any cell.
1. Obtain a photograph of a colchicine metaphase preparation of
a human cultured cell.
2.
Prepare a karyotype of this cell by arranging pairs of chromosomes side by side in descending size from chromosome
1 to chromosome 22.
Decide the chromosome number and sex of the individual
whose cells were being cultured. Explain whether this is a normal or abnormal karyotype.
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Sex Linkage
MOTHER
FATHER
XX
XY
meiosis I
X
meiosis II
fertilization
XX
XY
DAUGHTER
SON
FIGURE 7.5 Sex determination in humans. Note that the sex of any child is determined by the father. If a sperm cell with the Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, a son
will result. On the other hand, if the fertilizing sperm cell contains an X chromosome, a daughter will result.
XY (father)
Gametes
X 1/2
XX (mother)
Gametes
Y 1/2
X 1/2
XX
female
XY
male
X 1/2
XX
female
XY
male
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IL2RG
X-linked severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID)
TNFSF5 Immunodeficiency
with hyper-IgM
FMR1 Fragile X syndrome
MeCP2 Rett syndrome
ALD Adrenoleukodystrophy
HEMA Hemophilia A
FIGURE 7.8 Some of the genes mapped on the
human X chromosome, showing their relative
locations. The rare abnormal form has been
indicated. The characteristic banding pattern is
shown and the centromere location is indicated.
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Males
Females
Genotypes
Phenotypes
Genotypes
Phenotypes
XY
normal male
XX
normal female
XhY
XXh
h h
XX
P cross
Xh Y XX
Xh 1/2
XX
Gametes
F1 generation
F1 cross
XY X Xh
X Xh
Gametes
F2 generation
1/2
X 1/2
X Xh 1/4
XY 1/4
X 1/2
X Xh 1/4
XY 1/4
1/2
1/2
X 1/2
XX
1/4
XY
1/4
Xh 1/2
X Xh
1/4
Xh Y 1/4
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taken when answering problems that involve a combination of the two types of
inheritance. A model solution and strategy is given below for one of these types
of questions.
EXAMPLE 1
Human Genetics Problem In humans the gene for normal blood clotting is
dominant to the gene that causes hemophilia. This trait is X-linked. The gene for
tasting PTC is dominant to the gene for non-tasting. This trait is autosomal. A
heterozygous taster woman who is also heterozygous for blood clotting is married to a non-taster man who has normal blood clotting. What is the chance that
they will produce a non-taster hemophiliac son?
Given From the phenotypes, you can determine the genotypes of both parents.
The mother is TtXXh and the father is ttXY. Notice that the father cannot have the
recessive Xh allele or he would be affected with hemophilia.
Required These parents must be crossed to produce the F1 generation. Then
you can determine the probability of this couple producing a non-taster hemophiliac son. This son will have a genotype of ttXhY.
Analysis Use the following steps to produce a Punnett square to show the cross
and the children in the F1 generation.
1. Establish the coding you are going to use. Write this at the top of your answer.
2. Outline the genotypes of the parents based on the information given.
3. Determine the number of different combinations that can be passed on in the
egg and sperm cell. The number of combinations will determine the dimensions of your Punnett square. The genes for tasting and blood clotting are on
separate pairs of homologous chromosomes. They will assort independently.
4. Construct a Punnett square showing the parents and the gamete combinations
possible.
5. Carefully fill in the different possibilities for the F1 generation.
Solution
1.
2)
Father ttXY
Mother TtXXh
3)
Father, ttXY
Mother, TtXXh
produced.
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Contents
4)
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1/2
tY
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1/2
TX 1/4
TtXXh
Gametes
tX 1/4
TXh 1/4
tXh 1/4
ttXY
Gametes
5)
is the one in the bottom right of the Punnett square. Therefore the correct answer for this problem is 1/8.
Note Remember this value represents a probability and does not necessarily have to happen. This couple could have 16 children with no nontasting hemophiliac sons.
Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
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For over 100 years scientists have studied the molecules of the cell in an attempt to reveal some of lifes deepest
secrets. Today molecular geneticists have
a basic understanding of how life forms
are able to reproduce themselves and
produce new cells. The key to this understanding is the molecular structure
of chromosomes. All chromosomes are
made of deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA)
and proteins. Knowledge of the role and
structure of DNA has developed over a
period of time beginning in the 1800s.
In 1869, a German chemist named
Frederich Miescher isolated a substance
from the pus collected from infected
wounds and boils. He called this substance nuclein because he found that it
was concentrated in the nucleus of the
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity
DNA
194
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Contents
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Investigation
Refer to page 230,
Investigation 2.
CHAPTER 7
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WEBLINK
Next Section
The complementary base pairing depends on the shape of the DNA molecule
and the ability of the base pairs to form
hydrogen bonds. Modern computer technology allows us to view and manipulate computer-generated, threedimensional models of DNA to observe
the hydrogen bonds linking the two
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nitrogenous
base
NUCLEOTIDE
P
O
O
P
phosphate
group
P
O
T
P
P
O
P
P
O
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
O
P
hydrogen bond
O
P
O
P
DNA
double helix
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Replication
Copying the Code
Every cell must duplicate its hereditary
information prior to mitosis or meiosis.
The ability of DNA to produce a copy of
itself in the process of replication is
unique among all biological molecules.
This process begins when the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs, forming
the rungs of the ladder, break apart. This
WEBLINK
Investigate the work of
Meselson and Stahl and others
to prove semi-conservative
replication. Prepare diagrams
of all possible types of
replication. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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DNA to be replicated
G C
T A
A T
G C
C G
T A
Strands separate
OLD
A
T
NEW
G C
T A
G C
T A
A T
A T
G C
G C
C G
C G
T A
T A
Order of bases
encodes
information
for protein
production.
FIGURE 7.17 The resulting two molecules of DNA are identical to the original.
Transcription and
Translation
DNA material never leaves the nucleus.
Experiments carried out by Joachim
Hammerling on the single-celled alga,
Acetabularia, demonstrated that the
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DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
(in nucleus)
mRNA
ribosome
mRNA
TRANSLATION
(in cytoplasm)
protein
CHAPTER 7
INFOBIT
Once a cell has undergone differentiation, it has not necessarily lost its genetic potential.
This is illustrated by organisms
that can regenerate lost body
parts. When a starfish loses an
arm, some cells in the stump
undergo dedifferentiation,
divide and then differentiate
once again to produce a new
arm. In some organisms these
single, isolated differentiated
cells can undergo dedifferentiation and then develop into a
complete organism.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
200
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Genetic Continuity
Making Connections
12. The description of the structure of DNA
provided by Watson and Crick is one
of the most important discoveries in biology in the twentieth century. Name
three legal or social issues resulting
from this discovery.
13. Propose how society would be different today without an understanding of
genes, chromosomes, and DNA.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the occurrence of mutations and their importance in genetics
describe the genetic basis of several types of genetic disorders
explain the role of nondisjunction in causing genetic disorders
explain how studies in population genetics demonstrated the relationship between
maternal age and Down syndrome
use the proper coding to construct pedigree charts
identify the type of inheritance illustrated in pedigrees
Mutation
Since DNA directs protein synthesis and
the proteins determine the type of cell,
you might predict that any alteration in
the genetic information would upset the
normal operation of a cell or organism.
You would be correct. Any change in a
gene that is accompanied by a loss or
change in the functioning of the genetic
information is termed a mutation. Many
mutations are harmful. Fortunately, DNA
is normally a very stable substance and
is not easily altered. If a gene is altered,
in most cases the undesirable information is in the form of a recessive allele.
As a result, the harmful effects of the
changed gene will not be expressed in the
heterozygous condition.
Scientists have demonstrated that
mutations can occur spontaneously in
any living organism. Spontaneous mutations do not have any known cause.
Mutations appear to occur at fixed rates
in different species. H.J. Muller in the
1920s developed techniques for measuring the frequency of Drosophila mutation. In later studies Muller showed
that a higher than normal rate of mutation in Drosophila occurred if the flies
were grown at abnormal temperatures
or were bombarded with X rays. Any
factor that can cause mutation is termed
a mutagen. For example, experiments
on mice have confirmed that radiation,
abnormal temperatures, and certain
chemicals can act as mutagenic agents.
Scientists strongly suspect that these mutagens can also affect humans.
Mutations found in the somatic
(body) cells of an organism will usually
go unnoticed unless a significant number of cells are involved. Of course, these
mutations cannot be passed on to the
next generation. The more serious type
of mutation is found in the gametes of a
parent organism. There are two reasons
for concern about mutation in gametes.
This gamete may be passed on to produce an entire organism with this mutation in every cell. Second, this mutation
could be passed on to offspring and continue for many generations.
Aspects of mutation and mutation
rate are important and are of concern
to society. Clinical health problems visible at birth are called congenital
defects. They are caused by mutations
in the genes, environmental agents, or
a combination of the two. Environmental
agents, called teratogens, cause congenital defects by altering the expression
of a gene or genes. For example, a
mother who contracts German measles
(Rubella) in the first three months of a
pregnancy runs a high risk of producing
a child with congenital defects. This is
also true for a mother who abuses alcohol during pregnancy. In these cases, the
abnormalities result from an environmental influence; a virus or alcohol.
Congenital defects like club foot, spina
bifida (an open spine at birth), and congenital heart defects are thought to be
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Mutation:
Incorrect base-pairing
Normal DNA
Mutation:
Incorrect sequence
of base pairs
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Genetic Continuity
fect of this seemingly harmless replacement is drastic and often lethal. The solution of this molecular puzzle involved
protein chemists, molecular geneticists,
and physiologists. Physicians and counsellors continue to be involved in the effort to support families who have a
member homozygous for the sickle-cell
allele. Treatment is provided through
transfusion and careful monitoring of the
persons lifestyle to avoid overexertion
and infection. Since 1998 attempts have
been made to treat some patients
through bone marrow transplants, a
treatment that itself carries some risk.
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XY
X 1/2
XX
Chromosomal Abnormalities
The other major type of inherited
abnormality involves whole chromosomes rather than single genes.
Polyploidy, a condition where the cells
contain an extra whole set of chromosomes, is possible in some plants but is
lethal in humans and most other animals. A more common abnormality in
chromosome number is the result of an
extra chromosome or the absence of a
single chromosome, a condition called
aneuploidy. This type of defect tends to
be more severe than a single gene defect
and is often lethal before birth, due to
spontaneous abortion, or shortly after
birth. An individual possessing an extra
chromosome (that is, three of one kind)
is termed a trisomic while an individual
lacking one of a pair of chromosomes is
termed a monosomic. Trisomics and
monosomics usually arise as a result of an
Y 1/2
O 1/2
Gamete lacking a
sex chromosome
XO
Turners syndrome
YO
XX 1/2
Gamete formed
from nondisjunction
XXX 1/4
XXY 1/4
super female;
usually normal
Klinefelters
syndrome
1/4
1/4
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more damaging effects than Down syndrome, and therefore the fetus may
abort spontaneously or the child may die
shortly after birth.
Most of what you have learned so
far has been restricted to a consideration of a specific cross or the recurrence
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Mothers age
Probability of Down
syndrome
2024
1 in 1925
2529
1 in 1205
3034
1 in 885
3539
1 in 365
4044
1 in 110
45 or older
1 in
32
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of a trait in a family. In medical genetics involving humans, these considerations are of obvious importance to the
individuals involved in the cross or family under study. Geneticists, however,
have extended their studies beyond this
level to study whole populations in population genetics. Researchers today
study the frequency of a gene in the gene
pool or the frequency of a genotype in
the whole population. The gene pool is
the term used to describe the pooling
of all the alleles for a specific trait in the
whole population.
Population studies, involving data
collected from thousands of births, have
found an obvious relationship between
maternal age and the frequency of Down
syndrome offspring. Dr. Irene Uchida, a
world famous cytogeneticist at the
McMaster University Medical Centre,
studied chromosomal abnormalities and
has conducted much research in this
area.
Table 7.2 shows statistics on the frequency of Down syndrome based on maternal age. The fact that 45-year-old
mothers produce a Down syndrome
child in 1 in 32 births may not appear
particularly abnormal. But if we compare this frequency to 1 in 1925 in 20year-old mothers, the effect of maternal
age is clearly significant. A comparison
of these two groups shows an increase
in the chances of a Down syndrome child
to be 60-fold. This information has been
helpful for counselling older expectant
mothers.
Researchers have recognized the importance of intensive training in Down
syndrome children prior to the age of
two. In many cases Down syndrome
individuals are able to integrate into society by attending traditional schools and
also receiving job training.
Table 7.3 summarizes some human
disorders that are produced by gene mutation or chromosomal abnormalities.
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autosomal recessive
Cystic fibrosis
autosomal recessive
.
.
.
syndrome of effects
mucus accumulates in lungs
problems with digestion
autosomal recessive
autosomal recessive
autosomal dominant
80% caused by a new mutation
Tay-Sachs disease
Albinism
Achondroplasia
Huntingtons disease
autosomal dominant
Hemophilia
X-linked recessive
X-linked recessive
X-linked recessive
Chromosomal Defect
Cri-du-chat syndrome
Fragile-X syndrome
Down syndrome
abnormal facial features, hands and feet, developmentally challenged in various ways
1 in 700 live births
sterile males, tall with long arms
breast development
1 in 800 live births
Klinefelter syndrome
XXY/47 chromosomes
one extra chromosome
Turner syndrome
XO/45 chromosomes
one missing sex chromosome
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A few of the many genetic diseases observed in humans have been described
in Table 7.3. Human geneticists have realized for a long time that these undesirable traits tend to run within family
groups rather than randomly across a
population. Geneticists have developed
a type of chart called a pedigree that is
useful to show the patterns of transmission of a trait within a given family. The
pedigree charts summarize family data
using a set of symbols. Figure 7.26 illustrates some of the more commonly
used symbols.
Pedigrees are usually produced after
an undesirable trait has appeared in a
family. Geneticists collect data on relatives, stretching back for as many generations as possible. The chart produced
may be of use to the geneticist in identifying the way the trait is transmitted or
it may be useful in counselling parents
on the cause of the disease, or in
male
female
mating
death
II
1
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affected individuals
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I
1
II
1
III
1
IV
1
I
1
II
1
10
10
11
12
III
1
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I
1
II
1
III
1
Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
III
Albert
Victoria
Empress
Frederick
IV
Kaiser
Wilhelm
II
Elizabeth
II
Edward
Duke of Kent
(17671820)
Victoria
(18191901)
Helena
Princess
Christian
Edward VII
Irene
Princess
Henry
George V
Duke
of
Windsor
VI
VII
Louis II
Grand Duke Hesse
George III
II
George
VI
Prince
Philip
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Waldemar
Earl
Mountbatten
of Burma
Henry
Prince
Sigismund
of Prussia
Alix (Alexandra)
Tsarina
Nikolas II
Frederick
William
Leopold
Duke of
Albany
Victoria
Eugnie, Leopold
wife of
Alfonso XIII
Alice
of
Athlone
Alexis
Anastasia
Margaret
Beatrice
Lady
May
?
Abel
Smith Rupert Alfonso
Viscount
Trematon
Gonzalo
?
?
3 Three female
Carrier female
IX
Hemophiliac male
William Henry
? Status uncertain
FIGURE 7.31 This pedigree represents one of the first useful applications of
pedigrees; showing the transmission of hemophilia in the royal families of Europe.
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Juan
Carlos
VIII
208
Maurice
Genetic Continuity
Sophie
Contents
Discovering Biology
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Constructing a Pedigree
List factors that affect the pattern of inheritance for a given trait.
have the defect. They have eight children, four boys and four girls. One of
the daughters and three of the sons
have hiskulphobia. The hiskulphobic
daughter marries a normal man and
they have two boys with hiskulphobia
and three normal daughters. One of the
sons with hiskulphobia produces eight
children, four sons with hiskulphobia
and four normal daughters. Another
one of the sons with hiskulphobia produces four normal daughters, two normal sons and two sons with
hiskulphobia.
a) Produce a pedigree for this family
indicating the affected individuals.
Write in the genotypes of individuals where you can determine with
certainty their genetic make-up.
b) What inheritance pattern does this
trait appear to show? Explain your
answer.
11. How are studies in population genetics different from studies of individual
crosses? Why are studies of this sort
often valuable to the geneticist?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
12. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have
been associated with negative effects
on the hatching of birds in Lake
Ontario. Design an experiment to investigate whether these effects are truly
genetic or merely environmental.
13. In the Canadian population, 80% of the
babies born with Down syndrome are
born to women under age 35. How
would you explain this?
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the relationship between genetics and traditional breeding techniques
evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding
describe several methods of prenatal diagnosis and the use of each of these methods
explain the process and application of recombinant DNA
describe the draft results of the Human Genome Project
describe the steps involved in cloning
describe some uses of DNA typing in society today
describe ethical issues that must be considered when using current techniques in
genetics
Traditional Breeding
Strategies
Plant and animal breeders realized the
advantages of controlled or selective
breeding long before Gregor Mendel
manipulated pea plants. The earliest
farmers quickly realized the value of saving seeds from the best of the years
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Genetic Screening
Genetic screening is used to identify
those individuals with an increased risk
of inheriting a disorder. This increased
risk is often tied to a group of specific ethnic background because these individuals share a common genetic background.
Screening may involve karyotype studies,
or biochemical tests. In many cases individuals heterozygous for a disadvantageous gene can be determined. Once this
information is obtained, appropriate
counselling or treatment can be given.
Huntingtons disease is a lethal disease inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. The disease does not appear
until after the affected individuals are in
their thirties or forties. When the disease does appear, the affected individual has often produced offspring. The
gene will be passed on to half of the offspring who will grow up with the knowledge that they may develop this
devastating disease. Geneticists can now
identify people who will be affected with
Huntington disease by testing for a genetic marker on the chromosomes.
This genetic screening technique has
advantages and disadvantages for the
families involved. To know that you will
develop a lethal disease at an early age
may have a greater negative effect on a
persons life than to be faced with a 50%
chance of the disease.
INFOBIT
A continuing low level of
thyroid hormone will result in
effects on mental development
in a developing child. Dr. Jean
Dussault and his colleagues
at Laval University have
developed a simple screening
test for newborns that detects
congenital hypothyroidism
and so allows treatment to
prevent developmental effects.
Genetic Counselling
Genetic counselling is offered at regional
genetic centres. The counsellor provides
and explains genetic information to educate patients and family practitioners
about both common and unusual genetic
conditions. This process offers non-directive counselling to many prospective
parents and to families with affected children. These groups can then make
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A Screening
Success Story
Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive trait involving the protein that
controls iron absorption. Scientists
have recognized that 1 in 10 people
of northern European descent are
carriers of this defect. Symptoms appear in adulthood after years of high
absorption of iron in the intestine.
This iron is then deposited in excessive amounts in the liver, heart, pancreas, and other organs. This leads
to tissue damage and, if left
unchecked, death. It was first recognized in 1865 in patients who had
diabetes, cirrhosis, and increased
skin pigmentation (brought on by the
iron deposits). Once the problem is
identified, effective treatment is available, so it is important to test for this
condition.
The gene responsible for this defect was identified on the short arm
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Genetic Continuity
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FIGURE 7.34 These genetic technologists are working in a typical genetics lab.
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WEBLINK
Explore the Web to find out
about genetic services that are
available in your community
and Canada-wide. Identify the
hospitals in your area that have
counselling services. What
genetic problems are screened
for in prenatal tests at
these facilities? Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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counsellor can assist other medical personnel in providing the family with a more
complete and realistic view of the situation. Once the nature of a problem has
been identified and the probabilities of recurrence and other implications have been
discussed, the family can then make more
informed choices about child bearing.
As we gain more knowledge about
genetic conditions and their transmission, the education of family practitioners becomes more important. A
knowledge of genetics and the gathering of family histories from patients by
family doctors becomes critical in recognizing potential problems and helping
families to get appropriate counselling
and treatment. Genetic counsellors at regional genetic centres can help educate
family doctors to make them effective in
this role. For example, most family doctors today monitor families with a
predisposition to cancer. Studies have
shown that some individuals have an increased chance of contracting cancer due
to their heredity. The monitoring of families with a history of breast or ovarian
cancer in women or colon or prostate
cancer in men is useful to identify people who are at increased risk for cancer.
This valuable information is instrumental in the early diagnosis and prevention
of cancer in these individuals.
Clearly, accurate genetic information
is of use in making many significant decisions. Most of the screening performed
today is to identify those at risk during
pregnancy and to outline the reproductive options. However, many scientists
suggest that screening techniques may
someday allow us to construct a
genetic profile of every individual. It has
been suggested that in the future this genetic prophecy may be used in making decisions about occupations or in
avoiding potentially harmful environments that might turn on undesirable genes.
Some groups that provide support
to individuals with genetic problems and
their families have concerns. They fear
that someday funding to support these
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Prenatal Diagnosis
Prenatal diagnosis involves the testing
of the fetus to check for a problem for
which the family is at risk.
The most widespread technique of
prenatal diagnosis, amniocentesis, is
usually performed during the sixteenth
week of pregnancy. A small amount of
the amniotic fluid that surrounds the developing fetus in the uterus is obtained
by inserting a needle through the
mothers abdominal wall. This fluid also
contains fetal cells that may reveal a
great deal of information about the fetus.
(Figure 7.36). Doctors use another technique called ultrasound (Figure 7.35) to
locate the position of the fetus and placenta to prevent any injury to the mother
FIGURE 7.35 This image of the fetus was created on a computer screen when high-frequency
sounds from an ultrasound scanner held against
the mothers abdomen bounced off the fetus.
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are born with part of the spinal cord exposed along the backbone. The cells obtained in the sample are grown in tissue
culture for subsequent biochemical and
chromosomal analysis including karyotyping. Problems such as trisomy 21
(Down syndrome) would be identified in
this testing. About half of the tests performed today are for mothers over 35
years of age. About one-third of the tests
performed involve the use of Maternal
Serum Screening. The remainder of the
1. AMNIOCENTESIS
1416 week fetus
centrifugation
DNA testing
amniotic
fluid withdrawn
several
weeks
later
1
fetal cells
suctioned from
chorionic villi
17
18 19
1 day later
10
20
11
21
12
13
22
14
15
16
X Y
...and is a male
sampling
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Recombinant DNA
One of the most amazing results of our
increased understanding of the gene has
been the development of recombinant
DNA techniques. These techniques allow
scientists to equip an organism with
DNA that is not normally found in that
organism. This new information, which
has been introduced into the host, can
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A segment of human DNA containing the insulin gene is isolated in the lab.
At the same time a circular molecule of
DNA called a plasmid is removed from
an E. coli bacterial cell (see Figure 7.37).
The two strands of DNA are now cut
using a type of chemical scissors called
a restriction enzyme. These sophisticated enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides along the DNA
strand and break the chemical bonds to
snip out a length of DNA. Scientists have
developed over 1000 different restriction enzymes to date. The specific
Bacterium
protein synthesis
plasmid
DNA
bacterial
chromosome
human protein
of interest
1. Use restriction enzymes
to snip gene of interest
from the isolated human
genome.
Use same
restriction enzyme
to snip plasmid.
recombinant DNA
transformation
replication
4. Let bacterial cells replicate.
Harvest and purify the
human protein produced
by the plasmids inside the
bacterial cells.
bacterial
clones
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Gene Therapy
Direct use of genetic techniques is part
of effective medicine today. Genetic
therapy is accomplished in one of two
ways. A normal gene product can be
given to an affected individual who
shows the symptoms of a disease. This
type of treatment is used extensively
today in treating the disease diabetes
with the normal gene product insulin. A
second method of therapy would be to
actually manipulate the abnormal DNA
FIGURE 7.39 Dr. Peter St. GeorgeHyslop in his lab at the Tanz Centre for
Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases
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CHAPTER 7
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FIGURE 7.42 The effect of traditional gene therapy. Mice that have the gene defect for obesity, as shown on the left, can be injected with the normal gene product, leptin. These mice will eat less, burn more calories, and will not become
obese. This result is shown in the mouse on the right.
WEBLINK
Investigate how recombinant
DNA techniques are applied in
one of the following areas:
pollution control
mineral extraction
plant improvement
animal improvement
transgenics
Write a supported paragraph
on your chosen topic.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
220
UNIT 2
in a parent or offspring in order to better treat a disease. Techniques to employ this second approach are no longer
just theoretical possibilities.
One of the most exciting and longterm goals of genetic engineering is to
actually correct some hereditary defects.
This type of gene therapy (human gene
transfer) would involve inserting a
proper working copy of a gene into the
cells that lack the ability to produce their
own protein. In the case of diabetes this
would involve the transfer of the normal
gene for insulin production into the cells
of the pancreas that lack this gene so
that the diabetic could produce insulin.
This technique would involve inserting
the insulin gene into a vector, such as a
virus, that would carry the gene to the
site in the body that requires the correct
copy of the gene. This vector would then
insert itself into these cells and transfer the required gene. These cells would
now have the ability to produce their
own insulin. The key is to get the gene
transferred into the stem cells at the
correct site. Stem cells are capable of di-
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Organism
222
S. cerevisiae
yeast
E. coli
bacteria
C. elegans
worm
D. melanogaster A. thaliana
fruit fly
thale cress
H. sapiens
human
M. musculus
mouse
Sequencing
1989
process began
1991
1990
1999
1996
1990
1999
Sequencing
process
completed
1996
1997
1998
2000
2000
2003
rough draft
available 2001
2005
Number of
chromosome
pairs
16
single
prokaryotic
chromosome
23
20
Number of
base pairs
12 million
4.6 million
100 million
180 million
119 million
Approx.
3 billion
3 164 700 million
Number of
genes
6 241
4 405
19 000
13 600
25 500
Possible
applications
Knowledge of
genetic
function
Used in gene
Shows how
splicing to
genes construct
transfer human tissues
insulin gene
Used in more
advanced
methods of
gene
sequencing
Allows us to
improve
nutritional
value of crops
May lead to
ability to
eliminate
genetic
conditions
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Genetic Continuity
Used as
models for drug
tests on genetic
conditions
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Cloning
There are different levels of cloning. The
production of insulin by bacteria is a
method of gene cloning as all the bacteria have the same new foreign gene in
their cells. Biologists often grow cells that
are identical to each other for studies of
cell processes. These are cellular clones.
Today, biotechnology in combination
with reproductive technology is being
used to produce clones of whole organisms by transfer of a complete nucleus.
This is nuclear cloning. The resulting
clones are identical to each other in
terms of the DNA found in their cells.
One of the more successful groups
headed by Ian Wilmut of Scotland produced the widely publicized Dolly in
1997. Dolly was the first mammal cloned
from the cells of another adult mammal.
Dolly was produced using the following method:
Cells from the udder of a six-yearold sheep were cultured in the lab.
An egg cell of a second sheep was
extracted and its nucleus was
removed.
The enucleated egg was then placed
beside one of the nucleated udder
cells in a Petri dish.
A small electric change was passed
through the egg cell and the two
cells fused.
surrogate
mother
udder cells
1
DNA
5
2
4
6
egg
3
Dolly
FIGURE 7.45 Cloning Dolly. An udder cell 1 from a white sheep and an enucleated egg 2 from a black sheep were 3 stimulated with an electric current. Fusion
4 occurred. The embyro was implanted in 5 a surrogate mother. Dolly 6 was
born.
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Investigation
Refer to page 228,
Investigation 1.
Previous Section
DNA Profiling
In the mid-1980s a British geneticist
named Alec Jeffreys developed a new
method of identifying people on the
basis of their DNA. Each person has
nucleotide sequences that are repeated many times at different locations on the chromosomes. These
repeat sequences dont code for any
protein and vary from person to person. The identity process of DNA
profiling or fingerprinting has now
replaced to a great extent the use of
blood types to convict criminals or to
identify fathers in paternity cases.
The steps in this process are:
1. A DNA sample is removed from
some nucleated cells. A very
small sample of semen, saliva,
hair roots, or blood can provide
sufficient DNA.
2. The DNA sample is treated with
restriction enzymes to cut the
DNA into pieces of varying
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3.
4.
5.
6.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
4.
2.
5.
3.
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Making Connections
10. Each of the following statements concerns an issue that society may have
to deal with as gene therapy and
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 7.3)
Rf =
Information from these markers is used to plot standard curves on semi-log graph paper. The fragment
size (in bp or kb) is plotted vs. the Rf value of these
DNA segments of known size. The curve is used to
determine the size of unknown DNA fragments.
Problem
How many base pairs (bp) are present in DNA fragments that have undergone gel electrophoresis?
Materials
ruler
calculator
note paper
scissors
standard curve of fragment size
Procedure
1. On a blank sheet of note paper, construct a scale
down the left-hand margin. Your scale should start
with 0 cm at the top of the margin. This will represent the negative electrode where the sample wells
are located at the start. Run your scale down the
margin to 20 cm, which will represent the end point
and positive end of the electrophoresis process. Place
a horizontal line across your page at the starting
point and at the end point.
2. Cut a strip of paper 1 cm wide and 15 cm long. This
represents your unknown DNA sample. This sample has been treated with a restriction enzyme and
has been split into five fragments. Cut your sample
into five fragments with the following lengths:
Fragment # 1 5.6 cm
Fragment #2 4.4 cm
Fragment #3 2.2 cm
Fragment #4 1.7 cm
Fragment #5 1.1 cm
3. Following gel electrophoresis these fragments have
arranged themselves on the gel the following distances from the start (that is, from the wells at the
top of your page).
Fragment #1 7 cm
Fragment #2 8 cm
Fragment #3 11 cm
Fragment #4 12 cm
Fragment #5 14 cm
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(continued)
mixtures of DNA
fragments of different sizes
FIGURE 7.48 Three samples of DNA have been treated with different combinations of restriction enzymes and have been placed in the wells at the top of the
gel. When an electric charge is applied to the gel, the fragments migrate through
the pores with the smaller fragments travelling farther down the gel. The completed
gel has three different patterns of fragments because different restriction enzymes
have been used on the three samples.
cathode
long fragments
gel
power
source
glass
plates
short fragments
anode
completed gel
Extending
100 000
10 000
1 000
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Rf value
0.6
0.7
0.8
value
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 7.1)
DNA Extraction
7. Insert a glass stirring rod into the tube and spool the
DNA onto the glass rod by slowly twirling the rod.
8. Place some of the DNA fibres on a microscope slide
and observe them under a microscope.
9. Place some of the fibres on blue litmus paper and
observe any colour change.
10. Place 10 mL of water in the third test tube and add
some of the DNA sample to the water using the glass
stirring rod. Stir the contents with the rod.
Problem
Materials LAL1
120 mL of water
1.5 g uniodized salt
5 g baking soda
5 mL shampoo (no
conditioner!)
10 mL isopropanol
(chilled)
scalpel
1/8 of an onion
filter paper
glass Petri dish
250-mL beaker
3 large test tubes with
stoppers
glass stirring rod
blue litmus paper
safety goggles
Procedure
1. Prepare the DNA extraction solution by mixing
the water, shampoo, salt, and baking soda in a
250-mL beaker.
2. Place the section of onion you have been given in
the Petri dish and cut into small pieces. Gradually
add water as you cut the onion to give the final
product the consistency of applesauce.
3. Place 5 mL of the onion mixture in one of the large
test tubes and add 10 mL of the DNA extraction
solution that you prepared in step 1.
4. Place a stopper in this tube and shake the tube vigorously for 2 minutes.
5. Filter the contents of the tube into another large test
tube. Keep the filtrate and discard the onion residue.
6. Add 10 mL of isopropanol to the liquid in this
tube and gently swirl the contents to mix the isopropanol with the contents of the tube. Long strands
of DNA should now start to appear.
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Extending
11.Carry out research to identify the role of each of the
following substances used in this investigation:
shampoo, baking soda, salt, and isopropanol
12.Repeat this investigation with other plant sources
of DNA and compare the results and success rate
to those of the onion extraction.
Adapted with permission from Lets Talk Science, Partners in Science
Newsletter Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2000.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
amniocentesis
autosomes
chorionic villus sampling
(CVS)
cloning
congenital defect
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA profiling
(fingerprinting)
double helix
Down syndrome
genetic counselling
genetic screening
genetic therapy
hemophilia
homogeneity
Human Genome Project
karyotype
Maternal Serum Screening
messenger RNA (mRNA)
mutagen
pedigree
plasmid
recombinant DNA
replication
restriction enzyme
selective breeding
semi-conservative
teratogens
transcription
translation
ultrasound
Essential Understandings
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CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Harmful X-linked traits determined by a recessive gene
a) tend to appear in females only
b) do not skip generations
c) are usually not passed on from father to son
d) are usually passed on by carrier males
2. Which of the following statements about chromosomes
is true?
a) the greater the number of chromosomes, the more
complex the organism
b) different species of organisms have different diploid
numbers of chromosomes
c) the characteristics of a species are not determined
simply by the number of chromosomes but rather
by the specific information on the chromosomes
d) most organisms have less than 10 chromosomes
3. Humans possess
a) 22 pairs of sex chromosomes and 1 pair of autosomes
b) 23 pairs of autosomes
c) equal numbers of autosomes and sex chromosomes
d) 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes
4. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
5. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
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12. Distinguish between the two types of genetic technologies, screening and therapy.
13. How have restriction enzymes been critical in recombinant DNA techniques?
14. Does amniocentesis guarantee a healthy baby? Explain
your answer.
15. What type of parental cross could produce a hemophiliac female?
16. Describe some surprising information that is being
released concerning the Human Genome. How is this
information creating a different view of the genome
when compared to our view prior to the release of this
information?
17. a)
b)
18. Scientists were initially puzzled when studying the function of DNA by the ability of the DNA in the nucleus to
control the activity going on in the cytoplasm. They were
particularly puzzled by the fact that the DNA never left
the nucleus. How is this control feat accomplished?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
19. Colour blindness is inherited as an X-linked recessive.
A heterozygous (for eye colour) brown-eyed normal male
is married to a heterozygous brown-eyed, colour-blind
female. Use a Punnett square to determine the answer
to the following questions. Assume that a heterozygous
brown-eyed individual carries the recessive allele for
blue eyes.
a) What is the probability that they will have a daughter who is a carrier for colour blindness with brown
eyes?
b) What is the probability that they will have a son who
is colour-blind with blue eyes?
c) What is the probability that they will have a colourblind child?
20. A woman, who is a carrier for colour blindness, has 8
children, 4 boys and 4 girls. Each of her children marry
and have 8 children, 4 boys and 4 girls once again. Of
her 64 grandchildren, how many would you expect to
be colour-blind males according to probability? Assume
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Making Connections
30. A father has just been informed that his son has muscular dystrophy. The father works at a chemical plant
and suspects he has been exposed to a possibly mutagenic substance during an accident. He has approached
you for advice about the genetics involved. What recommendation would you make to the father if he asks
for advice about suing the chemical plant for his sons
medical costs?
31. Should genetic engineering be done on humans? Write
a paragraph to express your opinion.
32. Many of the biotechnology companies that are working
on the Human Genome Project have applied for patents
on the genetic information. In Britain, authorities have
denied all patent applications on the basis that no one
can have a patent on the information of a living organism. Do you think that companies should be able to
patent this information? Why or why not?
33. Research cystic fibrosis. Write a description of this discease under the headings:
a) cause
b) symptoms
c) rate of occurrence
d) prevention
e) treatment
f) support groups
34. Research one of the plant products listed below in order
to outline how genetic engineering has played a role in
the development of this product.
Canola
Potato
Corn
Soybean
Cotton seed
Squash
Flax
Tomato
35. Some learning disorders can be linked to genetic abnormalities such as fragile X syndrome. Some people
argue that these children would be better to have a karyotype test done to identify the genetic cause of the learning disorder. In this way the cause of the disorder has
been identified and the best path in educating these individuals can be pursued. On the other hand, some people suggest that when we assign a specific chromosomal
cause to the disorder then the classification of this
child may act as a roadblock to their opportunities. Which
argument seems to make more sense to you? Explain
your choice.
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EXPLORING CAREERS
FIGURE 1 Dress for success. When you are invited to an interview for any job,
arrive in neat, business-like clothing. The job itself may require you to wear jeans
and a lab coat, but this is not appropriate attire before you are hired. (Hint: If the
interview goes well, you might be offered a tour of the facilities. Depending on the
facilities, it may be wise to wear shoes that can take a little punishment.)
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Heres an example:
Skill:
On a rsum:
In an interview:
Look over your statements. You are talking about the same skill, but in each case
you had to adapt what you said to suit
how it was being presented. Sometimes,
as on the application form, you wont
have much room. So use clear, meaningful terms. In an interview, its your
opportunity to explain your skill in
detail, pointing out any aspects that will
show how that skill is important to the
job you want.
Looking Outward
2.
List of Skills
assembling
and using appa
ratus
communicat
ing procedures
and results
compiling an
d organizing da
ta
coordinatin
g tasks
decision-mak
ing
designing pr
ocedures
identifying va
riables
interpreting
patterns and tr
ends in data
problem-sol
ving
recording ob
servations
researching
topics under st
udy
selecting an
d using instrum
ents effectively
selecting an
and accurately
d using the ap
propriate grap
time manag
hi
ng
technique
ement
using approp
riate techniqu
es for handlin
posing of labo
g, storing, and
ratory materia
disls
working in
a team
working inde
pendently
working with
others
Exploring Carrers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
SCENARIO
You have been appointed to an ethics panel studying the many potential
applications of genetic research. You have been asked to comment on the
current status of one of the following genetic technologies and to provide recommendations to limit the potential for discrimination in future genetic research.
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Genetic Engineering
Genetic Markers
DNA Profiling
Genetic Continuity
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What are the variables that influence public opinion on the continuation of genetic
research using this technology? Explain.
5.
6.
3.
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A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 2 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. A sex cell that results from meiosis will contain
a) the diploid number of chromosomes
b) any given number of chromosomes
c) one of each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes
d) any combination of chromosomes that is the
haploid number
2. Aneuploidy often results from
a) duplication
b) crossing over
c) translocation
d) nondisjunction
3. The genes located at the same loci on homologous chromosomes are known as
a) autosomes
b) homozygotes
c) alleles
d) heterozygotes
4. Which pair of terms is most alike in meaning?
a) segregation, crossing over
b) heterozygous, hybrid
c) phenotype, genotype
d) recessive, dominant
5. An organism with the genotype AaBbcc would produce
how many different types of gametes?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 4
d) 8
6. If the diploid number of chromosomes is 30 for a given
species, how many chromosomes are present in a gamete of this species?
a) 1
b) 14
c) 15
d) 30
c)
d)
18. Two parents who have the same phenotype for a given
trait produce an individual with a differing phenotype
for the same trait. How would Mendel have explained
this observation?
20. What must be true in order for geneticists to observe independent assortment? Explain why this must be true.
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Genetic Continuity
19. When long radish plants are crossed with round radish
plants, the resulting plants produce oval radishes. How
would you explain this observation?
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
27. Use a series of diagrams to show how crossing over leads
to an increase of variation in genetic recombination.
28. Produce a table comparing sexual and asexual reproduction using the headings listed below.
a) number of parents
b) examples of this method
c) appearance of offspring relative to parents
d) advantages and disadvantages of this process
29. If a mother is blood type AB and produces a child with
blood type AB, list the possible genotypes of the father.
Which genotype(s) is (are) not possible? Explain why.
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30. A species of rabbit that lives in the harsh cold environment of the Himalayas normally has black fur on its ears
and feet. If this black fur is removed and the rabbit is
placed in a warmer environment, the hair that grows in
is not black. How would a geneticist explain this unexpected observation?
31. In fruit flies the genes for wing shape and body stripes
are linked. In a fly with the genotype WwSs, W is linked
to s and w is linked to S. How could this fly produce
gametes with four different combinations of alleles?
Identify which of these combinations would be termed
parental and which would be termed recombinants.
32. A knowledge of probability is important in any analysis
of genetic crosses.
a) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have five sons? (Assume that the
probability of a son in any given pregnancy is 1/2.)
b) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have three sons and then two
daughters?
c) If a couple has five children, what is the probability that they will have a family of three sons and two
daughters? (Note that this probability is different
from the answer to part b.)
33. Use the rules outlined in question 6 on page 167 to answer the following questions.
a) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the genotype AABBCC? (Assume that the genes are not linked.)
b) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the same
phenotype as the first parent given in the cross?
34. In rabbits the allele for black hair (B) is dominant to the
allele for brown hair (b) and the allele for short hair (S)
is dominant to the allele for long hair (s). The genes
are not linked. If a pure-breeding black, short-haired
male is mated with a brown, long-haired female, what
will their offspring look like? What are the genotypes
of the F1 individuals? If two of these F1 rabbits are mated,
what phenotypes would you expect to observe in the offspring and in what proportions?
Cross
Parent #1
Parent #2
Grey in F1
Yellow in F1
grey
yellow
52
52
grey
grey
127
41
grey
yellow
63
grey
grey
86
Genotype(s) of
parent #1?
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35. A fruit fly that is heterozygous for both grey body and
red eyes (GgRr) is crossed with a fly having a black body
and purple eyes (ggrr). When this cross is carried out
most of the offspring look like the parents, but 7% have
grey bodies with purple eyes and 7% have black bodies
with red eyes. How would you explain these results?
36. A male fruit fly with normal wings is crossed with a
female fruit fly with miniature wings. The cross produces
165 males with miniature wings and 170 females with
normal wings. How would you explain the inheritance
pattern of this trait?
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d)
e)
f)
g)
nerve cell
1.0 x
Cell #1
0.5 x
Cell #2
2.0 x
Cell #3
1.7 x
Cell #4
1.0 x
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t=q
T=p
TT = p2
Tt = pq
t=q
Tt = pq
tt = q2
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Males
6/16
3/16
2/16
1/16
3/16
1/16
Making Connections
43. Both competition and cooperation are common in scientific research today. How might competition between
scientists and the corporations that employ them affect
projects like the mapping of the human genome?
44. Researchers have found that the incidence of spina bifida,
a spinal cord disorder, can be reduced if women of childbearing age who are capable of getting pregnant consume
small quantities of folic acid in their diet. One of the easiest ways to ensure folic acid consumption in these women
is to add it to common food sources like cereal grains. Is
it acceptable for an entire population to receive an additive of this type that benefits a small proportion of the
whole population? Defend your point of view.
45. Tests to determine individuals who are genetically susceptible to developing various forms of cancer are currently becoming more sophisticated and widespread in
their use. There are people who think that the day would
come when society will insist that these individuals
must take steps to protect themselves against the development of cancer so that society will not be financially
burdened by the cost of their treatment. Write a paragraph to express your view on this issue.
46. Mendel concluded that some type of inheritable factor
was responsible for the patterns of inheritance that he
observed in his pea experiments. This conclusion was
drawn without ever seeing or knowing about genes. In
a similar fashion Morgan and Sturtevant described the
patterns of inheritance of linked genes without actually
observing the genes that were carried on the chromosome directly. Are these examples of bad science when
scientists suggest the existence of structures such as
genes without actually seeing them? Support your viewpoint with several arguments.
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b)
c)
d)
e)
scientist(s) that has(have) worked with this organism (you may need to select one scientist, as your
organism may have been used extensively by many
scientists)
a brief description outlining the steps in their research
some of the results of their work
the conclusions drawn from the experiments using
this organism
the significance/impact of this work in the field of
genetics
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UNIT
3
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
Internal Systems
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The quality of the air you breathe and the food you eat affects the smooth
operation of your internal systems. Smokers, for example, risk developing
respiratory illness, such as bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer. An unbalanced diet, like a diet with too many fatty foods, can cause conditions like heartburn and weight gain. A high level of stress or a lack of
exercise can lead to circulatory system disorders such as high blood pressure, stroke, or heart attack.
In order to make good personal choices about your nutrition and lifestyle,
it is important to understand how your internal systems work. In this unit,
you will investigate the structures, functions, and processes of the digestive,
respiratory, and circulatory systems. You will also examine diseases that can
affect these systems, as well as the drugs and technology currently available
to treat them.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Puffer Replacement
There may be some relief in sight for children who
rely on inhaled medication to control their asthma.
A new Canadian-developed asthma drug is the first
of its kind to be approved by Health Canada for
use by children. Young asthma sufferers over the
age of six can take the medication in the form of
a chewable, cherry-flavoured tablet. The medication blocks chemicals that constrict the airway. In
one study, 40% of the patients taking the tablet
were able to stop using inhaled corticosteroids,
which over time may hamper growth.
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
PREVIEW
At the end of the unit you will demonstrate your learning by completing the task Dissection in Science
Education. As a member of a school board you will be
asked to prepare a position paper on whether the
dissection of animals in the Science classroom should
continue. See page 360.
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CHAPTER 8
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of metabolism and of the
cardiovascular and respiratory
systems (8.1)
n human society, food selection, preparation, and consumption are central activities. The expression you are what you eat sums up the general
understanding that food is important to a persons well-being. At the level
of a single cell, the equation for cell respiration tells us how glucose is
metabolized for the release of energy to the cell.
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Internal Systems
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How does food selection relate to cellular activity? The answer is the digestive system. Every organism needs a supply of nutrients to fuel the processes that drive cellular metabolism.
The human body requires six types of nutrients in order to function. It
can obtain these requirements from an infinite combination of foods. However,
you need to extract the useful nutrients from the food you eat, deliver them
to your cells, and eliminate wastes.
To take in and use food, the body needs the various organs of the digestive tract. Examination of their unique structures will help you to understand
how they perform the vital functions of mechanical and chemical digestion,
secretion, and absorption. You need to be informed about how to balance
healthy nutrition and exercise to achieve overall fitness. This chapter will describe components in foods that are important for good health, suggest healthy
eating patterns, and discuss some common disorders that arise from a deficiency or an excess of certain nutrients in the diet.
In this chapter, you will study the components of food required to fuel
your body and learn the food groups necessary to ensure a daily supply of
nutrients. By examining the structures of the digestive system and the way
they interact with other structures, you will be able to understand how nutrients are acquired, digested, absorbed, and distributed in order to meet the
needs of your bodys cells. You will consider technologies that enhance
understanding of the digestive system and Canadian contributions to the field
of nutrition and health.
CHECKPOINT
Discovering Biology
the make-up, similarities, and differences in your diets over the last 24
hours
Balanced
meal
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8.1 Nutrition
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the importance of proper nutrition and the nutrients needed for energy and
growth
explain how personal choices in nutrition are directly related to health and well- being
appreciate Canadian contributions to the field of nutrition
WORD ORIGIN
Macro from the Greek, makros
meaning big and Micro from
the Greek, mikros, meaning
little; for example, microcosm means a small sample
of society.
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INFOBIT
Stage of Development
Mass (kg)
Height (cm)
Energy (Cal)
Energy (kJ)
Infants
0.00.5 yrs.
60
__kg 115
kg 481
0.51.0 yrs.
71
__kg 105
kg 439
Children
13
13
90
1300
5 441
46
20
112
1700
7 115
710
28
132
2400
10 045
1114
45
157
2700
11 301
1518
66
176
2800
11 719
1922
70
177
2900
12 138
2350
70
177
2700
11 301
51 +
70
177
2400
10 045
1114
46
157
2200
9 208
1518
55
163
2100
8 790
1922
55
163
2100
8 790
2350
55
163
2000
8 371
51 +
55
163
Males
Females
1800
7 534
Pregnant
300
1 256
Lactating
500
2 093
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are
organic compounds made only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
the major source of energy required
for all bodily functions. Common examples of carbohydrates include
starches, sugars, and cellulose. They are
important because they provide a ready
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INFOBIT
Michael Julius, a researcher
at Toronto General Hospitals
research unit, has shown a
possible link between a protein
in breast milk and the activation, or start-up, of the infants
own immune system.
M AT H L I N K
Remember:
1 g of carbohydrate provides
4 Cal or 16.7 kJ.
1 g of fat provides 9 Cal or
37.6 kJ.
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in the cell wall of plants. It is not digestible by humans and is therefore not
considered to be a human nutrient, even
though it is a carbohydrate. It provides
the human system with roughage.
However, for a herbivore like a planteating rabbit, cellulose would be a very
important part of the diet. Rabbits, unlike humans, are well equipped to break
down cellulose into a useful digestible
form. They have a suitable bacterial flora
in their large intestine. In humans, cellulose remains undigested and passes
through the alimentary canal to be eliminated through the anus as feces.
Fats Fats (also known as lipids), in moderate quantities, are part of a balanced
diet and are important for maintaining
good health. Fats perform several important roles within the body. The phospholipid bilayer in the cell membrane
surrounding all body cells includes lipid
and cholesterol. Fats surround vital organs and joints and act like a protective
cushion. Fats surround nerves and help
them to deliver signals quickly and accurately. As well, a layer of fat just underneath the skin helps to insulate the
body against changes in the external environment. Fats are concentrated
sources of energy. One gram of fat provides approximately 37.6 kJ of energy,
while one gram of protein or carbohydrate provides only 16.7 kJ. However,
fat intake must be moderated since excessive fat intake can lead to obesity.
Fats, like carbohydrates, are organic
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the ratio of
these atoms is different from that in carbohydrates. The basic structure in fats
is the triglyceride, a three-carbon glycerol molecule with three fatty acids
joined to it. Fatty acids are long chains
of carbon atoms with an acid group at
one end. Depending on the hydrogen
atoms present, a fat can be either a liquid or a solid at room temperature. If
every available chemical bond of the
carbons in the chain is holding a hydrogen atom, the chain is described as
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Proteins Proteins are the most important compounds for providing structure within the body. Not only do
proteins make up critical parts of muscles, skin, and internal organs, but they
are also the most abundant of the organic compounds found within body
cells. Some proteins are enzymes that
are vital for cellular function. In specialized cells, proteins act as cell surface
markers that are targets for specific hormones. Cell membrane proteins provide
channels in the phospholipid bilayer of
cells. Without these channels, valuable
nutrients would not be able to enter or
exit body cells.
The body has a variety of proteins
that differ in shape, size, and function.
All proteins are built from a set of 20
amino acids. These amino acids are
joined together by peptide bonds. Of the
20 amino acids, 8 must be obtained in
the diet. These are called essential
amino acids. If necessary, the atoms in
these essential amino acids can be rearranged to form the other 12 amino
acids. However, a well-balanced diet
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Micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients and differ from the macronutrients
in significant ways. Vitamins and minerals are taken in extremely small quantities daily, often in milligrams; they
cannot be used as an energy source.
There are many vitamins and minerals
needed on a daily basis to sustain life
and maintain health, each with a specific role to play in the bodys overall
metabolism.
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Role of Protein
Enzyme
Hormone
Structural
Transport
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TABLE 8.3 Important Vitamins and Minerals Required in the Human Diet
Vitamin or Mineral
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A
D
blood clotting
B1
B2
carbohydrate metabolism
B12
Calcium
Iron
hemoglobin formation
Sodium
salt
Potassium
fruits
Iodine
Iodized salt
thyroid activity
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Common Minerals
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Most vitamins are easily lost or
destroyed by heat, by exposure
to oxygen, or by being dissolved out of food into water.
To prevent the loss of vitamins,
it is recommended that as little
water as possible is used to
cook vegetables and fruits.
Foods rich in vitamins B and C
should be cooked for only a
short time.
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to be replenished. By consuming a
balanced diet we are able to obtain our
requirement of minerals. Plants are
reservoirs of minerals because they
are able to absorb them from the soil
and incorporate them into their tissues.
Fruits, whole grains, meats, and vegetables contain iron, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. These foods also
contain a variety of other trace elements, such as zinc and selenium, that
the body needs in small amounts. Table
8.3 details some minerals, including
iron, that make up an important part of
our diet, and are used by the body in
many ways.
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Water
Although water is not an energy source
it is considered the most important substance for all animals, including humans.
Without food, you could survive for several weeks, but without water you would
die within days. Most of the weight of the
human body is water. Plasma, the liquid
component of the blood, is more than
90% water. Water is the means of transport for all the nutrients. Every living cell
in your body is in contact with water in
which life-sustaining molecules are dissolved. The watery extracellular fluid
bathing each cell also carries away
metabolic wastes.
On hot days, or when you exercise
vigorously, sweat glands remove water
from your tissues and use it to moisten
the surface of your body. As this sweat
evaporates, it cools your body. Each time
you take a breath, some moisture from
the surface of your lungs is lost to the
outside air. Since water is continuously
lost from the body, it must be continuously replenished. It is recommended
that you drink six to eight glasses of
water each day, a volume of about 11.5 L.
Clearly nutrients are important to
the maintenance of health. An organisms diet may vary, but the six basic nutrients that we have discussed are vital
to sustain life. Since organisms have diverse feeding patterns, structural adap-
FIGURE 8.2 The frosty breath in dry, wintry air shows that water is lost from the
lungs.
Anorexia nervosa
and bulimia
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are two
different but related medical and psychiatric conditions that are categorized
as eating disorders. Both disorders are
more common in females than males.
Adolescent girls have the highest risk of
developing these two illnesses. Patients
with anorexia nervosa are characterized
by an intense fear of gaining weight and
a poor self-image. They also lack appetite and are very thin and much below
their ideal weight based on their height.
These patients have amenorrhea (a lack
of menstrual periods), and often
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Canadians Active
in
Nutrition Research
252
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Internal Systems
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Organ system
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia
Endocrine and
metabolic
menstrual irregularities
Cardiovascular
Renal (kidney)
Gastrointestinal
Hematologic
Ministry of Supply and Services Canada 1990. Cat. No. H39166/1990E, ISBN 0-66217438-0
Respiratory
aspiration pneumonia
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
4.
2.
Using the Internet, research one of the diets in the scenario or select a fad diet currently in the media. Identify
the claims made by the diet. Compare the daily nutrient
requirements of the fad diet with the recommendations
from Canadas Food Guide. Summarize the comparisons
in a table.
5.
6.
What are the elements of a healthy diet? Use your research to prepare a promotion piece to highlight what
you believe is the healthiest diet.
7.
Plan a class symposium on fad diets. Share media advertising and decide the most important criteria needed
to assess the value of a fad diet.
3.
254
What are the risks associated with the diet? What are
the potential benefits?
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Carbohydrates (g)
chicken burger 30
Proteins Fats
(g)
(g)
21
18
45
24
32
pizza
38
19
23
Mineral(s) required in
particularly large amounts
youngsters aged 12 to 17
iron
Reason
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. The table below shows the approximate daily energy requirement of
people in different age groups and
occupations.
Group
age 1315
age 1619
adult office worker
adult construction worker
Making Connections
8. In what ways do you think society
influences an individuals perception of
a health body weight?
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molecule
(water)
organelle
(mitochondrion)
cell
(muscle)
tissue
(muscle)
organ
(heart)
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the digestive process
explain the structure of the gastrointestinal wall
describe how nutrients are absorbed by the body
organ system
(cardiovascular)
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Structures, Functions,
and Processes of the
Digestive System
The digestive tract, also called the gastrointestinal tract or alimentary canal,
is basically a tube that is open at both
ends. This muscular tube that passes
through the body from the mouth to the
anus is the central feature of the digestive system. The inner surface of this
tube is continuous with the outer surface of the body, and so technically, is an
extension of the external environment.
Its structure allows food to enter through
one end, products of digestion to become
absorbed through the lining of the tube,
and waste products to be eliminated
through the other end. This basic design
is present in simpler organisms, such as
the earthworm. With evolution, only the
complexity of the system increases
as each component takes on specialized
structures and performs specific
functions.
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WORD ORIGIN
Tissue from the French tissue
meaning woven. This is an
appropriate use of the word
since many tissues are woven
together to make organs.
System from the Greek
sustema, which means an
organized whole.
Absorption of
nutrients
microvilli
FIGURE 8.7 The digestive tract is a tube that consists of
VILLUS
epithelium
lymphatic
vessel
capillary
network
SMALL
INTESTINE
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Steps in Digestion
The central function of the digestive system is to change the foods you eat into
chemical forms your body can use.
Anything your body cannot use must be
properly eliminated. The digestive system acquires food through ingestion.
Food is typically in a form that is completely unsuitable for use by body cells.
Food becomes useful only after it has
been converted into diffusible substances
that can pass though the walls of the
small intestine and blood and lymphatic
vessels in the process of absorption.
Therefore, food molecules must be transformed into smaller and simpler units.
This preparation of food for absorption
is termed digestion, and takes place in
the alimentary canal. During digestion
all carbohydrates are converted into
monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose. All proteins are converted into amino acids, and fats are
broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. Two types of digestion are involved:
mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion.
Mechanical digestion occurs mainly
in the mouth and stomach. In mechanical digestion, solid food masses are
shredded, torn, ground, and shaken. All
mammals that eat solid food use their
salivary glands
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sphincters
accessory organs
alimentary canal
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
mouth with
teeth
esophagus
stomach
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Internal Systems
small intestine
large intestine
anus
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WORD ORIGIN
Peristalsis from the Greek
peri, meaning around and
stellein meaning wrap
molars
(for crushing)
upper
dental
arch
hard palate
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trachea
b)
esophagus
c)
Discovering Biology
A Model of Peristalsis
How is this
model similar
to peristalsis?
d)
esophagus
cardiac sphincter
stomach
How is it different?
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esophagus
bolus of food
esophagus
260
larynx
Internal Systems
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INFOBIT
Heartburn occurs when stomach acids reflux into the
esophagus. The esophagus
does not have a mucus lining
to protect it and as a result,
the acid irritates the cells,
causing a burning sensation.
esophagus
muscular
wall
STOMACH
pyloric sphincter
duodenum of
small intestine
rugae
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INFOBIT
Aspirin and alcohol are two
examples of the few substances that can be absorbed
into the bloodstream through
the lining of the stomach.
This explains why pain relief
occurs soon after ingesting an
aspirin and why intoxication
can happen rapidly.
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Fetal Pig-Dissection
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Absorption through the wall of
the small intestine is the
mechanism by which nutrients
can be taken up by the body.
Research active and passive
cellular transport mechanisms
in absorption and set up a
T-chart. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
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Duodenum:
receives secretions
from pancreas
and liver
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contract and relax. This results in a thorough mixing of the contents with intestinal juices before the chyme is
propelled further along the alimentary
canal. Intestinal juices contain secretions
from the small intestine and from large
accessory digestive glands, the pancreas
and the liver. The ileocaecal valve is an
anatomical landmark that separates the
small intestine from the large intestine.
The small intestine is considerably
longer than the large intestine. The name
small intestine is attributed to its
diameter, which is smaller than the
diameter of the large intestine. The small
intestine is as long as 6 m on average,
but the large intestine is only about
1.5 m in an adult.
Mechanical and chemical digestion
is ongoing as food travels through the
digestive tract. Once the food reaches
the small intestine, it is broken down to
its simplest form and ready for absorption. Almost every nutrient digested is
absorbed into the body through the walls
of the small intestine. Intestinal absorption uses active and passive cellular
transport mechanisms. Some transport
mechanisms are unique to the intestinal
SMALL INTESTINE
Jejunum:
performs most of
digestion and
chemical
absorption
Ileum:
absorption
continues
large
intestine
FIGURE 8.15 The small intestine
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INFOBIT
It takes food approximately five
hours to pass through the
human small intestine. The
total surface area available for
absorption of nutrients is approximately 300 m2, about the
size of a tennis court.
a)
villi
microvilli
epithelium
mucosa
capillary network
lacteal
sub
mucosa
circular
muscle
longitudinal
muscle
lymphatic
vessel
serosa
c)
b)
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WORDORIGIN
Itis, from the Greek it is, indicating sickness or disease; so
appendicitis means an inflammation of the appendix and
colitis means an inflammation
of the colon.
WEBLINK
Using the Internet, research
signs and symptoms that a
person suffering from Crohns
disease might display.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
LARGE INTESTINE
Colon:
reabsorption
of water and
vitamins
ileum of
small intestine
Caecum:
receives material
from small
intestine
appendix
Rectum:
end of
digestive tract
ileocecal
valve
anus
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INFOBIT
water
bacteria
undigested roughage
lipid
inorganic matter
WORDORIGIN
protein
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
8. Plot the data below using a line graph.
Time after Ingesting an
Antacid Tablet (min)
266
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Internal Systems
pH of Stomach
1.5
10
1.68
20
1.8
30
2.1
Skull #2
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the functions of enzymes involved in digestion
illustrate a feedback loop as a mechanism of homeostasis
explain how the hormone insulin helps to maintain blood sugar levels
appreciate the work done by Canadian scientists Banting and Best
describe the technology used to examine the digestive system
analyze improvements in liver transplantation in response to societal needs
Salivary Glands
The salivary glands secrete saliva, a
fluid made up of two types of secretions.
Some salivary glands (the parotids) secrete a watery fluid that contains salivary amylase. This is an enzyme that
digests starch. Others (the buccal glands)
secrete a thick, slippery fluid called
mucus, which is high in the glycoprotein mucin. The cells that line the
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LIVER
right
lobe
left
lobe
common
hepatic
duct
common bile duct
PANCREAS
cystic
duct
pancreatic
duct
GALLBLADDER
duodenum of
small intestine
FIGURE 8.21 The accessory organs. The liver and pancreas release their secretions into the
small intestine at the duodenum.
Investigation
Refer to page 279,
Investigation 1
INFOBIT
The liver is the largest reservoir of blood in the body, holding about 25% of the cardiac
output at any given time. That
is why, when administering
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR), it is vital to landmark
so that you do not damage the
liver. If you were to compress
on the breastbone without first
landmarking, you might cut the
liver and cause severe internal
bleeding.
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Alcohol and the Liver The relationship between excessive alcohol use and liver
damage has been known for many years.
In fact, in the western world, alcohol is
the most common cause of liver disease.
Heavy alcohol consumption for many
years can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
Cirrhosis is a condition where the liver
is scarred and contains fibrous tissue.
Cirrhosis hinders blood flow through the
liver and so hinders metabolic processes.
It depresses all functions of the liver.
In this way, excessive alcohol consumption disrupts the homeostasis of the
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The Pancreas
The pancreas lies behind the stomach
and extends laterally from the duodenum. It is a finger-shaped organ and
measures about 15 cm in length. It is
specialized for secretion and is the
source of a number of substances essential to the digestive process. When
chyme leaves the stomach through the
pyloric sphincter it is slightly acidic. The
chyme must be neutralized so that this
acidic mixture does not corrode and irritate the cells that line the small intestine. Once acid enters the small intestine,
a hormone called secretin is released
from the cells in the duodenal wall. This
hormone is absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the pancreas.
Here, it signals the release of bicarbonate ions from the pancreas. Bicarbonate
ions not only help to neutralize the
hydrochloric acid, but also increase the
alkalinity in the duodenum to a pH of 9.
This is significant, because in an alkaline environment, the enzyme pepsin
(from the stomach) becomes inactive.
The pancreatic secretions also contain enzymes that continue the breakdown of the three major components
of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids. Lipases work on lipids, carbohydrases digest sugars and starches,
and proteases break apart proteins.
2.
3.
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Receptors detect the change and signal other parts of the body to respond
in order to restore the steady state.
Organs receive the signal and
respond accordingly. The responses
restore the body to its normal condition. Sometimes, the response is accomplished by the release of
hormones.
CHAPTER 8
WEBLINK
Estimates suggest that obesity
is responsible for 75% of
diabetes cases and 30% of
cardiovascular problems.
Lifestyle changes can reduce
these risks. Research the
information on one of these
diseases and prepare a
summary chart to indicate
ways to prevent these diseases.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
INFOBIT
Diabetes affects millions of
Canadians. There are two
types: Type 1 and Type 2.
Generally, Type 1 diabetes
occurs when there is destruction
of the specialized pancreatic
cells that make insulin. These
beta () cells are within structures called the Islets of
Langerhans. As a result there
is no insulin produced in the
body and individuals with Type
1 diabetes must take insulin
from an external source, by
injection. Type 2 diabetes is
usually age dependent, though
other factors like poor diet,
high blood pressure, obesity,
and infections can help bring it
about.
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M AT H L I N K
The concentration term mmol L1
relates the molar mass of a
substance to a volume of a
liquid. Since the molar mass
of glucose is 180, 46 mmol L1
means 0.721.08g L1.
WORD ORIGIN
Thermostat from two Greek
words, therm meaning heat
and statos meaning steady.
Thermostat switches
heating OFF.
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no heating
insulin release
response/s
Heating continues.
Temperature rises
above set point.
response/s
Temperature
falls to
set point.
result
return
to norm
stimulus
Glucose
level in
blood rises.
heating
Temperature
falls below
set point.
Thermostat
switches heating ON.
a) a thermostat
b) regulation of blood sugar in human
UNIT 3
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Glucose
level rises to
set point.
result
stimulus
Glucose
level in
blood falls.
response/s
270
Glucose
level falls to
set point.
result
stimulus
return
to norm
response/s
a)
result
Blood Glucose
4-6 mmol L-1
stimulus
b)
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H 20
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H 20
INFOBIT
You have three pairs of salivary
glands. The sublingual glands
in the floor of the mouth, the
submandibular glands just
below the jaw, and the parotid
glands deep to the cheek.
Saliva is an alkaline, watery,
mucus solution. It contains
potassium, chloride, and
bicarbonate ions as well as
amylase, a digestive enzyme
that begins starch digestion.
H 20
Chemical
digestion
Absorption to
blood
a) Carbohydrate digestion
b) Protein digestion
c) Lipid digestion
Absorption to
lymph
vessel
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Investigation
Refer to page 281,
Investigation 2
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Bile
Food in the small intestine is mixed, not
only with pancreatic fluid, but also with
bile. Recall that bile is made by the liver
and stored in the gallbladder. Bile enters
the intestine through a duct. Though it is
not an enzyme itself, bile has two functions in the intestine.
It acts in the same fashion as a
detergent. While detergents help to
emulsify fatty substances in your kitchen
sink, bile emulsifies fat in your small intestine by breaking the fat down into
small globules. It is important to note
that the chemical structure of the fat is
not changed even though it has been
physically broken down. The globules
are kept separate from each other within
the watery environment. Bile salts also
help in the absorption of lipids from the
intestine.
Gallstones sometimes develop when
large amounts of water are absorbed
from bile, leaving behind solids, which
block the bile duct. Removal of the gallbladder because of gallstones sometimes
results in difficulty with fat absorption
later on.
Endoscopy
An endoscope is a device consisting of
a tube containing an optical system
composed of a light-emitting glass fibre.
It is used for observing the inside of a
hollow organ or cavity. These observations may be made through a natural
body opening or through a small incision. When the endoscope is used to examine the digestive system, it can be
inserted through the mouth to investigate the upper digestive tract. A
colonoscopy can be performed in a similar manner by inserting the optical system through the anus to investigate
the lower digestive tract. The endoscope
is used to view such things as stomach
ulcers or polyp formation in the colon.
Tiny forceps, fitted into the endoscope,
can even extract small pieces of tissue
for further testing.
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Frontiers in Liver
Transplantation
Of all the wonders of modern medicine,
none has captured the public imagination more than organ transplantation.
Today, organs such as the heart, kidney,
lung, pancreas, and liver are being transplanted with increasing success around
the world. The first successful human
liver transplant was performed in the
mid-1960s by Dr. Thomas Starzl in
Denver, Colorado.
The liver is the second-largest organ
in the body, and is vital to life. It performs many essential functions. The liver
breaks down and removes harmful
chemicals and drugs. It changes nutrients into energy for growth and activity.
It produces bile, a substance that helps
the body absorb vitamins and metabolize fat. The liver also produces proteins,
particularly proteins responsible for
blood clotting and balancing body fluids.
For liver transplants, the only requirements are that the donor and recipient are approximately the same size,
and of compatible blood types. Donors
and recipients do not have to be
matched by tissue type, sex, or age. The
donor and recipient of the transplant
must also be free from any chronic infections or untreatable cancers.
Very often livers are donated, with
the consent of the next of kin, from individuals who are brain dead, usually as
a result of a head injury or brain hemorrhage. When such a donor is identified, a computer network contacts
transplant centres and arrangements are
made to retrieve whatever organs may
be donated. Frequently this involves a
team from a transplant centre flying to
the donor hospital to remove the organs,
and returning with them for the transplant operation.
Transplant using liver from a living
donor is also possible, especially for pediatric patients. Liver cells are unique
because they have the ability to regenerate quickly. Therefore, some pediatric
patients receive only a small portion of
a liver from a larger donor. This liver
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Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
Time of day
8:00 a.m.
4.6
10:15 a.m.
7.8
6:15 p.m.
3.2
11:00 p.m.
13.0
7.
Internal Systems
UNIT 3
Making Connections
274
Tube
Starch
Saliva
Iodine Test
Benedicts test
no change
orange precipitate
boiled
dark blue
no change
dark blue
no change
no change
no change
no change
no change
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
compare the anatomy of different organisms
understand how the components of digestive systems have been modified to suit the
unique digestive needs of different organisms
Amoeba
As a one-celled organism, the amoeba
does not have a complex system for digestion. Its means of acquiring and storing food are very simple. The amoeba
surrounds its food by extensions of the
cytoplasm called pseudopods. This process of engulfing and ingesting food,
called phagocytosis, requires energy
from ATP. Once inside the amoeba, food
can be stored in a food vacuole. Food
vacuoles can move within the amoeba.
Enzymes that break down the food are
released into the food vacuole. Within
the food vacuole the specific pH allows
enzymes to work at their optimum.
it. Only the lining cells have direct access to nutrients, but the nutrients have
only a short distance to diffuse to other
body cells.
Earthworm
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish have a gastrovascular cavity
with branches that radiate outward from
a central circular canal. Digestion occurs
within this cavity and in the cells lining
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esophagus
crop
mouth
intestine
anus
pharynx
Plants
gizzard
interior
of intestine
wall of
intestine
FIGURE 8.29 The earthworm exhibits all the main components of an alimentary
canal. Some added features include the crop where food is stored and the gizzard
where pebbles help to mechanically break down food.
Bird
Birds have an alimentary canal with organs similar to the earthworm. Birds are
able to eat a variety of foods, including
insects, worms, berries, and seeds. Like
the earthworm, birds have both a crop
for storing food and a gizzard for mechanically digesting food. Gravel pieces
in the gizzard help grind the food into
digestible pieces. Most chemical digestion occurs in the birds stomach.
Nutrients are absorbed in the intestine.
Cow
Ruminant mammals, such as cattle,
sheep, and deer, have a more elaborate system with a stomach that has four
chambers. This is because they digest
cellulose, a substance that is undigested
in humans. When a cow first chews and
swallows a mouthful of grass, the food
enters the rumen. It later travels to a region called the reticulum. Bacteria found
in the rumen and reticulum start to
break down the cellulose. The cow helps
in this process by regurgitating and rechewing food from time to time. This
rumination or chewing the cud
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In most ways, plants are organized differently from humans. However, there
are mechanisms within plants that are
similar to human digestive processes.
For example, plants need to have a high
surface area to allow for proper nutrient absorption. This is accomplished
through their root system, which absorbs water and inorganic nutrients
from the soil. Important minerals include
potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen.
Each root has many root hairs that increase the absorption capacity of the
root. Compare this situation to humans
where villi in the small intestine have
microvilli that also increase surface area
to enhance absorption.
Of course plants are very different
in that they manufacture sugars through
photosynthesis. However, they do require
a transport system to carry water and
inorganic nutrients to the site of photosynthesis in the leaves and to carry manufactured nutrient products (sugars) to
other tissues for use and storage. These
two aspects are kept separate. The xylem
transports water and minerals from the
roots to the leaves, and the phloem carries sugars away from the leaves to other
tissues. Compare this to the human
where the transport system, the circulatory system, receives the products of
digestion and carries them to the liver
and the rest of the body tissues.
Xylem and phloem are discussed in
detail in Chapter 16.
A third similarity between plants
and people is the importance of homeostasis. Just as humans regulate their
blood sugar, breathing rate, temperature, and so on, plants control the release of water through their stomata.
Stomata are the site of gas exchange in
plants and also the sites of water release
through the process of transpiration. For
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mouth
gizzard
esophagus
intestine
crop
stomach
anus
intestine
four-chambered
stomach
reticulum
esophagus
rumen
FIGURE 8.31 Ruminants, such as cows, have four stomachs. As herbivores, their
diet requires that they break down cellulose, a very complex carbohydrate. This requires that they chew the cud to break the fibrous material into small pieces.
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wolf
bird
snake
frog
worm
insect
grass
FIGURE 8.32
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Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
5. In a paragraph compare mechanical
and chemical digestion in the earthworm, the bird and the cow. Include
the role of muscle contraction in each
species digestion.
6. Construct a table to show the various
organs and components of the digestive tract. Identify the structures common to all of the organisms discussed
in this section. Explain why each is
vital to the proper functioning of the
digestive system.
Making Connections
7.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 8.3)
safety goggles
100150 g liver per
group
hot plate
water
6 test tubes
250-mL beakers
beaker tongs
test-tube tongs
3.
blender
ice
knife
test-tube rack
tape
black marker
hydrogen peroxide
(3% H2O2)
non-latex gloves
Test tube #1
Test tube #2
Test tube #3
Test tube #4
Test tube #5
Test tube #6
Problem
Materials
4.
5.
6.
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles when adding the hydrogen peroxide substrate and observing the reaction. The
test tubes in the boiling water bath will be very hot. Use
beaker tongs to handle the glassware.
Procedure
1.
Use the knife to chop the liver into fine bits. Place the
chopped liver into the hand blender. Add about
50 mL of water. If the homogenate is too thick and
stringy, you can add a little more water (1020 mL).
Blend the liver until it is homogenous. Pour this into
a 250-mL beaker and label it liver homogenate.
Place the 6 test tubes in a test-tube rack. Use the
tape and black marker to label each of the test tubes
as in Table 8.5.
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(continued)
7.
Test tube #1
1. From your observation chart, suggest how temperature affects the functioning of the enzyme.
Test tube #2
Test tube #3
Test tube #4
Test tube #5
Test tube #6
Scale Number
Rate
No reaction
Extending
Slow
Moderate
Fast
Very fast
8.
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9. If potato had the same enzyme as liver, at what temperature would the enzyme work best? Why?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 8.3)
Problem
Which common fruits contain an enzyme that prevents
gelatin from forming?
Materials
gelatin
hot water
cold water
pineapple
other fresh fruits
a number of bowls or beakers of uniform size
stirring rods
Experimental Design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Extending
8.
9.
10. Conduct an investigation to show whether the enzyme papain, from fruits like the pineapple, can
be successfully used as a meat tenderizer.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Organ
Function
Mouth
salivary
gland
mouth
Esophagus
(oral cavity)
Stomach
Small Intestine
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
salivary
glands
tongue
pharynx
esophagus
liver
gallbladder
stomach
pancreas
Large Intestine
colon
duodenum
caecum
jejunum
large
intestine
intestine
appendix
ileum
rectum
anus
FIGURE 8.34 Use this figure and information in Table 8.8 to summarize what
you have learned in this chapter.
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Key Terms
absorption
alimentary canal
bolus
Calorie
carbohydrate
chemical digestion
chyme
circular smooth muscle
elimination
homeostasis
immunosuppressants
ingestion
kilojoule
lipase
longitudinal smooth muscle
macronutrient
mechanical digestion
micronutrient
mineral
mucosa
negative feedback
organ system
peristalsis
protease
serosa
submucosa
villi
vitamins
xenotransplantation
Essential Understandings
8.1 Nutrition
3.
Research the employability skills and educational requirements necessary to become a nutritionist. In what
businesses can a nutritionist expect to find employment
opportunities?
2.
4.
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CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The salivary glands produce an enzyme that begins the
digestion of
a) starches
b) lipids
c) proteins
d) monosaccharides
2. Bile is stored in and released from the
a) pancreas
b) gallbladder
c) duodenum
d) liver
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
14. Exposed photographic film has black silver salts bonded
to it by a thin layer of gelatin (a protein). An experiment
was conducted to better understand the digestion of
gelatin by the enzyme trypsin. The end point of the experiment is shown by the clearing of the film as shown
in the diagram below.
pH Time to clear (min)
Exposed
film
clear
film
silver
salts
start
finish
6.0
32
6.5
20
7.0
13
8.0
9.0
9.5
20
10.0
35
FIGURE 8.35
Seven test tubes, each with a different buffered pH solution and 1 mL of 1.0% trypsin solution, were placed in
a water bath at 37C for 5 min. Small pieces of exposed film were placed in each test tube simultaneously,
and the time taken for the film to clear was recorded.
The results are shown in Figure 8.35.
a) Plot a graph of time to clear versus pH. Include all
the graphing conventions that you have learned.
b) At what pH does trypsin work most effectively?
c) Explain why it was necessary to place the seven test
tubes in the water bath for 5 min before inserting
the film into each.
15. Reflect and write a short paragraph on the importance
of biological hierarchy. Suggest a non-biological example of when hierarchy might be useful.
Substrate
maltase
maltose
sucrase
Product(s)
glucose and fructose
lactase
peptidase
polypeptides
lipase
lipids
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b)
Tube Procedure
Result
A milky mixture
formed.
A milky mixture
formed.
b)
c)
pH
mouth
6.8
stomach
2.0
duodenum
9.0
a)
b)
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Making Connections
21. Dieting is very common in our society. One diet entails
eating only proteins and avoiding the consumption of
carbohydrates, yet Canadas Food Guide to Healthy
Eating recommends that we eat a balanced diet daily.
a) How has the popular media influenced the way that
people decide to diet?
b) What is problematic about omitting entire food
groups from ones diet?
c) Some areas of the world rely only on carbohydratebased diets to live. Propose a plan of action whereby
our affluent society can help developing countries
meet their daily nutritional requirements.
22. Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which patients see
themselves as overweight and stop eating almost completely. Food in fact becomes distasteful to them. They
never feel hungry, deny their condition, and remain
unconcerned for themselves. Although anorexia is an
eating disorder, anorexic patients are cared for by a psychiatrist (a doctor who specializes in mental disorders).
Society does a lot to impose certain images on youth, especially girls.
a) Discuss some of the ways that society ushers girls
into a frame of mind that may cause them to become anorexic.
c)
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23. Obtain a community newspaper and clip out five ads pertaining to weight loss and dieting. Paste these ads on a
page and critique them. There is a big market for weight
loss. You will find ads ranging from pills, hypnosis,
diet maintenance, and liposuction, to tummy tucks and
diet shakes.
a) Rank the techniques in the ads that you chose in
order of most effective to least effective.
b) Evaluate the pluses and minuses of each method
of weight loss.
-You may wish to include cost in your appraisal.
-Contact some of the agencies to make specific inquiries if necessary.
c) Since these esthetic procedures require the use of
specialized technologies, they can be costly. This restricts them to only some sectors of society. Should
these procedures be covered by a provincial health
plan?
24. The Canadian Diabetes Association has a code that helps
diabetics to make healthy food choices.
a) Contact a local branch of this society and inquire
about the symbols that they have in place to help
their members make good food choices.
b) With the information you gather, visit your local grocery store and select five different items that have
these symbols on their packaging.
c) Make a chart that outlines the products that you
have chosen and the smart food choice symbols associated with each item.
d) Using your five items, make some recommendations
to a diabetic friend who wishes to choose a healthy
snack.
25. Vegetarianism is becoming increasing popular in the
western world. Advocates for vegetarianism cite nutritional, ethical, and environmental reasons for this lifestyle
choice.
a) Research the environmental impact of cattle raising
versus agriculture and the various costs that are incurred in farming plants versus farming animals.
b) Meat eaters argue that a vegetarian diet does not
provide enough protein. To what extent is this statement true?
c) Animal rights groups maintain that it is cruel to raise
and kill animals for human consumption.
Furthermore, they protest against the injection of
hormones into animals to make them gain weight
and thereby become more marketable. Construct a
risk/benefit analysis chart to decide whether
animals should be used for human consumption.
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UN
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
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CHAPTER 9
Respiration
demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of the respiratory system
(9.2, Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
ll life is lived on the edge! You could live for a few weeks without food,
and for a few days without water. But, if you were without oxygen for
more than four minutes, irreversible brain damage and death could result.
FIGURE 9.1 The bronchial tree. Each bronchus divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi
and then into bronchioles.
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To stay alive and function, your cells need energy. You have learned that
energy can be obtained when glucose is broken down during cellular respiration as shown in the equation for energy release.
Oxygen is a necessary reactant in this equation and without it energy in
the form of ATP cannot be generated in the mitochondria. Carbon dioxide is
a product of ATP formation and must be disposed of. We live in a sea of air
that contains a variety of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Oxygen represents approximately 21% of air. The challenge is to bring
the oxygen to all the bodys cells and to remove the carbon dioxide. In multicellular organisms, a specialized system is required to ensure that adequate
amounts of oxygen are available for body cells. This is the respiratory system. In your consideration of the human respiratory system you will
explore the anatomy of the organs and their function. You will consider some
of the basic requirements for efficient oxygen diffusion and investigate the
concepts of vital capacity, lung volumes, and reserve volumes. You will also
explore the relationship of exercise to breathing and overall good health. You
will also consider the effects that smoking and medications have on various
components of the respiratory tract and the techniques and technology
designed to maximize respiratory function.
Discovering Biology
Wait a Minute, Breathe!
Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. When your teacher gives the signal, take a deep breath. Try to hold your breath for as long as possible.
When you can no longer hold your breath, let it out and immediately put
your head down on your desk to indicate that you have let your breath
out. How long were you able to hold your breath?
What do you think causes you to let your breath out and inhale a fresh
breath?
Work with a partner. Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. Have your
partner count the number of times that you breathe in and out in one
minute. How many breaths do you take on average in one minute?
CHECKPOINT
Using a K-W-L chart, list
what you know about the
respiratory system in the
first column, as well any
questions about the respiratory system you have in
the second column.
Know
Wonder
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the differences between external, internal, and cellular respiration
describe the pathway of oxygen from the atmosphere to a tissue cell
describe the anatomy of the respiratory system
explain how the structure of different parts enables them to perform their functions
explain the roles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiration
INFOBIT
SCUBA gear first allowed
humans to breathe successfully
and move freely under water.
In fact the name SCUBA means
self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus.
The Components of
Respiration
Respiration can be divided into several
components (Figure 9.2).
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external
respiration
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internal
respiration
respiratory system
circulatory system
tissue cell
O2
O2
O2
CO2
CO2
CO2
cellular
respiration
atmospheric
air
alveolar capillary
membrane
mitochondrion
capillary tissue
interface
FIGURE 9.2 The relationship of external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration, and
the interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The circulatory system connects the lungs
and the tissues of the body and transports the gases to and fro.
lar respiration the digestive system provides the reactant glucose to the cell.
FIGURE 9.3 This inverted model of the respiratory system shows why a tree is a good analogy
for the respiratory system.
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The Nasal and Oral Cavities Air containing oxygen can enter the body through
the nose or mouth. Approximately 21%
of every inhaled breath is oxygen. If air
enters through the nose, it has the added
benefit of being warmed, moistened, and
filtered. In order to be efficiently utilized
by the body, oxygenated air must be
warmed to body temperature (37C). The
nose is rich in blood capillaries that help
to warm the air. The nasal cavity is also
lined with mucus-secreting cells; the
mucus helps to moisten and filter the incoming air. Cilia that line the nasal
cavity beat back and forth together like
the oars of a row boat (Figure 9.5). Cilia
and nose hairs both act to filter out debris and large particles from the air.
When air is inhaled through the oral
cavity, some of these vital steps are
missed.
sinuses
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
left lung
right lung
left bronchus
bronchioles
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system
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the larynx. The larynx is made up of several pieces of cartilage, the largest piece
being the Adams apple. Because the larynx produces sound, it is sometimes
known as the voice box. Inside the larynx are two highly elastic folds called
the vocal cords (Figure 9.7). Air being
released from the lungs rushes past
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pharynx
bolus of food
vocal cords
larynx
epiglottis folded over the
entrance to the larynx
(airway closed)
cartilages
glottis
tracheal cartilages
trachea
epiglottis
upright
(airway open)
trachea
the vocal cords and causes them to vibrate. When muscles cause the vocal
cords to contract, the air passing between them vibrates and produces
sound.
Respiratory Structures
Within the Chest Cavity
Within the chest cavity, the trachea divides into two branches, the right and
left bronchi (singular: bronchus).
Following the tree analogy, the trachea
is like a trunk and the bronchi are the
a)
b)
larynx
esophagus
trachea
lumen of
trachea
mucous
glands
tracheal
cartilage
bronchi
right lung
left lung
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WORD ORIGIN
Alveolus, from the Latin alveolus
meaning the cell of a honeycomb. This is the diminutive of
alveus meaning a beehive.
Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3
WEBLINK
Research the effect of air
pollution on childhood respiratory illnesses. Compile a list
of illnesses, symptoms, and
suspected causes. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
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vein
artery
alveolus
capillary network
FIGURE 9.10 The alveoli. The alveoli and the
surrounding capillaries are the site of gas
exchange.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
Partial pressure
Understanding Concepts
B
Oxygen
C
Carbon dioxide
FIGURE 9.11
Making Connections
8. Use various print and electronic
sources to research household perfumes and analyze their positive and
negative effects on health.
9. a) Describe the impact of local industries on air pollution.
b) Propose strategies to ensure that
the emissions in these industries
are properly regulated in order to
protect the encironment.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the process of ventilation and describe the structures involved
compare the anatomy and physiology of breathing to a mechanical model
understand how gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
explain how breathing rate is regulated in humans
understand the influence of fitness on respiratory efficiency
rib cage
air
exhaled
air
inhaled
Muscle
contraction
expands
rib cage.
lung
Muscle
relaxation
contracts
rib cage.
diaphragm
contraction of
diaphragm
(moves down)
relaxation of
diaphragm
(moves up)
a) Inhalation
b) Exhalation
a) In inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down, and the intercostal muscles contract,
moving the rib cage out and up. These activities increase the volume of the chest cavity.
b) In exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, and the intercostal muscles relax, moving the rib
cage in and down. These activities decrease the volume of the chest cavity.
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air
lung
balloon
diaphragm
Exhalation
Internal pressure increases.
air
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INFOBIT
Lungs have a total capacity of
about 6 L and the more fit a
person is, the greater the
exchange of air. In a normal
breath (at rest), we exchange
only about 0.6 L. While exercising,
a person can consume up to 20
times the amount of oxygen
consumed at rest.
Regulation of Breathing
Movement
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brain
breathing control
centres
medulla
oblongata
contraction
of muscles
triggered by
nerve signals
CO2 increase/pH
decrease in blood
O2 sensor in
artery
rib muscles
O2 decrease
in blood
diaphragm
FIGURE 9.14 Control centres in the brain that regulate the rate and depth of
breathing
INFOBIT
Homeostasis is
at set point.
Increase in blood
CO2 concentration
Increase in the concentration
of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Increase in the concentration of
H ions in the blood (lowered pH)
Stimulation of chemoreceptors
in the brain
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Activation of respiratory
centre in the brain
CO2 + H20
Message is sent to
increase breathing rate.
Decrease in
CO2 concentration
FIGURE 9.15 A flowchart
to show how breathing rate
is regulated to maintain
homeostasis
Next Section
Homeostasis is restored.
H2CO3
+ HCO3
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air breathed
in
O2
alveolus in
lung
CO2
EXTERNAL
RESPIRATION
capillary
tissue
cell
O2
CO2
INTERNAL
RESPIRATION
Next Section
each breath. Air is a gas, and has the capacity to flow. Air moves into and out of
an organism much like the ebb and flow
of the ocean tide. It is fitting that the
amount of air that passes in and out of the
lungs with each breath is known as the
tidal volume. It ranges from 250 to 500
mL for most adults. The depth of each
breath and the rate of breathing can vary
greatly, depending on the bodys needs.
The total lung capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be held in
the lungs at any given time. At rest, the
tidal volume is only a small fraction of the
total lung capacity, and even the deepest
expiration cannot expel all the air in the
lungs. The volume of air that can be
forcefully exhaled, after a normal tidal
volume is exhaled, is called the expiratory reserve volume. During a deep
breath, an extra volume of air up to 2 L
can be taken into the lungs. This is known
as the inspiratory reserve volume. In
normal people, 4.5 L of air can be inhaled
and exhaled with effort. The maximum
amount of air that can be moved into
and out of the respiratory system is
called the vital capacity. The vital capacity is always about 1.01.5 L less
than the total lung capacity because if
the lungs became completely deflated,
they would collapse. Therefore, biologists call the air that remains in the lungs
after maximal expiration the residual
volume. See Figure 9.18 for the relationship of the respiratory volumes. The
space occupied by conducting airways,
the trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchioles is termed anatomical dead
space. That is, 150 mL of the air in the
airways is stale. It is always the last
bit of air to be exhaled from the
previous exhalation and is therefore
depleted of oxygen. When 500 mL of air
is inhaled, and 150 mL occupies anatomical dead space (and does not even reach
the alveoli), only 350 mL of the inhaled
air is available to be exchanged.
Your vital capacity is greatly affected
by your daily activities. Regular exercise
increases the bodys need for oxygen.
Strenuous exercises like swimming help
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INFOBIT
Carbon monoxide is an
odourless, colourless, and
potentially fatal gas. It is
commonly found in car
exhausts and cigarette smoke.
When inhaled, carbon
monoxide competes with
oxygen to bind to hemoglobin,
the molecule in the red blood
cell that normally carries
oxygen. However, carbon
monoxide is more than 200
times more efficient at binding
hemoglobin than oxygen is.
High levels of carbon monoxide
in the blood therefore deprive
the body of oxygen.
Investigation
Refer to page 309,
Investigation 1
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6000
tidal volume
residual volume
expiratory reserve volume
inspiratory reserve volume
total lung capacity
vital capacity
5000
3300
mL
4000
4800
mL
6000
mL
3000
Volume (mL)
Volume (mL)
4000
1900
mL
3000
3100
mL
500 mL
2000
2000
1000
mL
500 mL
4200
mL
700
mL
1000
1000
1200
mL
1100
mL
WEBLINK
Explore the benefits to the
respiratory system of time
devoted to regular exercise.
Design an exercise program for
a healthy teenager. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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Norman Bethune,
Physician, Inventor,
Humanitarian
Norman Bethune who was born in
Gravenhurst, Ontario, in 1890,
became world-renowned as a
humanitarian. Bethune was also a
gifted innovator. As a physician, he
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Disadvantages of
Using a Bell Jar
Position of the
diaphragm
Position of the rib
cage
2. Draw a typical alveolus surrounded by
a capillary bed. Indicate on your
diagram whether oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels would be higher or lower
after an inhalation. What passive process occurs during gas exchange in the
alveoli? Explain why this process takes
place.
3. Define anatomical dead space. How
would wearing a snorkel affect your
anatomical dead space?
4. Draw a diagram to illustrate the role
of chemoreceptors in maintaining
homeostasis in the respiratory system.
7.
Patient
Breaths/Min
10
18
12
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Making Connections
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
understand how adverse conditions within the respiratory system may lead to disease
states
explain the causes of respiratory diseases
describe how puffers and bronchodilators function
describe the impact of smoking on respiratory health
Investigation
Asthma
Asthma attack
Emphysema
Emphysema is another respiratory disorder often associated with chronic
bronchitis. Like bronchitis, emphysema
makes it difficult for air to pass through
the respiratory system to reach the alveoli (Figure 9.20). When cilia, lining the
bronchi and bronchioles, become damaged, they no longer effectively filter dirt
and debris or channel it up towards the
pharynx to be swallowed. Consequently,
the debris builds up in the air tubes. In
Bronchitis
Bronchodilation
Increase in amount
of air that enters the lungs
Homeostasis is restored.
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turn, the bronchioles become constricted. Less air is then able to get to
the alveoli. The air pressure that builds
up as a result of these hindered airways
causes the lung to appear inflated. The
alveoli, and their very thin membranes,
are unable to support increased pressure. The alveoli try to accommodate
to increasing pressure, but eventually
their walls tear and become damaged.
Damaged alveoli result in decreased surface area for gas exchange and some
cells may become deprived of oxygen.
To accommodate for this decreased gas
exchange area, the breathing rate increases. The heart, therefore, has to
work harder than normal. This attempt
to maintain normal oxygen levels is not
true homeostasis because extra stress is
put on the heart (Figure 9.21).
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WORDORIGIN
Emphysema, from Greek
emphusaein meaning to puff
up. Emphysema means
over-inflated lung.
WEBLINK
Research the availability in
Ontario of programs that
promote respiratory health and
support groups for people with
respiratory diseases. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder in which abnormally thick mucus blocks airways and
other passages. The mucus is not easily
removed so the normal processes to
remove dirt and debris are not sufficient.
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Bronchodilators A bronchodilator is a
medication usually taken with a puffer. It
works by targeting the bronchioles that
sometimes become constricted and cause
respiratory difficulty. This difficulty is typically found in people with asthma. Some
common triggers that can narrow the airway include pollution, smog, cold air, and
exercise. For this reason, people with
asthma may use their puffers more frequently during the winter, on smoggy
days, and before they exercise. Recent developments suggest that a chewable tablet
may be able to replace puffers for some
asthmatic conditions in young children.
Respiratory Health
WEBLINK
Miners have a higher risk of
lung disease than the general
public. Research the specific
technologies needed in mines
to protect the respiratory
health of the miners. Write a
paragraph on this topic. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Environmental Hazards
Asbestos In the last few decades, society has become more aware of the
harmful effects of environmental and
workplace chemicals. For many years,
asbestos was a material used to insulate
buildings and schools. It has been shown
that asbestos can cause diseases of the
pleura (the lining surrounding your
lungs), which can ultimately lead to lung
cancer. This can occur even as many
as 20 years after exposure to asbestos.
Asbestos exposure is likely in occupations such as mining or the manufacturing and installation of materials that
contain asbestos, such as brake linings, roofing shingles, and insulation.
Silica Silica is a substance that can irritate the respiratory tract as a result
of exposure over many years. Silica is
a major component of rock and sand.
Exposure is a problem in the occupations of mining, sand blasting, and
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Smoking and
Second-hand Smoke
Smoking is one of the leading contributors to impaired respiratory health. More
and more data are emerging to indicate
that being exposed to the cigarette
smoke of others also causes damage.
Second-hand smoke is known to cause
lung cancer and contribute to respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema (Figure 9.23). The
exposure of individuals to second-hand
smoke is now a public health problem that
poses significant health risks to both children and adults.
Tobacco smoke contains a mixture
of gases, liquids, and particles. Almost
4000 chemicals have been found in tobacco smoke. Dozens of these are toxic
or known to cause cancer (carcinogenic).
Some of the more common compounds
in tobacco smoke include carbon monoxide, nitrates, ammonia, nitrosamines,
hydrogen cyanide, cadmium, sulfur
compounds, vinyl chloride, hydrocarbons, volatile alcohols, urethanes,
formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrazine.
Second-hand smoke is the mixture of
smoke from a burning cigarette as well
as the smoke that a smoker exhales.
Many toxic substances are found in
greater concentrations in second-hand
smoke. Tar (the most carcinogenic component) is 70% more concentrated in
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a) A healthy lung
b) A lung from a person who
smoked
INFOBIT
Teenage girls represent the
fastest-growing population of
smokers.
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Patient
Name
Blood
pH
Carbon
Dioxide (mm Hg)
7.42
34
2. What is a bronchodilator?
7.37
50
7.40
38
4. What does emphysema do to the surface area within the respiratory tract?
a) Assuming that 7.4 is the normal arterial blood pH, which patient is in
a state of acidosis?
b) What is the relationship between
blood pH and the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. The following table describes the frequency with which a person with
asthma uses a puffer from summer to
winter.
July
August
September
October
November
December
2/week
2/week
3/week
3/week
daily
daily
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Making Connections
7.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
4.
2.
5.
3.
The Origins
law
C H A P T of
E R the
9 periodic
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
compare the respiratory systems of different organisms
understand how an organisms respiratory structures contribute to its internal
regulation
Earthworm
Some animals use their entire outer skin
as an organ for gas exchange. Generally,
for an organ to be effective in gas exchange, it must be thin, moist, and have
a large surface area. The earthworm
breathes through its skin. It has no specialized gas-exchange surfaces. Oxygen
diffuses into a dense net of thin-walled
capillaries that lie just beneath the
Insect
skin
capillaries
air sacs
FIGURE 9.26 The grasshopper.
The grasshopper exchanges
gases through a tracheal
system of branching tubes that
bring air directly to body cells
without the involvement of the
circulatory system.
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Fish
opening
for air
tracheae
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gill
oxygenpoor
blood
lamellae
of gill
waterflow
bloodflow
oxygenrich
blood
nostril
glottis
lungs
Frog
The evolution from water to land depended largely on the ability to retain a
moist surface for gas exchange. Living
on land meant that evaporation could dry
out the respiratory surface. The solution
was to internalize the respiratory surface, and through this lungs came to be.
The amphibians are the group of organisms that bridge water and land
animals. Amphibians are able to exchange
gases through their moist skin and their
moist lungs. Depending on the environment, they might use one or both of these
methods. The frog is interesting because
it is able to rely on its moist skin, its lungs,
and the moist lining of its mouth as
FIGURE 9.28 The frog. The frog combines the ability to exchange gases through
the skin and the mouth lining with the presence of lungs to maximize gas exchange.
Respiration
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Bird
Birds exchange gases differently from
humans. In contrast to the in-and-out
flow of air in the human alveoli, birds
have a one-way flow of air through the
lungs. Birds have several large air sacs
in addition to their lungs. The air sacs
ventilate the surface of the lungs. During
inhalation, both sets of air sacs expand.
The posterior sacs fill with fresh air from
the outside, while the anterior sacs fill
with stale air from the lungs. During
exhalation, both sets of air sacs deanterior
air sacs
air
lungs
posterior
air sacs
air
lungs
trachea
Inhalation
air sacs fill
Exhalation
air sacs empty;
lungs fill
7.
Rank the respiratory systems of the following organisms from most efficient
to least efficient.
Insect __________
Worm __________
Frog ___________
Fish ___________
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Internal Systems
Plants
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Oxygen Present in
Air
Oxygen Present in
Water
160 mm Hg
4 mm Hg
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 9.2)
water
bucket or dishpan
1 balloon per student
1 measuring tape
calculator
funnel
2.
3.
4.
Hold your hand tightly over the mouth of the bottle and turn it upside down in the dishpan. Remove
your hand when the mouth of the bottle is below
the water level.
5.
6.
7.
To get a measure of your vital capacity, repeat the activity but this time exhale a deep breath into the hose.
Repeat this step two more times. Average the values.
8.
Materials
respirometer
disposable mouthpieces
stopwatch
drinking straws
2-L soda bottle
black permanent
marker
1.
Problem
Which method of measuring lung volumes is the most
useful and practical in a school setting?
LAL1
Procedure
9.
250
500
plastic hose
750
1000
1250
500
1750
2000
water
FIGURE 9.30 Experimental set-up for water displacement
investigation.
12. Repeat steps 910 twice more and calculate the average circumference.
13. Repeat steps 912 three times but exhale a deep
breath into the balloon. Calculate the average circumference.
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(continued)
Volume is measured in cubic centimetres. To calculate your tidal volume, substitute the average circumference value, represented by the variable C,
into the formula below.
V 1/6 1/2 C3
Method 3: The Respirometer
14. Obtain a respirometer and adjust it so that the
gauge reading is zero. Most hand respirometers are
calibrated in litres.
15. Place a new disposable mouthpiece onto the
respirometer and then inhale and exhale normally
into the mouthpiece.
16. Record the volume that the respirometer reads, and
then zero the device. Repeat this for two more trials. Take the average volume over the three trials
and record it in Table 9.3 in your notebook .
17. Repeat the series of measurements for deep breathing and record the values.
18. Record observations for each member of the group
in tables similar to those shown below.
3. Which person would be more physically fitan individual with a normal expiratory reserve volume
and extremely high vital capacity, or an individual
with an extremely high expiratory reserve volume
and a rather normal vital capacity? Explain the reasoning behind your choice.
4. Who do you think would have a shorter recovery
time after exercisinga well-conditioned student
athlete or an out-of-shape teacher? Explain your
answer fully.
Extending
6. What were some possible sources of error in this
experiment?
7. How would you improve the design of the experiment if you were repeating it?
8. Is this investigation accurate in assessing a persons
tidal volume and total lung capacity? Explain your
answer.
Tidal volume
Vital capacity
TV
#2
#1
#2
VC
Average TV
#3
Average VC
#3
Tidal volume
TV
Vital capacity
VC
#2
Average TV
#3
#2
Average VC
#3
310
Tidal Volume
TV
Reading #1
Reading #2
Reading #3
Total
Average TV
Vital Capacity
VC
Reading #1
Reading #2
Reading #3
Total
Average VC
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
The Effect of Airways of
Different Diameters
The respiratory system is an interconnected system of
air passages of different sizes. In this investigation you
will examine why it is important for the respiratory
system to have airways of different diameters and how
the diameter of the air passage affects the flow of air.
Problem
Why should the respiratory system have airways of different diameter?
Materials
This investigation
can be performed using simple
LAL1
household items. Find at least three objects of different diameters. You can use, for example, a straw, an
empty toilet roll, and a piece of narrow rubber tubing.
Experimental Design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(Section 9.3)
Respiratory disorder
Symptoms
Causes
Treatment
9. Prepare a presentation using Bristol board, or prepare a pamphlet to suggest how a person with one
of the respiratory disorders listed in Table 9.4
might improve, or at least maintain, his or her
respiratory health.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Summary Table of the Respiratory System
TABLE 9.5 Organs of the respiratory system
Organ
Function
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Filters air; traps particles in mucus; rings of cartilage help keep airway open.
Bronchi
Airways in lungs; two main branches from the trachea (left and right bronchi); are lined with
cilia.
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Sites of gas exchange between air and blood; very thin membrane to allow for efficient diffusion.
Lung
Diaphragm
Muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity; during inspiration, the
diaphragm contracts and moves downward increasing the volume of the chest cavity; during
expiration the muscle relaxes, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal Muscles
Muscles that surround the ribs and help expand the thoracic cavity during inspiration.
sinuses
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
left lung
right lung
left bronchus
bronchioles
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diaphragm
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Key Terms
abdominal cavity
air sacs
alveoli
anatomical dead space
bronchi
bronchioles
bronchodilators
chemoreceptors
countercurrent flow
diaphragm
epiglottis
epi-pen
exhalation or expiration
expiratory reserve volume
external respiration
gill arches
gills
inhalation or inspiration
residual volume
respiratory system
respirometer
thoracic cavity
tidal volume
total lung capacity
trachea
tracheal tube
vital capacity
Essential Understandings
9.1 The Respiratory System
Respiration can be broken down into external respiration, the actual gas exchange between the alveolar air and the blood; internal respiration, the
gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells;
and cellular respiration at the level of the mitochondria.
The passage of air starts at the oral and nasal cavities and ends at the alveoli.
Organisms have developed a variety of special organs to help with gas exchange.
The alveolus is the structure where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
The type of organ developed for respiration is associated with the organisms environment.
2.
3.
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CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The order of air movement within the lungs is best described as
a) bronchi to alveoli to bronchioles
b) bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli
c) bronchioles to bronchi to alveoli
d) trachea to bronchi to alveoli
2. Which statement about the respiratory surface in animals is not true?
a) The respiratory surface must be moist.
b) The respiratory surface must be thin.
c) The respiratory surface must be in touch with a proportionally large blood supply.
d) The respiratory surface must be external.
3. Which of the following is not a structure located within
the lung?
a) bronchi
b) bronchioles
c) larynx
d) alveoli
4. What component of the human respiratory system traps
suspended particles and humidifies the air?
a) nasal hairs
b) mucus
c) cilia
d) epiglottis
5. The amount of air always present in the lungs is called
the
a) tidal volume
b) alveolar capacity
c) residual volume
d) total capacity
6. What term describes gas exchange between alveolar air
and the blood?
7. How is sound produced?
8. What is the function of mucus in the nasal passage?
9. What is the relationship between the level of body
activity and the rate of breathing?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
18. Study the following data:
Oxygen Consumption (cm3/kg/h)
Animal
earthworm
75
butterfly
500
frog
120
hummingbird
11 000
mouse
3000
person
200
a)
b)
Concurrent Flow
Water
100% 90%
70%
50% O2
30%
50% O2
Blood
0%
10%
to body
Countercurrent Flow
13. What do you think happens inside your body when you
hold your breath? Why are you unable to hold your
breath forever?
14. Describe the journey of a carbon-dioxide molecule
from an alveolus to the outside world. What structures
does it pass along its way out of the body?
Water
100%
Blood
90%
to body
FIGURE 9.32
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70%
40%
15% O2
60%
30%
5% O2
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Breathing Rate
(breaths/min)
15
20
19
14
12
22
24
a)
b)
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Making Connections
25. A stoma is a hole created at the base of the trachea to
facilitate breathing. Gather some information about
stomas, and outline some of the daily lifestyle changes
that a person with a stoma might be faced with.
a) Often patients with oral or throat cancer will have
a stoma. Yet, many of these patients continue to
smoke through their stoma. Design a program that
would help to wean some of these individuals
from their smoking practice.
b) Compare the concept of a stoma in humans to the
stomata of a green plant. How are they the same?
How do they differ?
c) Design a plan of action to educate people with
stomas to maintain good respiratory health.
26. Recent legislation requires that carbon monoxide detectors be installed in all Ontario homes and buildings. This
is in response to deaths due to carbon monoxide poisoning.
a) Research why these devices are crucial to saving
lives.
b) What is carbon monoxide and what properties does
it have that are similar to oxygen? What properties are different from oxygen?
c) Why is an elevated level of carbon monoxide a threat
to the human respiratory system?
27. Humidifiers are popular electric devices in homes during the winter. They can help to relieve symptoms such
as cough and dry skin.
a) Perform a product analysis on a humidifier.
Investigate exactly what it is used for, how much it
costs, and so on.
b) Suggest reasons why a family might invest in a
humidifier for their home. Are humidification systems included in the specifications for new homes
and buildings? Why or why not?
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C H A P T E R 10
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
demonstrate an understanding of
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of the cardiovascular
system (10.3)
Circulation
A
FIGURE 10.1 A normal cardiac angiogram. This technology demonstrates the coronary circulation. Blockages or
reduction in vessel diameter produce a pattern different
from that shown in a normal heart.
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and oxygen. The circulatory system and its billions of red blood cells transport oxygen and nutrients such as glucose to even the most remote body cells. It also
carries away the waste products of cellular respiration including
carbon dioxide. The components of the human circulatory systemthe heart, the
blood vessels, and the blood itselfact to integrate the functions of the
digestive, respiratory, and other body systems and maintain the internal
environment. If we consider the central equation for cell respiration, the circulatory
system provides the reactants and carries away one of the products.
In this chapter, you will consider several characteristics of the circulatory system.
The four-chambered human heart is a unique double-pump system that supplies the
blood with the energy it needs to travel through two distinct circuits. One circuit carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. The second circuit carries oxygenated blood to all the body tissues.
You will also learn about blood pressurehow it is developed, what factors affect
it, and how it is measured. Finally, you will become aware of risk factors that predispose someone to diseases of the circulatory system, including coronary heart disease and heart attacks. In examining wider relationships, you will compare circulatory
systems in a range of animals and also compare them with circulation in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining Your Body Mass Index
Your Body Mass Index (BMI) is important in determining whether you are
at risk for cardiovascular disease. You can calculate your BMI using the
simple formula below. First you need to know your mass in kilograms and
your height in metres.
BMI =
mass in kilograms
(height in metres)2
CHECKPOINT
List the factors you know
that prevent heart disease.
Prevention Factors
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the role of the circulatory system in complex organisms
explain how the circulatory system functions as a transport system
understand how the circulatory system works with other systems to deliver materials
needed for energy and growth
identify and describe the components of the blood
identify diseases that result if a component of blood is not functioning properly
Respiratory
system
(O2 in, CO2 out)
Urinary
system
(wastes
out)
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Digestive
system
(nutrients in)
Cardiovascular
system
(transport)
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centrifuge, it separates into these components. Heavier, solid, particles sediment to the bottom of the test tube. The
liquid component or plasma of the blood
remains at the top. Plasma accounts for
approximately 55% of the blood volume.
Plasma is 90% water. As shown in
Figure 10.3, many constituents are dissolved in plasma. These include salts,
centrifuge
withdraw
blood
place in tube
blood
sample
plasma
55%
Formed elements
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets
Plasma
99.9%
45%
formed
elements
0.1%
water
92%
plasma proteins
7%
other solutes
1%
Platelets
FIGURE 10.3 The composition of the blood. Blood is 55% plasma and 45% formed
elements. The formed elements include erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets.
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INFOBIT
Proteins on the surface of the
red blood cell determine blood
type. Humans are divided into
four major blood groups based
on the presence of two different glycoproteins (agglutinogens A and B) on the surface
of their red blood cells.
Individuals with type A blood
have agglutinogen A on their
red cells. Type B blood has agglutinogen B, type AB has both
agglutinogens A and B, while
type O has neither. Each blood
type is also associated with
specific proteins in the plasma,
called agglutinins. The plasma
of type A blood has agglutinin
B, plasma of type B blood has
agglutinin A. Plasma of type AB
blood has neither, while plasma
of type O has both agglutinins.
WEBLINK
The thalassemias are a group
of genetic conditions that affect hemoglobin. Research the
origins, symptoms, and treatment of the thalassemias.
Begin your research at the
Pearson Education Web site at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
2
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Discovering Biology
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Leukemia
Leukemia is a cancer of white blood cells. In this disease, leucocytes divide out of control. Therefore, large numbers of leucocytes
build up in the circulatory system.
1.
2.
Shock is a medical condition that results when the circulatory system cannot meet the needs of vital organs like
the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain.
When red blood cells that carry oxygen
are unable to reach these vital organs,
the organs begin to shut down. In order
to prioritize the delivery of oxygen, the
INFOBIT
Aspirin is called a blood thinner since it alters the process
of clotting by preventing
platelets from adhering to each
other. H.J.M. Barnett at McMaster
University in Hamilton conducted the first randomized
trial to evaluate the use of
aspirin to prevent vascular
disease and stroke. Results
published in 1976 indicate that
aspirin treatment reduces the
risk in stroke-threatened
patients by 25%.
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body reduces blood flow to the extremities (arms and legs) and reserves the
blood for the bodys core. Shock can
occur as a result of severe blood loss. It
can also occur when a person is emotionally disturbed or frightened. The best
treatment for shock is to encourage the
person to rest in a semi-sitting position.
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Keeping the person warm and reassuring him or her are also important.
Severe bleeding can be controlled by
applying direct pressure. It is important
to remember that shock can be life
threatening if overlooked and so
medical attention should be sought
immediately.
1. If 20 mL of blood is spun in a
centrifuge, approximately how many
millilitres of plasma can be extracted?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. You are a summer student working in
a blood laboratory. Blood samples from
three patients have arrived and you are
to analyze them. The names on the
labels are smudged and you are unable
to determine which test tube belongs
to which patient. On the hospital
database, you learn Patient A is a
healthy 40-year-old man; Patient B is
an 18-year-old girl who has a history
of chronic lung infections; Patient C has
a history of anemia. Using the following table, match the tubes to the right
patients.
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Making Connections
7.
Hemoglobin (g L1)
Tube 1
122
14.4
Tube 2
151
6.2
Tube 3
88
10.0
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Origins
law
C H A P T Eof
R the
1 0 periodic
Circulation
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the anatomy of the human heart
describe how the heart functions
identify the three types of vessels that are found in the human circulatory system
understand how the structures of arteries and veins differ
explain how technology has improved scientific understanding of the circulatory
system
give examples of ways Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
WORD ORIGIN
Myocardium: from the Greek
mus or muos meaning muscle and kardia meaning a
heart
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PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
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superior
vena cava
lungs
aorta
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
pulmonary
veins
left
atrium
b)
pulmonary
arteries
right
atrium
a)
inferior
vena cava
left
ventricle
right
ventricle
a) Blood returns from the systemic circulation, through the veins, to the right side
of the heart. The pulmonary circulation pumps the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated,
and then returns it to the left side of the heart. The blood is then pumped back out
of the left side of the heart, into the systemic circulation and through the arteries of
the body.
b) The right atrium of the heart (1) is filled with deoxygenated blood by the superior
and inferior vena cavae. The right atrium pumps the blood into (2) the right ventricle,
which contracts and sends the blood through (3) the pulmonary arteries to the
lungs. After picking up oxygen in the lungs, the blood is transferred back to the
heart, through (4) the pulmonary veins, and moves into (5) the left atrium. The left
atrium pumps the blood into (6) the left ventricle, which contracts and pumps the
blood out through (7) the aorta, and into the rest of the body
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Investigation
Refer to page 349,
Investigation 3
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superior
vena cava
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aorta
pulmonary
artery
right
coronary
artery
left
circumflex
artery
left anterior
descending
coronary
artery
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Humans are born with all the muscle and nervous tissue they will need
over their lifetime. This means that cardiac muscle, once damaged, is not replaced. Sometimes when some cardiac
muscle dies, part of the heart may stop
functioning properly. However, other
parts of the heart take over that function. For example, if part of the left ventricle is damaged by a heart attack, the
remaining functioning muscle in the left
ventricle will work overtime to make up
for the loss. This process is called compensation. In people with advanced
heart disease compensation may no
longer be sufficient because so much of
their heart muscle has been damaged.
Heart disease continues to be a
major cause of death in Canada.
Contributing factors include smoking,
stress, lack of exercise, and a highcholesterol diet.
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INFOBIT
Your heart strings are not
just the stuff of romance. The
chordae tendinae are fibrous
connective tissue structures
inside the ventricles that stabilize the atrio-ventricular valves
during systole and allow the
valves to function properly.
WORDORIGIN
Systole, from the Greek sun
meaning together and
stellein meaning to put;
therefore sustole, meaning
a putting together or a
drawing in.
Diastole, from the Greek, dia
meaning apart and stellein
meaning to put; therefore diastole meaning a pulling apart
or a letting out.
1 Heart is
relaxed. AV
valves are open.
Blood flows into
all four chambers.
0.1 s
0.3 s
2 Atria
contract.
0.4 s
Systole
Diastole
3 Ventricles contract.
Semilunar valves
are open.
FIGURE 10.11 The cardiac cycle
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INFOBIT
A heart murmur is a sound
made when one of the valves is
not opening or closing properly
or when the diameter of the
open valve is less than normal.
When a valve only partially
opens or closes, some blood
may spill back in the direction
opposite to blood flow. The actual sound of a heart murmur is
due to turbulent blood flow.
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Heart Sounds At the beginning of systole, when the ventricles start to contract, the pressure generated forces the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to close.
This produces the first heart sound. At
the end of systole, when the pressure in
the ventricles falls, the aortic and pulmonary semi-lunar valves close. This
produces the second heart sound.
Cardiac Output The volume of blood
pumped from the left ventricle into the
aorta per minute is called the cardiac output. It is the product of stroke volume and
heart rate. The stroke volume is the
amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle each time it contracts. The heart
rate is the number of contractions per
minute. Both heart rate and stroke volume vary depending on factors such as
exercise and level of fitness.
Increased carbon dioxide in the blood
results in a lowered pH. This sets up a
negative feedback loop. The heart rate
is increased so that more blood is sent
to the lungs per minute. This results in a
more rapid release of carbon dioxide from
the lungs and so carbon dioxide concentration and pH return to the norm.
INFOBIT
oles/ules many terms in
biology have this endingfor
example, bronchioles, arterioles, and venules. Think of
oles implying smaller than
the adjoining structure. For
instance, the arteries are the
structure that come before
arterioles, therefore, arterioles
are smaller than arteries;
similarly, venules are smaller
than veins, and bronchioles
are smaller than bronchi.
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Blood Vessels
Blood vessels transport the blood from
one part of your body to another and
connect all the body systems. Blood is
pumped away from the heart in thickwalled blood vessels called arteries.
Arteries then branch out to form
arterioles, which branch out further to
form capillaries.
Arteries must withstand the pressure of the blood within them. The
biggest artery in the body is the aorta.
The major function of arteries and
arterioles is to transport blood under
pressure throughout the body. The
arteries are structurally suited for this
task. They consist of three distinct
layers: an inner layer of epithelial cells,
a middle layer of smooth muscle, and
an outer layer of connective tissue containing elastic fibres that allow the vessels to stretch.
Having muscular and elastic tissue
enables the walls of the arteries to
handle the high pressure of the pumped
blood. In fact, when the heart empties,
the blood moves in a pulselike wave
throughout the circulatory system. As
blood travels through your arteries it
pushes on the artery walls, causing
them to stretch. Just as a stretched rubber band will store potential energy, an
artery will also store some energy when
stretched. When the bulge of blood flows
past a given section of artery, the artery
relaxes and releases some of the stored
energy. This helps to move blood along
farther. Branching in the circulatory system allows the blood to be channelled
into different areas.
Arterioles are smaller than arteries.
They have a smaller diameter and are
a little less elastic. The contraction and
relaxation of arterioles is the major
determinant of the overall blood pressure in the body.
Capillaries are the narrowest of all
blood vessels. Red blood cells must
squeeze through capillaries in single file
and so they slow down. This slower
pace allows them to pick up carbon
dioxide and unload oxygen by diffusion
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Blood flow to the heart is also affected by physcial activity. If you stand
or sit for long periods of time, this prevents skeletal muscles from squeezing
blood back to your heart. As a result the
veins distend as the blood accumulates
in them. If veins are stretched constantly,
they lose their elasticity and the bulges
may become visible as varicose veins.
CAPILLARY
connective
tissue
VEIN
connective
tissue
valve
muscle
muscle
endothelium
endothelium
capillary bed
FIGURE 10.13 Branching in the systemic system. In the arterial system the aorta branches
into arteries and arterioles. In the tissues arterioles branch into capillary networks that increase
the surface area available for diffusion. In the venous system capillaries merge to form
venules and venules merge to form veins.
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Capillary
Artery
Vein
connective tissue
connective tissue
smooth
muscle
smooth
muscle
capillary
epithelium
valve in
epithelium
epithelial cells
elastic
wall thinner than artery
has valves
carries blood towards heart
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AV node
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Contraction of
ventricles begins in
heart apex.
Electrical signal
delayed at
AV node.
Wave of
contraction
begins.
SA node
Next Section
Contraction of
ventricles complete.
bundle
branches
Purkinje
fibres
FIGURE 10.15 The control of the hearts rhythm. The sequence of excitation is associated with the waves shown on an electrocardiogram.
An electrocardiograph is a device
used to detect the hearts electrical activity. The heart produces current that
radiates through the surrounding tissue
to the skin. When electrodes are attached to the skin, they sense these electrical currents and transmit them to the
ECG machine. A graphic record, the
electrocardiogram or ECG, is produced.
It shows the different waves that represent the various parts of the cardiac
cycle. The appearance of the ECG varies
with the positioning of the electrodes.
Comparison of information from different placements of the electrodes allows
you to check the performance of different parts of the heart. ECGs are useful
because they are a non-invasive way of
diagnosing cardiac and non-cardiac illnesses and enable monitoring of the
effects of many medications.
b) A normal ECG trace. The P wave shows depolarization of the atria. The QRS complex shows
depolarization of the ventricles.The T wave shows
repolarization of the ventricles.
a)
b)
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Artificial Pacemakers
In 1951 researchers at Torontos
Banting Institute, W.G. Bigelow and
John C. Callaghan reported on experiments with the first electrical cardiac pacemaker, which was designed
by John C. Hopps of the National
Research Council. Since that time and
with the development of transistorized circuitry, thousands of people
have benefited from this technology.
Over 7500 patients in Canada alone
receive new pacemakers each year.
WEBLINK
Research artificial pacemakers
on the Internet. Construct a
time-line of pacemaker development. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 345,
Investigation 1
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Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted
on the walls of the arteries. It is generated as your heart ejects blood into the
aorta with every beat. The aorta and
other arteries have muscular walls that
allow them to expand and passively
recoil as the ventricles contract and
relax. During systole, the aorta expands
to accept the blood from the heart and
a wave of pressure is generated throughout all the arteries. During diastole, the
aorta recoils, propelling blood along the
arteries into the arterioles and capillaries. This elastic property of vessels
allows for continuous blood flow
throughout the circulatory system.
Arterial blood pressure is directly
related to the amount of blood pumped
by the heart per minute and the resistance to blood flow through the arterioles. The systolic pressure is the
pressure that blood exerts on the wall of
the aorta during systole when blood
leaves the heart. The diastolic pressure
is the pressure that the blood exerts on
the wall of the aorta during diastole
when no blood leaves the heart. The difference between your systolic pressure
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Discovering Biology
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Pulse rate
One easy way to measure your heart rate is to take your pulse. Pulse
is generated when arteries stretch during systole. What you actually feel is an artery bulging during systole. Between heartbeats
(during diastole), the arteries recoil due to their elastic properties.
Two areas where your pulse is easy to detect are the radial pulse
(at your wrist) and the carotid pulse (at the side of your neck).
1.
Take your pulse at the radial pulse. To feel your pulse, place
your index and middle fingers on an artery and feel it stretch
and relax as a volume of blood flows past it. Record your heart
rate (beats/min).
2.
Take your pulse at the carotid pulse. Record your heart rate.
Compare the strength of the two pulses. Explain your
observations.
Investigation
Refer to page 346,
Investigation 2
venae cavae
veins
venules
capillaries
arterioles
diastolic pressure
arteries
50
40
30
20
10
0
systolic pressure
aorta
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Velocity (cm/s)
Comparison of
blood vessel size
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5. The sinoatrial node is the hearts pacemaker. and has an intrinsic rate at
which it generates impulses. This rate
can be modified by many different factors. From the heart rates given below,
Select the one that corresponds to each
of the following scenarios.
Heart rates (beats/min):
72
186
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
54
a) Someone sleeping
b) Someone playing squash
c) Someone, at rest, watching television
FIGURE 10.20
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
a) From the data, which vessels contain the largest volume of blood?
b) Suggest why capillaries have such
a low blood volume.
c) What percentage of the blood is
contained in the venous system?
Making Connections
Blood Vessel
Type
aorta
20
arterioles
40
venules
veins
venae cavae
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2.5
small arteries
capillaries
334
Total Cross-Sectional
Area (cm2)
2500
250
80
5
9. High blood pressure, or hypertension, is a common problem in the general population. It is a strong risk factor
for the development of heart disease
and stroke. Propose the economic and
social impacts of hypertension.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
relate fitness level to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system
describe common disorders that affect the cardiovascular system
provide examples of drug treatments to restore homeostasis
present scientific reasons for following an exercise program
explain how Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
for internal systems
Atherosclerosis
This condition occurs when fatty deposits containing cholesterol and lipids
accumulate in the lining of blood vessels.
The plaques (sticky regions) decrease
the diameter of the blood vessel and the
elasticity of the vessel wall. This process
may occur in all arteries in the body, but
the coronary arteries are especially susceptible. Areas distal to the narrowing
of an artery can be deprived of blood
and nutrients. High-cholesterol diets
combined with other risk factors for
heart disease may result in abnormal
blood circulation and eventual heart
attack or stroke.
Angina
Like all muscles in the human body, the
heart requires a constant and steady
supply of nutrients. In a healthy heart
this is supplied by the coronary circulation. Coronary artery disease means
that there are parts of the heart that do
not always receive enough oxygen. When
the heart is deprived of oxygen, an individual may complain of chest pain or
chest tightness called angina. Usually
this pain is felt behind the sternum,
but may also radiate to the jaw, back,
and arms. It can occur during periods of
exertion, during exercising or eating, or
when under emotional stress. Angina
can usually be relieved by rest or by a
medication, such as nitroglycerine.
WEBLINK
Research the reasons that high
blood pressure is often called
the silent killer. Create a
pamphlet that outlines the prevention and treatment of this
condition. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
M AT H L I N K
Blood pressure is an example
of a value for which non-metric
units continue to be used.
Blood pressure is usually
reported as mmHg. Normal
blood pressure for an adult is
120/80, systolic/diastolic. To
report blood pressure in metric
units (kPa), use the conversion
1mmHg = 0.13332 kPa.
Therefore 120 mmHg
= (120 x 0.13332) kPa
= 15.998 kPa
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Heart Attack
A heart attack is a more severe form of
angina. During a heart attack, a clot
completely blocks a coronary artery and
there is death of cardiac muscle cells.
After the death of these cells, scar tissue
forms. After a heart attack, the damaged
heart may be weakened and may not be
able to pump blood as efficiently. Heart
attacks have many associated symptoms
including fatigue, dizziness, and indigestion. The chances of a heart attack
increase with age. Some other factors
that influence the likelihood of having
a heart attack include smoking, poor
diet, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, a
family history of heart disease, and diabetes. Fortunately, many of these factors can be controlled. Frequent exercise
and healthy food choices can help to
prevent the occurrence of heart attacks.
Stroke
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel
(usually one going to the brain) is damaged. A clot forms within the blood vessel, or the blood vessel bursts due to high
blood pressure or a weakness in the vessel wall. Symptoms depend on the vessel
involved and the part of the brain affected. Usually the patient experiences
signs and symptoms on the opposite side
of the body to which the blood vessel is
located. Thus a damaged blood vessel
feeding oxygen to the right side of the
brain would result in a patient having
symptoms on the left side of the body.
Common symptoms of a stroke include
weakness, speech slurring, and numbness. Some of these symptoms are reversible with time while others may be
permanent.
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under the tongue. Nitroglycerine is readily absorbed and acts to dilate coronary
blood vessels almost instantly. This allows more blood to reach areas of the
heart that are being deprived of oxygen.
The treatment acts to restore the blood
vessel diameter and oxygen availability
to the heart. It mimics a normal homeostatic response to oxygen deprivation.
Nitroglycerine is also available as a patch
that individuals can stick on their skin.
The medication slowly dissolves upon
contact, passes through the skin, and is
absorbed into the bloodstream. In this
form, the nitroglycerine will maintain
homeostasis by providing a continuous
stimulus to dilate the blood vessels.
Nicotine is the active ingredient in tobacco. It is second only to caffeine as the
most widely used stimulant, and second only to alcohol as the most abused
drug. It is also highly addictive. Nicotine
is toxic, and in combination with the tars
and carbon monoxide found in cigarette
smoke, it is a serious risk factor for lung
disease, various cancers, and heart disease. The effects of nicotine are complex
and include a rise in both blood pressure
and heart rate. Recently, a special chewing gum containing 2 mg of nicotine has
been shown to reduce nicotine withdrawal symptoms and help smokers stop
smoking. The blood concentration of
nicotine after chewing the gum is about
one half of the level it would be after
smoking. Therefore, chewing gum with
nicotine is one way that smokers can
try to quit smoking. Nicotine is also
available in patch form.
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Bypass Surgery
If the arteries that supply the heart
with oxygen become narrowed, certain parts of the heart may become
deprived of oxygen and the cells may
ultimately die. Coronary artery
bypass surgery is one of the most
common types of surgeries performed
in North America. Surgeons extract
a vein from the patients leg and use
it to redirect blood flow around the
diseased artery in the heart. Think of
a traffic jam. The new blood vessel
acts like a detour route allowing
blood to get around the traffic or in
this case, the blockage. More than
one blockage in the coronary circulation may be treated in the same operation: you may have heard of
people having triple, quadruple or
even quintuple, bypass surgeries.
In September 1999, cardiac surgeon Douglas Boyd at the London,
Ontario Health Sciences Centre
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Cardiac Catheterization Cardiac catheterization is a method to detect the presence of coronary artery disease.
Individuals who have abnormal exercise
stress tests often go on to have cardiac
catheterization and an angiogram. A
catheter is inserted into the femoral
artery (located in the groin area) and
guided through the arterial system of the
body and into the heart and coronary
arteries. A dye is then injected through
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Nuclear Medicine Another method of diagnosis for patients who have an abnormal stress test involves radioactive
decay. The substance used is radioactive
thallium (thallium 201). This material is
injected while the person is undergoing a stress test and the subsequent
decay of radioactivity in the circulation
of the heart is recorded. Normal coronary arteries will show a regular pattern
of radioactive disintegrations. Diseased
coronary arteries will show a different
pattern.
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1951. Later in her career she developed the Dosimeter, a machine that
allows regulation of the dose of radiation received by the patient.
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FIGURE 10.24 The normal angiogram on the left shows patent (open) left and
right coronary arteries. The abnormal angiogram on the right shows blockages in
diseased coronary arteries.
INFOBIT
Cholesterol is transported in
the body bound to small lipidprotein complexes called
lipoproteins. High-density
lipoproteins (HDLs) transport
cholesterol to the liver for
breakdown. HDLs are often
referred to as good
cholesterol in comparison to
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
that may release cholesterol
deposits into the walls of
arteries.
WEBLINK
Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
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6. The respiratory and circulatory systems work closely together during exercise. The table below gives the
oxygen consumption (L/min) and the
total ventilation (L/min) for three different athletes.
Oxygen
consumption
(x-axis)
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. A person has been taking an antihypertensive medication for the past
six months. He has been monitoring
his blood pressure at home with a kit
he bought from the drugstore. The
table shows his blood pressures over
the past six months (mm Hg).
Graph the blood pressure to show how
it has changed over time. Analyze the
data and recommend a course of action for the future.
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Total ventilation
(y-axis)
23
17
41
31
18
60.0
47.5
34.5
78
63.2
46
Blood Pressure
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Systolic
166
160
150
156
144
138
Diastolic
98
98
90
92
94
88
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
compare the anatomy of the circulatory systems in different organisms
explain the role of transport systems in different organisms
understand how the structures in transport systems are suited to their functions
from the body sinus, making space available for new blood to bathe the organs.
This bathing and draining follows
a continuous cycle. Open circulatory systems are most common in insects. In
contrast, a closed circulatory system
consists of vessels containing fluid and
a pumping mechanism to circulate the
fluid.
The Earthworm
The earthworm has a simple but highly
efficient closed circulatory system.
Earthworms have blood that travels
through vessels. The two main blood
vessels in the worm are the dorsal
vessel and the ventral vessel, while
smaller vessels serve the cells in each
individual segment. The earthworm does
not have a heart. Instead, it has five
muscular pseudohearts that pump
blood around its body. The primary
dorsal vessel
ventral vessel
5 pseudohearts
FIGURE 10.26 The earthworms blood system transports nutrients absorbed from
the worms small intestine.
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Grasshopper
In an insect, such as the grasshopper,
the heart is located toward the posterior.
tubular
heart
pores
The Fish
The cardiovascular system of a fish illustrates the main features of a closed circulatory system. The heart has two main
chambers. The atrium receives blood
from the veins, and the ventricles pump
blood to the gills via large arteries.
In Figure 10.28, red represents oxygenated blood and blue represents
deoxygenated blood. After passing
through the gill capillaries, the oxygenrich blood flows into other large arteries that carry it to all other parts of the
body. The large arteries branch into
arterioles, small vessels that give rise to
capillaries. Networks of capillaries infiltrate every organ and tissue in the body.
capillary beds
arteriole
artery
(O2-rich blood)
venule
vein
heart
atrium
ventricle
artery
(O2-poor blood)
gill
capillaries
FIGURE 10.28 In the fish, blood becomes oxygenated in the gill capillaries. It flows to all
parts of the body through arteries. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins.
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right
atrium
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left
atrium
pulmonary
vein
right
atrium
left
atrium
spiral
fold
ventricle
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
The Frog
In amphibians, the heart has three chambers, two atria and one ventricle.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left atrium through the pulmonary
vein. It mixes with oxygen-poor blood
in the single ventricle. The mixed blood
is then pumped to the body tissues and
lungs. Mixing is not complete because
of the spiral fold in the heart, so the brain
and upper limbs tend to receive blood
that is higher in oxygen. However, some
deoxygenated blood is recirculated to the
body. This system is somewhat inefficient
compared to the double-pump, fourchambered heart of birds and mammals.
It is sufficient for the frog because frogs
are generally in active and can absorb
oxygen by diffusion into the blood as
the blood circulates through the mouth
and skin.
The four-chambered mammalian
heart is an efficient system that has allowed mammals to exploit opportunities
for life on land. This system keeps
Plants
Plants have an internal transport system
with some similarities to the human system. The human cardiovascular system
consists of a heart, blood vessels, and
blood fluid. Plants also have vessels that
allow them to transport fluids: in this case,
water and nutrients. Like the
vessels in humans, plant vascular tissue
provides a continuous internal conduction system between the roots, stems, and
leaves. Vascular bundles consist of xylem
and phloem tissue, and together, they
branch out to form veins. You can observe these veins in a plants leaves. The
circulatory system in humans also transports hormones, for example, insulin.
Plants also have hormones and these are
also transported through vascular tissue.
A notable difference is that plants
have separate systems for water and for
nutrient transport. Xylem tissue transports water that flows from roots to
leaves while phloem tissue transports
nutrients. Nutrients flow from the leaves
to the roots or to other parts of the
plant that need them. Another important difference is that plants lack a
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Research the differences between the
circulatory system of the shark, dolphin,
jellyfish, and eel. How have these different organisms developed specialized
structures for circulation?
7.
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Making Connections
9. Xenotransplantation is the new area of
medicine that deals with the science of
transplanting animal organs into humans.
a) Research this growing area of
medicinespecifically research
what obstacles must be overcome
before these types of surgeries will
be successful.
b) What ethical considerations must
also be considered with respect to
xenotransplantation?
10. Global warming is a serious environmental issue. Patterns of bird migration are based on the season and the
outdoor temperature. What effect does
global warming have on bird
migration?
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 10.2)
Problem
What is the effect of exercise on pulse rate?
CAUTION: If you have a medical concern that might prevent
you from performing exercise to gather data for this laboratory, consult your teacher.
Experimental
LAL1 Design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Extending
10. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
on the persons pulse rate six months after beginning the exercise program. What aspect of cardiac output would you expect to be most affected?
Explain your reasoning.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 10.2)
Arm is
relaxed.
artery in a turbulent
manner. This results
in a loud tapping
sound that increases
in intensity as the cuff
is deflated. The pressure at which one can
first hear sounds is
termed the SYSTOLIC
blood pressure.
As the pressure
in the cuff drops, a
point is reached
where the artery is
silent again (no sounds
can be heard) this is
termed the DIASTOLIC
pressure.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
pressure
Materials
sphygmomanometer
stethoscope
student subject
Pressure
in cuff is
120 or over.
Pressure
in cuff drops.
120
120
Pressure
in cuff
is 70.
70
Rubber cuff
is inflated
with air to
above systolic
pressure.
artery
Sounds are
audible at
systolic pressure.
Sounds stop
at diastolic
pressure.
Artery is closed.
FIGURE 10.32 Steps in measuring blood pressure
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(continued)
TABLE 10.2 Normal Blood Pressure for Men and Women at Different Ages
Systolic Pressure
Diastolic Pressure
Age in Years
Men
Women
Men
Women
10
103
103
69
70
11
104
104
70
71
12
106
106
71
72
13
108
108
72
73
14
110
110
73
74
15
112
112
75
76
16
118
116
73
72
17
121
116
74
72
18
120
116
74
72
19
122
115
75
71
20-24
123
116
76
72
4.
5.
6.
When you first hear the heart sounds, note the pressure on the gauge. This is the systolic pressure.
7.
8.
9.
Have your partner stand up for at least two minutes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
10. Have your partner lie down for at least two minutes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure, and pulse.
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(continued)
Observation Table
TABLE 10.3 Blood Pressure
Position
Systolic Pressure #1
(mm Hg)
Systolic Pressure #2
(mm Hg)
Diastolic Pressure #1
(mm Hg)
Diastolic Pressure #2
(mm Hg)
Pulse Rate #1
(beats/min)
Pulse Rate #2
(beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Position
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Position
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Complete Table 10.4 using the data from Table 10.3. For blood pressure, put the
systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. (BP = SP/DP)
TABLE 10.4 Blood Pressure Summary Table
Average Systolic
Pressure (mm Hg)
Position
Average Diastolic
Pressure (mm Hg)
Average Blood
Pressure (SP/DP)
Average Pulse
Rate (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Extending
5. With reference to Table 10.2, why is there a variation in systolic and diastolic pressure among members in different age groups and different genders?
2. In what position did you record the lowest systolic pressure? Why do you think this is so?
3. How do the measurements compare to the expected
average for the persons sex and age?
4. How would exercise affect systolic blood pressure?
Explain your answer.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 3
(Section 8.2,
9.1, 10.2)
CAUTION:
read through the entire activity before you begin.
wear protective goggles for the entire dissection.
wear plastic gloves when dissecting; if your skin comes
in contact with the preservative, rinse your hand under
cold running water.
know where to find the eye wash station and first aid
kit; check that the eye wash station works and that the
first aid kit is stocked.
work near an open window or in a well ventilated area.
scrub your hands and fingernails using the antibacterial
scrub. Wipe your counter clean with paper towels. Ensure
that no bits of dissected pig wash down the sink.
properly clean the dissection tray and dissection tools;
dispose of the fetal pig according to instructions.
Procedure
Part 1
External Anatomy
1.
2.
Purpose
To study the external and internal anatomy of the fetal
pig to gain perspectives on the following:
the relative positions and sizes of organs
the interrelations between organs and organ systems
the scientific process of dissection and its applicaLAL1
tions for anatomy and physiology.
Age of Pig
010 cm
20 days
1020 cm
3035 days
2030 cm
4550 days
4050 cm
55 days
100 cm
70 days
150 cm
80 days
200 cm
100 days
300 cm
120 days
trunk
transverse plane
neck
dorsal/superior
head
tail
Materials
safety goggles
non-latex gloves
plastic lab apron
preserved fetal pig
dissecting tray
string
scissors
scalpel
ruler
caudal/
posterior
cranial/
anterior
dissecting microscope
magnifying hand lens
blunt probe
frontal plane
dissecting pins
antibacterial soap
paper towel
ventral/inferior
appendages
fetal pig.
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(continued)
3.
4.
5.
Examine the feet of the fetal pig. Indicate the position and the number of toes.
6.
Part 2
Internal Anatomy
umbilical
cord
urogenital
opening
tail
nipples
tail
nipples
anus
genital
papilla
scrotal sac
urogenital
papilla
ventral view
female
a)
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anus
scrotal
sac
posterior view
female
b)
ventral view
male
posterior view
male
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(continued)
liver
(lifted
forward)
stomach
gallbladder
spleen
small intestine
4
large intestine
LAL1
urinary bladder
8.
9.
The fourth incision cutting towards the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity. Use a
scalpel to make incisions following incision 4
in Figure 10.34.
The fifth incision cutting between the thoracic
and abdominal cavities. Use scissors to make an
incision starting at the midline, and extend the
incision laterally on both sides of the pig. Follow
incision 5 in Figure 10.34. This incision runs
parallel to the diaphragm and separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Hint: You may want to feel for the ribs while
making this incision.
Exposing the abdominal cavity: The abdominal cavity is best exposed by pulling apart the flaps at incision 5. Notice the layer of connective tissue called
the peritoneum that holds the abdominal organs
in place. You may need to tease this layer away before starting your detailed examination of the internal organs. The posterior portion of the
abdominal cavity is best viewed when the flaps on
incision 4 are pulled apart and secured by pins.
Refer to Figure 10.35 for the digestive organs.
Locating the liver and the gallbladder: The liver is
easily seen in the anterior aspect of the abdominal
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(continued)
12. Locating the spleen: Look toward the left side of the
fetal pig to see the spleen, found near the outer curvature of the stomach. What is its function?
trachea
brachiocephalic trunk
superior
vena cava
left common
carotid artery
left
subclavian
artery
aortic arch
pulmonary
trunk
right atrium
left atrium
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
inferior
vena cava
left lung
right lung
coronary vessels
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(continued)
superior
vena cava
left atrium
left
ventricle
aorta
dorsal surface
of heart
inferior
vena cava
20. Dissection of the heart: Make an incision that separates the left side from the right side of the heart.
Note the inner walls of the heart and their texture.
Look at the thickness of the left and right ventricles. Compare the size of the wall of a ventricle and
an atrium. What do you notice?
21. Locating the lungs: The lungs are closely associated
with the heart. They oxygenate the blood received
from the right ventricle via the pulmonary arteries,
and deliver oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
via the pulmonary veins. The lungs are relatively
large because the bronchial tree is contained within
them. Do you notice any difference in the size of
the two lungs?
20. Make a lateral incision across the heart and explore
the heart chamber. Compare the size of the wall
of a ventricle with that of an atrium. Why does
the left ventricle contain more muscle than the right
ventricle?
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
TABLE 10.6 Structures and Their Function in the Mammalian Heart
Structure
Function
Bring deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulatory system to the heart
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right atrium
Right ventricle
Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right ventricle from the pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Prevents the back flow of oxygenated blood into the left atrium
Left ventricle
Prevents oxygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta
Aorta
Largest artery in the body; accepts blood from the left ventricle during systole
PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava
lungs
aorta
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pulmonary
arteries
pulmonary
veins
right
atrium
left
atrium
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
inferior
vena cava
right
ventricle
left
ventricle
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Key Terms
anemia
aorta
atherosclerosis
atria
bypass surgery
cardiac catheterization
cardiac cycle
compensation
coronary circulation
diastole
dorsal vessel
electrocardiogram
erythrocytes
exercise stress test
fibrin
gill capillaries
hemoglobin
hypertension
sphygmomanometer
superior vena cava
systemic circuit
systole
ventral vessel
ventricles
Essential Understandings
The earthworm has a closed circulatory system consisting of the dorsal vessel and the ventral vessel,
and five tiny arches called pseudohearts.
The fish has a closed circulatory system consisting
of a two-chambered heart with one atrium and one
ventricle; oxygen is obtained through the gill
capillaries.
The amphibian has a closed circulatory system consisting of a three-chambered heart with two atria
and one ventricle. Blood that enters the ventricle
is mixed (oxygenated and deoxygenated).
3.
2.
4.
Circulation
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C H A P T E R 10 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
1. Which one of the following is not a component of a circulatory system?
a) artery
b) valve
c) vessels
d) tongue
2. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
17. You are conducting a taste test to gather data on how
caffeine and decaffeinated beverages affect the heart rate.
You have just concocted three new spritzer drinks. You
collect the following data about the effect of the consumption of 355 mL of your product on consumers heart
rate. You surveyed 100 people who taste-tested your
products. The average effects on heart rate are summarized below.
Beverage
Before
consuming the
beverage
Immediately
after
20 minutes
later
spritzer A
70 bpm
75 bpm
85 bpm
spritzer B
70 bpm
70 bpm
70 bpm
spritzer C
70 bpm
70 bpm
78 bpm
a)
b)
c)
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18. The concentration of red blood cells and white blood cells
is given below:
Red blood cells: 4.6 x 106 per mL
White blood cells: 6.0 x 103 per mL
In one litre of blood, what is the ratio of white blood cells
to red blood cells?
19. Why do you think athletes are recommended to elevate
a wounded area and apply direct pressure to the injury
with a cold compress?
20. The heart is the hardest working muscle in your body.
The heart masses of three different humans are given
below.
Description of Human
Newborn
Adult
Athlete
Heart Mass
20 g
300 g
500 g
a)
b)
21. A stress test is a technology that can help detect coronary artery disease. This involves having an individual
walk and/or run on a treadmill while attached to electrodes that monitor the heart rate and rhythm. Below
are the stress test results of two individuals:
Age
Heart
rate
before
test
Maximum
heart
rate
during
test
Heart
rate
30 min
after
test
Symptoms
Person
A
48
68
192
82
Slight pain in
the knees
during the test
Person
B
62
80
118
110
Feeling of chest
tightness five
minutes into the
test
a)
b)
c)
Based on the above information, which person probably has heart disease?
What other questions would you like to ask this individual to determine his or her other risk factors?
How does ones level of fitness relate to ones heart
rate 30 min after completing exercise?
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Making Connections
24. In recent years, there have been many reports of blood
tainted with infections being transfused into individuals.
Biotechnology companies are now looking into fabricating a synthetic blood product.
a) Research new developments in the pursuit of a synthetic blood product.
b) What impacts might such a product have on
society?
c) What are some ethical considerations that must be
investigated before such a product could be used for
human transfusion?
25. A high percentage of the Canadian population fall victim to strokes each year.
a) Research the frequency of strokes in the Canadian
population.
b) Which sector of the population is most likely to be
at risk of having a stroke? Explain.
c) What impacts do people with strokes have on the
health care system?
d) What medical professionals contribute to the care
and maintenance of stroke patients?
26. Many areas in health care require the handling of blood
and blood products that may harbour serious infections.
a) What are three common infections that can be found
in the blood?
b) What precautions can be taken to properly handle
and dispose of blood and blood products?
c) What safety training programs and symbols can help
in dealing with blood products?
27. Aspirin is a drug therapy that is now the cornerstone
of treatment for individuals with many types of heart disease. For heart patients, there is a saying: An aspirin
a day keeps the doctor away. This statement is based
on the fact that aspirin is an effective blood thinner.
a) Research the mechanism by which aspirin thins the
blood.
b) From the digestive system, recall where aspirin is
absorbed.
c) What are the important complications of aspirin
therapy?
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Circulation
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Preparing for a Career in Biology
As youve seen, biology is a fast-growing and changing area in which to work;
it is full of opportunities. Within biology,
there is a wide range of topics, or fields,
to match with your interests as you
explore career options. Keep in mind
that within all of these, there will be people working as technicians, researchers,
teachers, administrators, and so onin
fact, there will be an array of choices.
Term
Meaning
Bachelor of Science
(B.Sc.)
Master of Science
(M.Sc.)
Doctor of Philosophy
(Science) (Ph.D.)
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What they have in common is that almost all require at least an undergraduate degree from a university. But how
do you choose the university you wish
to attend? While there are many factors,
the most important is to find out which
universities offer the undergraduate
degree you need in the field that interests you.
Understanding University
Jargon
Every area of human endeavour has
its own specialized terms. Just think of
the music industry, sports, or even your
biology class. Youll encounter a lot of
terms as you start considering a university education, some familiar, some
new. Whenever you are unsure of what
a term means, ask. A few of the more
common ones are shown to the left.
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Using the information from the calendars, answer this question: Which
university offers B.Sc. programs that
most closely match my field of
interest?
Looking Outward
Do you enjoy biology, but you arent sure
which field interests you the most?
University calendars can help!
3.
Read through the course descriptions. Write down the titles of any
that really grab your attention. Dont
worry about what they are or
whether your list makes sense.
Make a separate list for each
university you are considering.
Look at your lists for any
patterns or trends. They could
be a good indicator of what
youd enjoy doing.
Which lists had the greatest
number of grabbers? This
may mean you should consider
those universities. Keep your
lists handy as you continue
preparing for your future.
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
SCENARIO
You are a member of a School Board in Ontario. Your committee is reviewing a proposal to discontinue dissection in biology courses. You will write
a letter to the School Board Trustees expressing your opinion on the issue.
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Internal Systems
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2.
Research the internal systems of other vertebrates, such as a bird, frog, or fish.
Compare and contrast them with the internal systems of a pig.
4.
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Part C: Perspectives
5.
6.
7.
8.
A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 3 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. All of the following are examples of structures that increase surface area, except
a) villi
b) alveoli
c) capillaries
d) valves
2. Venules are to veins as the
a) trachea
b) bronchioles
c) alveoli
d) cilia
are to bronchi.
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17. The heart and lungs are very close to each other. Suggest
reasons why this is beneficial.
19. You have just had a peanut butter and jam sandwich for
lunch. Identify the various macronutrients in the sandwich and outline where they would be digested.
20. Often in the winter the air is more dry, making it difficult to breathe. Also, when exercising, individuals
increase their ventilations per minute. What recommendations would you make to an athlete who has
asthma but would like to exercise in the winter months?
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Organ
2.0
Saliva
9.0
Stomach
7.2
Duodenum
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
24. Vomiting can be caused by numerous factors, including
motion sickness, food poisoning, and unpleasant smells.
a) Vomiting is a mechanism that begins in the brain.
Research how this mechanism works to induce vomiting from the stomach.
b) Often, vomiting can lead to severe dehydration.
Brainstorm the effects of dehydration on the circulatory system.
25. Mrs. Smith is a 45-year-old lady who comes to you because she has decided to make exercise a new part of
her daily regimen. When you speak to her, she tells you
that she has a history of asthma, diabetes, and angina.
You also note that her BMI is 32 kg/m 2 . From your
knowledge of the digestion, respiration, and circulatory
systems, design an exercise regimen for Mrs. Smith,
taking into account her current illnesses.
26. What is the mass of an individual who is 6 feet tall and
has a BMI of 28.5 kg/m2? [1 cm = 0.39 inches]
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sleeping
56
eating
80
150
a)
b)
Altitude (m)
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
1000
1500
2500
3000
3500
4000
Respiratory
Rate
(breaths/min)
13
14
17
24
28
30
34
Heart Rate
(beats/min)
52
55
68
92
108
112
116
Unit Review
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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Making Connections
33. Osteoporosis is a systemic disease that affects the mass
and density of bone. Generally, from the age of approximately 30 to the time of menopause, a womans bone
density is relatively constant. It begins to decrease
once the woman becomes menopausal and decreases
rapidly in the first five to ten years after menopause.
a) What technology is used to make the diagnosis of
osteoporosis?
b) What risk factors place older women at a higher risk
for developing this disease?
c) There are several dietary and lifestyle changes that
can affect bone mineral density. Research the role
of calcium, vitamin D, alcohol, and caffeine on bone
density.
d) Design a nutrition and exercise regimen that you
would recommend to a woman who already has
osteoporosis.
34. When someone is undergoing surgery, he or she is
usually given an anesthetic. However, during surgery it
is very important to monitor a patients blood pressure,
heart rate, and temperature.
a) Research the effects of anesthetics on the cardiovascular system.
b) Are there any individuals that may not be able to
benefit from this type of treatment?
c) Many individuals are part of the health care team
during a surgery. Brainstorm the role of five of these
individuals, and summarize in a chart some of the
educational qualifications that these individuals
require.
35. Pregnancy is associated with many changes in nutrition
and health.
a) According to the Canada Food Guide to Healthy
Eating, how do the nutritional requirements during
pregnancy differ from those of someone who is
not pregnant?
b) Hypothesize why pregnant women need more iron
than non-pregnant women.
c) Describe the prenatal care that is important to ensure that both the mother and the fetus are healthy
during pregnancy.
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Contents
d)
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127 (g.L1)
(Normal female:
120 160 g.L1)
Platelets
340 000/mL
(Normal:
150 000 400 000 /mL
58 103/mL
(Normal:
4.8 10.8 103/mL)
a)
b)
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75
80
110
195
a)
b)
c)
Unit Review
365
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UNIT
4
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
demonstrate an understanding of
the diversity of living organisms
through applying the concepts of
phylogeny and taxonomy to the
kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
and viruses
Diversity of
Living Things
n ecosystems across the planet, from the lush tropical rain forest to the
park in your own community, the vast diversity of living things is
astounding.
To manage, comprehend, and record biodiversity, biologists collect
organisms and study their similarities and differences. Some organisms
are radically different: plants are very different from animals. But sometimes, the differences between organisms are small. The scarab beetles
pictured here are just a few of the beetle species found in a remote region of Costa Rica. They look very similar in many ways, but they are each
A small sample of the scarab beetles found in Costa Rica. They are similar to one another in
some ways, but different in others.
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subtly different from one another. The vibrant coloration of these beetles
represents only one characteristic that varies among their species. No two
members of a species are identical, and this diversity within a species is
important to the species survival.
For centuries, humans have depended on Earths biodiversity for food
and other useful products. Today, scientists are producing new genetically
modified organisms. These modifications would be impossible without bacteria and viruses to produce the DNA needed for genetic engineering.
In this unit, you will investigate the diversity of living things from each
of the life kingdoms, comparing their cells, anatomy, physiology, and life cycles. You will also use a key to classify organisms from each of the kingdoms.
You will investigate the importance of sexual reproduction in creating variability within a population and the importance of variability in species survival. Finally, you will discover the role that viruses and bacteria play in the
field of biotechnology.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learning by writing a position paper on the role of reproductive technologies in saving endangered species.
See page 486.
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C H A P T E R 11
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
Classification
demonstrate an understanding
of the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(11.2)
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rganisms have diversified over evolutionary time into every part of Earths
biosphere. The diverse shapes, sizes, and structural and functional characteristics of the life forms that populate natural ecosystems could be overwhelming. To organize and catalogue this diversity, biologists apply the
fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life.
Biologists use a common system of classification and terminology to identify, name, and group organisms into meaningful categories. The modern system of classification groups organisms according to their cell structure,
structural characteristics, method of obtaining nutrients, and, more recently,
the degree of genetic similarity. Most biologists today recognize six life kingdoms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Biologists use dichotomous classification keys to classify organisms into the
appropriate group. Phylogeny is the evolutionary grouping of organisms based
on their degree of relatedness. Organisms share common ancestry if they
show similar stages of embryological development and similar anatomical
structures.
Sexual reproduction (including the reshuffling of genetic material during
meiosis) maintains genetic variability. Genetic variability among individuals
provides a greater diversity of genotypes that can survive environmental
changes. Biologists apply the concepts of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life to organize and understand the connection between biodiversity,
genetic variability, and species survival.
CHECKPOINT
These animals have been
classified as mammals by
biologists. In your notebook,
make a chart listing the
reasons why you agree or
disagree with this classification.
Agree
Disagree
Discovering Biology
Observing the Variety of Life
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Classification
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11.1 Taxonomy:
Organizing the Diversity of Life
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
define the fundamental principles of taxonomy
explain how the system of scientific nomenclature is useful to the field of taxonomy
The Biosphere:
The Envelope of Life
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Coral fungus
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Paramecium
Trillium
Muskox
FIGURE 11.5 There is an amazing variety of organisms on Earth.
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A Catalogue of Life
The numbers of different kinds of organisms in Earths biosphere are unknown.
The first listing of all the known living
things was made in Greece by Aristotle
2300 years ago. He identified about 1000
different kinds of organisms. Today, biologists estimate 30 million to 100 million
kinds of organisms exist in the biosphere.
Of the many kinds of organisms, biologists
have described only 1.75 million, just a
tiny fraction. Many of these organisms look
so similar that it may be difficult to determine whether certain populations belong to the same species, or to two closely
related species.
Early Attempts at Classification To understand the diversity of life, a system of biological classification that names and
groups organisms into meaningful
categories is needed. When Aristotle
conducted his study of animals in the
fourth century B . C . , he grouped them
according to habitat. There were landdwellers, water-dwellers, and air-dwellers.
St. Augustine, in the third century A.D.,
classified animals as useful, harmful, or
superfluous. In the Middle Ages, herbalists classified plants according to what they
produced: fruit, vegetables, or wood. These
systems of classification worked well for
people of the time. Limited numbers of organisms were known and people often
spent time observing locally found species.
However, in the 1400s and 1500s,
European explorers set off on voyages
around the world and returned with extensive collections of plants and animals
never seen before on the European continent. In 1665, with the discovery of the
microscope, many varieties of micro-
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a)
b)
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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KINGDOM
(Animalia)
PHYLUM
(Chordata)
CLASS
(Mammalia)
ORDER
(Carnivora)
FAMILY
(Felidae)
GENUS
(Felis)
SPECIES
(sylvestris)
INFOBIT
Linnaeus was actually called
Carl von Linn. Carolus
Linnaeus is the Latinized form
of his name.
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UNIT 4
organisms in Latin, which was the language of scholars in Europe at the time.
The first part of the name referred to
the genus (plural: genera) of the organism, which is a relatively small group of
related species to which the species
belongs. All the varieties of species in the
same genus have many common characteristics. The second part of the name is
the species name and usually describes
an important characteristic of the
organism. For example, Felis sylvestris
is the scientific name for the domestic cat.
Felis is the genus to which the species
belongs, and sylvestris identifies the
species.
Canis familiaris is the scientific
name for dog. Quercus rubra is the name
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WORDORIGIN
Taxonomy from the Greek word
tasso, to arrange and nomos,
law or art.
Kingdom
Phylum/Division
Phylum/Division
Class
Class
Order
Order
Class
Order
Family
Genus
2
Species
Genus
2
Species
Phylum/Division
Family
Genus
Order
Family
Genus
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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WEBLINK
Another taxon called a domain
is becoming widely used.
Research why scientists have
created domains, and what
these domains are. Draw a diagram relating domains to the
six kingdoms. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
WORD ORIGIN
Protista from the Greek word
protista meaning the very first.
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Kingdom Animalia Members of the kingdom Animalia are multicellular, heterotrophic, and have cell membranes
without cell walls. Their cells are often
organized into tissues, organs, and organ
systems. Animals are divided into invertebrates and vertebrates. Vertebrates
are animals with an internal backbone,
whereas invertebrates lack an internal
skeletal structure.
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Archaebacterium
Fungi
Quit
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Eubacteria
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Dichotomous
Classification Keys
Dichotomous classification keys are
used to help place organisms into the
appropriate classification group.
Classification keys include two choices
for each characteristic. No two keys for
the same set of items will necessarily be
the same.
Figure 11.10 provides a structure
for developing a classification system to
sort a group of organisms.
Next Section
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Protist
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Plant
Image
omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
Animal
Investigation
Refer to page 384,
Investigation 1
Specimen
Yes
(subgroup #1)
No
(subgroup #2)
Yes
(subgroup #3)
No
(subgroup #4)
Yes
(subgroup #5)
No
(subgroup #6)
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Classification
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Discovering Biology
Housefly
Robin
Flying fish
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Mosquito
Flying squirrel
Bat
Mallard
Dragonfly
FIGURE 11.11
All the organisms in Figure 11.11 can fly. However, when they are studied more carefully, they have many different characteristics that allow them to be classified into
groups. Your task is to classify these animals. One grouping may include three
organisms, another only two, and so on.
Once you have developed your key, compare it with those of your classmates.
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Two groups of organisms are in different genera but are of the same
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
10. You are told that species A and B belong to the same kingdom but to different phyla; and species C and D
belong to the same phylum but to different classes. What conclusions can
you make about species A, B, C, and
D? Explain your answer in terms of
common characteristics shared between the groups.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
define the fundamental principles of phylogeny
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to variability within a population
demonstrate an understanding of the connection between biodiversity and species
survival
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
FIGURE 11.12 Different embryos, same gill slits. The blue patches mark the gill
slits on each of the embryos of five different animals: a) a sea lamprey, b) a turtle,
c) a chicken, d) a domestic cat, e) a human.
whale
cat
bat
gorilla
FIGURE 11.13 Homologous structures. These animals all descended from a common ancestor. As a result, even though each animal uses its forelimbs for different
functions, the bone structures of each are similar. The homologous bones are
colour-coded for comparison.
Classification
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Present
dogs
raccoons
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sea
bears lions
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10
20
Millions of years ago
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30
Kingdom
Plantae
40
Kingdom
Animalia
Kingdom
Protista
vertebrates
50
Kingdom
Fungi
flowering
plants
amoebas
evergreens
vertebrates
60
ancestral
carnivores
b)
Kingdom
Archaebacteria
mushrooms
Kingdom
Eubacteria
ferns
flagellates
grampositive
methaneproducers
mosses
sponges
salt-lovers
yeast
hot acid-lovers
cyanobacteria
a)
universal
ancestor
UNIT 4
choanoflagellates
diatoms
378
dinoflagellates
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Discovering Biology
1.
2.
Observe the bill of each bird in Figure 11.15. Discuss how the structure of each beak is adapted to each birds way of life.
Crossbill
Spoonbill
Eagle
Pelican
Robin
FIGURE 11.15
3.
4.
CHAPTER 11
Classification
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Reproduction, Genetic
Diversity, and Species
Survival
Asexual reproduction allows individuals
to reproduce without the need for a
mate. Why then have some organisms
developed the alternative method of sexual reproduction? In asexual reproduction, which involves only one parent,
CROSSING OVER
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.
duplicated
maternal
chromosome
duplicated
paternal
chromosome
tetrad
sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids
FIGURE 11.16 Crossing
over. Genetic material gets
exchanged between homologous chromosomes. This
exchange is the first source
of genetic variation.
Random alignment of
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
UNIT 4
RANDOM ASSORTMENT
METAPHASE I
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
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METAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
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The Importance of
Genetic Variation
Genetic variation among individuals is
important in an unstable environment.
For example, under one set of conditions
a certain genetic combination, or genotype, may be favoured while
another meets with limited success. As
conditions change, however, the second
genotype may be favoured while the first
cannot survive. As a result, with a
genetically variable population, the
interaction of genotype and environment
results in a greater chance for survival
for at least some members.
The greater the amount of variation
among individuals of a population, the
greater the chance that some individuals will survive if the environment
changes.
Environmental changes arent just
changes in the climate. They can be, for
example, toxins in the environment,
changes in food supply, changes in predators, new diseases, or new predators.
Variability can help species survive. For
example, rats and mice are common
pests. Rat and mice poisons are often
used to exterminate them. However, some
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Discovering Biology
Number of birds
with particular
beak widths
50
normal expected
bell curve
40
30
A
20
C
10
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Beak width (mm)
FIGURE 11.18
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
Biodiversity and
Aquaculture
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
But is the advance of fish farming practices coming at the expense of stocks of wild salmon? Why is
the wild species still facing extinction? What impact
does the farming have on wild populations?
Tests are under way to selectively breed for bigger and faster growing salmon as well as to genetically modify the fish against common parasitic
diseases. Researchers in the federal department of
fisheries have now developed 20 new transgenic
breeds of salmon that grow seven times faster than
wild salmon.
2.
3.
What are the costs and benefits of fish farming and commercial fishing to meet the short- and long-term food
needs of society?
382
CH
1 The Periodic
U
N AI TP T4E R Diversity
of LivingTable
Things
4.
In groups, have a round table discussion about fish farming. Comment on (a) the worlds need for adequate
seafood supply; (b) the imprtance of sustainability of wild
salmon stocks; and (c) preservation of wild fish habitats.
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The peppered moth (Biston bitularia) provides a very well known example of how genetic variability helps a
species survive. In England, some individual moths are lighter coloured than
others. Normally, the lighter-coloured
moths are more common because they
are camouflaged against lichen-covered
tree trunks. The darker forms of the
moth are more easily spotted by predators and eaten. During the Industrial
Revolution, pollution increased, and the
lighter form of the moth became more
visible against sooty, polluted environments (Figure 11.20). The lighter form
was less well adapted to its environment, and was more heavily preyed
upon. Thus the darker form of the moth
became more common. If all the moths
had been light coloured, it would have
been harder for the species to have survived the changing conditions. Many
more moths would have been eaten,
increasing the chances of extinction.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
Making Connections
9. In many species of birds, populations
living in high latitudes lay more eggs
per clutch than populations living
closer to the equator. Explain why you
think this is so.
10. Disasters such as earthquakes, floods,
and fires may reduce the size of a population drastically, killing off weak and
vulnerable individuals. Often, the result is that the surviving population has
a genetic make up that differs from the
original population. Explain.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 11.1)
Materials
pencil and paper
Procedure
Create a table like the one shown below.
1.
Turtle diagram #
Turtle family
#1
2.
3.
4.
#1
#2
#3
#4
Extending
UNIT 4
7. All of these turtles protect themselves from predators by retracting their heads straight back under
the shell. If you were shown a turtle with no distinct markings on its shell but which retracted its
384
#5
Leatherback turtles
(Family Dermochelyidae)
Go to 2
Mud turtles
(Family Kinosternidae)
Go to 3
Snapping turtles
(Family Chelidridae)
Go to 4
Sea turtles
(Family Cheloniidae)
Box, pond, and marsh
turtles
(Family Emydidae)
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
Animalia
Archaebacteria
artificial selection
binomial nomenclature
class
classification key
crossing over
Eubacteria
eukaryotes
family
Fungi
genus
homologous structures
kingdom
natural selection
order
phylogenetic tree
phylogeny
phylum
Plantae
prokaryotes
Protista
random assortment
sexual reproduction
species
taxonomy
Essential Understandings
11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life
Binomial nomenclature is a naming system that assigns every known organism a Latin name consisting of two parts: a genus name and a species
name.
Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms.
All living things are classified according to an established classification system developed by
Linneaus. His system groups organisms by structural characteristics.
Each species belongs to one genus, family, order,
class, phylum, and kingdom. Related species are
grouped in a genus, related genera in a family,
and so on.
The broadest taxon is the kingdom. The number
of kingdoms has increased as more organisms have
been discovered and similarities and differences between organisms have been more closely studied.
A dichotomous key is a tool used to identify and
classify organisms.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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C H A P T E R 11 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
1. Homologous structures are
a) similar in function
b) similar in structure
c) similar in function, but developed from different ancestral structures
d) developed from a common ancestral structure,
whether or not they have the same function today
2. Any group of organisms treated as a unit in a classification system is a
a) species
b) genus
c) taxon
d) phylum
3. Before a biologist can classify a newly discovered organism, he or she must make a careful study of its
a) behaviour
b) size
c) structure
d) adaptability
4. Which category contains the greatest number of different kinds of organisms?
a) Genus
b) Family
c) Phylum
d) Class
5. Which of these categories of classification contains organisms that are most closely related?
a) Family
b) Class
c) Order
d) Genus
6. Explain why the biosphere is often referred to as the envelope of life around the world.
7. Describe two examples of classification systems other
than the six-kingdom model.
8. What did Carolus Linnaeus use to classify organisms?
Explain why.
9. Explain what is meant by binomial nomenclature.
10. What is the cause-and-effect relationship between
the extinction of a species and the process of natural
selection?
11. How are homologous structures between organisms of
different species often used as an indication of species
relatedness?
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
14. Use a field guide and a microscope to identify protists
found in a pond or fish tank. Prepare a presentation to
the class on your findings.
15. Collect a variety of leaves, insects, or fungi. Use a field
guide to identify them. Prepare a Bristol board display
of your collection, including the classification key that
you used to sort the specimens.
16. a) Suppose that you are given a beaker containing a
collection of several hundred various organisms and
you are given a class period at school to sort them.
Describe the steps you would use to begin to sort
them into groups. Imagine after examining 10 specimens randomly chosen from the beaker that you
discovered they all belonged to the class Insecta.
What might you conclude from this about the contents of the entire jar? Explain your answer.
b) What could make this conclusion invalid? What
further steps would you take to test the validity of
your conclusion?
17. Survey others in your class as to the name of their
favourite singer or group. Develop a classification system to create musical subgroups based on your list.
18. Along with others in your class, assemble a collection of
assorted nuts and bolts from home. Develop a classification system that sorts them into groups.
19. Suppose someone presented you with a completely
unfamiliar organism and asked you what kingdom it
belonged to. Create a dichotomous key that would allow
you to place the organism into the correct kingdom.
20. Use the dichotomous key in Figure 11.23 to identify each
of the insects in Figure 11.22. Write the name of each of
the insects AH in your notebook.
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Making Connections
E
wing covers
I N S E C T S
With wings
End of
abdomen with
2 or 3
projecting
filaments
(mayfly)
Abdomen
without
projecting
filaments
(housefly)
Without wings
Forewings as
hard covers
meeting in
straight line
down centre of
back
(beetle)
Forewings
not hard,
membranous
with wing veins
evident
(stonefly)
Tip of abdomen
with 2 or 3
appendages
directed
backward
Abdomen
appendages
thick and rigid
in the form of
pincers
(earwig)
Abdomen
appendages
delicate and
flexible
(silverfish)
Tip of abdomen
with no
appendages
Legs have
large hooks
(louse)
Legs slender
with no hooks
(water strider)
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CHAPTER 12
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
demonstrate an understanding of
the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(12.1)
Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria, and Viruses
FIGURE 12.1 Electron micrograph of the HIV viruses as they attack a human
white blood cell.
388
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n this chapter you will explore the vast world of micro-organisms. Bacteria
are the oldest and most abundant living organisms on Earth, and differ little from their fossil ancestors. All bacteria share basic structures but they
show incredible diversity in cell shape and nutritional patterns. Archaebacteria
are the most ancient bacteria, and thrive in extreme environments. Bacteria
affect humans in various ways: they cause disease, spoil foods, and can be
resistant to antibiotics. They also fix nitrogen for plants, decompose organic
matter, manage hazardous waste, aid animal digestion, and help create the
dairy products we consume.
Viruses are non-cellular. They grow and develop in the cells of their
hosts and depend on these cells for their life functions. For example, AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that claims thousands of
lives worldwide each year. It is caused by the HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus. The HIV virus attaches to specific cells in the immune system
of the host (Figure 12.1), hijacks the cells, kills them, multiplies, and destroys
the hosts ability to battle infection. An HIV infection averages 10 years before the person develops AIDS. During most of this time, the infected person exhibits moderate symptoms of the illness, such as swollen lymph nodes
and fever, but eventually the virus can cripple the immune system and kill
the person with the disease. Can we disrupt the reproductive cycle of the HIV
virus? Clinical trials of the drug AZT suggest researchers may have discovered a way to counteract the effects of the virus on body cells.
Every day, breakthroughs in biotechnology advance the genetic engineering of bacteria and viruses to produce drugs for the biopharmaceutical industry, create organisms that manage oil spills, destroy pathogens, and correct
genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
Predict how many cells there would be at the end of one hour, three hours,
seven hours. How many bacteria would there be at the end of a full day?
Many bacteria have an important impact on other living things. Pair up with
another student in your
class and construct a concept map to show the roles
of bacteria in the living
world.
Roles of
bacteria
Hypothesize why we never find such large masses of bacteria in real life.
Positive
Effects
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Negative
Effects
389
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of organisms from the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
classify organisms from each of the kingdoms
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to organisms in these kindgoms
explain how genetic variation affects the survival of bacterial populations
Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria are the oldest organisms living
on Earth and they are by far the most
abundant. For example, 10 mL of soil
can contain 1 1010 bacteria. As a group
they are very diverse, but they all share
certain characteristics.
1.
2.
3.
FIGURE 12.2 Material pours forth from a hot-
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UNIT 4
4.
5.
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Structure of Bacteria
genetic material
cytoplasm
Next Section
As a group, bacteria are the smallest organisms. They are usually 110 m.
A typical eukaryotic cell is about 10 times
larger. The structure of a bacterium is
quite simple (Figure 12.3). It has a cell
wall that provides support and protection for the contents of the cell. Beneath
the cell wall lies the cell membrane that
controls the passage of materials into and
out of the cell. The cytoplasm contains
ribosomes, responsible for the formation
of proteins, and DNA, the genetic information of the cell. The DNA forms a
single chromosome. There is roughly
1/1000th the amount of DNA than in a
typical eukaryotic cell. Instead of forming a strand, the DNA forms a ring.
Some bacteria have whiplike flagella (singular: flagellum) that stem from
the cell wall and cell membrane. They
act like propellors moving in reverse,
drawing the organism forward.
However, beyond these basic structures, bacteria show incredible diversity.
Bacteria are not usually grouped by phylogenetic relationships. They are usually
classified by their shape,
reaction to being stained,
nutrition, and respiration.
cell wall
flagellum
INFOBIT
The worlds largest bacterium
is called Epulopiscium
fishelsoni and is 0.5 mm long.
It is found in the gut of
surgeonfish, and is so large
it can be seen with the naked
eye.
Investigation
Refer to page 413,
Investigation 1
bacteria
Cell Shape
cell membrane
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a) cocci
b) bacilli
c) spirilli
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses
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Gram Stain
Investigation
Refer to page 414,
Investigation 2
.
Bacteria are also classified by their reaction to a dye made of crystal violet and iodine called gram stain (Figure 12.5). Cells
that retain the crystal violet appear purple (gram-positive), and cells that dont
appear light pink (gram-negative). Grampositive bacteria have a different cell wall
structure than gram-negative bacteria and
the stain shows this difference. Grampositive bacteria are very common and
are generally not as pathogenic as gramnegative bacteria, such as the bacteria
that cause typhoid, gonorrhea, meningitis, and pneumonia. Proteobacteria are a
large group of gram-negative bacteria.
Nutrition
WORD ORIGIN
Heterotroph from the Greek
words heteros meaning
other and trophe meaning
nourishment.
bacteria
Mode of nutrition
Energy source
Carbon source
photoautotroph
light
CO2
chemoautotroph
inorganic chemicals
CO2
photoheterotroph
light
organic compounds
chemoheterotroph
organic compounds
organic compounds
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Respiration
Recall that all bacteria differ from eukaryotic organisms in that they lack
membrane-surrounded organelles, such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula,
nuclei, and chloroplasts. However, most
of the chemical reactions that take place
in the organelles of eukaryotic cells also
occur in bacteria. Many of these reactions
take place on the inner surface of the cell
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Discovering Biology
Next Section
Observe each test tube over four days and record your observations each day.
What do you conclude about the source of milk and the degree of bacterial contamination?
Reproduction in Bacteria
WORD ORIGIN
Conjugation from the Latin
words iugum meaning yoke
and con-, a prefix meaning
together.
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All bacteria reproduce asexually and divide by the process of binary fission
(Figure 12.7). In binary fission, the parent cell divides into two offspring cells
that are completely identical. Because
division takes place in each individual
cell, there is no exchange of genetic material and so the process is asexual. Due
to their rather simple method of reproduction, most bacteria can divide every
15 to 20 minutes as long as there is sufficient food, warmth, and space. For example, under the right conditions, a
single E.coli bacterium can produce
between 10 and 100 million bacteria in
12 hours. If conditions had always been
ideal for bacterial survival, and their numbers left unchecked, the surface of Earth
would have been overtaken by a massive mat of bacteria over one kilometre
thick. Needless to say, conditions of food,
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cell wall
two
daughter
cells
chromosome
cell membrane
parent
bacterial
cell
Bacterial cell starts
with a singular,
circular chromosome
attached to its plasma
membrane.
The chromosome
replicates and the
daughter chromosomes
attach to different
sites on the plasma
membrane.
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INFOBIT
Bacteria found in the digestive
tract are still referred to as
intestinal flora. This labelling
of bacteria as plants is a
holdover from when bacteria
were grouped under the plant
kingdom.
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The Kingdoms
Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria
So far, bacteria have been discussed as
a single group. But there are two distinct
groups of bacteria, and their differences
are great enough for them to be classified as two separate kingdoms: the kingdom Archaebacteria and the kingdom
Eubacteria.
WEBLINK
Research more about the
structural characteristics of
Archaebacteria. Create a chart
that shows which of these
characteristics are different
from Eubacteria and which
are the same. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 )
denitrifying
bacteria
plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root
nodules of legumes
FIGURE 12.10 Masses of heat-loving archaebacteria, shown here around the edge of a hot
spring, are tolerant of hot and highly acidic
environments.
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the soil
decomposers (aerobic
and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi)
Bacteria in Ecosystems
Nitrogen Fixation Ecosystems are communities of organisms living together in
a given area. The survival of organisms
living in these ecosystems depends, in
part, on the availability of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is essential for the manufacture
of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen
makes up 78 percent of Earths atmosphere; however, very little of nitrogen in
its atmospheric form can be used.
nitrifying
bacteria
nitrification
ammonification
ammonium (NH4+)
nitrates
(NO3-)
nitrites
(NO2- )
nitrifying bacteria
FIGURE 12.11 Bacteria play a pivotal role in the nitrogen cycle, releasing various
nitrogen compounds into the soil.
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INFOBIT
Just one gram of the exotoxin
that causes botulism could kill
a million people.
WORD ORIGIN
Pathogenic from the Greek
words pathos meaning
suffering and geno meaning
begetting.
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overwhelmed by the dead, and the necessary cycling of elements would cease.
Fortunately, dead organisms and the
wastes of living organisms become food
for decomposing bacteria. These bacteria break down organic matter into
forms suitable for growth and reproduction. The bacteria release carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.
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Dairy Foods Over the last 30 years, efforts by food scientists to identify and investigate lactic acid bacteria, Bacterium
lactis, have revealed their many uses in
the production of dairy foods. These uses
include acid production, texture development, flavour generation, preservation, and the synthesis of B-vitamins. For
human beings, lactic acid bacteria provide resistance to intestinal pathogens,
stimulate the immune system, and help
to maintain a healthy balance of microorganisms in the digestive system.
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Genetically engineered lactic acid bacteria are now being studied to develop
highly effective digestive enzymes and
vaccines.
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
6. You have been asked to classify an unknown bacterium according to its
method of cellular respiration. Create
a dichotomous key that will allow you
to classify this organism.
Making Connections
7.
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12.2 Viruses
Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of a virus
compare and contrast the reproduction of prokaryotes and viruses
Classifying Viruses
WORD ORIGIN
Virus from the Latin word virus
meaning a poisonous slime of
plant or animal origin.
Sizes
Shapes
influenza virus
100 nm
bacteriophage
65 x 95 nm
tobacco mosaic
virus
300 x 15 nm
poliomyelitis virus
20 nm
foot-and-mouth
virus
10 nm
tail
tail fibres
400
UNIT 4
ran
mb
me
a
sm
pla
Escherichia coli
2000 2500 nm
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The Discovery of
Viruses
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FIGURE 12.15 Tobacco leaves (left) infected with the tobacco mosaic virus (right).
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1.
2.
1. Virus attacks
bacterium and
injects its DNA
into the host.
3.
4.
2. Viral DNA uses
hosts enzymes
to make more
viral DNA (by
replication) and
more coat
proteins (by
transcription).
5.
4. Viruses produce
lytic enzyme
that causes host
cell to lyse,
releasing the
viruses.
WEBLINK
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phage.
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You might think that if all viruses reproduced by the lytic cycle, they would
end up killing all the cells of the host or
an entire bacterial colony. Bacteria are
not defenceless against phage infections.
Some bacteria have enzymes called
restriction enzymes that recognize foreign DNA. When a phage injects its
DNA into the bacterium, the restriction
enzymes recognize that it is foreign DNA.
The restriction enzymes act like scissors,
cutting up the phages DNA, making it
useless. There are many different kinds
of restriction enzymes. But, like the
competition between bacteria and
developers of antibiotics, there is a competition between bacteria and phages.
Bacteria with effective restriction
enzymes survive and reproduce. But any
phages that develop resistance to the
restriction enzymes also have a
reproductive advantage.
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lysogenic
phage
phage DNA
bacterial DNA
Lysogenic
Cycle
Phages DNA
incorporated into
bacteriums DNA.
Cycles
Lytic cycle
Lysogenic
cycle
Fate of host
DNA after
infection of
the virus
Takes over
host DNA
Becomes part
of host DNA
Incubation
time in host
cell
Release of
new viruses
after one
generation of
host activity
Release of
new viruses
after several
generations of
host activity
Onset of
viral disease
symptoms
Immediate
Delayed
phage
protein
Changing conditions
cause phage to enter
lytic cycle.
RNA Viruses
Many viruses, such as the tobacco mosaic virus, have RNA rather than DNA
as their genetic material. In normal
cell processes, molecules of DNA direct
all cell activities. They do this by directing the process of protein synthesis.
Some proteins function as enzymes
to control chemical reactions, other
proteins provide structural characteristics
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Retroviruses
INFOBIT
Facts about the influenza virus:
The influenza virus changes
every year.
These changes cause
seasonal flu epidemics.
These changes mean that the
flu vaccine must be altered
every year.
WEBLINK
Recently, the Ebola virus has
emerged as a highly infectious
virus that is almost always fatal
to humans. Find out what type
of virus the Ebola virus is, and
what kind of life cycle it has.
Research where the Ebola
virus first emerged, what its
symptoms are, and what is
being done to prevent its
spread. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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Viral Diseases
Like their hosts, viruses show tremendous diversity and do not always
replicate in either a lytic or lysogenic
cycle. For example, the human influenza
virus does not lyse its host cell, but
leaves the cell by pushing out through
the cell membrane. As a result, the influenza virus is covered with a section
of the cell membrane from the host
human cell. Now disguised as a normal
human cell, the influenza virus can
spread through the body undetected and
infect other cells. When a person is
infected with the influenza virus, the
infected person very rapidly develops
influenza (flu) symptoms and becomes
ill.
Influenza is spread via respiratory
secretions (coughing and sneezing). The
incubation period is from one to four
days, and infected persons are contagious for about one week.
Most viruses cause some kind of disease in their hosts. Some common animal diseases caused by viruses are
chickenpox/shingles, hepatitis (A, B, and
C), measles, warts, distemper, mumps,
yellow fever, infectious mononucleosis,
equine encephalitis, and rabies.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Describe the early evidence that suggested viruses were much smaller
than bacteria.
7.
Making Connections
9. Scientists create new vaccines every
year to combat new strains of flu.
Create a PMI chart to show the economic and societal effects of developing new flu vaccines.
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the relevance of current studies of viruses and bacteria to the field of
biotechnology
Foundations of
Biotechnology
Biotechnology can be defined as manipulating living organisms or their components to provide products or to serve
useful purposes. As such, biotechnology
has been used by society since the
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bacterium
plasmid
bacterial
chromosome
gene of
interest
DNA of
chromosome
recombinant DNA
(plasmid)
3. Plasmid is inserted
into bacterium.
recombinant
bacterium
4. Large amounts of the gene
of interest are created
through cloning.
Copies of gene
are isolated and
transferred to
other organisms.
Product created
by gene is isolated.
Human growth
hormone treats
growth problems.
5. various applications
FIGURE 12.19 An overview of genetic engineering. Bacteria play a central role in biotechnology.
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Genetic Engineering
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mal cell. Scientists use restriction enzymes to do this. These enzymes act as
chemical scissors. There are many types
of restriction enzymes and each type recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence
in DNA. Once an enzyme recognizes its
sequence, it cuts the DNA at that point
(Figure 12.20). Some well-known restriction enzymes are EcoR1, BAM1, and
HaeIII.
Bacteria contain plasmids. These
plasmids are particularly useful in
biotechnology because they provide a
site for genetic recombination. Plasmids
are removed from the bacteria and cut
with the same restriction enzyme used
to cut the DNA from the animal cell. The
action of the restriction enzyme creates
sticky ends at the cut ends (Figure
12.20). These ends are complementary, so the animal DNA fits into the
plasmid. (The process of inserting one
set of genetic material into another is
called gene splicing.) The plasmid is
now considered to be recombinant DNA
because it has DNA from two organisms.
This plasmid is also known as a cloning
vector.
The production of the cloning
vector happens in-vitro; in other words,
outside of the cell. But to be useful, the
Bacteria and
Recombinant DNA
The process of genetic engineering starts
with cutting out a section of DNA from
the cell of an organism such as an ani-
bacterial chromosome
DNA containing gene of interest
1. Both sets of DNA
cut with the
same restriction
enzyme.
sticky ends
Eco Rl
DNA
recombination
4. Recombinant
plasmid
inserted into
bacterium.
plasmid
5. Cloning
begins.
FIGURE 12.20 Recombination of genes. This process happens in-vitro, outside the cell. Restriction
enzymes cut both the plasmid DNA and the DNA to be inserted in the same nucleotide sequence on
their DNA.
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Applications of
Genetic Cloning
Once you have large amounts of recombinant DNA through genetic cloning, this
recombinant DNA can be used in different ways. It can be used to do basic
research on the DNA itself. It can also
be used to create products. For example,
one application of the recombinant DNA
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is the production of human growth hormone. The growth-hormone gene is inserted into the bacterial plasmid and
reintroduced into other bacteria.
Because they now have the gene, the
bacteria produce the hormone. So the
bacteria act as bioreactors, producing
large amounts of the hormone, which
can then be extracted and purified for
medical use. Insulin is also made this
way. These types of drugs are known as
biopharmaceuticals. Table 12.3 shows
medicines currently made by geneticallyengineered bacteria.
Another application is to take the
large amounts of recombinant DNA produced by genetic cloning and isolate the
recombinant DNA. This DNA can then
be inserted into cells of other organisms
growing in culture. If the DNA is incorporated into the cells of a different
species, the organism that receives the
DNA is a transgenic organism. These
foreign genes produce new traits in the
transgenic organism. For example, bacteria can be genetically engineered to eat
oil and used to clean up oil spills.
Scientists have now produced transgenic
plants and animals (Figure 12.21).
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Biopharmaceutical
Approved (year)
Used for
Trastuzumab
1998
1993
DNase
1993
Proleukin, IL-2
1992
kidney cancer
1992
Hemophaelia A
Adenosine deaminase
1990
immunodeficiency in children
recombivax HB
1986
Somatrem
1985
1982
diabetes
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Discovering Biology
Modelling Gene Splicing
Imagine that your group has recently been hired by a local television to edit a film to show several scenes of students helping other
students at lockers outside your home room. Many students go
to their lockers, get their books, and walk straight into class. Other
students take the time to talk with others, offer assistance in some
way to help them along, and then enter their class. You would like
to put together a short tape of students helping students, one right
after the other.
Materials
several lengths of 35-mm camera film
scissors
tape
1. Take a long piece of film and tape it into a loop.
2. Take another length of film and cut a scene from it.
3. Cut open the loop and, using tape, splice the new scene into it.
Biotechnology at
Work
Spider silk is one of the strongest materials in the world. It can absorb large
amounts of energy without breaking
or losing its shape. The nearly crystalline proteins make spider silk
stronger and more elastic than hightensile steel or Kevlar, the high-tech
plastic used in bulletproof vests.
For many years, scientists have
sought a way to mass-produce spider
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normal allele
of a gene
1. Allele spliced into
viral DNA.
recombinant
DNA
virus
2. Virus infects human stem
cell and recombinant DNA is
inserted into a chromosome.
chromosomes
stem cell
nucleus
bone
marrow
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Making Connections
7.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
5.
2.
Research the role of the following in marshalling the immune response: a) antigen, b) antibodies, c) the roles
of the following cells: macrophages, T-cells (helper and
killer), and memory cells.
6.
7.
3.
4.
Research the ethical, political, social, and environmental impacts that face researchers in virology.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 12.1)
Observing Bacteria
Problem
How are examples of bacteria similar to and different
from one another?
Materials
CAUTION:
It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach.
Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap
and water if contact occurs.
Be sure to wash your hands thoroughly with soapy water
when you have finished.
Procedure
Examine the slide under high power. Draw a diagram of what you observe.
3.
Examine the slide under oil immersion. Draw a diagram of what you observe.
4.
1.
2.
Use the low-power objective to focus on the bacteria. Describe what you see.
Extending
3.
4.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 12.1)
Materials
compound light microscope
microscope slides
cover slips
lens paper
eye dropper
yogurt
methylene blue
immersion oil
CAUTION: LAL1
It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach.
Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap
and water if contact occurs.
Procedure
Part A: Preparing Stained Bacteria
1.
2.
When the slide is cool, place a small drop of dilute yogurt solution on the slide. Spread it thinly
over an area the size of a dime.
3.
5.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
Extending
5. Why do scientists stain bacteria?
6. How does a gram stain differ from a simple stain?
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
aerobe
anaerobe
autotroph
bacilli
bacteria
binary fission
biotechnology
cloning vector
cocci
conjugation
DNA
endospore
facultative
genetic engineering
gram stain
halophile
heterotroph
lysis
lysogeny
methanogen
obligate
plasmid
prokaryote
recombinant DNA
restriction enxymes
retrovirus
RNA
saprobe
spirilli
thermophile
transgenic
virus
Essential Understandings
12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
All viruses are parasitic and require a host cells genetic material to generate new virus particles.
12.2 Viruses
Recombinant DNA is replicated by one of two methods. A recombinant plasmid can be inserted into a
bacterium, which then clones itself through binary
fission. Recombinant DNA can also be inserted into
a phage, which then replicates its DNA in a bacterium through the lytic cycle.
2.
3.
4.
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CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Endospores
a) are produced by viruses
b) are reproductive structures
c) are very delicate and can easily be killed
d) are resting structures
2. A virus particle is active only in direct association with
a) organic material
b) a living cell
c) inorganic material
d) other viruses
3. In the relationship between bacteriophages and bacteria, the bacterium
a) destroys the bacteriophage
b) uses the bacteriophage DNA to reproduce itself
c) is killed upon entrance of the bacteriophage
d) provides a host for the bacteriophage
4. An
a)
b)
c)
d)
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11. Develop a concept map to illustrate the different methods of gas exchange in bacteria.
12. Draw diagrams of the three most common shapes of bacteria. Label each diagram.
13. What are the methods of reproduction in bacteria. What
factors affect the bacterias use of one or the other?
14. Explain the advantages to bacteria of having the ability
to form endospores.
15. Create a chart that names the groups found in the
kingdom Archaebacteria and the habitat in which each
lives.
16. Describe the role of bacteria in ecosystems. You may
wish to draw diagrams to help your explanation.
17. Suppose that all the bacteria that act as decomposers disappeared from Earth. What would the consequences be?
18. What characteristics do all viruses have in common?
19. List the ways that viruses differ from one another.
20. Draw and label a diagram of a virus.
21. Why would it be incorrect to say that viruses represent
the most primitive form of life in the biosphere?
22. Describe what happens to the host cells DNA during the
lytic cycle of a bacteriophage and during the lysogenic
cycle of a bacteriophage.
23. Explain how reverse transcriptase enzyme works in a cell.
24. Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences between plant and animal viruses.
25. Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
in genetic engineering.
26. In your own words define the term recombinant DNA.
27. Summarize how viruses are used in genetic engineering.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
28. This is the general photosynthetic equation
light
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29. When you consume food, the proteins in the food are
broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine. Suppose you swallowed some viruses. Predict
what would happen to the viruses.
uninfected group
4
3
infected group
1
0
Time (h)
39. Some scientists claim that the recent outbreaks of diseases such as haemorrhagic fever from tropical countries is largely due to human activities such as
deforestation and rapid world travel. Do you agree? Write
brief summary of your point of view.
FIGURE 12.24
Making Connections
32. Discuss the role of bacteria in each of the following technological applications:
a) waste management
b) sewage treatment
c) genetic engineering
d) food processing
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CHAPTER 13
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
FIGURE 13.1 Killer fungus. This insect was destroyed by a fungus. There are many weird
and interesting types of fungi, beyond the mushrooms you eat in a salad.
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n this chapter you will explore the world of eukaryotic protists, fungi, and
plants. Protists present a challenge to taxonomists. There are animallike,
plantlike, and funguslike protists, and how to divide the protist kingdom and
the plant, fungus, and animal kingdoms has been an ongoing debate among
taxonomists. For example, some taxonomists group algae in the plant kingdom because they contain chlorophyll. Others consider plants to be multicellular, land-based photosynthetic organisms and place all algae, single- and
multi-celled, in the protist kingdom. This book also places algae in the protist kingdom.
Grouping fungi with plants in this chapter has been done because historically, fungi were once thought to be a lower form of plants. In reality, they
are very dissimilar and their roles in ecosystems differ significantly. Plants,
like algae in the kingdom Protista and cyanobacteria in the kingdom
Eubacteria, use sunlight to form complex organic molecules from simple
materials in the environment. Fungi decompose the organic matter of dead
plants and animals, releasing simple molecules back to the environment
(Figure 13.1). Plants and fungi thus participate in complementary ways in
recycling the materials of life.
Two major groups of plants arose from an ancient form of algae. One
group, the bryophytes, are very primitive and lack true roots, stems, and
leaves. A second group, the tracheophytes, are comprised of modern-day
plants with vascular tissues and are found with spore- and seed-producing
varieties.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
Obtain a small amount of dried soil from a garden. Weigh the sample.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
compare the structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe the general characteristics of protists
compare the life cycle of a protist to the life cycle of a prokaryote
classify organisms from the major groups of protists
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protist (paramecium)
75 m long
Comparing Prokaryotes
and Eukaryotes
Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have
their DNA in a nucleus that has a membrane. Eukaryotes also have organelles
that are surrounded by membranes (for
example, chloroplasts and mitochondria). Do such differences mean that
eukaryotes are more advanced or more
successful than prokaryotes? Many biologists believe eukaryotes are not of a
higher order than prokaryotes. All
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
living today resulted from millions of
years of natural selection and each
organism is well adapted to its environment, having characteristics that enable
it to live successfully in its particular
environment. The differences are summarized in Table 13.1.
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Organelles/Cell parts
Genetic Material
Metabolism
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Animallike Protists
Some protists formerly classified under
the animal kingdom were often called
protozoans. These protists are animallike because they eat or ingest material
from their surroundings.
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gambiensis. The carrier for sleeping sickness is the tsetse fly. Humans can contract the disease if bitten by an infected
fly. Once inside, the zooflagellate multiplies in the bloodstream, destroys red
blood cells, and attacks other tissues.
Symptoms include fever, chills, and a
skin rash. When the zooflagellate attacks
the nervous system, the infected person
loses consciousness and may never
recover. The disease is often fatal. Other
species of Trypanosoma cause similar
diseases in cattle and other livestock.
INFOBIT
Termites are one of the few
organisms that eat wood.
Termites cannot digest wood
without the help of a
zooflagellate Trichonympha,
a wood-digesting protist,
which lives by the thousands
in the gut of each termite.
Trichonympha produces an
enzyme called cellulase, which
breaks the cellulose bonds in
wood, releasing the nutrients
from the wood into the gut of
the termite.
Amoebas Amoebas are single-celled protozoans with no set body shape. They
create temporary projections of cytoplasm called pseudopods to move and
feed. They feed on small organisms by
endocytosis, engulfing organisms with
their pseudopods (Figure 13.4). Particles
of food are sealed off in food vacuoles
within the cytoplasm. Organic material
is then digested and absorbed.
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WEBLINK
There are several different
ways of classifying protists.
Research the different
taxonomic systems, and create
charts or diagrams that show
the different groupings.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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Contractile
vacuole
cilia
oral groove
micronucleus
cell mouth
macronucleus
food vacuoles
anal pore
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meiosis
mitosis
macronucleus
micronucleus
1n
2n
FIGURE 13.6 In conjugation, two individual paramecia swap DNA to
create new micro- and macronuclei that have new combinations of DNA.
Spores infect
liver cells.
liver cells
Plasmodium undergoes
several developmental
stages in the mosquito.
Cells burst
and release
Plasmodium
cells.
Plasmodium
cells
Plasmodium cells
infect red blood cells.
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Discovering Biology
How Do Protists Respond to Changes in their Environment?
Protists respond to unfavourable conditions in various ways. As single-celled
organisms, they lack complex nervous responses but do exhibit noticeable
behaviours to ensure survival.
1. Bring a small sample of pond or stream water to class.
2. Place a drop of the sample on a concave slide using an eye dropper.
3. Tease apart a square of cotton gauze and place a few strands of the gauze
over the water sample and place a coverslip on top.
4. Use a microscope to examine the pond water under low and then medium
power magnification.
What happens to the protists as they bump into the cotton fibres? Record
how the various types of protist react to the gauze.
Draw diagrams of each type of protist in your sample and classify the organisms using a pond-organism study guide.
Funguslike Protists
a)
b)
FIGURE 13.8 Slime moulds
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Plantlike Protists
There are 24 000 species of protists that
contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis, and so they resemble plants.
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flagellum
eyespot
contractile
vacuole
chloroplast
nucleus
pellicle
FIGURE 13.9 Euglena. The flagella are not
clearly visible in the photograph on the left.
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Other groups of algae are large, multicellular, and are commonly known as
seaweeds (Figure 13.13). Multicellular
algae differ from plants in that the zygote, or newly reproduced cell of an alga,
is on its own as an unprotected single
cell. A plant zygote, on the other hand,
grows from a multicellular embryo that
is protected by other parental cells. Also
they differ from plants in that they do
not have tissues or organs.
Algae are extremely important to life
on Earth. Algae perform 50% to 75% of
all photosynthesis on Earth, and so provide most of the worlds free oxygen.
Some types of algae are eaten as is, but
algae are mostly used in the manufacture of food products.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
2. Explain how the cell parts of a prokaryote are similar to and different from a
eukaryote.
3. Compare the life cycle of an organism
from the kingdom Protista to the life
cycle of an organism from the kingdom
Eubacteria.
4. Organisms in the Kingdom Protista are
defined by what they are not. Explain.
5. Explain how Paramecium carries out
reproduction. How is its reproduction
similar to and different from the reproduction of a typical eubacteria?
FIGURE 13.14
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the general characteristics of fungi
classify organisms from the three major groups of fungi
describe the life cycle of a typical fungus
Most people are familiar with mushrooms at the market but what about
moulds? A commonly recognized mould
forms on over-ripe oranges. Moulds and
mushrooms are both fungi.
Characteristics of Fungi
The kingdom Fungi contains heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
saprobes, absorbing their food from
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Discovering Biology
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In this activity you will look at the structure of moulds. Your teacher
will give you two samples of mouldy food in sealed plastic bags.
One bag contains mouldy bread and the other bag contains mouldy
fruit. Observe the moulds in the plastic bags using a hand lens.
CAUTION: Do not open the sealed bags at any time. Return the sealed bags
to your teacher when finished the activity and wash your hands in
soapy water.
Investigation
Refer to page 445,
Investigation 1
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Reproduction
Most species in the kingdom Fungi
reproduce both asexually and sexually
by means of spores. Spores are single
reproductive cells that have a haploid
number of chromosomes. The
100 000 species of fungi are grouped
into divisions based on their pattern of
sexual reproduction. (Phyla are called
divisions in the kingdom Fungi.) Fungi
with spores in a caselike structure, called
a sporangium, are placed in the division Zygomycota. Fungi with spores in
a saclike structure, called an ascus,
are placed in division Ascomycota. Fungi
with spores that form in a clublike structure, called a basidium, are placed in
the division Basidiomycota.
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Caselike Fungi
(Division Zygomycota)
Most fungi in the division Zygomycota
are terrestrial saprobes. One common
mould is bread mould, or Rhizopus
(Figure 13.15). Its tangled mass of
mycelium grows and produces several
types of hyphae. Threadlike hyphae that
extend over the surface of the food are
called stolons. As the hyphae make contact with the food, they extend into the
food source, such as bread, like roots of
a plant. These hyphae are called
rhizoids. Rhizoids support further
growth of the mould by absorbing water
and sugars from the bread. After a few
days, black caselike structures appear
among the hyphae on the surface of the
bread. These caselike structures are
called sporangia and grow at the tips
of reproductive hyphae. Each sporangium has the ability to produce several thousands of spores. When each
sporangium breaks open, air currents
carry the spores and, if conditions are
ideal and another food source is available, those spores germinate and begin
to grow on the new food source. Hyphae
branch out and form a new mycelium.
This form of reproduction is asexual and
takes place when growing conditions are
most favourable.
Under less favourable conditions,
Rhizopus reproduces sexually by developing two genetically different types of
hyphae. The two types of hyphae are
represented as plus and minus. When
plus and minus hyphae make contact
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Saclike Fungi
(Division Ascomycota)
Fungi in this division are characterized
by their formation of a sac structure used
in reproduction. They include mildews,
some moulds, and some yeasts (Figure
13.16). Sac fungi produce two kinds of
spores. Spores produced as a result of
sexual reproduction are called
ascospores. They are produced in an
ascus or sac. Spores produced asexually
are called conidia. Conidia are formed
in chains at the tips of specialized reproductive hyphae.
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WORDORIGIN
Ascospore from the Greek
words askos meaning a skin
or a leather container and
sporos meaning a seed.
Investigation
Refer to page 446,
Investigation 2
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Clublike Fungi
(Division Basidiomycota)
basidium
fruiting
body
hyphae
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6. meiosis
5. fusion of nuclei
(fertilization)
hap
loi
d
d
l oi
dip
1. spore formation
gills
4. mushroom
formation
2. germination
dik
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aryo
tic
3. fusion
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Imperfect Fungi
There are some species that have no
known sexual phases and so cannot be
classified into divisions. These species
are known as imperfect fungi. Many of
these species cause diseases in plants
and animals, including humans.
You have probably seen the green
mould, Penicillium growing on oranges.
Penicillium was considered an imperfect
fungus, but has recently been classified
as an ascomycete. In 1928, a Scottish
bacteriologist named Sir Alexander
Fleming made history when he observed
Penicillium growing on a Petri dish
containing a culture of Staphylococcus
bacteria. Surprisingly, he discovered that
the bacteria only grew on the dish in
places where the green mould did not
grow. In other words, something about
the Penicillium mould prevented the
growth of the Staphylococcus bacterium.
Over the next few years, Fleming
experimented with Penicillium and
eventually isolated a chemical substance
produced by the fungus. This chemical
inhibited the growth of bacteria and
became known as penicillin. It was the
first antibiotic to come into medical use
to fight infectious diseases caused by
bacteria.
CHAPTER 13
WEBLINK
Research the life cycles of a
slime mould, a zygomycete,
and an ascomycete. Draw
diagrams of each and describe
how they are similar and
how they are different.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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An antibiotic is a substance
produced by a fungus or other micro-organism that inhibits the growth of microbes. Antibiotics are not all alike in
their chemical properties and the way
they attack bacteria. Some antibiotics,
such as penicillin, prevent the formation
of cell walls in reproducing bacteria
(Figure 13.23). Other antibiotics prevent
the formation of bacterial cell
membranes.
The common mould Trichophyton
rubrum causes a contagious fungal infection called athletes foot that occurs
most often between the toes and on the
soles of the feet. This fungus thrives in
warm, damp places, such as the floors
of showers, swimming pools, and
gymnasiums. The symptoms of athletes
foot are reddened, cracked, and peeling
skin, accompanied by itching or
Penicillin Makes a
Comeback
In recent years the medical profession has expressed concern about
the over-prescription of common
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Fungal Associations
Certain fungi associate with other organisms for the mutual benefit of both
partners.
Lichens are symbiotic associations
of a fungus with either an alga or a
cyanobacterium (Figure 13.26). In this
partnership, the alga provides nourishment to the fungus through photosynthesis. The fungus provides the alga with
water, essential minerals, and protection
from dryness in its barren and often
rocky habitat (Figure 13.25).
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fungal
hyphae
algal cell
dense
hyphae
algal
layer
loose
hyphae
dense
hyphae
rock
lichen
WORDORIGIN
Mycorrhizae from the Greek
words mukes meaning mushroom or fungus and rhiza
meaning root.
INFOBIT
Still other fungi associate with insects. Some leaf-cutting ants cultivate a
particular species of fungus, providing
it with leaves on which it feeds. The ants
also remove competing fungi. The fungus grows and then serves as food for
the ants.
Making Connections
6. Create a chart showing the economic,
environmental, or health impacts of
five different fungi.
7.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the general characteristics of plants
describe the life cycles of various plant groups
classify organisms from the various plant groups
The earliest plants appeared in the biosphere around half a billion years ago.
Until that time, the land surface of Earth
was nothing more than a mass of
barren rock. The earliest land plants are
thought to have evolved from simpler
algal-like ancestors that lived in the
oceans. Even though primitive plants
were tiny, their metabolic activities
helped to convert bare rock into soil that
could support the needs of their succeeding offspring. During the millions of
years leading up to the present, more
and more plant species evolved. Today,
the biosphere is full of animals, fungi,
protists, and bacteria living in widely different environments. But the most visible kingdom by far is the plant kingdom.
mosses
General Characteristics
By broad definition plants are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that carry
out photosynthesis. Their cells have cell
walls containing cellulose. They are
mostly land-dwelling. More precisely
defined, plants develop from embryos
protected by tissues of the parent plant.
This is one of the reasons why algae are
not classified as plants.
Plants include mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants (Figure
13.27). Plants are adapted primarily for
life on land (though a few are aquatic)
and thrive in a wide variety of environments. For example, mosses grow in
moist environments, whereas cacti are
well adapted for life in harsh deserts.
flowering
plants
ferns conifers
flowers
seeds
vascular
tissue
a) Mosses
b) Ferns
multicellularity
green algae
(ancestors)
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
c) Conifers
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d) Flowering plants
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ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
meiosis
multicellular
diploid
adults
ferns
gymnosperms
angiosperms
sporophyte
generation
mosses
1n
egg
sperm
fertilization
mitosis and
development
zygote
sis
multicellular
gametophyte
gametes
spores
1n
2n
is
tos
mi
mi
to
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
gametophyte
generation
2n
meiosis
fertilization
multicelluar
sporophyte
zygote
mitosis
capsule
sporophyte
stalk
gametophyte
Non-Vascular Plants
The term bryophyte includes mosses,
liverworts, and hornworts. Until recently
they were all included in one division
(the botanical term for phylum), but each
is now placed in its own division. (See
Table 13.3 on page 444). These plants
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rhizoids
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a) Mosses
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The Importance of
Bryophytes
b) Liverworts
FIGURE 13.31 Some
bryophytes
n
n
n
spores
n
spore capsule
spores germinate
and grow into ...
sporophyte
n
antheridium
sperm
2n
n
parent
gametophyte
2n
developing
sporophyte
in archegonium
archegonium
2n
zygote
egg
n
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male
gemetophyte
female
gemetophyte
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bog in Quebec.
Spore-producing
Vascular Plants
The club mosses and horsetails (Figure
13.35) contain the smallest and most primitive members of the tracheophytes. They
are descendants of ancient plants that
made up most of Earths forests hundreds
of millions of years ago. Today, they mostly
grow in marshes and on the edges of
streams. One Central American variety of
horsetail grows to 10 m high.
INFOBIT
One type of horsetail is known
as the scouring rush
because it was used in the
1700s to clean pots and pans.
Because the stem contains
the sandlike substance, silica,
scouring rush stems can be
used to scour dishes or pots.
a) Ferns
b) Horsetails
c) Club mosses
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Seed-producing
Vascular Plants
The seed producers are the most
successful plants on Earth. They have
highly specialized organs, namely leaves,
stems, and roots that have allowed them
to adapt to a wide variety of environments. The two main groups of seedproducing plants produce either cones
or flowers. In both groups, sexual
reproduction occurs by the process of
pollination, or the transfer of pollen
from where it was formed to a receptive
surface. Because of pollination, seedproducing plants dont need water to
complete their life cycle. Seeds can
survive in dry environments and provide
an efficient way of dispersing offspring.
n
n
2n
spores
n
sporangium
sorus
mature
sporophyte
gametophyte
rhizoid
n
archegonium
2n
developing
sporophyte
antheridium
2n
gametophyte
embryo
sperm
FIGURE 13.36 The life cycle of a typical fern. The young sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.
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FIGURE 13.37 Welwitschia, a gneta, has long, straplike leaves. Ginkgo leaves are fanshaped and are dropped in the fall. Cycads are not ferns. Their leaves are long needles.
a) Welwitschia
b) Ginkgo
Gymnosperms
In addition to conifers, there are three
groups of gymnosperms: gnetae (singular: gneta), ginkgos, and cycads (Figure
13.37). Cycads flourished 225 million
years ago, but now only a few species remain in subtropical and tropical areas.
Ginkgoes were far more common 170
million years ago. Now only one species
survives, Ginkgo biloba. Today, conifers
are the most numerous group of gymnosperms. The leaves of conifers are elongated into what are commonly called
needles.
The most striking characteristic of
gymnosperms is that they have special-
c) Cycad fern
male cone
INFOBIT
Gingko trees are often used in
landscaping because they are
resistant to fungi and pollution
and their leaves turn gold in
the fall. But ginkgos have a
drawback. Mature trees are
either male or female. Female
trees bear fruit that smells like
rotting garbage!
pollen
(contains sperm)
female cone
egg
mature
tree
growth
seedling
embryo
inside seed
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The Importance of
Gymnosperms
The wood from conifers is referred to
as softwood. Approximately 50% of
Ontarios forests consist of conifers.
Canada supplies about 20% of the worlds
Conifer
Commercial uses
White pine
Manitoba to
Maritimes
Balsam fir
across Canada
Eastern
Hemlock
Ontario to Maritimes
Douglas fir
southern B.C.
Western
red cedar
B.C.
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softwood and is the second-largest producer next to the United States. British
Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta
are the main producers, with B.C.
providing over half of the softwood produced (Figure 13.39). Ontario supplies
about 10%. In 1996, Canadian softwood
exports to 87 countries generated over
$12 billion in revenue. The main importers of our softwood are the United
States, Japan, and the European Union.
Canada uses about 4% of the worlds
supply of softwood; our southern neighbour uses about one-third of the worlds
supply! But per capita, Canada is the
biggest consumer.
Softwoods are grouped commercially into four categories: Spruce-PineFir, Hemlock-Fir, Douglas Fir, and
Western Red Cedar. Table 13.2 indicates
some uses of members of each of these
groups along with the region in Canada
where the tree grows.
Angiosperms
anther
pollen
tube cell
mature
sporophyte
sperm cells
microspores
pollen
germination
GAMETOPHYTE
GENERATION
(n)
stigma
carpel
ovary
seed
germination
and growth
pollen
tube
megaspore
egg
SPOROPHYTE
GENERATION
(2n)
fertilization
seed
zygote
embryo
(developing zygote)
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The angiosperms are the most successful group of plants on Earth. Using
flowers as their reproductive structures frees them from requiring a watery environment like the mosses and
ferns do. The ovules of angiosperms are
more protected than those of gymnosperms and their well-protected seeds,
dispersed through a variety of
ingenious methods, also contribute to
the success of the angiosperms.
In order for the angiosperms to
reproduce, an ovum inside the pistil, the
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stamen
carpel
stigma
anther
style
filament
ovary
petals
sepals
receptacle
pedicel
bud
flower
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tube cell
pollen grain
sperm cells
stigma
pollen tube
sperm cells
style
micropyle
ovary
ovule
with female
gametophyte
fusion of one
sperm cell with
egg to form zygote
(2n)
egg
(n)
pollination
pollen tube
growth
double
fertilization
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carpels
receptacle
a Apricot
(one carpel, one seed)
b Pea
(one carpel, many seeds)
c Strawberry
(many carpels, many seeds,
one receptacle)
FIGURE 13.46 The flesh of an apricot a) and a pea pod b) are mature ovaries and
so are fruits. A strawberry c) is actually a receptacle. The seeds on the surface
are actually minute carpels, each containing its own seed and fruit.
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INFOBIT
In 1941, George DeMestral, on
a walk in the woods in his
native Switzerland, decided to
look more closely at the burrs
collected on his clothing and
his dog. Under the microscope
he observed the intricate, tiny
hooks on the burrs. He realized
that he could use natures
invention to serve a variety of
uses that the zipper could not
serve. After many years of
trying to develop a suitable
fabric containing the many
tiny hooks, Velcro was finally
patented in 1955. Velcro is used
in clothing, shoes, medical
supplies, luggage, aircraft, and
sports equipment.
a)
b)
FIGURE 13.48 Some seeds are enclosed in tasty fruit a) that entices animals, who
eat the fruit and disperse the seeds. Other seeds are enclosed in burrs b) that attach to
passing animals who disperse the seeds over wide distances.
Non-vascular plants
Division
Common name
Number of species
Bryophyta
mosses
Hepatophyta
liverworts
6500
Anthocerophyta
hornworts
100
Lycophyta
club mosses
Sphenophyta
horsetails
Pterophyta
ferns
Coniferophyta
conifers
550
Cycadophyta
cycads
100
Ginkophyta
ginkgo
Gnetophyta
gnetae
70
Anthophyta
flowering plants
12 000
Vascular plants
Spore-producing plants
1000
15
12 000
Seed-producing plants
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
250 000
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 13.2)
Growing Moulds
Problem
Procedure
1.
2.
Materials
slice of bread (preferably home-baked
without preservatives)
milk
Petri dish
paper towels
scissors
eye dropper
hand lens
prepared slide of
Rhizopus
binocular microscope
compound microscope
marking pen
Procedure
1.
Cut several thicknesses of paper towel to fit the bottom of a Petri dish.
2.
3.
4.
Extending
5.
Place the cover over the Petri dish and seal with
masking tape.
6.
7.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 13.2)
Problem
Experimental Design
Suppose you are a research scientist for a biotechnology company. A large bakery has hired your company to help them improve the ways they grow yeast.
Yeast cells are used to make baked goods rise, giving
more volume and a lighter texture. Each scientist has
decided to investigate a variable that will enhance
the growth of the yeast.
The following steps outline a standard procedure
for growing yeast.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Materials
yeast
triple beam balance
sugar
150-mm test tube
large beaker
other items as needed
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
alternation of generations
anal pore
angiosperm
anther
ascospore
ascus
basidium
bryophyte
budding
cap
cilia
cones
conidium
diatom
dinoflagellate
endocytosis
endosperm
eukaryote
fermentation
flagella
food vacuole
fruit
fruiting body
gametophyte
gills
gymnosperm
hyphae
lichen
lysosome
macronucleus
micronucleus
mycelium
mycorrhizae
oral groove
ovule
pellicle
plasmodium
pollination
pseudopod
rhizoid
slime mould
sporangium
spore
sporophyte
sporozoan
stigma
vascular plant
water mould
zygospore
Essential Understandings
13.1 The Protists
The kingdom Protista contains only eukaryotic organisms. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded
by a membrane, and organelles also surrounded by
membranes.
The protist kingdom is extremely diverse. Most
are unicellular. Some resemble animals by ingesting food particles. Some resemble plants
by having chlorophyll. Some resemble fungi by
absorbing molecules from their surroundings. Some
are parasitic.
2.
3.
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CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Small, hair-like projections used for locomotion by
paramecia are
a) pseudopodia
b) cilia
c) flagella
d) mycorrhizae
2. Eukaryotic cells
a) have genetic material but no nucleus
b) are more primitive than prokaryotic cells
c) carry out chemical reactions throughout the
cytoplasm in a suspension of water
d) evolved from prokaryotic cells
3. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
25. Table 13.4 provides examples of different types of fruits.
Obtain samples from each of the categories, investigate
their similarities and differences, and provide descriptions that distinguish one type of fruit from another.
26. Predict where you might find mould spores in your home.
Design an investigation to see if your predictions are
valid.
27. Create a dichotomous key to classify an unknown organism into the protist, fungi, or plant kingdom.
28. A paramecium can reproduce asexually about 700 times
before dying. However, if it reproduces sexually through
conjugation in addition to asexually, it can reproduce
many more times. Develop a hypothesis for this
observation.
29. Figure 13.49 shows the effects of mycorrhizae on plant
growth. For each species, one tree grew with
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Type of Fruit
Examples
Description
legume
pea, bean
achene
grain
samara
maple, elm
nut
pome
apple, pear
drupe
peach, cherry
berry
pepo
hesperidium
aggregate
strawberry, raspberry
multiple
pineapple, fig
TABLE 13.4
without mycorrhizae
with mycorrhizae
6
5
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Canada who visit their former homeland have an extremely high risk of contracting the disease because they
have lost their immunity. Explain why these immigrants
to Canada are more at risk upon revisiting their former
homeland than when they resided there originally.
31. Explain why it is unwise to assume that it is safe to drink
the water from lakes in our provincial parks. Include a
specific protist in your answer. Do additional research
on this protist and prepare a public information pamphlet on the problem for provincial park visitors.
32. Biodiesel fuels are becoming an alternative to existing
energy sources for combustion engines. Developed
over the last decade, they blend soybean oils with algae,
resulting in fuels with high lubricating, clean burning
and high energy-releasing properties. Explain why the
addition of algae to the plant oils might enhance the energy-releasing properties of the fuel.
33. Describe what environmental conditions might cause
harmful protists, such as Gonyaulax polyhedron, to multiply rapidly in large numbers, creating a red tide. How
can it be explained that deadly toxins from a microscopic
protist can often have fatal effects on humans, fish,
and other organisms?
34. Explain what natural benefit in nature a fungus like
Penicillium might have due to its ability to produce a
chemical inhibiting the growth of Staphlococcus bacteria. How has this ability been utilized in medical
practice?
4
height (m)
Next Section
3
2
35. Some species of vascular plants are considered endangered. Comment on Canadian and provincial habitat
protection efforts and land-use policies as they relate
to populations and communities of vascular plants.
1
0
pine
hemlock
beech
poplar
Tree species
FIGURE 13.49
Making Connections
30. It has recently been reported that the incidence of malaria
in Canada has increased significantly over the last
decade. One of the main reasons for the resurgence of
this tropical disease is the belief that immigrants to
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CHAPTER 14
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
FIGURE 14.1 Both invertebrates and vertebrates teem in the natural ecosystem created by a
coral reef, including the corals themselves. Human activity and climate change threaten the
biodiversity of coral reefs. If these rapid environmental changes continue, coral reefs and the
species that depend on them for survival will continue to disappear at an alarming rate.
450
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hink of an animal. Do you think of a furry, four-legged creature, something that rustles through brush or roams across savannah? Or do you
picture a creature with buds, tentacles, spines, suckers, something that creeps
across the ocean floor or feeds in the human intestine? Although all animals,
including humans, share certain features, they have evolved a vast diversity
of anatomical and physiological characteristics, and their life cycles vary
widely.
Biologists classify animals into one of two categories: vertebrates (including mammals, birds and reptiles), and invertebrates (including insects, worms,
and corals). Vertebrates make up only a small fraction of animal species. Coral
reef, like the one pictured here, teems with animal life. Sponges, corals, jellyfish, clams, sea stars, crabs and squid, all invertebrates, thrive there, along
with vertebrates. In terrestrial environments, invertebrates like flatworms,
leeches, snails, spiders, and insectsthe most numerous of all animal species
flourish along with terrestrial vertebrates.
Researchers have cloned sheep and cows and have genetically modified
flies, mice, and more for purposes such as improving our agricultural industry
and accelerating research into human disease.
Discovering Biology
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
All living things must exchange gases to remain alive. Fish exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen with their watery environment using their gills. A
typical goldfish measuring 6 cm long can pump about 31 L of water at 20C
across its gills a day. How long would it take for this goldfish to pass all the
water in a 20-gallon aquarium (1 L = 0.26 gal) through its gills? Predict what
would happen if the water temperature were to drop to 10C. Explain your
reasoning.
Amphibians
CHECKPOINT
Fish
Body
covering
Method of
locomotion
Habitat
Skeleton
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the anatomy of sponges and cnidarians
describe the life cycles of sponges and cnidarians
Body Plan
The organization of an animals internal
structures and the way the structures
function define an animals body plan.
Although body plans provide clues to the
evolutionary relationships of different
animals, they are used more to cluster
animals into a common classification
scheme based on structural similarities.
Biologists examine the features of an animals body plan in order to organize the
smaller taxa such as phyla and classes.
These features include:
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UNIT 4
cells
stalk
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Sponges absorb water through numerous tiny pores that cover the body
and expel water through larger openings
called oscula. As water travels through
canals within the sponge, the sponge absorbs oxygen and releases waste through
gas exchange and filters out small organisms.
Sponges have three main types of
cells, each with a special function.
Flattened epithelial cells cover the inner
and outer surfaces of the body. Some
epithelial cells surround pores and
control their size to regulate the flow of
water. Collar cells maintain the flow of
water through the sponge by beating a
flagellum that extends into the inner
canal. The collar that surrounds the flagellum filters micro-organisms that the
cell ingests. Some food passes to a third
type of cell, the amoeboid cell. As amoeboid cells move between epithelial cells
and collar cells, they digest and distribute
nutrients, produce reproductive cells, and
develop an internal skeleton. The skeleton of the sponge, composed of spicules
formed from calcium carbonate (chalk)
or silica (glass), supports the body.
INFOBIT
Today, most households use
synthetic sponges to wash,
bathe, and clean, but some
specialty stores sell natural
sponges. Natural sponges hold
more water and wear better
than synthetic sponges. The
ones sold grow only in warm
shallow seas. Loofah
sponges, are not sponges at
all, but the dried fibrous interior
of a tropical gourd.
osculum
epithelial cell
collar cells
FIGURE 14.3 The shapes, colours, and sizes
of sponges vary depending on their aquatic
environment. Smaller sponges (top) live in
shallow marine waters with strong tidal action.
Larger sponges with branching structures
(bottom) live in deep, quiet waters and may
grow to be over a metre in height.
central cavity
spicule
jellylike
inner layer
amoeboid cell
pore cells
pore
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oral
Discovering Biology
1.
2.
3.
454
Observing Hydra
Obtain a few living hydra and place them into a watch glass
containing pond water.
Observe the hydra using a dissecting or stereomicroscope.
Use an indirect or cool source of light. Examine them for a
few minutes. Do not disturb the watch glass.
Is the hydra mainly motile or sessile?
Are any of their cells far away from direct contact with
water?
Why is the hydra able to function without a circulatory
system?
Does the hydra have a mouth? An anus?
Can you observe a right-hand or left-hand side of a hydra?
Explain.
Touch the tentacles with the tip of a dissecting needle. Describe
what happens. Does the whole body or only the tentacle
respond?
UNIT 4
aboral
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medusae
2n
Medusa
gastrovascular
cavity
mesoglea
gastrodermis
epidermis
young
medusa
mouth
egg
2n
sperm
zygote
tentacle
budding
polyp
2n
Polyp
mouth
free-swimming
larva (planula)
tentacle
epidermis
sessile
polyp
2n
mesoglea
2n
gastrodermis
gastrovascular
cavity
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INFOBIT
Some divers and snorkelers
carry meat tenderizer in
their first-aid kits to treat
Portuguese- man-of-war stings.
Meat tenderizer contains the
enzyme protease, which helps
break down the protein toxin
that causes the painful sting.
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Portuguese man-of-war is a
hydrozoan colony made up of many
specialized polyps (Figure 14.9). One
polyp forms a gas-filled float. Some
polyps have elongated tentacles to capture prey. Some specialize in digesting
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UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
7.
Making Connections
8. Since the early 1980s, marine parks
and reserves have been established
around the world to protect the coral
reefs and the animals and plants that
thrive on them. Access appropriate library and electronic tools to research
the causes of reef destruction and develop an action plan to conserve their
existence.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the anatomy of flatworms, roundworms, and segmented worms
Body Plan
CHAPTER 14
posterior
457
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The Flatworms
(Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Image omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
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INFOBIT
The bigger the host, the bigger
the tapeworm. The tapeworm
Echinococcus multiloculoarus
lives in coyotes and grows
between 1.2 to 3.7 mm. The
tapeworm Polygonoporus lives
in sperm whales and can
grow to be 30 m.
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Discovering Biology
The Roundworms
(Phylum Nematoda)
Nematodes are also called roundworms
(Figure 14.16). Most live as scavengers
in soil and the bottoms of lakes and
ponds. Several live as parasites in most
plants and animals. Like parasitic flatworms and flukes, nematodes produce
a cuticle that covers their body.
Nematodes evolved a digestive system
that improved efficiency. Unlike flatworms, which have one digestive
opening where food comes in and waste
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Collecting Nematodes
goes out, nematodes developed a separate mouth and anus. In this body plan,
food moves through the digestive system
in one direction only. Nearly all complex
animals have this type of gut. The nematodes thin body wall and round
shape minimize outer surface area.
Because these features reduce energy
requirements, nematodes lack both a circulatory and a respiratory system. They
also have a fluid-filled body cavity
(Figure 14.17)
WEBLINK
Research the phylum Rotifera.
Find out about their body plan,
cell layers, and symmetry.
Draw a diagram of a typical
rotiferan and describe how it
is similar and different from
the animal phyla you have
studied so far. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
INFOBIT
The Trichinella worm, a
nematode that forms a cyst in
the muscles of pigs, can infect
humans if they eat inadequately
cooked meat from an infected
pig. The adult female worm
burrows into the hosts small
intestine, lays eggs, and the
offspring infect the hosts
muscles causing severe muscle
pain, muscle deterioration, and
body fatigue. This disease is
known as trichinosis.
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digestive
cavity
digestive
cavity
ectoderm
mesoderm
ectoderm
endoderm
digestive
cavity
endoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
a) acoelomate (flatworm)
mesoderm
body cavity
(pseudocoelom)
b) pseudocoelomate (roundworm)
ectoderm
body cavity
(coelom)
c) coelomate (annelid)
FIGURE 14.17 The development of the coelom. Flatworms a), are called acoelomates
because they lack a body cavity. Roundworms b) are pseudocoelomates because even
though they do have a body cavity, it is not lined with mesoderm as in the annelid
worm, c) a true coelomate.
WORD ORIGIN
Parapodia from the Greek
words para meaning beside
and podia, meaning little
feet.
A true coelom (Figure 14.17), a fluidfilled body cavity completely lined with
mesoderm, separates the body wall from
the digestive tract and protects the
delicate internal organs from the outside
environment. The coelom also acts as a
hydrostatic skeleton. Circular and longitudinal muscles in the body wall squeeze
against the incompressible coelom fluid,
allowing the worm to elongate or contract,
something flatworms cannot do.
Since annelids grow larger and weigh
more than platyhelminths and nematodes, they need a circulatory system to
help molecules diffuse for gas exchange.
In contrast, nematodes and flatworms
exchange gas through simple diffusion.
The thin body wall of annelids provides
a surface for gas exchange but restricts
annelids to moist environments. Annelids
lack a rigid, external protective covering
and in dry air they lose body fluids
rapidly through their thin body wall.
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INFOBIT
Some surgeons use leeches in
plastic and reconstructive skin
surgery. One company in the
United Kingdom breeds
leeches and sends them to
doctors around the world to
use on their patients.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Making Connections
12. Research the examples of the harmful
effects of roundworms in society.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the anatomy of mollusks and echinoderms
describe the life cycle of mollusks and echinoderms
clam
(bivalve)
snail
(gastropod)
squid
(cephalopod)
FIGURE 14.21 The body plan of all mollusks includes a foot, a mantle, and a visceral
mass. Members of the three mollusk classes have different forms of the foot and shell
for different functions.
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bivalve.
INFOBIT
The zebra mussel, Dreissena
polymorpha, has invaded the
waters of the Great Lakes and
the eastern United States.
The mussel originated in the
Caspian Sea region of Asia, but
a transoceanic vessel that took
on fresh water in a European
port discharged this ballast into
Lake St. Clair, near Detroit and
introduced the species to
North America. Zebra mussels
feed on native species, clog
waterways, and contaminate
the water fowl that feed on
them, causing reproductive
problems in the birds.
a) Nautilus
b) Octopus
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INFOBIT
Sea lilies and sea biscuits are
both echinoderms. Sea hares
and sea slugs are gastropod
mollusks. The sea mouse is a
marine annelid worm. The sea
cow is a mammal, the sea
robin is a spiny fish, and the
term sea dog refers to an
experienced sailor. But a sea
scallop is, actually, a scallop.
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Radially Symmetrical
Marine Animals
(Phylum Echinodermata)
Echinoderms include sea stars (class
Asteroidea), sea urchins and sand
dollars (class Echinoidea), and sea
cucumbers (class Holothuroidea). About
7000 species of echinoderms, all marine,
WEBLINK
Echinoderms have a water
vascular system, which
connects to tube feet. Using
the Internet and other sources,
research their functions and
draw and label diagrams
showing their structures.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Quit
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UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Investigate the body plan of a snail to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
7.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the anatomy of anthropods
describe the life cycle of anthropods
cephalothorax
brain
green
gland
gonad (testis
or ovary)
intestine
heart
first antenna
second antenna
carapace
stomach
ventral
nerve cord
mandible
claw
gill
walking leg
digestive
gland
swimmerets
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INFOBIT
A spiders silk has a tensile
strength five times greater than
that of steel of equivalent
weight. If a rope as thick as a
pencil were made of spiders
silk it would be strong enough
to resist the force from four jet
engines.
Investigation
Refer to page 478,
Investigation 1
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Class Crustacea Crustacean species number about 40 000 and include shrimp,
lobsters, crayfish, and crabs. Three
regions divide the crustacean body: the
head, thorax, and abdomen (Figure
14.26). The exoskeleton forms a thick
carapace that covers the head and many
of the other segments. Crustaceans have
paired appendages attached to each
body segment. The first two pairs of
appendages, the antennae, are followed
by the mandibles. The mandibles crush
food and feed it to the mouth. Behind
the mandibles, a pair of maxillae bring
food forward and a pair of maxillipeds
sense the environment and search for
food. Behind the maxillipeds, large clawlike chelipeds grab food and protect the
animal from predators. Four pairs of
walking legs follow the chelipeds (Figure
14.28). On the abdomen, six pairs of
swimmerets help the crustacean swim.
At the posterior end of the abdomen, a
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single pair of antennae sense the environment. On the thorax, three pairs of
walking legs move the insect. Insects
carry out gas exchange through air sacs
and tubes called tracheae that extend
from external openings to tissues
throughout the body. The adults of most
flying insects have two pairs of stiff membranous wings attached to the thorax.
Flies, however, have only one pair of
wings. In beetles, the front wings form
hardened wing covers.
Like other arthropods, insects have
separate sexes that produce sperm and
eggs. Some insects look like miniature
adults when they hatch from fertilized
eggs and undergo simple development
as they mature and grow into adults.
Winged insects undergo more complex
development. Their body structure
changes radically in the process of
metamorphosis as a wormlike larva matures through each instar, or early stage
of development, into an adult.
Metamorphosis often includes not only a
change in shape but also a change in diet.
The shift in diet minimizes the competition for food between larvae and adults
and increases the species chances for
survival.
CHAPTER 14
INFOBIT
Many insects metamorphose in
days but the larvae of the
cicada species Magicicada
septendecim live underground
for 17 years before they finally
emerge as mature adults.
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Discovering Biology
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Collecting Insects
To collect insects from soil samples, carpet the bottom of a glass jar with newspaper. Insert a funnel, neck downward, into the mouth and loosely fill the funnel
with collected soil. Place a bright incandescent desk lamp directly over the soil.
To avoid the light and heat, the insects will tunnel deeper into the soil until they
fall out of the funnel onto the newspaper.
Examine any organisms you find in your sample with a hand lens or dissecting microscope. What features do these organisms have that classify them as
insects? What non-insect life did you find?
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Communication Skills
6. Use the following terms to create a concept map: adult, cocoon, exoskeleton,
metamorphosis, larva, moult, instar,
wings.
Making Connections
7.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the general features of various chordate groups
describe the life cycles of various chordate groups
use sampling procedures to collect organisms and classify them
The Chordates
(Phylum Chordata)
chordates
a mmals)
ds)
b ir
s(
a li
a (m
e
Av
Reptilia (reptiles)
Cephalochordata (lancelets)
Urochordata (tunicates)
vertebrates
Ma
hair
egg with a shell
legs
lungs
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Superclass Agnatha
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INFOBIT
The tropical marine fish
Anthias squamipinnis lives in
groups among coral reefs.
Each group consists of one
male and an average of eight
females. Males compete to
maintain their groups but if
the male of the group
disappears, one of the females
will change sex and develop
male characteristics such as
brighter colour, longer fin
spines, and larger size.
Class Amphibia Amphibian species number about 4000 and include frogs, toads,
and salamanders (Figure 14.35). Most
amphibians live in freshwater at some
time in their lives. Three hundred
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INFOBIT
Researchers today are
focussing on the rapid global
decline of amphibian species,
especially frogs. Some blame
acid rain, insecticides, crop
fertilizers, climate change,
and human encroachment on
wetland habitat. Biologists
are monitoring amphibian
populations to learn what is
causing the decline and to
determine the effects of the
decline on other organisms
and their habitats.
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TABLE 14.1 Habitat and Feeding Behaviour of the Major Reptile Groups
Reptile
Habitat
Feeding behaviour
Turtles
mostly herbivores
Tortoises
terrestrial
mostly herbivores
Lizards
mostly terrestrial
mostly insectivores
Snakes
mostly terrestrial
carnivores
Crocodiles
carnivores
Different reptile groups have diversified into a wide range of habitats and
developed different modes of feeding
(Table 14.1).
One group of reptiles includes turtles and tortoises. They have an armour
of dorsal and ventral bony plates that
form a shell within which they can draw
their head and limbs. Another group of
reptiles includes lizards and snakes.
Snakes probably evolved from lizards
that burrowed. Because of this lifestyle,
snakes lost both pairs of limbs. They also
have modified ventral scales to assist
movement. Other reptilian classes include crocodiles, caimans, and alligators.
Crocodiles and alligators, the largest reptiles, range in length from 3 to 7 m.
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trachea
barb
barbules
shaft
lung
air duct
down
feather
air sac
contour
feather
shaft
FIGURE 14.41 The air sacs empty into the lungs and make the
bird lungs extremely efficient at gas exchange.
UNIT 4
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Investigation
Refer to page 479,
Investigation 2
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Genetically Modified
Monkey
Researchers have developed the
worlds first genetically modified (GM)
monkey from an egg modified to
include a simple jellyfish gene. The
monkey is called ANDi. Read backward, ANDi stands for inserted DNA.
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UNIT 4
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
9. Investigate the body plan of a snake to
determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
Making Connections
10. Many representative chordates have,
for various reasons, become extinct.
Research several examples and suggest
reasons for their demise. How would
their extinction affect other animals?
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
2.
3.
4.
Identify three possible long-term consequences to biodiversity in cloning farm animals like Starbuck. Explain.
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5.
After completing your research, do you think continued investment in cloning of cattle is merited? Justify
your decision.
6.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 14.4)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2.
3.
Problem
LAL1
How does the body plan of a crustacean demonstrate
the principles of serial homology and segmentation?
Materials
preserved crayfish
dissecting tray
hand lens
dissecting probe
scissors
white glue
stiff white cardboard, 8 1/2 11 inches
CAUTION: Wear safety glasses and gloves as the
preservative can be an irritant or allergen.
Procedure
1.
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(continued)
Extending
4. With reference to segmentation and specialization,
how are these arthropods successful in their
environment?
5. Land arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders) dont have
gills. How do they exchange gases?
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 14.5)
Stream Study
Problem
How can environmental awareness be heightened
through the study of biodiversity in a stream or river
ecosystem?
Materials
concave microscope
slides
plastic cover slips
lens paper
eyedropper
hand lens
dissecting microscope
compound microscope
paper towels
white plastic dishpan,
or enamel pans
kitchen strainer
Procedure
Part A: Before the Field Trip
1. Formulate a hypothesis on the numbers and
diversity of aquatic organisms in relation to the
location of the stream being studied.
2.
3.
4.
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3.
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Location
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4.
5.
6.
7.
To collect organisms from the stream bottom, carefully kick the stream bed immediately upstream of
the net for exactly one minute to dislodge aquatic
animals. They will drift into the net with the
current.
8.
9.
Extending
9. Environmental stresses such as habitat destruction,
pollution, climate change, and displacement by introduced species affect biodiversity. Research the
interdependence between the environment and the
diversity of living things and illustrate this relationship by creating a poster display of one specific
example of an environmental stress and its direct
impact on biodiversity.
Location
Stream surface
Stream bottom
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
abdomen
air sac
antenna
bilateral symmetry
body plan
book lung
bony plate
budding
carapace
cephalization
cephalothorax
chitin
cloaca
coelom
dorsal fin
ectoderm
ectotherm
endoderm
endotherm
exoskeleton
feather
foot
hermaphrodite
instar
larva
mammary gland
mandible
mantle
marsupial
medusa
mesoderm
metamorphosis
monotreme
moulting
nerve chord
notochord
ovary
parapodia
pectoral fin
pelvic fin
pharynx
placental mammal
planula
polyp
radial symmetry
radula
scales
scolex
seminal receptacle
sessile
setae
shell
simple development
skull
swim bladder
testes
three-chambered
heart
trachea
vertebrates
visceral mass
Essential Understandings
14.1 Simple Animals
Flatworms are the simplest animals to show bilateral symmetry and cephalization.
They have tissues organized into organs and
systems.
Nematodes show bilateral symmetry and are the
simplest animals with a complete digestive system
with two openings.
They have a body plan with a true coelom separating internal organs from the outer covering.
academic requirements and specific skills needed for pursuing this career path in your post-secondary education.
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C H A P T E R 14 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
1. Dorsal relates to
a) the forward or head end of an animal
b) the back or upper surface of the animal
c) the lower side or belly of the animal
d) the tail end or the end away from the head of an
animal
2. In annelids, the successive units that contain similar
structures are known as
a) sediments
b) segments
c) sinuses
d) appendages
3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the class
Chondrichthyes?
a) cartilage skeleton
b) gill slits near the throat
c) live in fresh water
d) are ovoviviparous
4. Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes are considered
to be more complex than those of the phylum Cnidaria
because they have
a) flattened bodies and two main layers of cells in the
body
b) segmented body with a circulatory system
c) two main layers of cells in the body and the body is
covered by a shell
d) radial symmetry and stinging cells
5. Radial symmetry is to sea stars as bilateral symmetry is
to
a) hydrazoans
b) jellyfish
c) bony fish
d) sand dollars
7. Make a list of the different phyla of invertebrates explored in this chapter. Indicate what type of symmetry
is demonstrated by each phylum.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
33. Birds and mammals make up the largest number of
animals on display in zoos. Choose an animal that is not
native to North America that is kept in zoos. Use the
Internet and other sources to research the problems of
caring for this species in captivity.
34. Prepare a poster showing the animal you researched
in question 33 to illustrate the problems of maintaining
this animals health outside its native habitat.
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Making Connections
39. Imagine that you are a doctor. Recently a number of your
patients have been infected with Trichinella, a roundworm. Describe an action that you would suggest to your
patients to reduce the risk of further development of this
problem in the community.
40. The completion of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the 1950s
accidentally introduced lampreys into the Great Lakes
by providing them with a way to bypass natural barriers. Research the environmental effects that lampreys
have had on the Great Lakes ecosystem. Create a chart
listing species of fish that previously inhabited the Great
Lakes before the arrival of the lampreys and the major
fish species that are found there now.
41. Mammals other than humans have a huge effect on society. Create a chart listing 10 different mammals,
whether they have a positive or negative effect, and what
that effect is.
42. Around the world, zoos are popular attractions. However,
some people think that it is cruel to keep wild animals
in captivity. Create a PMI chart on zoos. Look into their
economic impact, their treatment of animals, their
efforts at conservation, and their role in education. Decide
whether zoos should continue or whether they should
be abolished.
43. List the positive and negative effects that insects have
on agriculture and forestry.
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EXPLORING CAREERS
Investigating Careers in Biology
The diversity of living things is astounding. Almost everywhere scientists
look for life on this planet, they find it.
There are species able to survive under
the most extremeand unlikelyconditions. Some species are found in only
one place, while others seem able to live
almost anywhere.
The diversity of careers involving the
study of living things is just as astounding. How can you find out about them?
A good starting point is to think of biology as divided into specialized areas
of study, called fields (a specialization
within a field may be called a subfield).
For example, the study of insects, or entomology, is a field within biology. The
diagram shows how this field, in turn,
splits into many subfields. Thinking of
biology this way breaks an immense
subject into manageable topics. At the
same time, it more accurately portrays
the world of work within biology,
because careers in biology are typically
in one or two subfields.
plant protection
entomology
urban
entomology
forensic
entomology
conservation
entomology
medical
entomology
insect
ecology
ENTOMOLOGY
population
biology
insect
physiology
horticulture
integrated pest
management
FIGURE 1
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parasitology
insect
taxonomy
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career
s who
be more
ld
u
o
c
ecologist
t
c
e
s
There
ct
or in
o prote
nities f
ustry t
d
opportu
in
d
o
om
the fo
food fr
work in
ported
s
n
a
r
event
r
t
or
s to p
a
ll
stored
e
w
as
pecies
pests,
enous s
ig
d
in
insect
non
read of
the sp
.
s
t
ipmen
with sh
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in aquatic
th a background
wi
le
op
pe
r
fo
ed
ne
area such as
There would be a
ning in a related
ai
tr
al
on
ti
di
ad
o had
insect ecology wh
d the long-term
hwater ecology, an
es
fr
,
ct
pa
im
al
environment
s on living things.
effects of toxin
3.
Looking Outward
It pays to be aware of the world around
you as you think about your own future.
Watch news broadcasts and documentaries on television. Read a national
newspaper or magazine as often as you
can. Get into the habit of asking
yourself how each change might affect
people and their careers. You may spot
an opportunity you hadnt imagined.
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
SCENARIO
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2.
3.
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6.
5.
8.
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A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 4 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Two fish classified in the same class must also be grouped
in the same
a) phylum
b) family
c) order
d) genus
2. In the six-kingdom system of classification, eukaryotic
organisms that absorb their nutrients as decomposers
are members of the kingdom
a) Protista
b) Eubacteria
c) Fungi
d) Plantae
3. Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic are
classified in the kingdom
a) Archaebacteria
b) Plantae
c) Protista
d) Animalia
4. E. coli bacteria are shaped like tiny, straight sausages.
They are
a) spirillae
b) bacillae
c) cocci
d) spirochetae
c)
d)
9. The
a)
b)
c)
d)
a vascular system
seeds
portion of the flower that receives the pollen is the
style
stigma
ovary
anther
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45. How is body symmetry in animals suited to the organisms lifestyle? Use examples to justify your answer.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
46. Create a dichotomous key to classify the following animals into their correct classes.
salmon
snake
frog
shark
bear
pigeon
50. Scientist Stephen J. Gould has suggested that breaking of the enormous eukaryotic branch into four
kingdoms and the compression of the two prokaryotic
branches into one kingdom of Bacteria seems fully
justified. What are the implications of his view to
organizing the astonishing diversity of organisms?
51. Research the term stromatolite. What is it and where
would you find it today? There are fossilized forms in
Canada that are extremely old, about two billion years
old. What is their biological significance? Prepare a brief
report on stromatolites.
52. A research biologist studied a population of tadpoles in
a small pond. She looked down at the grey, muddy bottom and estimated about 500 tadpoles. Most were dark,
but there were 75 albinos among them. The next morning she found tracks of a raccoon at the edge of the pond.
Table 1 shows the counts of each type of tadpole over
five days.
Day
75
425
49
422
27
415
408
393
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62. Find a book or field guide that summarizes the local flora
in your area. Identify local mosses, ferns, gymnosperms,
and flowering plants. Create a local map to show where
they could be found and conduct a field trip to find them.
54. Using the data in Table 1, plot a graph to show the trends
in the total tadpole population, the albino population, and
the dark tadpole population over the study period.
55. Analyze the graph you created in question 54. What does
it tell you about the raccoons predation pattern?
56. What does the data tell you about the variability within
the tadpole population?
57. Predict the composition of the tadpole population in
the pond next summer.
Table 2 shows the results of a survey of a stream polluted by
sewage waste. Samples were taken at 10-m intervals above
and below sewage outflow into the stream. Water samples
were taken to count the numbers of bacteria and algae and
determine the oxygen and nitrate content of the water.
TABLE 2 Survey of Polluted Stream
Sample site
in relation
to pollution
source
Bacteria
(millions/L)
Oxygen
Content
(mL O2/
100 mL)
Algae
Nitrate
(thousands (mg/L)
/L)
10 m above
10
10 m below
10
20 m below
15
30 m below
16
40 m below
14
50 m below
11
12
10
60 m below
15
70 m below
18
80 m below
15
90 m below
12
100 m below
10
110 m below
10
58. Using the data from the table, plot graphs showing
a) the levels of bacteria and oxygen
b) algae and nitrate concentrations.
59. What happens to the sewage waste on entering the
stream? How is the oxygen concentration affected?
60. Explain the relationship between the presence of algae
in the water samples relative to the concentration of
nitrates.
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Making Connections
64. An error in cell division can result in organisms with
three (3n) and four (4n) sets of chromosomes, a condition called polyploidy. It is very common in plants and
contributes to genetic variation in the plant kingdom.
Research and report on polyploidy in ornamental and
crop plants and comment on economic as well as
genetic benefits.
65. Organizing or classifying living things is done by a variety of groups, organizations, and government agencies
for pleasure, profit, or understanding. Garden centres,
greenhouses, zoos, museums, seed banks, sperm banks,
and other facilities use a system of classification to identify and group organisms into meaningful categories.
Prepare a presentation using audiovisual means on the
role of a facility in studying organisms, their sources of
revenues, contribution to society and scientific research.
66. Comment on the significance of bacterial activities in our
environment.
TABLE 3 Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Species
Disease
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
diphtheria
Salmonella typhi
typhoid fever
Streptococcus pneumoniae
pneumonia
Clostridium botulinum
botulism
Borrelia burgdorferi
Lyme disease
Vibrio cholerae
cholera
Clostridium tetani
tetanus
Streptococcus tonsilae
Chlamydia trachomatis
chlamydia
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Cases of
malaria
(millions)
20
30
1990
4570
1991
2719
1992
4083
1993
6586
1994
4617
Africa
10
Asia
1
North America
1985
Year
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1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Year
FIGURE 1 Reported cases of malaria in Africa, Asia, and North
America.
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UNIT
5
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
demonstrate an understanding,
based in part on your own
investigations, of the connections
among the factors that affect the
growth of plants, the uses of
plants, and the ways in which
plants adapt to their environment
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and
Functions
Canola field. To meet the demand, growers increasingly rely on plant science and technology
to help them to produce high yields.
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poisoning the planet? Then there are the other questions that you have to face
personally, every day. Is the genetically modified tomato you just bit into safe
for you to eat? Is the cosmetic you just put on your face made from non-renewable petroleum or from a renewable plant material? These are questions
that can directly or indirectly affect your health or the health of the planet.
As you start your study of plants, you will examine the role plants play
in maintaining biodiversity. Next, you will learn how science and technology are revolutionizing the way we grow, harvest, and process plants. After
looking at how plants are used in agriculture, industry, and medicine, you
will investigate the structure and function of the components that comprise
the plant: the root, stem, and leaf. Finally, you will study how nutrients
such as nitrogen affect plant growth.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Hemp Returns
More than 60 years ago, the Canadian government
outlawed hemp (Cannibis sativa) farming due to
the rise of illegal cannibis use. But in 1998, the
federal government legalized the farming of 0.3%
THC hemp. (THC is the active chemical in
Cannibis.) Within months, farmers across Canada
were planting hemp seeds for the first time since
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learning by preparing a research funding proposal. Your proposal will be presented at a world health summit focusing
on the topic of genetically-modified rice and its use in
developing countries. You will research the science and
the issues surrounding genetically-modified foods and
evaluate the safety, economic, and environmental impacts of genetically-modified rice. Your presentation will
also include a summary of key points and a bibliography of your information sources. See page 582.
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CHAPTER 15
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
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ave you thanked a plant today? If not, you probably should. Plant science and technology are helping humans in many ways. For example,
many of the medicinal drugs taken today are derived from plants. Plantproduced chemicals are used in industry to manufacture a wide variety of
products. With advances in technology, humans continue to create new synthetic products and many of the raw materials used to manufacture these
products are derived from plants or plant extracts. In this chapter, you will
learn about some of the traditional, current, and future uses of plants and
plant products.
Agriculture is an industry largely devoted to producing plants for you to
eat. Society supports and influences agriculture in many different ways.
One way is by funding research into plant technologies. Over the last 20 years,
there have been dramatic changes in technologies used in agriculture.
Genetically engineered plants continue to have economic, environmental, and
social impacts in our world. These are just a few of the kinds of issues you
will examine in this chapter.
Discovering Biology
Whats the Source?
Look at each of the synthetic items in Figure 15.1.
Name a specific plant source for as many of these materials as you can.
CHECKPOINT
Brainstorm what you know
about products made from
plants. Use a web, like the
following example, as a
starting point.
Industrial
products
Agricultural
products
Plants
Medicinal
products
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the role of plants in the maintenance of diversity and survival of organisms
describe the process of succession
INFOBIT
A single tree in the Peruvian
rain forest can provide habitat
for more than 17 000 species of
beetle.
Plants have two main roles in ecosystems. The most important role is to
capture solar energy and convert it into
a usable form of energy. Plant leaves and
stems have energy-capturing machinery
in the form of chloroplasts. They convert
solar energy into stored chemical energy,
sugars. Plants are in turn consumed by
other organisms and the energy in plants
is passed on to them. Without plants filling this vital energy-trapping role, most
other organisms could not exist.
Plants also provide habitats for other
organisms. The greater the diversity of
plants in an area, the more types of
habitat exist for other organisms. For
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Mahogany Makes a
Comeback
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divided into biomes, each having a characteristic climate, and vegetation that is
adapted to living in that environment
(Table 15.1). The greater the diversity of
plants in a biome, the more habitat they
provide for other organisms.
Tropical rain forests, such as in
Figure 15.2, are found around the globe
in equatorial regions, and they hold
the largest variety of plant species on
Earth. It is estimated that 40 000 to
50 000 different plant species live in the
Amazon rain forest alone. In Costa Rica,
about 300 different tree species can be
found in one hectare of rain forest. This
roughly equals the number of tree
species found in all of Canada! The
diversity of animal life in the rain forest
is a direct result of the rich plant life.
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mahogany
Characteristic vegetation
tundra
temperate
deciduous forest
grasslands
desert
tropical rain
forest
Ecological Succession
In any given area, whether in the far
north or at the equator, plant diversity
can change over time. Ecological
succession is the process whereby a
community of plants in an area gradually changes over time. Along with each
change in the plant life during succession, the animal community changes
with it. The disturbances that promote
succession are often in the form of fires
and severe storms. Ecologists used to
believe that succession was a predictable
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in the pioneer stage of succession, insects will be the only animal life present.
In time, with the gradual formation of more soil, vascular plants replace
the mosses. Hardy grasses and weeds,
which do not need much soil, are
the first to grow. As the plant community changes so does the animal
community. Animals such as mice and
other small rodents, insects such as
grasshoppers, and birds such as sparrows, can be found in the grass stage of
succession. As even more soil is formed,
the grasses are gradually replaced by
larger plants such as shrubs.
With each change in the plant life in
succession, the soil and other environmental conditions in the area also
change. For example, once the seeds of
shrubs germinate and grow in an area
where previously only grasses grew, the
mature shrubs block the light reaching
the grasses. The area has been altered
so that the grasses can no longer survive. The shrubs create too much shade
for grasses to grow. The presence of
shrubs, in turn, creates ideal growth
conditions for seedlings of certain trees.
The trees will eventually take over and
eliminate the shrubs by blocking out the
sunlight that the shrubs need. The animals that were found in the previous
stages of succession move on and are
replaced by forest dwellers such as
squirrels. Subject to the influence of
periodic disturbances, a long-standing
community such as a forest may develop
over a lengthy time period.
Each land biome is characterized by
a dominant form of plant life, which is
primarily determined by the climate.
In succession in northern Ontario, the
resulting dominant plant life is usually
a coniferous forest (Figure 15.6a). In
southern Ontario, which has a more
moderate climate, the deciduous forest
(Figure 15.6b) dominates. In the tundra,
lichens and mosses may be the dominant plants in some regions, while
shrubs may dominate in others (Figure
15.6c).
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Shrubs appear.
Mosses grow.
Bare rock
FIGURE 15.5 A common succession in a boreal forest biome. These stages overlap one
another as succession progresses.
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b) Deciduous forest
a) Coniferous forest
Discovering Biology
c) Tundra
Observe the playing field in Figure 15.7. List the plant types that might be growing there. Suppose the playing field is abandoned: no one plays on it and no one
cuts, feeds, or weeds the grass.
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Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
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Understanding Concepts
1. In your own words, describe the role
of plants in the maintenance of diversity in ecosystems.
Making Connections
7.
6. Grey squirrels are common in southern Ontario. However, they are not
found at all in the tundra of northern
When you have completed this section you, will be able to:
describe how certain food technologies work
identify factors that cause trade-offs in the development of food technologies
describe how society supports and influences plant technology
express opinions about plant research funding
describe and evaluate technologies related to plants
UNIT 5
managed. In fact, only about three percent of Earths surface is suitable for food
production.
In Canada, less than two percent
of the population supplies the rest of the
country with its food. Farmers must
grow increasingly large quantities of high
quality crops at reasonable prices, while
at the same time they must be sensitive
to environmental concerns, such as
preserving soil quality and minimizing
agricultural pollution. Farmers, like
others in society, have turned to science
and technology for help.
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Food Plants
Everything we eat comes directly or
indirectly from plants. Fruits and
vegetables obviously come from plants,
and meat and dairy products come from
animals that feed on grain or grass.
The edible parts of plants can be
grouped into three broad categories:
parts that grow underground, such as
potatoes and carrots; parts that grow
above ground, such as lettuce; and,
lastly, the seeds and fruits of plants. This
last category is the most significant as a
food source because seeds are high in
carbohydrates and protein. The cereals,
or grains, provide most of the food supply for the world. This group includes
rice, wheat, corn, oats, and barley.
Legumes, a group of specialized fruitproducing plants, are also a major
source of food. They are the second most
important group of food-producing
plants after the cereals. Included in this
important group of plants are many
types of peas and beans, including soybeans, peanuts, and lentils (Figure
15.11).
INFOBIT
Chili peppers owe their unique
taste to a chemical called
capsaicin. Humans taste
chemicals by means of
specialized nerve endings in
the taste buds. Capsaicin,
however, does not stimulate
taste buds; it stimulates pain
receptors on the tongue and in
the mouth! This may explain
why many people cannot
tolerate too much of the spice.
Investigation
Refer to page 523,
Investigation 1
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Old Crop,
New Food
The amaranths, a group of grains,
were grown in Mexico during the
time of the Aztecs. At that time,
they were a major food source.
Amaranth, also known as pigweed and African spinach, has
recently been grown experimentally in Canada and the U.S. with
a view to making it an important
food crop again. It produces
protein-rich seeds, which are used
by a few food manufacturers to
make multigrain cereals and flour.
Its vitamin-rich leaves are used as
animal feed and they can be eaten
by humans, for example, like lettuce in a salad.
Discovering Biology
Squash Varieties
FIGURE 15.13
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Increasing Plant
Productivity
As the population increases, farmers are
under pressure to produce as much food
as they can. In addition, they have to
produce it as cheaply as possible so that
once the food reaches the market, its
affordable to consumers. Farmers and
plant scientists use a variety of technologies to increase crop yields.
goat grasses
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FIGURE 15.17 The grafting process. The stock and scion have been aligned so that the
cambium of each fuse together.
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Control of
Agricultural Pests
In addition to increasing yields through
plant breeding techniques, yields can be
increased by removing weeds that compete with plant crops, as well as by removing insects and other organisms that
feed on the plants. There are different
methods of doing this.
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
weevils
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Today, farmers use a system
known as integrated pest
management (IPM) to combat
insect and fungal pests.
Research how IPM works and
what sort of biology knowledge
farmers need. Prepare a
brief written report on IPM.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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Genetically Modified
(GM) Plants
Whenever plant breeders do selective
breeding or hybridization, they are modifying the genetic makeup of the plants
to produce the desired characteristics.
With these techniques, breeders manipulate genes that occur naturally in the
plant. With the rise of recombinant DNA
technology, scientists can now add specific genes from other plant species, or
even animal species, to a plant. These
genes will produce a desired characteristic in the new plant.
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
Canadas Laws on
Pesticide Use
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
In a web diagram, show who the principal stakeholders are for this issue, and identify the perspectives they may hold.
2.
3.
The shift to reducing use of pesticides is seen as insufficient by critics of the WWF. In your opinion, how
does this affect what the WWF partnership represents?
4.
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INFOBIT
The first GM crops developed
in North America were
tomatoes genetically
engineered to produce less
of an enzyme that causes the
fruit to ripen. These tomatoes
can be stored longer and can
resist spoilage. However,
because consumers were wary
of GM foods, these tomatoes
did not sell very well.
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New Food or
Novel Food?
New food products appear on the
grocers shelf every year. New breakfast cereals, snack foods, soft drinks,
and a host of other products are
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80
Total GM crops (%)
Contents
60
40
20
0
herbicide
resistance
insect
resistance
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FIGURE 15.25 A monoculture of corn. Monocultures are risky because if the variety that has
been planted cannot resist a certain disease, the whole crop can be wiped out.
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Making Connections
8. Canadian consumers want fresh
produce year round at affordable
prices. In what ways does this
influence plant science and technology?
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When you have completed this section you will be able to:
identify products made from plant fibres, plant extracts, and wood pulp
describe and explain some of the food and industrial processes that depend on plants
describe and explain some of the uses of plant extracts in food products
Discovering Biology
In this activity, you will be investigating paper fibres. Obtain several samples
of paper from your teacher. Set up a dissecting microscope at 50 X or 60 X
magnification.
Observe each of the samples using sub-stage illumination.
Describe any differences you see in the fibres of each of the paper samples.
Form conclusions as to whether there is a relationship between the structure
of paper and its use. Explain your reasoning.
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rubber tree
(eraser)
flax plant
(linen pants)
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WEBLINK
For centuries, the hemp plant,
Cannibis sativa, has been
grown because it can be used
to make many useful products.
However, with the rise of the
illegal cannabis use, the
cultivation of hemp has been
outlawed. Investigate the legal
cultivation and use of low-THC
hemp. Look at hemp production
in terms of ease of cultivation,
cost to cultivate it, and possible
legal and societal implications.
Create a P-M-I chart to record
the pluses and minuses of
hemp cultivation. Begin your
research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 524,
Investigation 2
.
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Plant Extracts
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Seed oils have a variety of other industrial uses. Many paint bases, some
lubricants, and even the oil for high-powered microscope objectives all come from
seeds. Castor bean oil, which is extracted
from seeds of the castor bean plant,
has long been known for its ability to
withstand high temperatures and pressures, and is used in hydraulic systems
in industrial machinery. The oil is also
used as an ingredient in motor oils
(Figure 15.28) for high-performance automobile engines. It clings to the very hot
moving metal parts and protects them
from the harmful effects of friction.
Essential oils are extracted from the
flowers of plants such as jasmine, lilac,
and the rose, and used in the manufacture of perfumes. The formulas for
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INFOBIT
The ancient Greeks and
Romans used olive oil as a
soap. They rubbed oil on
their skin to loosen natural
secretions and dirt. This dirty
oil was scraped off, leaving
the skin soft and clean, but oily
by our modern standards. The
olive scent was undoubtedly
preferable to the odour of an
unwashed body.
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INFOBIT
What do tapioca and nail
polish remover have in
common? They are made from
substances produced by the
cassava plant. Acetone, the
solvent in nail polish remover
and many other industrial
chemicals, is obtained from
fermenting parts of the cassava
plant. Tapioca comes from
starch in the roots.
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Making Connections
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using gasohol?
7.
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When you have completed this section you will be able to:
describe some of the uses of plant extracts in therapeutic products
compile information about chemicals derived from plants
Herball.
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Image omitted
due to
copyright
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plants
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the world noticed an increase in resistance of the parasite to these drugs. New
drugs had to be developed. A relatively
new drug that is now used to combat
some of the resistant forms of malaria
is called mefloquine. Unfortunately, it has
serious side effects in some people.
For centuries, a mixture containing the leaves of the white willow tree
had been used as a remedy for all types
of pain. It was eventually discovered that
the bark of the willow tree produces the
chemical, salicylic acid. Another small
plant called queen of the meadow also
produces this chemical. At the end of the
nineteenth century, German scientists
had isolated and finally prepared the active pain-killing substance, acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA), which they named Aspirin.
ASA is probably the most familiar drug
in the world.
Medicinal Chemicals
from Plants
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WEBLINK
Naturopathic medicines have
become increasingly popular in
recent years. One of the most
popular is Echinacea. Find out
whether there is scientific
evidence to support whether
Echinacea is effective and
decide whether you would use
Echinacea. Write a paragraph
to support your decision.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
INFOBIT
Researchers are testing
several varieties of broccoli
to see whether levels of an
antioxidant called sulforaphane
differ among the varieties.
If sulforaphane levels are
genetically controlled, new
varieties could be developed
with higher levels of this
antioxidant.
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hundreds
of
chemicals. Even
plant-derived
drugs that have
been used for
many years for a
particular ailment
could have a beneImage omitted due to copyright
ficial effect on
restrictions.
some completely
unrelated disease.
A good example is
the case of ASA.
ASA has been
used for about 100
years as an effective pain reliever
and to reduce
fever.
ASA
hinders
the
production of a
FIGURE 15.39 Though ASA
group of hormones called prostaglandins.
is an effective pain reliever, it
causes stomach irritation in
When these hormones are released by
some people.
human tissue, they cause fever, pain, and
inflammation. However, in the late
1980s, researchers found that taking
ASA could reduce the chances of someone having a second heart attack or
stroke. ASA prevents platelets in the
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Making Connections
7.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
6. Hypothesize why plants have been a
source of medicines through history.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 15.2)
Materials
For each group of students:
cheesecloth
mortar and pestle
funnel
10 20-mL test tubes
Biuret reagent
10% NaOH
filter paper
balance
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Seeds supply energy and nutrition. In this investigation, you will determine whether various seeds contain
protein.
Extending
7. What other chemical tests could be run on the extracts of these and other seeds? The testing done
in this investigation is a qualitative test. Explain
how another type of test might be more valuable
for testing nutrient contents in seeds.
8. Find out what percentage of seed mass is protein
for each type of seed.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 15.3)
Question
Will eucalyptus oil kill dust mites?
Hypothesis/Prediction
Develop a hypothesis for your experiment.
Materials
dust mites
cloth
plastic bag
dissecting microscope
eucalyptus oil
CAUTION: Students with allergies to dust should not be
involved in collection of the dust.
Extending
7. Research other possible uses there might be for
plant extracts such as eucalyptus oil.
8. Could any other plant extract be used on dust mites
instead of eucalyptus oil? Develop a procedure to
test your idea.
Experimental Design
To begin the experiment, collect dust mites by placing a smooth, dark-coloured cloth on the floor and
sweeping house dust onto the cloth. After several
days, gently shake off the dust, place the cloth in a
clean plastic bag, and bring it to your science class.
Place the cloth under the microscope and check
for dust mites. Use Figure 15.40 as a guide. Make
sure that you view the cloth at 50 X magnification.
Develop a scientific investigation to show the effects
of eucalyptus oil on dust mites.
Select the variables you can manipulate to test eucalyptus oils effectiveness in killing dust mites.
Select which variables you will control in your
experiment.
Design a procedure to test the variable you have
selected.
Have the teacher review your experiment before you
carry out the plan.
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
biological control
clone
cutting
ecological succession
(succession)
genetically modified (GM)
grafting
hybridization
monoculture
primary succession
secondary succession
selective breeding
Essential Understandings
3.
There are a wide variety of career choices in plant science relating to industry, agriculture, and medicine.
Research a career in one of these categories and describe
the skills you would need to succeed in that career.
2.
4.
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C H A P T E R 15 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
1. The pollination of a plant possessing a desired trait with
another variety of the same species is known as
a) self-pollination
b) grafting
c) cloning
d) hybridization
2. Aspirin is used
a) as a painkiller and heart stimulant
b) to reduce fever and prevent blood clots from
forming
c) to reduce fever and prevent malaria
d) to reduce fever and treat certain cancers
3. Legumes have an advantage over other types of plants
in that they require
a) less fertilizer
b) more protein
c) genetic modification
d) more fertilizer
4. The bacteria that cause crown gall disease are important in agriculture because they
a) do not affect plants
b) can transmit a desired gene to a plant
c) cause cloned plants to reproduce
d) can be cloned
5. A major use of genetic modification of plants has been
the development of crops that
a) absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere
b) survive freezing temperatures
c) resist the effects of weed killers
d) do not require light to grow
6. Explain why both grafting and cloning are considered to
be asexual reproduction.
12. Explain how the rotation of crops reduces the need for
applying a pesticide to control an insect pest.
13. Make a chart showing the categories of edible plant parts
and common foods from each category. Give two examples for each.
14. Identify the agricultural technique used to produce many
identical plants without planting seeds. List four common crops produced in this manner.
15. Explain why the tropical rain forest biome supports a
wider diversity of animal life than the boreal coniferous forest.
16. Compare secondary succession in the temperate deciduous forest to that in the boreal forest.
17. a) Provide two specific examples of genetically modified crops grown in North America.
b) Outline the reason(s) why these crops were developed
and the benefit(s) derived from growing them.
18. Copy Table 15.3 into your notebook. Complete all sections with a suitable word or phrase.
TABLE 15.3 Plants and Their Uses
Plant extract
Source
Commercial use
latex
flax seeds
peanut butter
castor oil
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Vegetation
type
15
25
40
grasses
31
27
23
31
34
shrubs
17
trees
14
23
31
31
28
52
74
total species
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25. All Koster blue spruce trees are sterile (unable to reproduce). However, many of these trees are grown in
residential areas throughout the country as ornamental or decorative trees. Explain how these trees are
obtained.
26. Explain how it was possible for the Macintosh apple to
become an important agricultural product.
30. Investigate the current protective measures recommended for travellers to malaria-infested areas of the
world. Include in your brief report, a discussion of the
treatment for travellers returning to Canada who have
contracted malaria.
31. Irradiation is used to prevent foods from spoiling and it
extends their shelf life. Bacteria, fungi, and insects are
killed by this process. Even though irradiation has been
shown to be effective in preventing human disease, there
is opposition to the use of this technology. Prepare a brief
report on the pros and cons of food irradiation.
32. In the late 1980s and early 90s, a chemical called Alar
was applied to apple orchards to ensure all the fruit
ripened at the same time. There were reports in the
media at the time that this chemical might be harmful
to humans. In fact, some Hollywood celebrities supported
a public outcry against the use of Alar. Research the controversy over the use of this chemical and prepare a brief
report about what happened. Include the role of the
media in the controversy as well as the research findings about the effects of Alar.
33. Food additives are put into processed foods for a variety of reasons. There are many consumers who are
against the use of such additives. Identify a number of
additives from labels of a variety of processed foods. Find
out what effect each has and why it is added to the food.
34. Some people in society do not support the use of genetically modified food. Research what concerns they
have and decide whether these concerns are valid.
Provide evidence to support your decision.
35. There is increasing interest in natural remedies and
plant-derived products for internal and external use.
Gingko, aloe vera, Saint Johns wort, slippery elm
bark, and many other plants are now available as herbal
remedies. Research the use of herbs in treatments for
ailments, as supplements, or as skin creams.
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CHAPTER 16
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
FIGURE 16.1 This micrograph shows the intricate structure of the root of a corn plant.
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ver since land plants evolved from green algae millions of years ago, they
have evolved specialized structures that have enabled them to spread out
into different ecosystems and survive in diverse environments. The photomicrograph in Figure 16.1 shows the intricate, organized, and complex
structural characteristics of plants. The root, stem, and leaf are basic
structures of plants. Various cells and tissues in these structures perform
specialized functions and work together to sustain the life of the plant.
Plants have several types of tissue that perform different functions. In
order for plants to survive, they need nutrients and they need to be able to
move these nutrients to every cell. Roots absorb minerals and water from the
soil, and specialized transport tissues conduct the water and minerals from
the roots, through the stem, to the leaves. Cells in the leaves use the water,
along with carbon dioxide, to create sugars through photosynthesis. Another
specialized transport tissue moves these sugars to all the other cells of the
plant where they are used as an energy source. Another tissue protects the
plant structures to ensure they function effectively. Yet another tissue has various specialized cells that provide the plant with support and allow the
plant to grow and develop.
The movement of water and nutrients is critical to the survival of
plants. The mechanisms and processes by which plants supply themselves
with water and nutrients are extremely complex. This chapter examines the
structure of green plants and explains how structure is directly related to the
many functions carried out in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining the Age of a Tree
Examine a cross section of tree
trunk provided by your teacher
in which the annual rings are
clearly visible. Each ring represents one year in the life of the
tree. Determine the age of the
tree used in class or the one in
the photo. In your group, hypothesize how these rings are
produced each year.
CHECKPOINT
Make a T-chart that lists the
structures and functions of
the different parts of the
plant.
Structure
Function
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the structure and function of the roots, stems, and leaves of vascular plants
identify some vascular differences between monocot and dicot plants
compare the seed structures of monocots and dicots
terminal
bud
flower
leaf
bud
shoot
root
hairs
root
Roots
FIGURE 16.3 The two parts of plants.
Although flowering plants vary widely in shape,
they all have the features labelled here.
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TABLE 16.1
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Many differences result from whether a plant is a monocot (has one seed leaf) or a dicot (has two seed
leaves).
Monocots
Dicots
Vascular bundles
scattered
throughout
stem
arranged
in ring in
stem
Seed leaves
one
cotyledon
two
cotyledons
Flower parts
multiples
of three
multiples
of four or
five
parallel
veins
branching
veins
Mature leaves
narrow
leaves
fibrous
root
system
Roots
Examples
broad
leaves
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
tap root
system
Image omitted
due to
copyright
restrictions.
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Discovering Biology
Next Section
You will be provided with dried peas, dates, corn seeds, oat seeds,
pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds. Remove date seeds from
their fruit and remove the shells from the pumpkin and sunflower seeds.
Observe each type of seed carefully with a hand lens.
Determine whether the seed consists of one cotyledon or two.
Categorize each seed as a monocot or dicot.
Present your results in a table.
CAUTION: Do not eat any of the seeds. Do not do the activity if you
have a nut allergy.
of a corn plant
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epidermis
cortex
endodermis
vascular
cylinder
vascular cylinder
xylem
phloem
a) monocot root
b) dicot root
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endodermis
endodermal cell
root hair
cell
wall
Casparian strip
epidermis
cell
membrane
xylem
phloem
vascular
cylinder
cortex
FIGURE 16.7 The Casparian strip is like a series of rubber bands placed around each cell of
the endodermis.
INFOBIT
Scientists have estimated that
the total surface area available
for water absorption in the rye
plant is about the same as the
floor space of a very large
(400 m2) house.
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WORD ORIGIN
xylem from the Greek word
xulon, meaning wood.
phloem from the Greek word
phloios, meaning bark.
Investigation
Refer to page 551,
Investigation 1
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Stems
There is a huge variety in shapes and
sizes of stems in different plant species.
Whatever the shape of the stem, its main
functions are to hold leaves up to the
sunlight and to conduct various substances between the roots and the
leaves. There are two main types of
stems. Herbaceous stems are green and
usually soft. These stems do not survive
the winter and are regrown each year.
Woody stems contain tough, hard tissues commonly called wood. Trees and
shrubs, such as the lilac, are examples
of plants with woody stems. These stems
survive the winter.
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pith
vascular
bundle
cortex
epidermis
fundamental
or ground
tissue
xylem
phloem
a) monocot stem
FIGURE 16.9 Herbaceous stems
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b) dicot stem
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heartwood
cork
phloem
bark
vascular
cambium
sapwood
phloem
vascular
cambium
summer
wood
spring
wood
annual
ring
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Leaves
Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
a) Iris rhizomes
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compound
leaves
simple
leaves
leaves modified
as spines
leaves modified
as tendrils
FIGURE 16.14 Leaves come in many different shapes. Simple leaves have just one
blade, but compound leaves are divided into smaller leaflets.
vein
cuticle
epidermis
palisade layer
mesophyll
spongy layer
stoma
epidermis
guard cells
xylem
phloem
air spaces
FIGURE 16.15 Leaves are the site of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates.
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INFOBIT
Scientists have estimated that
the total surface area of the
chloroplasts in all the leaves of
one mature tree, such as an
elm, is slightly less than the
entire land area of the island
nation of Barbados (about
430 km2).
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Decision-Making Skills
Case
Study
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
is being used in selected sites, but it is still in the research and development stages. Additional study
needs to be completed before the process becomes
more widespread.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions.
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FIGURE 16.18 The leaves of a jade plant, cactus, and water lily. All have structural
adaptations that allow them to live in their specialized environments.
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9. What factors does a landscaper have
to consider when selecting plants for a
garden?
10. Research the use of phytoremediation
in Ontario. What criteria should environmentalists consider in applying this
technology?
11. Select an analogy that could be used to
explain leaf structure.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify the tissues found in angiosperms
describe the functions of fundamental, vascular, and protective tissues
locate meristematic tissues and explain their functions
A tissue is a group of cells, usually identical, that act together to carry out a
specific function. Just as animals contain
specialized tissues (such as muscle and
nerve tissues), so do plants. The angiosperms have a number of tissues,
each designed to carry out an important
role.
Vascular Tissue
As you know, xylem conducts water and
dissolved minerals (together called xylem
sap) from the roots to all parts of the
plant. There are two types of xylem cells:
vessels or vessel elements and
water
Investigation
Refer to page 552,
Investigation 2
water
vascular bundles
phloem
sieve
elements
xylem
vessel
elements
companion
cells
tracheids
stem section
food
FIGURE 16.19 Cells of the xylem and phloem. The inset photo is a microscopic view of
vascular tissue.
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WORD ORIGIN
collenchyma from the Greek
words kolla, meaning glue,
and enchima, meaning an
infusion.
meristematic from the Greek
word meridzein, meaning to
divide.
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a) parenchyma
Next Section
b) collenchyma
FIGURE 16.20 The cell walls get progressively thicker across the three types of
ground tissue. Sclerenchyma forms the shells of nuts and the spines of cacti.
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the sieve cell. Experiments have demonstrated that if the companion cell dies,
the sieve cell stops functioning.
Fundamental or
Ground Tissue
Most of a plant is made of ground tissue,
and this tissue consists of parenchyma
cells. Parenchyma is found in the roots,
stems, leaves, and fruit. Parenchyma has
many different functions. It provides
support for the plant and stores food and
water. Photosynthesis also occurs
in parenchyma cells containing
chloroplasts. The flesh of an apple
or watermelon is parenchyma, and
potatoes and radishes are mostly
parenchyma. The cell walls of
parenchyma cells are quite thin and
flexible (Figure 16.20). Collenchyma and
sclerenchyma are specialized types of
parenchyma with thicker and more rigid
cell walls. They provide support in plant
stems. Mature sclerenchyma consists
mainly of the rigid walls of dead cells.
Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissue is a type of tissue
that produces new cells by mitosis.
In plants, mature cells cannot divide.
This means that the plant can only
grow where there is meristematic tissue.
c) sclerenchyma
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shoot apical
meristem
(terminal
bud)
lateral bud
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a)
immature
leaf
shoot apical
meristem
root apical
meristem
b)
root
apical
meristem
root
cap
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secondary xylem
first
annual
growth
ring
INFOBIT
The skin of a potato is
actually a thin layer of cork. So
people who eat the skins of
cooked or baked potatoes, are
actually eating cork!
second
annual
growth
ring
third
annual
growth
ring
restrictions.
Protective Tissue
The epidermis, usually only one cell in
thickness, is the outer protective layer
of leaves, stems, and roots. As you
learned in the previous section, the epidermal layer, with its covering of cuticle, also serves as waterproofing for
plant tissues.
Cork, protects inner tissues from injury. It is more than one cell layer thick.
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FIGURE 16.24
tree by hand.
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Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
2. Describe how the sieve tube and companion cells work together to perform
their transport role.
3. Starting with the word tissue, create
a concept map to illustrate the three
classes of tissues and their functions.
4. Distinguish between the functions of
parenchyma and meristematic tissues.
5. Outline the reasons why a monocot,
such as a corn plant, cannot increase
its stem width each year, whereas a
dicot, such as an oak tree, is able to do
so for decades.
6. Some plants that grow in arid areas
often have thicker leaves to store water.
Which type of tissue would the bulk
of the leaf be made of? Provide reasons
for your answer.
FIGURE 16.25
7.
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
explain the mechanism of water transport in vascular plants
explain why sugar transport in vascular plants is more complex than water transport
explain how non-vascular plants function without a specialized vascular system
Water Transport in
Vascular Plants
In the Root Root hairs absorb essential
minerals from the soil by active
transport. The energy needed for active
transport comes from the respiration of
carbohydrates in the root cells. Once inside the epidermis, the minerals are
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Discovering Biology
Water Movement in Narrow Tubes
Your group will be provided with a Petri dish, food colouring,
and 3-4 capillary tubes of identical lengths but different
diameters. Fill the Petri dish half full with water
and add 2 drops of food colouring. Gently
swirl the dish so that the water is a
uniform colour. Each member of your
group, in turn, will place one capillary
tube into the dish and hold it
upright as in Figure 16.27.
FIGURE 16.27
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xylem sap
air space
mesophyll cells
stoma
outside air
water molecule
Transpiration
cohesion of
water molecules
adhesion
xylem cells
flow of water
soil particle
water molecule
root hair
water
FIGURE 16.28 The flow of water from the roots to the leaves
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547
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WEBLINK
Maple syrup is a popular
Canadian export. Research
more about maple syrup
production in Canada. What
provinces produce maple
syrup? What countries does
Canada export to? How much
maple syrup is produced
annually? Complete a data
table to summarize your
findings. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
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Food Transport in
Vascular Plants
The precise mechanism of food transport is not known. One of the problems
in explaining how food is moved in
plants is that the phloem sieve-tube cells
are living cells, containing cytoplasm
with most of the organelles that other
cells have. Functioning xylem vessel
cells, as you know, are dead and hollow.
Scientists have a much easier time explaining how water moves up hollow
pipes than how sugars and other complex molecules move from living cell
to living cell at rates as fast as 2 m
per hour. The theory that best explains
the movement of sugars is called the
pressure-flow theory.
In this theory, the leaf cells are called
the source, and the storage cells in the
roots are called the sink. In the leaves,
sugars are pumped into phloem sievetube cells by active transport, thus building up a hypertonic solution inside
(Figure 16.30). This hypertonic solution
causes water to move by osmosis into the
sieve-tube cells from adjacent hypotonic
xylem cells. This results in the creation
of a pressure that pushes the sugars
through the phloem away from the
leaves, down the stem toward the roots.
In the root, the soluble sugars are
moved out of the sieve-tube cells into storage parenchyma cells (the sink). This may
happen passively depending on the relative sugar concentrations inside and
outside the root cells. Water molecules
follow the sugars out of the sieve-tube
cells by osmosis. The phloem sap is now
under less pressure in the roots. As leaves
add and the roots remove sugars, the
phloem sap experiences two different
fluid pressures. A high pressure in the
leaves pushes on the sap and a low
pressure in the root pulls on the sap.
A number of observations support
this theory. One of the most interesting
involves an insect called an aphid (Figure
16.31). Aphid colonies are usually found
on thin stems just below leaves. An
aphids mouth-parts form an extremely
fine tube or proboscis, which it inserts
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XYLEM
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PHLOEM
SOURCE
WEBLINK
high sugar concentration
and high water pressure
sugar
water
2. water follows by osmosis
leaf cell
SINK
4. active or passive transport
of sugar into root cell
sugar
root cell
vessel elements
sieve elements
FIGURE 16.30 Food transport in plants requires energy to pump the sugars into
FIGURE 16.31
the phloem.
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7.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Relative rate
(grams per 2 hours)
Understanding Concepts
30
transpiration
20
10
0
water
uptake
6 am
noon
6 pm midnight
Time of day
FIGURE 16.33
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 1
(Section 16.1)
Problem
Materials
For each pair of students:
prepared slides of
monocot stem cross section, e.g. Zea mays
(corn)
herbaceous dicot stem cross section,
e.g. Rununculus (buttercup)
Procedure
1. Examine a herbaceous monocot stem cross
section such as corn, Zea mays, under low magnification. Locate the following: epidermis, vascular
bundles, and fundamental or ground tissue.
2. Make a labelled drawing, showing the arrangement
of the vascular bundles.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a herbaceous dicot stem
cross section.
4. Move the microscope objective to a higher magnification so that one vascular bundle almost fills the
field of view. This may be medium or more likely
will be high power.
5. Locate the following tissues: xylem, phloem, cambium, pith, cortex, and epidermis.
6. Under high power, draw and label a section through
the vascular bundle starting at the epidermis,
through the bundle tissues, into the pith cells. The
section should only be as wide as the width of 34
epidermal cells, but include cells from each area
through the stem.
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 16.2)
Materials
microscope
microscope slides
cover slip
double-edged razor blade
dissecting needle
forceps
celery stalks
CAUTION: One edge of the razor should be carefully taped
by your teacher with several layers of masking tape. Handle
the razor blades with care.
Procedure
Extending
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
adhesion
cambium
cohesion
cortex
cuticle
dicot
epidermis
heartwood
herbaceous
meristem
mesophyll
monocot
parenchyma
phloem
phytoremediation
pressure-flow theory
primary growth
root pressure
sapwood
secondary growth
sieve tube cell
stomata
tracheid
transpiration
Essential Understandings
16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function
Water transport up the xylem depends on root pressure, which pushes water into the vascular cylinder, as well as transpiration (leaf) pull, which pulls
water up the stem to the leaves. Water transport requires no energy from the plant.
In the pressure-flow theory, sugars are pumped into
the phloem and move down to the root because of
differences in water pressure between the leaf and
root. Sugar transport requires energy.
Non-vascular plants rely on osmosis and capillary
action for water transport.
Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 529 and review the chart listing the structures and functions of
plants. Revise the chart based on what you have learned
in the chapter.
2.
3.
4.
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C H A P T E R 16 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
15. There are at least two different plant tissues that serve
their primary function once they are dead. Identify these
tissues and describe the specific role(s) of each.
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16. Describe the likely effect on a) the root and b) the entire plant of adding a high concentration of salt to the
ground where the plant is growing. Explain your answers.
17. Suppose a chemical can be administered to a plant
that stops the process of active transport but has no other
effect on the plant. Describe the likely consequences on
a) water transport
b) food transport
Explain the reason(s) for each of your answers.
18. Where would you expect to find stomata on floating water
plants? Explain.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
19. Design an experimental procedure to determine whether
a plant exhibits root pressure. What evidence would support your hypothesis?
20. You have learned that by counting the annual rings in
a cut tree trunk, one can determine the approximate age
of the tree when it was cut down. Find out how environmental conditions that the tree was exposed to over
its life can be determined from carefully examining the
annual rings.
21. People spend a lot of time trying to get a perfect lawn.
The physical removal (by hand) of dandelions and unwanted grass from a lawn are both difficult, but for different reasons. Provide a brief explanation based on the
structure of the plants.
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Making Connections
TABLE 16.2
Radish seedling
1050
1200
1180
1300
35
30
Cell divisions (%)
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25
20
15
10
5
10
12
14
16
18
20
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C H A P T E R 17
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS
By the end of this unit,
you will be able to:
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Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
All seeds have certain
requirements for germination
and growth. Using a
flowchart, begin with the
word seed and list all the
requirements you can think
of that will make the seed
grow into a mature plant.
Seed
Its a Gas!
Bananas produce a gaseous substance that may affect the ripening of green
tomatoes.
Work in small groups and design an experiment to test this hypothesis. Each
group will need three green tomatoes, a ripe banana, and two plastic bags.
Carry out the experiment recording your observations over the next
several days.
Mature Plant
Analyze your observations and form conclusions about what effect the
banana has on the ripening of tomatoes.
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe the nutrients required for the development of plants
describe how plants adapt to growth factors in their environments
design and carry out an experiment to determine the factors that affect the growth of
plants
humus
subsoil
bedrock
FIGURE 17.3 Soil. The various layers together are referred to as the soil profile.
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Plant Nutrient
Macronutrients:
Micronutrients:
Function
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
component of chlorophyll
Iron
Zinc
Copper
Investigation
Refer to page 574,
Investigation 1
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Discovering Biology
As you have read, different fertilizers are used for different purposes. For instance, people who do not want
to cut their grass very often may select a fertilizer with
a lower nitrogen content than one recommended for
a lush, rapidly growing lawn.
Copy the list of fertilizers in Table 17.2 into your
notebook. Match each of the following desired
outcomes with the appropriate fertilizer: high vegetable yields; a lawn successfully surviving winter; a
lush, green lawn; new lawn growth from seed; and
many flowers.
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Fertilizer
10-20-10
10-4-14
20-27-5
25-3-5
12-12-12
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INFOBIT
Possibly the most durable seed
comes from the Arctic lupin.
Frozen seeds were found in the
Yukon in 1954. Some seeds
were successfully germinated.
Radiocarbon dating showed
the seeds were produced
between 8000-13 000 B.C.!
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WORD ORIGIN
radicle from the Latin word
radix, meaning root, and
-ulus, meaning little.
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bird
Germination
Germination in both monocots and dicots begins when the embryo releases
the plant hormone, gibberellin, into
the rest of the seed. This chemical triggers the production of digestive enzymes
within the seed. These enzymes break
down large storage molecules such as
starch and release smaller sugar
molecules to provide energy for the
growing embryo. Other enzymes digest
the stored lipids and proteins.
These sugar molecules greatly increase the solute concentration of the
liquid inside the seed. This makes the
interior of the seed hypertonic, causing
more water to be absorbed by osmosis.
Eventually, the seed coats soften and
stretch or crack under pressure from
their swelling contents. Oxygen can now
diffuse in, and the embryo obtains
energy using aerobic respiration. The tip
of the radicle emerges and elongates
rapidly. Rapid growth is possible because
the cells of the radicle were formed
epicotyl
plumule
seed coat
hypocotyl
endosperm
radicle
plumule
cotyledons
cotyledon
seed coat
radicle
Bean (dicot)
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Corn (monocot)
embryo
Contents
epidermis
cortex
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xylem
phloem
epicotyl
zone of
maturation
endodermis
cotyledons
root hair
cotyledon
radicle
hypocotyl
zone of
cell division
zone of
elongation
hypocotyl
apical meristem
root cap
growing root
Plant Adaptations to
Different Environments
Plants need light, water, and soil nutrients to grow, yet some environments lack
one or more of these requirements. Over
many thousands of years plants have developed adaptations to deal with these
less than ideal conditions.
to reduce the surface area, and therefore water loss. Because the needles are
so small, photosynthesis occurs in the
stems. In addition, cacti have thick stems
specially adapted to store water.
The root system of most desert
plants is usually very extensive to allow
for maximum absorption of what little
water is available. The seeds germinate
quickly. The plants develop rapidly during the very short rainy season. Flowers
and seeds are produced within a few
weeks. As the long dry period begins,
only the seeds survive until the next period of rain arrives.
Discovering Biology
Leaf Adaptations
Obtain three different leaves from your teacher, each from a plant
that grows in a different environment. Observe each leaf carefully.
You may want to examine them with a hand lens. Decide what
environment each plant lives in. Discuss with a partner what
adaptation(s) each leaf shows that allows the plant to successfully
live in its particular environment.
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Adaptations for Fire Fire is a normal occurrence in the boreal forest. It removes
old and dying trees, and enriches the soil
with ash. The ash neutralizes some of
the acid in the soil, making the soil
conditions better for new plants. Many
plants can live only in environments
recently ravaged by fire. Plants such as
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Plants must have a means of surviving winters lack of water. Plants that
grow in areas with a cold winter have a
dormant period. Just how plants sense
the approach of winter is not clear, but
it is thought that the lower temperature and declining daylight periods are
the key stimuli to trigger leaf fall in deciduous trees. If leaves remained on the
trees, the water in the leaves could
freeze and damage the leaves tissues.
With a large surface area, they would
also dry out easily. The simple solution
for many plants is to lose their leaves as
winter approaches.
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a)
FIGURE 17.19
b)
Parasitic plants
a) Dodder
b) Indian pipe
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c) Mistletoe
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7.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
Solutions
Complete
nutrients
46
deep green
Distilled
water
13
pale green/
yellow
Lacking
nitrogen
15
pale green
yellow
Mean Root
Length (mm)
Leaf Colour
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When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
identify plant hormones and describe their functions
WORD ORIGIN
hormone from the Greek word
horman, meaning to set in
motion or to urge.
auxin from the Latin word
augeo, meaning to enlarge,
grow, or increase.
ce
ll e
auxin
molecules
tion
ga
lon
FIGURE 17.23 The action of auxin in shoots. Auxin molecules move away from the
light source, either downward a) or sideways b), depending on the position of the
light source.
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Auxins
It has long been observed that plants
bend toward a light source. Experiments
done in the late 1880s showed that the
tip of a growing stem was responsible for
this phenomenon. Plants such as grasses
have a coleoptile, a sheath that covers
the young leaves as the seedling emerges
from the ground. The coleoptile responds
to light by bending toward it. A hormone
called auxin is released from the tip of
the coleoptile when it is exposed to light
(Figure 17.23). The auxin is transported
downward and causes the cells of the
growing stem to elongate. If the light is
coming from the side, the auxin moves
away from the light to the shaded side of
the stem, causing only those cells on the
dark side to elongate. As a result of the
uneven elongation of cells, the stem bends
toward the light.
In the root, auxin produced in
apical meristems causes the root to grow
downward with the pull of gravity and
away from light. In root cells, auxin has
the opposite effect than on the shoot
cells: high concentrations of auxin inhibit cell elongation. If a root is exposed
to light, auxin accumulates in the cells
that are the least exposed to the light.
Thus, the sunny cells elongate more
than the shaded ones, causing the root
to curve downward, away from the light.
The same thing happens when growing roots hit an object such as a stone.
Auxin accumulates on the lower side of
Contents
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The Darwins
Experiments
Charles Darwin, well known as the
co-originator of the theory of evolution, and his son Francis were the
first researchers to provide evidence
for the existence of plant hormones.
In 1880, the Darwins performed a series of experiments with grass
seedlings to investigate how they respond to light (Figure 17.24). They
found that if the tip of the coleoptile
was covered with a light-proof cap,
and the stem was left exposed, the
stem continued to grow but did not
bend toward the light. However, if the
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light
control
tip
removed
tip covered
by opaque
cap
tip covered
by transparent
cap
base covered
by opaque
shield
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weeds sprayed with 2,4-D grow uncontrollably and the plant grows itself to
death, leaving only the surrounding
grass. Unfortunately, during the production of 2,4-D, another chemical called
2,4,5-T is also manufactured as a side
product. Together these two chemicals
are known as agent orange. Agent orange was used as a defoliant in the
Vietnam war in the late 1960s and early
70s. Besides killing all plants, it is dangerous to human health. A by-product
of 2,4,5-T is dioxin, which is linked to
birth defects, skin diseases, and a number of cancers.
Another artificial auxin is used to retard the sprouting of potatoes during
storage. Seedless tomatoes and watermelons are produced using an auxin
sprayed on the flowers before pollination. The unfertilized (and therefore
seedless) ovary develops a fleshy coat
under the influence of the hormone.
Sprayed auxins may also be used to prevent ripe fruit from falling off orchard
trees. The auxin prevents the abscission
layer from developing, thus allowing the
farmer extra time to harvest the crop.
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Gibberellins
Gibberellins are produced in apical
meristems but, unlike auxins, they are
Foolish
Seedlings
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Cytokinins
Cytokinins are hormones that promote
cell division and cell differentiation. They
also promote seed germination and flowering. Cytokinins are produced in the
roots and are transported to their target
cells. One effect of cytokinins is that they
prevent some plant cells from aging
too quickly. Florists spray cut flowers
with cytokinins to keep them fresh for a
longer time.
Other Hormones
Unlike the three groups of hormones
previously discussed, abscisic acid (ABA)
does not stimulate growth but, rather,
inhibits it. In the lab, ABA speeds up the
fall of leaves when sprayed on plants.
Whether or not it controls this process
in the natural environment is unclear. It
certainly slows down or stops growth
and induces dormancy.
Auxin stimulates the production of
fruit, but another hormone, ethylene,
causes the ripening of fruit in many
plants. Ethylene is a gas produced in
large quantities by over-ripe fruits. It also
initiates the formation of the abscission layer in the stems of fruits.
Ethylene has widespread commercial applications. Many fruits are now
picked before they are ripe. Green fruits
are tougher, do not spoil, and are easy
to ship. The action of ethylene produced
by the fruit as it ripens can be stopped,
but not reversed, by adding large quantities of carbon-dioxide gas to storage
containers. They can be stored for an
extended length of time near their final
destination in giant cold lockers flooded
with carbon dioxide. When the market
is ready, as in mid-winter, the locker is
warmed and filled with air and ethylene.
The fruit then ripens and is sold.
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WORDORIGIN
tropism from the Greek word
trop, meaning a turning.
INFOBIT
The old expression that one
rotten apple will spoil the
whole barrel is true because
the rotting apple gives off
ethylene gas, which
accelerates the ripening of
all fruit near it.
WEBLINK
Plant hormones often work
together to produce changes
in a plant. Research plant
hormone interactions and
create a concept map to show
these interactions and their
effects on plants. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Investigation
Refer to page 576,
Investigation 2
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gravity
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Turgor Responses
One of the most remarkable plant
responses is rapid movement. The
insect-trapping movement of a Venus fly
trap is a familiar example. Less well
known, but even more dramatic is the
rapid movement of the leaflets of the
mimosa plant (Figure 17.31).
These rapid movements are brought
about by changes in turgor pressure.
When plant cells are filled or swollen
with water, they are rigid and have high
turgor pressure. When their water
content is low, the cells are limp and turgor is low.
This is similar to a truck tire with
an inner tube. When the tube is full of
air, it presses against the tire. The tire
becomes rigid and can bear weight.
When the tube is low on air, it does not
press firmly against the tire. The tire becomes soft and cannot bear weight.
Touching the petiole of the mimosa or
trigger cells on the Venus fly trap causes
a sudden loss of turgor in special cells.
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FIGURE 17.31 Mimosa leaflets. Touching the petiole of a mimosa plant leads to a
loss in turgor pressure, causing the leaflets to close rapidly.
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills
5. Using additional sources, collect more
information about the actions of each
of the hormones listed in the text.
Create a chart that lists the hormones
various actions, and where in the plant
each hormone is produced.
Making Connections
6. Write a brief report on the uses of plant
hormones in agriculture. In your report, outline the positive and negative
impacts of using hormones on society, the environment, and on food
producers and consumers.
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Inquiry
InquirySkills
Skills
Investigation 1
Initiating
Initiatingand
andPlanning
Planning
(Section 17.1)
Applying
ApplyingTechnical
TechnicalSkills
Skills
Using
UsingTools,
Tools,Material,
material,Equipment
Equipment
Conducting
Conductingand
andRecording
Recording
Materials LAL1
cress seeds
distilled water
3 Petri dishes
vermiculite
marking pens
25-mL graduated cylinder
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
Concluding
Concludingand
andCommunicating
Communicating
Experimental Design
1. Discuss each of the following factors and decide
which one your group will investigate.
quality of light (colour)
intensity of light
amounts of nutrients supplied to plants
temperature
salinity
2. Once you have chosen a factor, propose a hypothesis for your investigation.
3. List the materials you will need to carry out your
experiment. The materials must be available either
through your teacher or brought from home.
4. Assess whether there are any safety issues with any
of the materials.
Procedure
3.
9.
Analyzing
Analyzingand
andInterpreting
Interpreting
7.
8.
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(continued)
CHAPTER 17
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Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2
(Section 17.2)
Investigating Gravitropism
Problem
In this activity, you will investigate what kind of
response seedlings show to gravity.
5.
Materials
6.
7.
8.
Petri dish
masking tape
felt pen
Procedure
1.
2.
corn seed
FIGURE 17.33
Corn seeds in
a Petri dish
3.
4.
576
UNIT 5
Extending
8. Continue the experiment, observing and recording
the growth of the stem. Predict what happens to
the stem when the dish is rotated clockwise, once
the stems are 12 cm long. Do the stems
respond differently to gravity?
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C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
abscisic acid
apical dominance
auxin
cytokinin
dormancy
ethylene
gibberellin
gravitropism (geotropism)
hormone
macronutrient
micronutrient
nitrogen fixation
phototropism
tropism
turgor response
Essential Understandings
17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations
Soil, consisting of several layers, contains a number of important nutrients needed by plants.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the major
plant nutrients.
Legumes are able to fix nitrogen from the air by
means of specialized bacteria living in their roots.
The conditions required for seeds to germinate vary,
depending on the plant.
Nutrients within the seed nourish the seedling until
leaves and roots develop.
Plants have developed a variety of adaptations to
overcome excesses or lack of growth factors in their
environments.
Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 557 and review your flow chart outlining growth requirements for
the development of a seed to a mature plant. Revise
the flow chart based on what you have learned in the
chapter.
2.
3.
4.
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C H A P T E R 17 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts
1. Seed germination begins with the
a) release of a hormone from the seed embryo
b) release of a hormone from the plant
c) landing of the seed in suitable soil
d) first rain and warm temperature
2. In phototropism, auxins
a) migrate to the illuminated side of the growing shoot
b) stimulate cell division in the shoot
c) stimulate cell elongation on the illuminated side
of the shoot
d) stimulate cell elongation on the dark side of the
shoot
3. During seed dormancy
a) no metabolic processes in the seed occur
b) cell respiration occurs at a slow rate
c) cell respiration ceases
d) the seed is dead
4. The
are
a)
b)
c)
d)
13. Explain why crops such as peas and beans do not require fertilizers rich in ammonium compounds whereas
most other crops do require these compounds.
14. Place the following events in proper sequence: cotyledons drop off, radicle emerges, seed coat breaks, leaves
form, hypocotyl emerges.
15. Explain why seeds are called time and space travellers.
16. When a deciduous tree is cut down in midsummer, its
leaves die, shrivel, and turn brown. However, they do
not fall off the branches for months or even years. Explain
why these dead leaves do not fall off.
17. An experiment using radish seeds was set up to investigate gravitropism. Three groups of seeds were planted
in soil. As soon as the radicles emerged, the seedlings
in group 1 were placed so that the radicles were facing
up, group 2 seedlings were placed with their radicles
facing down, and group 3 were arranged with their radicles growing horizontally.
a) Predict what will happen to root growth over several weeks with each group. All of the plants are
provided with ample water and ideal growing
temperatures.
b) Explain briefly how auxin controls root growth response to gravity in each of the three groups of
plants.
18. Describe four plant adaptations for living in cold environments. For any one of these, explain how the same
adaptation allows other plants to live in extremely hot
environments.
6. Identify the three layers that make up soil and name the
layer that provides the most nutrients to plants.
20. A bean seedling is growing in a pot, and its shoot system has emerged from the soil. The pot is knocked on
its side and left in that position. Draw a diagram of the
seedling after having been on its side for three days.
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Previous Section
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills
23. Research the nitrogen cycle. Explain the role of the
legume family of plants in this important natural cycle.
24. Table 17.4 indicates the nutrient levels in four different
fertilizers. Copy them into your notebook and match one
to each of the desired outcomes: new sod surviving,
shrubs surviving the winter, high-quality vegetables, and
increased growth of evergreen seeds. Explain the reasoning for each of your answers.
TABLE 17.4
Nutrient Levels
in Four Fertilizers
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40
30
20
10
10
FIGURE 17.35
20
30
40
50
27. Using the Internet and other resources, prepare a summary table showing the known functions of each of the
following plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
cytokinins.
10-20-10
25-3-5
4-4-14
Making Connections
7-7-7
25. An experiment using oat seedlings was carried out to
study the effects of auxin on the growth response of the
the shoots. Examine Figure 17.34 below showing the experimental set up. The wafers used in this experiment
are very thin sections of glass, similar to microscope
cover slips. Predict what the growth response of each
seedling will be. Draw a diagram of your predictions.
Explain your predicted results based on your knowledge
of the action of auxins.
glass wafers
light
FIGURE 17.34
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EXPLORING CAREERS
After Class
Youve learned how career opportunities in biology are increasing and
changing, as well as how many of these
careers overlap into the other sciences.
Youve practised how to communicate
your science skills to prospective employers and on forms. You may have
found exactly the right match between
your own interests and a particular field
within biology, as well as which
universities offer the most specific
education in that field. But what comes
next? What can you do toward a
career in biology after this class?
Have a look at the excerpts from job
ads shown on this page. Each is a requirement for experience. You already
know the importance of having experience when you apply for a job. If you are
looking for your first job, you can only
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UNIT 5
Finding Experience
1.
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Looking Outward
Taking a first aid course is an excellent
idea, whether you are interested in
medicine, human biology, or simply want
to be better prepared for an emergency.
You will also find such a course is recommended or required for many types
of jobs, especially outdoors jobs. Find
out when and where the next St. Johns
Ambulance First Aid Course will be held
in your area. Plan to attend. You will
gain confidence dealing with emergencies as well as knowledge on how to
handle everyday mishaps. (Hint: If you
have previously taken a first aid course
through school, a club, or sports, check
your qualifications. You must upgrade
your training every few years to keep
your certificate valid.)
Exploring Careers
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ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
582
UNIT 5
Golden rice was never meant to be a total solution to vitamin A deficiency. Studies are
needed to assess the long-term effects of all genetically modified foods as they become more
widely used.
SCENARIO
You are attending a summit on world health and
will be presenting a funding proposal for research on genetically modified foods. Your proposal should be based on what you have
researched, and your personal views on the
issue. Your presentation should include: graphics such as charts, tables; summary overheads
to help you communicate your argument; as
well as any additional presentation devices to
add interest and support your proposal.
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Part C: Perspectives
1.
7.
2.
In a consequence map, show all the different points of view that exist on the issue
of genetically modified foods.
8.
9.
3.
5.
6.
10. Should economics influence the implementation of solutions to world problems like
vitamin deficiency? Explain.
A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k
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UNIT 5 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. The process mainly responsible for water movement up
vascular plants occurs in
a) roots
b) stems
c) soil
d) leaves
2. Maple sap is tapped in early spring because
a) sugars are manufactured in the leaves as soon as
the weather gets warm
b) sugars are being transported to the roots
c) stored sugars are being moved from the roots to the
tops of the trees
d) in winter the snow is too deep to get to the trees
3. Which of the following fertilizers release their nutrients
into the soil fastest?
a) sheep manure
b) fish meal
c) 10-6-4
d) cow manure
4. Negative gravitropism is demonstrated by
a) roots
b) stems
c) seeds
d) leaves
5. Plant hormones are used commercially as
a) fertilizers
b) insecticides
c) weed killers
d) all of the above
6. Which of the following is designed to prevent water loss?
a) cuticle covering of leaves
b) leaves with small surface area
c) leaves that are needles
d) all of the above
7. Plants that bloom early in the spring and then are gone
until the next spring do so because
a) they usually grow in dense forests and would be
shaded from light by trees all summer
b) the soil is richest in nutrients after the snow melts
c) they grow best in a cool, wet environment
d) they require frost at night during their growing
period
8. Each stage in succession generally creates an
environment
a) less suitable for itself
b) less suitable for the next stage
c) ideal for the conifers
d) ideal for pioneer plants
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FIGURE 1
21. a)
b)
c)
26. Describe briefly how water gets from the soil to the photosynthetic tissues of mosses and liverworts.
27. The photo in Figure 1 shows nodules on the roots of a
bean plant. These nodules are also found on the roots
of alfalfa. Explain what function they serve.
28. Compare heartwood and sapwood tissue with respect to
a) structure of the cells in each tissue and b) function of
the tissue.
FIGURE 2
Unit Review
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light
tip separated
by gelatin
block
tip separated
by glass wafer
The diagram in Figure 3 illustrate the results of an experiment to show growth responses of seedlings to light
under three different conditions.
a) Interpret each of the experiments.
b) Based on your knowledge of plant hormones,
account for each of the experimental results.
41. Look back at Table 15.4 on page 527. Predict what types
of trees would likely be found in this field after 100 years
in this Windsor location. If the field were located near
North Bay, would there be different tree species present?
Explain.
42. You are provided with slides of root and stem cross
sections of a plant. Explain how you would be able to
classify what type of plant you are examining from the
slides.
UNIT 5
44. In the fields in which parasitic wasps are used as a biological control for the alfalfa weevil, farmers avoid using
chemical pesticides and herbicides. Outline at least one
reason why each of these chemical controls is not used.
45. Humans have used selection to modify many species including plants like corn and animals like dogs. Select one
agriculturally important domestic plant species and write
a report showing how it has been altered from its wild
state.
46. Integrated forest management allows for animal diversity
to be maintained. Look up this term and explain what is
meant by this statement.
47. The seeds of most plants in temperate climates do not
germinate until they have gone through a dormancy period. The time they remain in dormancy varies from a
few weeks to years. However, there are some temperate
plants in which the seeds germinate as soon as they
fall upon soil. Predict
a) what types of plants you would expect to produce
seeds that germinate immediately after being released and
b) in what environments you would expect to find such
plants
Provide reasons for your answers.
48. Erecting buildings in the tundra is difficult because the
footings or foundations upon which the building rests
cannot be properly built in tundra soil. Discuss the features of the tundra soil that hinder the construction of
buildings.
49. Leaf fall (abscission) is very important in the harvesting of cotton. Research the reasons for its importance
and how growers artificially influence the process.
FIGURE 3
586
43. Discuss the idea that plants such as trees can live forever because their living tissue is always young. Provide
evidence for your answer
Contents
TABLE 1
Previous Section
Year
Total sales
(millions of dollars)
Direct employment
1994
44 329
242 500
1995
53 959
246 800
1996
51 170
251 700
1997
52 340
253 700
1998
52 602
253 600
Making Connections
53. For any four of the following drugs, construct a chart
showing name of drug, plant it is derived from and use
or effect on humans: digitalis, quinine, salicylic acid,
opium, caffeine, atropine.
54. There are companies, some on the Internet, that sell live
organisms to control garden and agricultural insect pests.
For example, a company will sell praying mantis (a carnivorous insect) cultures to use in a home garden to
kill plant-eating bugs. Describe some of the benefits and
some of the potential drawbacks the average gardener
would face in using a biological control such as this.
55. It has been discovered that some plants release chemical substances into the air when they are attacked by
insects. These substances can be detected by certain
predatory insects in the area. The predators are attracted
to the plant and proceed to eat the plant-eating insects.
Scientists are trying to identify the molecular structure
of these chemicals and the genes that are responsible
for their synthesis. Assume a gene for one of these chemicals that attracts predatory insects has been isolated
and can be used by scientists. Propose a plan that will
benefit agriculture using this technology.
56. Ethanol, a component of gasohol, is produced from
wastes of agricultural crops. Currently, in the U.S., gasohol makes up only about one percent of the automobile
fuel market. The costs of bringing gasohol to market are
higher than that of gasoline, even though gasohol reduces air pollution significantly. Using corn as an example, try to identify as many of the costs associated
with the final production of gasohol as you can. Start
with the cost of buying the corn seed. Propose a plan
to significantly reduce the cost of producing ethanol from
plant material so that gasohol can become a more
common fuel source.
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Unit Review
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Appendix
590
594
599
602
Problem-Solving
605
Graphing Techniques
606
609
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Doing science and learning science occur in the classroom, in the laboratory,
and in the field. Safe practices are essential when students are actively
learning science in all environments. Familiarity with the potential hazards
makes it possible to take proper precautions and develop a safe learning
environment.
Before every investigation, you should review all safety precautions and
understand their importance. If you are unsure of any procedure or safety
instructions, ask your instructor before you proceed.
The Canadian Hazardous Products Act requires chemical manufacturers
to include all hazard symbols and the degree of hazard. You may recognize
the household product symbols shown in the photograph. These symbols
indicate hazard(s), precaution, and first-aid treatment.
Flammable
Hazard: Materials
could ignite
(catch on fire) if
exposed to
flames, sparks, or
friction.
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Explosive Hazard:
The materials or
equipment could
explode.
Toxic Hazard:
The material is
very poisonous
and could have
immediate and
serious effects.
Corrosive Hazard:
The material may
corrode (eat
away at) clothing, skin, or other
materials.
Biological
Hazard:
Be alert to the
possibility of
poisoning or
infection from
microscopic and
other organisms.
Electrical Hazard:
Be alert to the
possibility of an
electric spark or
shock.
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Many of the chemical products used in Canadian schools are manufactured in the United States. To standardize the labelling systems, WHMIS
(the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) was developed. The
symbols belonging to this system appear on materials and products used both
in workplaces and our schools.
compressed
gas
dangerously
reactive
material
oxidizing
material
poisonous
and
infectious
causing
immediate
and serious
toxic effects
flammable
and
combustible
material
biohazardous
infectious
material
corrosive
material
poisonous
and
infectious
causing
other toxic
effects
Laboratory Safety
Approach all investigations, especially in the laboratory, with maturity. Before
you begin, read all instructions carefully, noting all safety precautions. In
addition, your teacher may provide other safety reminders and rules pertaining to the laboratory activity. It is your responsibility to inform your teacher
of medical conditions such as possible allergies
to materials used (e.g. plants, plant products,
and latex) or by-products of the activity. If you
wear contact lenses, inform your teacher.
1.
APPENDIX A
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If the flame keeps going out, turn off the gas before you seek your
teachers help.
4.
5.
6.
e)
Follow all instructions for cleaning the microbiology lab. Use aseptic
techniques. When finished, use disinfectants and paper towels, and
wipe your lab bench surfaces.
f)
Ensure you wash your hands and the lab surface with proper disinfectants.
592
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e)
f)
g)
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7.
i)
j)
8.
e)
Never attempt to recharge a non-rechargeable battery. Always exercise, caution in handling any batteries: allowing them to discharge
quickly, through a short circuit for instance, can generate dangerous
amounts of heat in the wires and in the batteries themselves, and
some kinds of batteries could even explode.
f)
d) At the end of all lab activities, ensure the lab bench is clean.
e)
f)
Ensure your hands are washed before you leave the lab.
APPENDIX A
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B.
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Why do apples fall from trees? What causes footand-mouth disease? Why do different types of wood
burn to produce different amounts of heat? What
causes leaves to change colours? How can I capture an image on film? Why did the bacteria die
in this Petri plate?
All of these are questions asked by scientists as
they observe parts of the world around them. While
an answer to the last question might be Lets just
throw out this plates results, a scientist named
Alexander Fleming might have asked, What
factors existed in this culture plate to kill these bacteria? It turns out, Fleming had discovered a
mould, called Penicillium notatum, that has a lethal
effect on many harmful organisms. As a result of
his discovery, Oxford researchers Howard Florey
and Ernst Chain were able to isolate the active component penicillin. Today, penicillin is produced by
drug companies to help fight infections and diseases.
Fleming approached the problem from a scientific perspective, using a structured approach to
examine the world and answer his questions.
This approach is called the Inquiry Process. It is
a logical reasoning process used to solve problems
through observation and measurement, experimentation and research, and analysis and dissemination. It attempts to explain phenomena by
examining cause and effect in a controlled situation. Scientists use experiments as a key part of
their scientific work. Working scientifically involves
being precise and accurate when making and interpreting observations and formulating conclusions
from them. It is also important to communicate the
results of experimental work clearly to other scientists. The flowchart on this page outlines some
of the steps involved in the inquiry process.
594
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must then be devised in order to gather information and drawing appropriate conclusions.
Question: What factors affect the growth of plants?
Hypothesis: Plants require sunlight to grow.
To ensure reliable results, the method should also clarify the number of
plants used, the frequency and length of data collection, and the difference
in the amount of light used. All of these factors should be reflected in the procedure for the experiment.
Materials
6 equal-sized bean plants
ruler
dark location
sunny location
APPENDIX B
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Observations
The plants that were selected each had a starting height of 5.0 cm.
Daily results were recorded in Table B.1. Qualitative observations were
recorded in Table B.2 on the last day.
Sunlit
Dark
Plant #
5.2
5.5
5.9
6.2
5.5
5.7
6.1
6.4
5.4
5.8
6.2
6.5
5.0
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.3
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Environment
Plant Appearance
Sunlit
Dark
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Sunlit
5.4
5.7
6.1
6.4
Dark
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
Sunlit
Dark
Day
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Conclusions
The amount of sunlight available to plants is one of the factors
affecting their growth. The qualitative and quantitative data collected
in this experiment clearly show that plants receiving inadequate sunlight
show poor growth, are wilted, and have unhealthy plants and stems.
You can use the following Inquiry Process Checklist to guide your work.
poses a question
question can be answered by following an inquiry process
Hypothesis
Method
Inquiry Skills
follow method
qualitative observations written with adequate detail
quantitative observations include appropriate units and significant figures
use table, chart to organize results
note errors or discrepancies
Conclusion
Overall
598
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C.
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599
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600
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Forms of Communication
Oral
Written
debate
presentation (e.g., town meeting, school council)
radio spot
TV spot
editorial
position paper
poster
pamphlet or brochure
You can use the following Decision-Making Process Checklist to guide your
work.
Assessment Criteria
clearly identified
enables objective, fact-based decision making
Research
Analysis
APPENDIX
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Decision
Evaluation
Communication (Overall)
D.
Graphic organizers are effective tools that can help you learn. They enable you
to problem solve and think critically through analyzing similarities and differences, inferring sequences, and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
They generate discussion and negotiation of ideas, extend comprehension of
a concept, theme, or topic, and lead to organized representation and presentation of understandings. You can use them to brainstorm, demonstrate what
you know, and organize your thoughts before writing a report or essay or planning a presentation. The following chart outlines a number of graphic organizers, their intended purposes, and how to use them as you study science.
Purpose
Method
Concept Map
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Purpose
Method
Venn Diagram
Web Diagram
Pie Chart
Flowchart/Sequence Chart
Ranking Ladder
APPENDIX D
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Purpose
Method
Fishbone Diagram
Right-Angle Diagram
Target Diagram
Agree/Disagree
Chart
Gathering Grid
604
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E.
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Problem Solving
1.
2.
3.
4.
As you work through this text, you will have numerous opportunities to
apply your problem-solving skills through
applying biological concepts to solve new problems
conducting investigations on well-defined testable questions of your own
design
designing your own investigations
evaluating experimental designs
collecting quantitative as well as qualitative measurements
analyzing quantitative data for specific as well as general patterns
(Quantitative data analysis frequently includes numerical calculations to
produce graphs that are appropriate to represent the data.)
interpreting experimental data in light of your original question
and justifying your interpretations using evidence to support your
inferences
APPENDIX E
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F.
Graphing Techniques
APPENDIX F
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Time
(min)
Concentration of
nmol
Cortisol ( L )
Oral
10
Figure F.1 shows a sample graph for the cortisol experiment. Every graph
needs a title to describe what it is about. We place the title at the top of the
graph or in a box on a clear area above the graph.
20
0
315
60
625
80
1050
1100
550
70
Intravenous
Oral
1400
1200
50
2000
0
1760
30
40
Intraveneous
900
890
500
875
800
Concentration of Cortisol (
nmol
L
90
100
1500
550
110
1000
500
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
815
700
120
505
650
160
400
520
200
390
390
240
260
270
280
130
135
320
100
115
360
50
110
360
Time (min)
FIGURE F-1 Median total cortisol concentrations in patients after being given cortisol
intravenously and by mouth.
APPENDIX F
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graph paper without making the plotting difficult and without wasting too
much graph paper. The scale on each axis usually has equal divisions and
each division represents a whole number.
The maximum value of the total cortisol concentration in Figure F.1 is
1760. Each major vertical division has been made to represent 500. The maximum time value in Figure F.1 is 360 min. The horizontal axis has been divided into 12 divisions in order to show 30-min intervals.
Reference
Charmandari, E., et al. 2001. Bioavailability of oral hydrocortisone in patients with
congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Journal of
Endocrinology 169, 6570.
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APPENDIX F
Fr
88
226.03
Radium
Ra
s block
(223.02)
Francium
2
8
18
32
18
8
1
137.33
Barium
Ba
56
2
8
18
32
18
8
2
2
8
18
18
8
2
(262.11)
Lawrencium
Lr
103
174.97
Lutetium
Lu
71
2
8
18
32
9
2
2
8
18
9
2
2
8
9
2
2
8
18
32
10
2
2
8
18
10
2
2
8
10
2
(227.03)
2
8
18
32
18
9
2
2
8
18
18
9
2
232.04
Thorium
Th
90
140.12
Cerium
Ce
58
(262.11)
Dubnium
Db
105
180.95
Tantalum
Ta
73
92.91
Niobium
Nb
41
50.94
Vanadium
23
VB
2
8
18
32
18
10
2
2
8
18
19
9
2
2
8
18
32
11
2
2
8
18
12
1
2
8
11
2
2
8
18
32
12
2
2
8
18
13
1
2
8
13
1
231.04
Protactinium
Pa
91
140.91
2
8
18
32
20
9
2
2
8
18
21
8
Praseodymium 2
Pr
59
(266.12)
Seaborgium
Sg
106
183.84
Tungsten
74
95.94
Molybdenum
Mo
42
52.00
Chromium
Cr
24
VI B
Synthetic element
Element name
Average atomic mass
(For unstable elements a value
for the longest lived isotope is
shown in parentheses.)
VII B
2
8
13
2
238.03
Uranium
92
144.24
Neodymium
Nd
60
2
8
18
32
13
2
2
8
18
13
2
2
8
18
32
21
9
2
2
8
18
22
8
2
26
(237.05)
Neptunium
Np
93
(144.91)
Promethium
Pm
61
(265.13)
Hassium
Hs
108
190.23
Osmium
Os
76
101.07
Ruthenium
Ru
44
55.85
Iron
Fe
d block
(264.12)
Bohrium
Bh
107
186.21
Rhenium
Re
75
(97.91)
Technetium
Tc
43
54.94
Manganese
Mn
25
2
8
18
32
22
9
2
2
8
18
23
8
2
2
8
18
32
14
2
2
8
18
15
1
2
8
14
2
Transition metals
(244.06)
Plutonium
Pu
94
150.36
Samarium
Sm
62
(268.14)
Meitnerium
Mt
109
192.22
Iridium
Ir
77
102.91
Rhodium
Rh
45
58.93
Cobalt
Co
27
VIII B
2
8
15
2
2
8
18
32
24
8
2
2
8
18
24
8
2
2
8
18
32
15
2
2
8
18
16
1
63
2
8
18
32
25
8
2
2
8
18
25
8
2
64
(247.07)
Curium
Cm
96
157.25
Gadolinium
Gd
f block
(243.06)
Americium
Am
95
151.96
Europium
Eu
(272.15)
Unununium
(272.15)
Ununnilium
*Uuu
*Uun
196.97
Gold
Au
79
107.87
Silver
Ag
47
111
2
8
18
32
17
1
2
8
18
18
63.55
Copper
Cu
29
IB
110
195.08
Platinum
Pt
78
106.42
Palladium
Pd
46
58.69
Nickel
Ni
28
2
8
16
2
2
8
18
32
25
9
2
2
8
18
25
9
2
2
8
18
32
18
1
2
8
18
18
1
2
8
18
1
Cd
48
65.39
Zinc
Zn
30
II B
(247.07)
Berkelium
Bk
97
158.93
Terbium
Tb
65
(277)
Ununbium
*Uub
112
200.59
Mercury
Hg
80
112.41
Cadmium
Semimetals or metalloids
2
8
18
32
27
8
2
2
8
18
27
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
2
2
8
18
18
2
2
8
18
2
(251.08)
Californium
Cf
98
162.50
Dysprosium
Dy
66
113
204.18
Thallium
Tl
81
114.82
Indium
In
49
69.72
Gallium
Ga
31
26.98
Aluminum
Al
2
8
18
32
28
8
2
2
8
18
28
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
3
2
8
18
18
3
2
8
18
3
2
8
3
(252.08)
Einsteinium
Es
99
164.93
Holmium
Ho
67
(289)
2
8
4
2
8
18
32
18
4
2
8
18
18
4
2
8
18
4
2
8
18
32
29
8
2
2
8
18
29
8
2
Ununquadium
*Uuq
114
207.2
Lead
Pb
82
118.71
Tin
Sn
50
72.61
Germanium
Ge
32
28.09
Silicon
Si
14
167.26
Erbium
(257.10)
Fermium
Fm
100
2
8
18
32
18
5
2
8
18
18
5
2
8
18
5
2
8
5
2
5
2
8
18
32
30
8
2
2
8
18
30
8
2
VI A
2
8
18
31
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
6
2
8
18
18
6
2
8
18
6
2
8
6
2
6
(258.10)
Md
2
8
18
32
31
Mendelevium 8
2
101
168.93
Thulium
Tm
69
(289)
Ununhexium
*Uuh
116
(208.98)
Polonium
Po
84
127.60
Tellurium
Te
52
78.96
Selenium
Se
34
32.07
Sulfur
16
16.00
Oxygen
p block
Er
68
115
208.98
Bismuth
Bi
83
121.76
Antimony
Sb
51
74.92
Arsenic
As
33
30.97
Phosphorus
15
14.01
13
N
Nitrogen
C
12.01
VA
Carbon
2
4
IV A
10.81
2
3
Boron
III A
(259.10)
Nobelium
No
102
173.04
Ytterbium
Yb
70
117
(209.99)
Astatine
At
85
126.90
Iodine
53
79.90
Bromine
Br
35
35.45
Chlorine
Cl
17
19.00
Fluorine
VII A
2
8
18
32
32
8
2
2
8
18
32
8
2
2
8
18
32
18
7
2
8
18
18
7
2
8
18
7
2
8
7
2
7
(293)
Ununoctium
*Uuo
118
(222.02)
Radon
Rn
86
131.29
Xenon
Xe
54
83.80
Krypton
Kr
36
39.95
Argon
Ar
18
20.18
Neon
Ne
10
4.00
Helium
2
8
18
32
18
8
2
8
18
18
8
2
8
18
8
2
8
8
2
8
Next Section
Actinium
Ac
89
Actinoids
138.91
Lanthanum
La
57
Lanthanoids
(263.11)
Rutherfordium
Rf
104
178.49
Hafnium
Hf
72
91.22
Zirconium
Zr
40
47.87
Titanium
Ti
22
IV B
Tc
22.99
Sodium
He
Previous Section
87
132.91
Cesium
Cs
2
8
18
18
8
1
88.91
55
Yttrium
39
87.62
2
8
18
8
2
Strontium
Sr
38
85.47
2
8
18
8
1
Rubidium
Rb
37
44.96
40.08
Sc
Scandium
Calcium
Ca
21
III B
39.10
2
8
8
2
2
8
2
2
2
Potassium
20
24.31
19
Magnesium
2
8
8
1
22.99
Mg
12
Sodium
Na
2
8
1
9.01
6.94
11
Be
Beryllium
Li
Lithium
II A
2
1
1.01
Hydrogen
Other nonmetals
Element symbol
Na
Halogens
11
Noble gases
01
Alkali metals
21
31
Electrons in each
energy level
41
51
61
Atomic number
71
2
8
1
81
11
s block
G.
IA
Contents
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APPENDIX G
609
Contents
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G LO S SA RY
A
abdomen posterior arthropod body segments that contain
most of the internal organs
angioplasty treatment for coronary artery disease that reduces the narrowing of the artery by inserting a balloon
and inflating it inside the artery
angiogram x-ray that shows the degree of arterial blockage in the heart
610
Glossary
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B
bacillus (plural, bacilli) rod-shaped bacterium
bacterium single-celled prokaryote that belongs to the
kingdom Archaebacteria or the kingdom Eubacteria
bark tissue layers outside the vascular cambium of a
woody plant stem
base compound that takes up hydrogen ions from solution
basidium (plural, basidia) club-like reproductive structure
that produces spores in a basidiomycete fungus
benign tumour that remains in one place in the body
bicuspid valve valve between the left atrium and the left
ventricle of the heart that prevents blood flow back into
the atrium
Glossary
611
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C
caecum chamber of the large intestine that receives
chyme from the small intestine
BMI body mass index; relates body mass to height; measured in kg/m2
612
Glossary
Contents
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chyme paste that results after the stomach partially digests food
chemoautotroph organism that uses energy from oxidizing inorganic materials to manufacture organic compounds from carbon dioxide; see autotroph
Glossary
613
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614
Glossary
Contents
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E
ecological succession process whereby a community of
plants in an area gradually changes, often following an
ecological disturbance
ectoderm outermost of three cell or tissue layers in an
animal
ectotherm animal that regulates its internal body temperature by absorbing heat from the environment
egg see ovum
electrocardiogram (ECG) graphic representation of the
hearts electrical activity
electrocardiograph device that detects the hearts
electrical activity
electrode instrument that senses the hearts electrical
currents and transmits them to a machine
elimination discharge of waste from the digestive tract
through the anus
emphysema respiratory disorder that results in stiffening
of the normally elastic alveoli
emulsify to break down a substance physically without
changing its chemical structure
endergonic reaction reaction that requires energy
endocytosis uptake of large particles or molecules by formation of a vesicle from the cell membrane; requires
energy from ATP
Glossary
615
Contents
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exotoxin poison produced by a micro-organism that diffuses through the cell membrane into its surroundings
expiratory reserve volume volume of air that can be
exhaled from the lungs after tidal exhalation; see tidal
volume
external respiration diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the alveoli and the blood
extracellular fluid fluid found between cells
616
Glossary
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G
G1 (first gap) phase period of cell growth before mitosis
G2 (second gap) phase period of cell preparation for
division before mitosis
gallbladder muscular sac that stores bile and releases it
into the small intestine
gamete specialized reproductive cell that unites with
another of a different sex to produce a zygote through
sexual reproduction; eggs and sperm
Glossary
617
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H
halophile organism that lives in a high-salt environment
haploid number (n) number of chromosomes in a cell
that contains a single set of chromosomes; present in
gametes; one-half the diploid number
heart attack blockage of a coronary artery that prevents
the flow of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue and
kills heart muscle cells
heartburn irritation of the mucous lining of the esophagus
when stomach acids enter the esophagus
heart murmur sound caused by turbulent blood flow
through a disfunctional heart valve
heartwood inner region of xylem in woody stems filled
with complex substances making it non-conducting
heme group iron compound that links to a hemoglobin
molecule in blood and binds oxygen
hemochromatosis genetic disorder characterized by high
iron absorption that damages tissue
hemocoel blood cavity that bathes the internal organs in
the arthropod circulatory system
hemoglobin protein-based molecule that contains iron
and binds oxygen in a red blood cell
618
Glossary
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J
jejunum second part of the vertebrate small intestine
619
Contents
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metamorphosis change in shape that some animals undergo as they develop from an egg to an adult
malignant life-threatening; describes tumours that are capable of spreading throughout the body
620
Glossary
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multifactorial describes a trait whose expression is controlled by genes found at many loci; expression of this
trait may also be influenced by other contributing factors
multiple allelism when there are more than two possible
alleles for a given gene (at a specific locus)
muscle fibre single muscle cell
muscle tissue specialized tissue that forms muscle
mutagen substance or agent that causes a mutation
mutation change in the DNA of a gene
mycelium tangled mass of filaments formed by the
hyphae of a fungus
mycorrhizae (singular, micorrhiza) fungus mycelium that
forms a symbiotic association with plant roots
myocardium muscle that forms the heart wall
N
nasal cavity region of the respiratory tube lined with
mucus and cilia that receives, moistens, and filters air
inhaled through the nose
natural selection difference in the survival or reproduction among individuals in a population based on how
well their traits suit them for their environment
O
obligate aerobe aerobe that needs oxygen to survive; see
aerobe
obligate anaerobe aerobe that can live only in the
absence of oxygen; see anaerobe
omnivore plant and meat eater
Glossary
621
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passive transport movement of substances along the concentration gradient; process that does not require ATP
P
P generation parent individuals that produce offspring in
a study of inheritance
pacemaker specialized muscle in the right atrium that
generates an electrical signal and maintains the hearts
pumping rhythm; device that generates electric signals
to stimulate the heart to contract
622
Glossary
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Glossary
623
Contents
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Q
quaternary structure shape that results when two or
more polypeptide chains join to form a protein,
representing the fourth level of protein structure
R
R group group of atoms in an amino acid whose specific
biological properties distinguish one amino acid from
another
radial symmetry body plan of an animal with body parts
that repeat around one main axis point
radiation therapy use of radiation on specific sites in the
body to upset mitosis and kill cancer cells
radicle embryonic root that emerges from a germinating
seed
radula flexible piece of tissue lined with spines used for
feeding in some mollusks
random assortment separation and independent
alignment of homologous chromosome pairs during
meiosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) type of
endocytosis that moves a specific molecule into a cell
when the molecule binds to a protein on the cell
membrane
recessive describes the form of a trait that is only expressed in the homozygous condition (for example,
aa)
recombinant chromosome produced by the exchange of
chromosome segments between homologous
chromosomes during crossing-over
624
Glossary
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sapwood the outer, most recent layer of xylem that conducts water in a woody stem
Glossary
625
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spontaneous generation outdated theory that living organisms could be generated from non-living matter
sporangium (plural, sporangia) case-like reproductive
structure that produces spores in a zygomycete fungus
or on the underside of a fern frond
spore asexual reproductive cell that can grow into an
adult plant or fungus without fusing with another cell
626
Glossary
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T
taproot long, thick primary root that grows straight
downwards, from which secondary roots emerge
taxon (plural, taxa) taxonomic group of any size
taxonomy science of naming and classifying organisms
into groups based on shared structural characteristics
telophase fourth phase of mitosis; the nuclear envelope
reforms, the chromosomes uncoil and the nucleoli
reappear
Glossary
627
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U
ulcer hole in the lining of the stomach
ulcerative colitis inflammation of the rectum that spreads
back through the large intestine
ultrasound technique that uses sound waves to produce
an image of the fetus in the uterus
unsaturated fatty acid fatty acid, liquid at room
temperature, that has one or more double bonds
between the carbon atoms
uropod flattened appendage on the telson of a crustacean
628
Glossary
white blood cell blood cell that helps to protect the body
from disease and infection
Contents
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X
xenotransplantation transplantation of an animal organ
into a human
XX genotype of a female describing the sex chromosomes
in humans
XY genotype of a male describing the sex chromosomes in
humans
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Z
zone of elongation region in a root above the apical
meristem where new cells enlarge
zone of maturation region in a root where new cells
differentiate and mature
zooflagellate animallike protist with one or more flagella
zygospore spore formed by conjugation between two
zygomycete fungi
zygote union of gametes that produces the first cell of a
new organism
Glossary
629
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A N S W E R S TO N U M E R I C A L Q U E S T I O N S
UNIT I
UNIT 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 Review
Chapter 1
Chapter 5
Chapter 1 Review
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. d
8. c 9. b 10. d
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. b
8. c 9. d 10. d
Chapter 4
12. 1/32
Section 4.1
7. 63
Section 2.1
Chapter 4 Review
Chapter 5 Review
1. d 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. c
7. b 8. c
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. c
Chapter 2
b) 72; 100
Unit 1 Review
c) 2.25:1; 3.125:1
1. d 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. a 6. c 7. b
8. d 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. d 13. c
14. a 15 d
Chapter 2 Review
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. a 7. d
8. c 9. c 10. d
Chapter 6
Section 6.1 Review
5. 3:1; 1:2:1
22.
7. 9:3:3:1; 4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1
Dimenisons of
cube cell (cm)
Surface Area
(cm2)
Volume
(cm2)
SA : Volume
(ratio)
Index = SA/V
1.5
0.125
1.5/0.125 12:1
12
111
6/1
13.5
3.375
13.5/3.375 4:1
24
24/8 3:1
37.5
15.625
37.5/15.625 2:4:1
2.4
54
27
54/27 2:1
genotypic ratio 1:2:1; AA: Aa: aa phenotypic ratio 3:1 pigmented: albino
d) 4x2
6. a) 1/16 b) 1/4
Organism
Diploid
number
Haploid
number
Number of chromosomes
in daughter cells of mitosis
Number of pairs
of homologs
Number ofchromosomes
in meiosis, prophase I
Number of chromosomes
in meiosis at telophase I
Number of chromosomes
in meiosis at telophase II
Cotton
52
26
52
26
52
26
26
Fruit fly
Horse
64
32
64
32
64
32
32
Toad
36
18
36
18
36
18
18
Chicken
78
39
78
39
78
39
39
Goldfish
94
47
94
47
94
47
47
630
Answers to Questions
Contents
Previous Section
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. c
10. 4; ABc, Abc, aBc, abc; 1/4
11. AaBb
12. 1/2
16. AEFCBD
17. a) IBIB IAi b) IBi IAi c) IBi ii
d) IAIB IBIB e) IBi IBi
f) IAIB IBi
18. The genes for height and colour
are linked. The TtRr plant has T
linked with r and t linked with
R. recombination frequency is
18%.
20. 1, B; 2, D; 3, C; 4, A
22. Total 816 For one possible
hypothesis 2 1.21
Chapter 8
5 a)
Practice Problem,
Group
Daily Energy
Requirement (kJ)
12 012
10 045
Age 1619
14 021
9 208
Chapter 7 Review
10 045
8 790
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. d
17 998
12 012
17. a) 0; b) 1
19. a) 3/8 ; b) 1/8 ; c) 1/2
20. 4 out of 64
Unit 2 Review
Chapter 8 Review
1. c 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. c 7. a
8. b 9. d 10. c
1. a 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. d
13. a) 2 b) 23 c) 2
14 b) pH 8.0
Chapter 9
5. 240
38.
T p = 6/10
Chapter 7
Section 7.1 Example 1
Age 1315
2. 1:2:1; 1:2:1
Chapter 6 Review
UNIT 3
Female
Male
A, B, D, E, C, F
Quit
Practice Problem,
7. 50% crossover
Next Section
t q = 4/10
T p = 6/10
TT p = 36/100
Tt
pq = 24/100
t q = 4/10
Tt
tt
q2 = 16/100
pq = 24/100
Chapter 9 Review
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c
22. 180 more breaths per hour.
Answers to Questions
631
Contents
Chapter 10
Section 10.1 Review
11 mL
Previous Section
Unit 4 Review
1. a 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d
31. a) 6720
6. b 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. a
8. c) 75%
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. b
8. a 9. d 10. a
18. 1:767
20. a) 15 times heavier
23. 7949 L/ day
Unit 3 Review
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. d
8. b 9. a 10. b
26. 1.8288; 95.3kg
27. 6L/ min
28. 720 beats
632
Answers to Questions
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29. 22 crackers
2. 6L/ min
Chapter 10 Review
Next Section
Chapter 15 Review
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. c
b) 21.45 L/min
Chapter 16 Review
c) 90mL
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. c
Chapter 11 Review
Chapter 17 Review
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. d
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. c
Chapter 12 Review
Unit 5 Review
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. c
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. d 7. a
8. a 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. c 13. b
14. a 15. d
Chapter 13 Review
1. b 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. c
Chapter 14 Review
1. b 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. c
Contents
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INDEX
2,4,5-T (chemical) 570
2,4-D (chemical) 56970
A
abalones 463
abdomen 295, 4667
abnormal chromosome number. See
aneuploidy.
abscisic acid (ABA) 568, 571
abscission layer 569
Acetabularia sp. 40
acetylsalycilic acid (ASA) 520, 522
and heart attack 522
achondroplasia 153, 205
acid 11
rain 12
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) 389, 404
activation energy 90
active site 90
adenine 26, 27, 88, 195
adenosine deaminase (ADA) 410
deficiency 220
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 278,
889
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 278,
48, 53, 72, 767, 889, 98100,
275, 287, 317
adhesion 546
aerobes, obligate 393
aerobic respiration 98, 100, 562
ageing process 51
agent orange 570
agriculture 495, 507, 561
AIDS. See acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome.
air sacs 467
alanine (ala) 23, 30
albumin (egg white) 31
alcohol 100
alfalfa 507, 511
algae 15, 54, 419, 4256, 434
multicellular 426
alimentary canal 256
alkaloids 520
allele(s) 131, 157, 160, 163
allelism, multiple 169
alveoli 69, 288, 292
gas exchange in 296
amaranth 504
amino acids 234, 30, 49, 248
essential 248
structure 23
amino group (NH2) 23
ammonium compounds 558
amniocentesis 214
amoeba 42, 55, 275, 421
digestion in 275
amphibian 12, 471
B
baby (infant) formula 16
bacillus 391, 396
bacteria 3, 6, 39, 457, 38991, 393,
399, 407
aerobic 393
anaerobic 101
Index
633
Contents
634
Index
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digestion in 276
lungs 474
Biuret reagent 31
bivalves 463
Black Death 398
blood 288, 31719
colour 25
groups (types), human 16970,
320
human 11
vessels 328
See also plasma.
blood pressure 3323, 3278, 3357
for men and women at different
ages 347
blood sugar 269
regulation of 26970
blue whale 476
body mass index (BMI) 317
body plan 4624
features 476
bond 6, 7, 911, 17, 24, 248
ionic 6
polar 10
bone marrow 320, 321
book lungs 466
boreal forest 564
succession in a 499
botulism 398
Boyd, Douglas 337
breast milk 16
breathing 288, 2956
coordinated by chemoreceptors
296
regulation of 295
breeding 210
controlled or selective 210
strategies, traditional 210
See also:
pure-breeding
inbreeding.
bronchi 291
bronchiodilators 300, 302
bronchioles 292
bronchitis 300
Brown, Alan 252
bryophyte (non-vascular plant) 419,
4356, 550
importance of 436
life cycle of 436
budding 429
bulbs 536
bulimia 2513
bundle of His 330
bypass surgery 337. See also heart.
C
caffeine 520
calcium 5, 251, 559
Quit
Contents
Previous Section
animals 61
parent 120
plant 45, 126
plate 126
processes 1011, 65
respiration 878, 98100, 244,
247, 2879
sex 1312, 139, 173
sieve tube 542
size and shape 40
sperm 136
stem 57, 220, 410
structure 412, 45
transplant 3
transport 64
walls 456
xylem 541
cellular: recycling 51
slime moulds 424
cellulose 14, 15, 47, 126, 2478, 434,
542
fibre 516
centipedes 468
centrioles 123
centromere 123
cephalization 457
cephalopods 463
cephalothorax 466
cestodes 458
characteristics 452, 469
common to all animals 452
genetic 205
inherited 152
chelipeds 466
chemical: pest control 507
substances 519
chemistry 5, 6
chemoautotrophs 97, 392
chemoreceptors 296
chemotherapy 130
chemotropism 572
chiasmata 133
chilopod 468
chitin 465
chlorophyll 54, 393, 424
chloroplasts 534, 5367
chocolate 503
cholecystokinin (CCK) 267
cholera 305
cholesterol 17, 201, 44, 76, 335, 339
chondrichthyans 470
chordates 469
key characteristics 469
chorionic villus sampling (CVS) 216
chromatid 123
chromatin 47, 123, 189
chromosomal puffs 199
chromosome 47, 119, 1201, 128,
140, 187, 380
abnormalities 203
characteristic number 128
colchicine treatment of 189
Next Section
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competitive inhibitors 90
complementary base pairs 27
compounds 57, 558
inorganic 7
organic 7
structual formula 14
concentration gradient 68, 723
condensation reaction 14
congenital defects 201
conidia 429
coniferous forest 498
species in 501
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) 18, 21
conjugation 3945, 423
contamination 539
contractile vacuoles 71
corals 456
cork 535, 544
cambium 544
oak (Quercus suber) 544
corn 503, 510
coronary circulation 326
cotton 516
covalent bond 6, 10
polar 7, 9
crabs 4667
crayfish 466
Crick, Francis 195
cristae 53
Crohns disease 264
crop 275
cross-pollination 441
crossing over of genes on
chromosomes 380
crustaceans 466
cuttings 506
cyanobacteria 393, 419
cystic fibrosis 745, 202, 205, 301
cytokinesis 121, 126
cytokinins 568, 571
cytoplasm 47, 121
cytosine 267, 195
cytoskeleton 42, 55, 93
cytosol 47, 51
D
daffodils 536
dairy products (foods) 18, 399
daisy 530
dandelions 531
Darwin, Charles 159, 379, 381, 569
Darwin, Francis 569
DDT (insecticide) 507
de Vries, Hugo 139, 140
dead space 297
degree of saturation 178
dehydration synthesis 14, 23, 26, 30
density 11
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 267, 41,
50, 534, 923, 1201, 12831,
1949, 201, 216, 218, 226, 367,
390, 394, 396, 401, 4034, 4068,
Index
635
Contents
636
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
E
E. coli 367, 394
earthworm 275, 3412, 4596
digestion in 2756
ECG. See electrocardiogram.
echinacea 493, 521
echinoderms 464
body plan 464
reproduction 464
ecological succession 497
ecosystems 366, 496, 529
ectoderm 454
edible oils 503
egg with a shell 472
electrocardiogram (ECG) 331, 337
electron micrograph 388
electron microscope 22
embryo 377
embryonic cells in the treatment of
disease 57
emphysema 300
emulsify 272
endangered species 486
endergonic reactions 28, 88
endocardium 324. See also heart.
endocytosis 75, 421
types of 76
endodermis 533
endoplasmic reticulum 4950, 65
endoscopy 272
endoskeleton 464
endosperm 442
endospore formation 396
endosymbiosis 55
theory 54
endotoxins 398
energy: activation 90
equation for release of 287
flow on Earth 99
from plants 518
requirements of men and
women 246
energy-providing molecule of the cell.
See ATP.
environment 170, 381, 558, 5634
enzyme 16, 23, 43, 902, 248, 2702,
562
human digestive 270
Quit
hydrolytic 50
lock and key model of action 90
lysosomal 52
pancreatic 271
restriction 217
See also coenzymes.
enzyme-substrate complex 90
epidermis, 532
of the root 532
epiglottis 259, 290
erthrocytes (red blood cells) 320
erythropoetin (EPO) 323
esophagus 259
Essential Understandings 33, 61, 83,
105, 149, 183, 231, 283, 313, 355,
385, 415, 447, 481, 525, 553, 577
estrogen 20, 521
ethanol 100, 102, 518
as alternative to fossil fuels 102
ethics 226
of genetics 154
ethylene 568, 571
eubacteria 369, 374, 3901, 3967,
419
phylogenetic groups 397
Eucalyptus oil 524
Euglena 55
euglenoids 424
eukaryotes 37, 42, 48, 374, 420
evolution 452
exercise 339
effects on circulatory system
338
stress test 337
exergonic reaction(s) 28, 88
exhalation 288, 294
exocytosis 77
exoskeleton 465
exotoxins 398
extracellular fluid 251
eyes 466
F
family 372
farmers 502
fat(s) 1718, 2468, 271
saturated 18, 21, 248
unsaturated 18, 248
fatty acid(s) 17, 18, 29, 66, 248
associated with health problems
18
essential 18, 21
saturated 17, 18
unsaturated 17, 18, 21
See also trans-fatty acids.
feathers 474
contour 474
feces (stools) 264
Fedoruk, Sylvia 338
feedback, negative 269
fermentation 1001, 429, 518
alcoholic 100
Contents
Previous Section
importance of 101
ferns 434, 437
fertilization in angiosperms 442
fertilizers 560
fetal pig dissection 349
fibre 330, 516
dietary 15
fibrin 321
fibrous roots 530
filaments, intermediate 55. See also
microfilaments.
fins 470
fish 306, 342, 4701
farms 382
fission 394
flagella 55, 391
flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes)
458
flax 5156
Fleming, Sir Alexander 46, 431
Flemming, Walter 47
flies 467. See also fruit flies.
flower(s) 4401, 530
flowering plants 434, 440, 565
fluid mosaic model 42
flukes 458
food: dairy 18, 399
inorganic 246
irradiation of 508
novel 511
organic 246
plants 5034
production, and land available
for 502
transport in vascular and nonvascular plants 54850
vacuole 422
See also Frankenfood.
foolish seedlings 570
forest 4978, 564
fires 500, 564
products 514
secondary growth 544
fossil fuels 102
Frankenfood 582
Franklin, Rosalind 195
frogs 12, 307, 343, 471
fronds 438
fructose 247
fruit 440, 442, 503
simple 442
fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)
52, 161, 1723, 175, 190
fruiting bodies 424
fungus 45, 369, 374, 419, 4278,
4302
bracket 430, 431
case-like 428
characteristics 427
club-like 430
imperfect 431
reproduction 428
Next Section
sac-like 42831
structure 430
funguslike protists 424
G
galactose 247
Galapagos Islands 379, 381
gallbladder 267
gametes 1312, 137, 160, 381
gametophyte generations 435
gangliosidosis 52
gas-exchange mechanisms in bacteria
397
gasohol 518
gastrodermis 454
gastrointestinal tract. See alimentary
canal.
gastropods 463
gastrovascular cavity 458
gene 131, 157, 163, 171, 377, 380
identification of 171
interactions 170
linkage 1723
map 175
mapping in humans 175
operator 200
pool 204
regulator 200
smart 172
splicing 407
structural 200
therapy 218, 220, 221
generation(s) 156, 435
F1 (first filial) 156
F2 (second filial) 156
P (parent) 156, 158
alternation of in plants 435
spontaneous 38
sporophyte 435
genetic: abnormalities 212
cloning 408
continuity, 120
counselling 211
determination of intelligence
172
disorders 201, 205, 410
engineering 407, 410, 411
recombination 133
screening 211
types and characteristics 205
variation 369, 3801
See also phylogenetic tree.
genetically modified (GM): crops 493,
511
monkey 476
organisms 367
plants 495, 508, 510
super weeds 493
See also Frankenfood.
genetics 116, 153, 176, 210, 226
application of 210
ethics in 226
Quit
history of 176
population 204
genome(s) 221, 222
number of genes in 221
sequencing of 222
See also human genome
project.
genotype 157, 160, 189
genus 372
geotropism 571
German measles (Rubella) 201
germination 5612
required environmental
conditions 558
gibberellins 568, 570
and fruit development 570
gills 307, 430, 467, 4701
capillaries of 342
gizzard 275
glands 94, 267
glucagon 269
glucose 13, 1516, 289, 31, 72, 88,
99, 247, 317
glutamine (gln) 23
glycerol 18, 2930
glycine 30
glycocalyx 66
glycogen 8, 1416
storage 156
glycolysis 98
glycoproteins 44
glycosides 520
golden rice 582
Golgi complex 50, 63, 77, 94
grafting 506
Graham, Robert K. 137
grains 530
Gram, Hans Christian 392
Gram stain 392
grasses 498, 530
grasshopper 342
grassland 497
gravitropism 571
greenhouse 557
group(s) 469, 473, 475
heme 25
linkage 173
guanine 26, 195
guttation 546
gymnosperms 43940, 444
H
habitat 496, 501
hairs 532
halophiles 397
haploid 132
hardwood 514
head 4667
healthy eating 252
heart 336, 522
attack 326, 336, 522
cycle 327
Index
637
Contents
638
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
molecules 66
hydrophobic (water-hating) 19, 20
interactions 10
hydroponic cultivation 557
hydrotropism 572
hydroxide ions (OH) 11
hydroxyl groups 18
hypercholesterolemia 76
hypertension 335. See also blood
pressure.
hypertonic solution 69
hyphae 428
hypocotyl 562
hypotonic solution 70
I
IAA. See indoleacetic acid.
ice 11
ileocecal valve 262, 264
ileum 262
immune: function 21
system 44
immunosuppressents 273
immunotherapy 130
imperfect fungi 431
inbreeding 211
indoleacetic acid (IAA) 569
infants 16
infection 398
inflammatory bowel disease 264
influenza 404
inhalation 288, 294
inheritance: autosomal dominant 207
autosomal recessive 207
blending theory of 155
sex-linked see X linkage.
X-linked recessive 208
inherited characteristics 152
inorganic compounds 250
essential for cell metabolism 7
insect(s) 306, 342, 465, 467, 510
bodies 467
insulin 3, 22, 73, 77, 26970
intelligence 1712
genetic determination of 1712
interphase 1212
intestine: large 264
small 257, 262
intracellular communication 67
invertebrates 451, 462
iodine 31
ionic bond 6
ions 5, 7, 9, 11, 25
Irish potato blight 512
iron 25, 320
isotonic solution 69
Ivanovsky, Dimitri 401
J
jejunum 262
jellyfish 275
Quit
Jennings, Harry 44
Jeon, Kwang 54
jute 516
K
kangaroo (marsupial) 475
kapok 516
karyotype 186, 189, 215
Key Terms 33, 61, 83, 105, 149, 183,
231, 313, 355, 385, 415, 447, 481,
525, 553, 577
kidneys 71
kinases 67
kingdom(s) 369, 3725, 378, 41921,
450
Klinefelter syndrome 194, 203, 205
koala 475
Kurosawa, Ewiti 570
L
lactic acid, 100
Lactobacillus 100
lactose 247
lamella 307
larva 455, 467
larynx 290
latex 517
Law of Independent Assortment 158
Law of Segregation 157
laxatives 265
leaching of metals 12
leaf 5301, 5368
compound 537
simple 537
pull 547
specialized 540
legumes 503, 511
Lemieux, Raymond 11, 252
lemon juice 11, 250
lentils 503
leprosy 398
leucocytes (white blood cells) 320
leukemia 321, 521
lichen(s) 393, 4323, 498
structure of 433
life cycle 4356, 440, 455
life kingdoms, six 369
lignin 45
limpets 463
linkage groups 173
Linnaeus, Carolus 372
Linnean system of classification
3723
linoleic acid 1718, 21, 248
linseed oil 516
lipases 269, 272
lipid 5, 7, 1719, 31, 99, 248, 335
role of in human body 18
solubility 68
See also:
fat
Contents
Previous Section
fatty acids
phospholipids
Liu, Peter 127
liver 1516, 2678, 273
and alcohol 268
liverworts 435, 436, 550
lizards 473
Lloyd, Vett 52
lobsters 466
locus 131, 163
Lugols iodine 31
lumen 2567
lungs 68, 288, 292, 470, 474
anatomical dead space 297
book (in spiders) 466
capacity 297, 309
expiratory reserve volume 297
inspiratory reserve volume 297
residual volume 297
vital capacity 297
See also pleura.
lysis 402
lysogenic cycle 403
lysogeny 403
lysosomal enzymes 52
lysosome(s) 502, 422
in human disease 51
lytic cycle 4023
M
Macintosh, John 506
Macleod, John J.R. 73, 270
macronucleus 422
macronutrients 247, 249, 558
macrophages 50, 76
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 3,
9
malaria 305, 4223, 520
maltose 14, 29
mammal(s) 4756
heart structures 354
mandibles 466
maple syrup 548
Margulis, Lynn 54
marsupials 475
Masui, Yoshio 127
maternal serum screening (MSS) 216
matrix 53
maxillae 466
maxillipeds 466
McClintock, Barbara 219
measles 404. See also German
measles.
medicine, nuclear 94, 338
medulla oblongata 295
medusa 455
mefloquine 520
meiosis: I and II 119, 1314, 163,
203, 380
mistakes in 139
related to Mendels findings 163
stages of 132
Next Section
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monohybrid 158
monomer 8, 13, 15, 27
monosaccharides 134, 247
monosomy, monosomic 140, 230
Mooress Law 27
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 1723
morphine 520
mosaic 42
mosses 4347, 498, 550
mould 427, 429, 432
acellular slime 424
Penicillium 46, 4312
moulting 466
movement of solutes 68
MRI. See magnetic resonance
imaging.
mRNA. See messenger RNA.
mucus 257, 261
Mulder, Gerard Johannes 23
Murkin, John 337
muscle: cells 16
circular smooth 257
fibres 454
longitudinal smooth 257
tissue 256
mushroom(s) 427
life cycle of 430
reproduction 430
mussels 463
mutagen 201
mutation 143, 2012, 394
diseases produced by 2023
in sex cells 201
mycelium 428, 430
mycoplasma 40
mycorrhizae 433
myocardium 324
N
nasal: cavity 290
sprays 301
natural gas 518
natural selection, theory of 379
nature preserves 501
nematocysts 454
nematodes 459
nerve net 454
nervous tissue 256
neurotransmitters 79
neutrophils 50
nicotine 520
effects of on the heart 336
See also:
smoke
smoking
tobacco.
nitrates 558
nitrogen 6, 23, 511, 55960, 565
absorption by plants 558
fixation 397, 558
nitrogen-fixing bacteria 511, 559, 565
nitroglycerine 336
Index
639
Contents
O
oats 503
occupational hazards 302
asbestos 302
recycled air 302
silica 302
octopus 463
oils 516, 524
cooking 516
edible 503
linseed 516
olive 516
unsaturated 516
oleic acid 17
omnivores 258
onions 536
oocytes 137
oogonia 132
operculum 471
opium 520
opossom 475
oral cavity 259
order 373
organ: system 256
transplants 273
organelle 412, 4755, 61, 65, 93,
121, 123
organic compounds 7
organisms 87, 496
autotrophic 97
circulatory systems of 341
colchicine treatment of 128
common ancestry of 377
living 6
multicellular 242
number of 371
photosynthetic 87
sessile 453
sexually reproducing 1434
single-celled 242
transgenic 408
See also micro-organisms.
oscula 453
osmosis 65, 69, 546, 548, 550
osteichthyans (bony fishes) 471
ovary 132, 4402
ovoviviparous 470
ovule 441
ovum (egg) 137
640
Index
Previous Section
Next Section
P
pacemaker 332
palisade layer 538
palmitic acid 17
pancreas 2689, 2712
pancreatic juice 11, 272
pangenesis 155
paper 514
paramecium 52, 55, 420, 4223
parasites 393, 4589, 461
natural 507
parasitic flowering plants 565
Pawson, Tony 67
peanuts 503
peas 503
peat 436
pedigrees 2069
in human genetics 206
pellicle 422
penicillin 467, 4312
Penicillium mould 46, 4312
Penninger, Josef 127
peppered moth 383
pepsin 261, 271
pepsinogen 261
peptide bonds 24, 248
perfume, 68, 517
peristalsis 25960
permeability 66
selectively 66
pest control 507
petals 441
pH 11, 12
scale 11, 12
phages 400
phagocytosis 76, 275
pharynx 259, 290, 458
phases 122
G1 (first gap) 122
G2 (second gap) 122
S 122, 128
See also:
anaphase
interphase
metaphase
prophase
telophase
phenotypes 156
continuous and discontinuous
distribution of 170
phloem 437, 533, 538, 5415
phospholipid(s) 17, 1920, 44, 66
bilayer 424, 66, 72, 74, 248
phosphorus 6, 55960
photosynthesis 534, 868, 959,
276, 393, 4246, 434, 519,
52930, 5367, 542, 550, 563
and food production 957
Quit
products of 87
phototropism 571
phycocyanin 393
phylogenetic: groups 378, 397
tree 378, 469
phylogeny 369, 377
phylum 373, 462
Annelida 459
Arthropoda 465
Chordata 469
Cnidaria 454
Echinodermata 464
Mollusca 462
Nematoda 45960
Platyhelminthes, 458
Porifera 453
phytoremediation 533, 539
pigmy shrew 476
pioneer species 498
placentals 475
plant 53, 276, 308, 343, 374, 418,
426, 434, 492, 495, 541
adaptation to different
environments 563
agricultural 502
alternation of generations in
435
carnivorous 565
classification 444
cool climate 565
cultivation 502
definition 434
desert 563
digestion 276
diversity, determined by the
climate 496
fibres 516
fire 564
flowering 440
food supply 503
for clean-up of contaminated
soil, sediments, and water
(phytoremediation) 533, 539
fossilized 518
herbaceous 534
history 519
hormones 562, 56871
in nature 496
land 434, 537
life cycle 435
main varieties of 434
medical 519
non-vascular 435
nutrient poor soil 565
nutrients 5589
parasitic flowering 565
productivity 505
productivity, increasing 505
protein 518
protein synthesis 559
providing habitats for other
organisms 496
Contents
Previous Section
seed-producing 438
specialized structures 529
spore-producing vascular 437
stems of 530, 5345
structure and function 530
succession, timber management
altering 501
technology trade-offs 513
tissue, protective 544
tissues 541
used to clean up contaminated
soil, sediments, and water
See phytoremediation.
varieties, preserving old 512
viruses 401, 405
wet environments 564
woody 534
plantlike protists 424
plant-protist divide 426
plasma 251, 31920
membrane 38, 42, 72
See also mycoplasma.
plasmid 217, 394
Plasmodium 4223
life cycle 423
plastids 54
platelets 31921
platypus 475
pleura 294
Pneumococcus 194
pneumothorax 299
polar body 137
polar covalent bond 7
polar molecules 9
pollen cones 439
pollination 438, 441
polymer(s) 8, 13, 15
polyp 455
polypeptide 24, 25, 93
chain(s) 23, 25
polyploidy 140, 203
polysaccharide(s) 1416, 99
polysomy 140
populations 12, 204
Porifera 453
potassium 276, 559, 560
potato 15, 50910, 536, 545
Potrykus, Igno 582
pox/shingles 404
pre-meiotic S 133
prenatal diagnosis 214
prescription drugs 520
pressure 546
pressure-flow theory 5489
Priv, Gil 94
probability 167
prokaryotes 37, 41, 374, 3901, 397,
420
prokaryotic, lack of mitochondria 98
prophase 123
proteases 269, 272
protein(s) 5, 7, 234, 32, 42, 44, 49,
Next Section
Q
quinine 520
R
R group 24
radiation therapy 128
radicle 562
radula 463
random assortment 380
Ray, John 371
rays 470
receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME)
76
recombinant DNA 92, 2168
recombinants 174
recreational drugs 520
marijuana 520
rectum 264
recycling materials of life 419
red blood cells 46, 31921, 323, 328.
See also blood, hemoglobin, sicklecell anemia.
red meat 18
red tide 4256
reduction division 133. See also
meiosis I.
reflux 259
rennin 261
Quit
replication 122
reproduction 394, 428, 430, 438,
454, 464
asexual 119, 143, 380
cycle of viruses 401
sexual 119, 143, 145, 369, 380,
438
vegetative 436
reptile groups 4723
RER. See rough endoplasmic
recticulum.
resistance, antibiotic 395, 432
insect, in GM crops 510
respiration 286
aerobic 98, 286301, 562
aerobic cellular 98, 100, 288
anaerobic (fermentation) 1001,
429
external 288
internal 288
physiology of 2946
See also:
cell respiration
exhalation
inhalation.
respiratory system 242, 2879, 306
anatomy of 28993
bird 308
disorders of 3002
fish 306
frog 307
functions of 288
insect, 308
membrane 69, 292
physiology of 2948
plant 308
summary table 312
retroviruses 404
reverse transcriptase 404
rhizoids 428
asexual and sexual
reproduction in 428
rhizomes 438, 536
ribbon diagrams 7
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 267, 49, 93,
123, 195, 401, 404
base pairing 198
nucleotides 198
structure 26
ribosomes 49, 123
rice 510
risk factors for heart disease 335
RNA. See ribonucleic acid.
root 530
adventitious 532
epidermis 532
fibrous 530
hair 532
pressure 546
secondary and tertiary 532
tissues 532
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Index
641
Contents
Previous Section
S
Sasaki, Takehiko 127
salamanders 12, 471
salicylic acid 520
salivary glands 267
sand dollars 464
saprobes 393, 427, 431
saturated fatty acids 17
sapwood 534
scales 471
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
48
scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
22, 49
sclerenchyma 542
scolex 458
scorpions 466
scurvy 250
sea cucumbers 464
sea stars 464
sea urchins 464
seaweeds 426
secretin 269
seed(s) 4414, 523, 561
cones 439
dispersal 443
germination 558, 5612
oils 516
storage 512, 561
structure 531, 562
SEM. See scanning electron
microscope.
seminal receptacle 466
sense organs 457
sepals 441
serosa 257
sex determination 18990
sexual reproduction 119, 143, 145,
369, 380
advantage of 380
compared with asexual 143
in pollination 438
theory of 145
sharks 470
shellfish 463
shock 292, 3212
shrimp 466
shrubs 4989
sickle-cell anemia 5, 202, 205, 320
sinoatrial node 327, 330
sisal 516
skates 470
skeleton 469. See also cytoskeleton,
endoskeleton, exoskeleton.
skin. See ectoderm
642
Index
Next Section
endodermis
epidermis
gastrodermis.
skull 470
sleeping sickness 421
slime moulds 424
slugs 4623
Sly syndrome 52
Smith, Michael 73
smoke, smoking 3023
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. See
endoplasmic reticulum.
smuts 4301
snails 4623
snakes 4723
snapdragons 169
sodium 5
sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) pump
734
soil 5589, 565
nutrients 558
solutes 5, 68
solvent 5, 68
properties 11
soy milk 503, 518
soybeans 503, 518
space life-support system 298
species 3712
specific heat 10
sperm cells 136
spermatids 136
spermatogonia 132
sphincter, lower esophageal 259
pyloric 261
sphygmomanometer 333
spices 503
spider silk 409
spiders 466
spina bifida 215
spindle pole bodies 123
spiny anteater 475
spirillum 391
spleen 320
sponges 4534
spongy layer 538
sporangium 428
spores 428, 4301, 435
sporozoans 422
squash 504
squids, giant 4623
St. George-Hyslop, Peter 218
stamen 441
Staphylococcus 431
starch 13, 15, 31, 49, 247
Starzl, Thomas 273
stem(s) 530, 546, 551
herbaceous 534
of plants 534
specialized 535
woody 534
See also meristems.
steroids 17, 20, 521
Quit
anabolic 20
structure of 20
stigma 441
STM. See scanning tunnelling
microscope.
stomach 261
stomata 5378
storage 178, 561
streptococci 391
Streptococcus pneumoniae 398
stroke 336
stroma 54
structural formulas 7
structure 20, 234, 26, 141, 354, 377,
430, 433, 52831
cell, 41
chromosome 141
DNA 26
seed 5301, 562
submucosa 257
substrates 90
succession 499501
primary 498
secondary 5001
sucrose 14
sugar 13, 14, 247, 496, 503, 537,
54850, 565
beet 503
cane 503
phosphate chain 26
See also:
blood sugar
disaccharides
galactose
glucose
lactose
monosaccharides
polysaccharides
sucrose
sulfur 6, 559
sunflower 573
Sung, Wing Lam 91
superior vena cava 326
surface area to volume ratio 40
Sutton-Boveri hypothesis 161, 172
swim bladders 471
swimmerets 4667
symmetry 457
radial 454
sympatric speciation 141
synapsis 133
synthesis 14, 23, 26, 923, 199, 559
protein 923, 199
See also photosynthesis.
systole 327
T
tRNA. See transfer RNA.
tall oil 515
tapeworms 4589
taproots 530, 531
taxonomy 369, 3723. See also
Contents
Previous Section
classification.
Tay-Sachs disease 51, 205
teeth 2589
telophase 123
telson 467
TEM. See transmission electron
microscope.
tentacles 454
teratogens 201
test cross 166
testosterone 20
tetanus 398
tetrad 133
thermophiles 397
thigmotropism 572
Thompson, Margaret 207
thoracic cavity 294
thorax 4667
thymine 26, 195
thyroid gland 94
ticks 466
Tisdall, Fred 252
tissue 5323, 5412, 544, 552
connective 256
digested by lysosomes 52
fundamental or ground 542
meristematic 542
nerve 256
plants, protective 544
vascular 541
toads 12, 471
tobacco 336
tomato 530
tonoplast 49
tortoises 473
trace elements 251
trachea 259, 2901, 4667
tracheids 5412
tracheophytes 419
traits: multifactoral 170
dominant 156
recessive 156
trans-fatty acids 19
transcription 93, 1989
of DNA 198
transfer RNA (tRNA) 93
transgenic salmon 367
translation (protein synthesis) 93, 199
transmission electron microscope
(TEM) 48
transpiration 538
pull 5478
transplantation 273
liver 273
transport 725, 318
cell 64
and exchange systems in
human body 318
method 83
passive 68, 72
transposons (jumping genes ) 219
trees 45, 514
Next Section
U
ulcers 2612
ultrasound 214
unsaturated fatty acids 17
uracil 26, 198
uropods 467
V
vaccine 44
vacuoles 49, 71, 422
valves 262, 264, 3245, 327
heart 327
See also bivalves.
Van der Waals interactions 10
vascular: cambium 534, 543
cylinder 533
vegetables 503
veins 326
in plant leaves 538
varicose 32930
vena cava, inferior 326
ventricles 324
venules 329
Venus flytrap 566, 572
vertebrate(s) 377, 451, 470
evolutionary ancestordescendant relationships 469
groups 469
vesicle(s) 49, 50, 52, 75, 77
viability 157
villi 263
vinegar 11
viruses 388405, 407, 412
and genetic engineering 410.
classification 400
discovery of 401
See also:
Quit
animal viruses
HIV
plant viruses
retroviruses.
vitamins 24950
C (ascorbic acid) 250
and minerals required in the
human diet 250
deficiency diseases 250
water-soluble 249
vocal cords 2901
vulcanization of rubber 517
W
Wakarchuk, Warren 16
walking legs 466
water 5, 6, 811, 251
and food transport in the
bryophytes 550
as a solvent 11
transport in vascular plants
5458
Watson, James 195
waxes 17
weed killers 510, 569
weeds 510
West, Lori 273
wheat 503, 505
whelks 463
white blood cells 319, 321
wing covers 467
wings 467
wood products 514
Worton, Ronald 193
X
X chromosomes 189, 190
X linkage 1902
and hemophilia 190, 208
and red-green colour blindness
190
X-rays 9, 195
xenotransplantation 273
xylem 2767, 437, 534, 541, 5446
cells, types of 541
sap movement 543
secondary 548
Y
Y chromosome 18990
yeast 100, 429
infections 429
Z
Zasloff, Michael 472
zone: of elongation 562
of maturation 562
zooflagellates 421
Zygomycota 428
zygospore 429
zygote 132, 435
Index
643
Contents
Previous Section
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Quit
644
Unit 2: Genetics
p. 116 top left Michael Newman/Photo Edit; p. 116 bottom left
SPL/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 116 top right Rob
Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 116 bottom right Ken Cole/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 118 inset D.M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 118
background Joe McDonald/Visuals Unlimited; p. 121 left
Triarch/Visuals Unlimited; p. 121 right John D.
Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 122 Science VU/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 124 left & right 1991 P. Birn/Custom Medical
Stock Photo; p. 125 left John D. Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited;
p. 125 right John D. Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited; p. 126
Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited; p. 127 top four images Dr. G.
Gimenez-Martin/CHRI/PHOTOTAKE, NYC; p. 127 bottom left
Courtesy of Dr. Masui; p. 127 bottom right Canadian Press/Tannis
Toohey; p. 128 K. G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited; p. 129 Colin
Cuthbert/Science Photo Library; p. 131 left V. Wilkinson/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 131 right Kennon Cooke/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 133
B. John, Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited; p. 137 top David M.
Phillip/Visuals Unlimited ; p. 137 bottom left Dr. Eileen PyneRudzik; p. 137 bottom right Dr. Eileen Pyne-Rudzik; p. 139
Bettmann/CORBIS/Magma Photos; p. 144 top Cabisco/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 144 second from top Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 144 centre R. Myers/Visuals Unlimited; p. 144 second
from bottom James Richardson/Visuals Unlimited; p. 144 bottom Wolfgang Kaehler/ CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 145 Jeff
Greenberg/Visuals Unlimited; p. 146 left Fritz Polking/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 146 right Dick Poe/Visuals Unlimited; p. 151
John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 152 top left V.
Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 152 top right Eastcott/
Momatiuk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 152 bottom left Mark S.
Skalny/Visuals Unlimited; p. 152 bottom right Laura
Dwight/Photo Edit; p. 154 Bob Gurr/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 155
left Bettmann/ CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 169 Rob & Melissa
Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 171 Tony Freeman/Photo Edit;
p. 186 Biophoto Associates/Science Source/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 187 RUC/Visuals Unlimited; p. 188 Reprinted by permission from Nature 409: 934-941 copyright 2001 Macmillan
Magazines Inc.; p. 189 L. Lisco/D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 190 bottom right Science VU/Visuals Unlimited; p. 193
Canadian Press/Winnipeg Free Press/Jeff De Booy; p. 194 Lester
V. Bergman/ CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 195 top Science Photo
Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 195 bottom Science
Source/Photo Researchers Inc.; p. 196 top right RUC/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 196 bottom right Dr. Gopal Murti/PHOTOTAKE;
p. 197 A. Barrington Brown/Science Source/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 202 top & bottom Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited;
Contents
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Unit 4: Diversity
p. 366 Gary Braasch/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 368 Roman
Soumar/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 369 left Corel; p. 369 top
right Richard Ellis/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 369 middle right
John Cancalosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 369 bottom right Robert
C. Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 370 top left NASA; p. 370 bottom left Corel; p. 370 middle Mike Abbey/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 370 top right Ian Davis-Young/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 370 bottom right Albert Kuhnigk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 371 left & right
Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 375 top left Visuals
Unlimited; p. 375 top middle D.M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 375 top right Ken Wagner/Visuals Unlimited; p. 375 bottom
left R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; p. 375 bottom middle
Corel; p. 375 bottom right Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS;
p. 376 top from top left J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS,
Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS, James R. Page/VALAN
PHOTOS, Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 376 bottom
from left John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited, Wayne
Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS, Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS,
Joseph R. Pearce/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 379 top left A. Morris/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 379 top right Wayne Lankinen/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 379 centre Michel Bourque/VALAN PHOTOS; p.
379 bottom left Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 379 bottom right Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 382
Simon Fraser/SPL/Publiphoto; p. 383 John Fowler/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 388 NIBSC/SPL/Publiphoto; p. 390 WHOI, D.
Foster/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391 left Fred Hossler/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 391 top right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 391 middle right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391
bottom right David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 392 Jack
Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited; p. 393 Biophoto Associates/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 395 bottom Fred Marsik/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 396 Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 397 Fritz Polking/Visuals Unlimited; p.
399 Alan Towse/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 401 left Norm
Thomas/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 401 right K.G. Murti/
Visuals Unlimited; p. 404 Kathy Merrifield/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 410 Keith Wood, Promega, Madison, Wisconsin.; p. 412
Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 418
Valerie Giles/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 421 top Jerome
Paulin/Visuals Unlimited; p. 421 bottom Eric Grave/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 424 top Bill Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p.
424 bottom Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 425 top left
M. Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; p. 425 right Arthur Strange/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 426 top left Eric Grave/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
p. 426 top right Bill Bachman/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p.
426 bottom Hal Beral/Visuals Unlimited; p. 427 left Harold
V. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 427 right George Musil/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 428 J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 429
left Owen Franken/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 429 right
Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 431 top left Leornard Lee Rue
III/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 431 top right A. J. Bond/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 431 bottom Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 432
top left Christine Case/Visuals Unlimited; p. 432 top right
645
Contents
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646
Next Section
Quit
Unit 5: Plants
p. 492 Mach II Stock Exchange; p. 494 salad John
Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 coffee & donut Peter Jermolow;
p. 494 ASA John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 jeans Roger
Cole/Visuals Unlimited; p. 494-495 cereal Peter Jermolow; p.
495 tire J. R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 496 Tom W.
Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 497 J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 498 James R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top left
V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top centre Dr. A.
Farquhar/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top right Albert
Kuhnigk/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 bottom Dr. A. Farquhar/
VALAN PHOTOS; p. 501 Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 503 top Ken Patterson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 503
bottom Wouterloot-Gregoire/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 504 Inga
Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 505 Rob Young; p. 506 top John
Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 506 bottom 3 images A.
Scullion/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 507 top E. Webber/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 507 bottom Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 508 left John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 508 right Bud
Nielsen/Visuals Unlimited; p. 509 V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 510 Canadian Press/Ray Smith; p. 512 top Klaus
Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p.
512 bottom Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 516 top right
James P. Blair/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 516 bottom Ryan
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 517 top Charles O. Cecil/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 517 bottom left Peter Jermolow; p. 517 bottom
right Barnabas Bosshart/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 518 Ryan
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 519 top right Courtesy of Cushing
Memorial Library, Texas A&M University Libraries; p. 519 bottom left Jean-Loup Charmet/Science Photo Library/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; p. 520 top Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited;
p. 520 middle Schalkwijk/Art Resource, NY; p. 521 Joyce
Photographics/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 522 Peter Jermolow; p. 524
Andrew Syred/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 528
Larry Mellichamp/Visuals Unlimited; p. 529 J.R. Page/VALAN
PHOTOS; p. 531 top Robert Calentin/Visuals Unlimited; p. 531
bottom Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited; p. 532 top Bill
Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 532 bottom left Harold V.
Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 532 bottom right S. Elems/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 533 Corel; p. 534 left & right Cabisco/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 535 James W. Richardson/Visuals Unlimited; p.
536 top Aubrey Lang/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 536 bottom left
Steve Callahan/Visuals Unlimited; p. 536 bottom middle Bill
Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 536 bottom right E. Webber/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 537 bottom right John D. Cunningham/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 538 Gerald Van Dyke/Visuals Unlimited; p. 539
Martin Bond/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
p. 540 left William J. Weber/Visuals Unlimited; p. 540 middle
Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 540 right
Corel; p. 541 Peter Arnold; p. 542 left Randy Moore/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 542 middle A.J. Karpoff/Visuals Unlimited; p.
542 right Dennis Drenner/Visuals Unlimited; p. 543 top
Randy Moore/Visuals Unlimited; p. 543 bottom John D.
Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 544 top Harold V.
Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 544 bottom Charles Preitner/Visuals
Unlimited; p. 545 Corel; p. 546 Gary Carter/Visuals Unlimited;
Contents
Previous Section
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Quit
p. 566 middle left Dayton Wild/Visuals Unlimited; p. 566 middle centre Herman H. Giethoorn/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 middle right V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 566 bottom Len
Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 567 left Corel; p. 567 right
Francois Morneau/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 569 Len Silverman/LHS
Consulting; p. 570 top Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited; p.
570 bottom Corel; p. 571 E.R. Degginger/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; p. 572 Pam Hickman/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 573 top left &
right David Sieren/Visuals Unlimited; p. 573 bottom Inga
Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 581 Steve Skjold/Photo Edit, Inc.;
p. 582 Owen Franken/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 585 top
John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; p. 585 bottom left
Corel; p. 585 bottom right Corel.
Illustration
Krogh, D., BIOLOGY: A Guide to the Natural World, 2000.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458:
p. 6 Fig 1.2; p. 7 Fig 1.3; p. 8 Fig 1.7; p. 9 Fig 1.9; p. 10 Fig 1.10;
p. 10 Fig 1.11; p. 11 Fig 1.12; p. 12 Fig 1.13; p. 14 Fig 1.17; p.
15 Fig 1.18; p. 17 Fig 1.20; p. 18 Fig 1.21; p. 19 Fig 1.23; p. 20
Fig 1.24; p. 23 Fig 1.27; p. 23 Fig 1.28; p. 24 Fig 1.29; p. 26
Fig 1.30; p. 29 Fig 1.34; p. 36 Fig 2.1; p. 39 Fig 2.4; p. 41 Fig
2.5; p. 4243 Fig 2.6; p. 44 Fig 2.7; p. 46 Fig 2.9; p. 49 Fig 2.11;
p. 50 Fig 2.13; p. 51 Fig 2.14; p. 53 Fig 2.16; p. 54 Fig 2.17; p.
55 Fig 2.18; p. 66 Fig 3.3; p. 68 Fig 3.4; p. 69 Fig 3.5; p. 70 Fig
3.6; p. 72 Fig 3.8; p. 74 Fig 3.9; p. 76 Fig 3.11; p. 77 Fig 3.12;
p. 77 Fig 3.13; p. 78 Fig 3.14; p. 88 Fig 4.2; p. 91 Fig 4.5; p. 93
Fig 4.6; p. 99 Fig 4.11; p. 120 Fig 5.2; p. 124125 Fig 5.7; p. 126
Fig 5.9; p. 132 Fig 5.16; p. 13435 Fig 5.18; p. 138 Fig 5.22; p.
140 Fig 5.24; p. 156 Fig 6.5; p. 159 Fig 6.7; p. 168 Fig 6.14; p.
175 Fig 6.21; p. 190 Fig 7.5; p. 196 Fig 7.13; p. 198 Fig 7.17;
p. 198 Fig 7.18; p. 199 Fig 7.19; p. 202 Fig 7.20; p. 203 Fig 7.23;
p. 215 Fig 7.36; p. 217 Fig 7.38; p. 223 Fig 7.45; p. 229 Fig 7.48;
p. 256 Fig 8.6; p. 257 Fig 8.7; p. 259 Fig 8.9; p. 261 Fig 8.14;
p. 262 Fig 8.15; p. 264 Fig 8.17; p. 268 Fig 8.21; p. 282 Fig 8.34;
p. 290 Fig 9.4; p. 292 Fig 9.10; p. 297 Fig 9.16; p. 312 Fig
9.10; p. 318 Fig 10.2; p. 319 Fig 10.3; p. 325 Fig 10.9; p. 326
Fig 10.10; p. 329 Fig 10.13; p. 354 Fig 10.38; p. 372 Fig 11.7;
p. 377 Fig 11.12; p. 377 Fig 11.13; p. 378 Fig 11.14a); p. 378
Fig 11.14b); p. 380 Fig 11.16, Fig 11.17; p. 395 Fig 12.7; p. 400
Fig 12.13; p. 402 Fig 12.16; p. 430 Fig 13.18; p. 430 Fig 13.19;
p. 433 Fig 13.26; p. 434 Fig 13.27; p. 435 Fig 13.28; p. 439 Fig
13.38; p. 440 Fig 13.40; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p.
442 Fig 13.45; p. 443 Fig 13.46; p. 530 Fig 16.3; p. 537 Fig 16.14;
p. 541 Fig 16.19; p. 549 Fig 16.30; p. 562 Fig 17.10; p. 568 Fig
17.23
647
- awareness of
audience and
purposechoice and
presentation of facts
and arguments creates
intended impact
(public awareness)
Making Connections
- assesses the impact
of public awareness
campaigns on medical
research (i.e., cure,
prevention, focus on
high-profile diseases)
- analyzes the social
and economic impact
of directing funds to
medical research
Date: ________________________
Level 1
limited information
on a few aspects of
chosen diseases, some
inaccurate or missing
information
Level 2
information on some
aspects of chosen
diseases, some
inaccuracies
Level 3
accurate information
on most aspects of
chosen diseases
Level 4
thorough and precise
information on all
aspects of the chosen
diseases
inappropriate or too
little data; limited
analysis
some appropriate
data; some accurate
analysis
appropriate data;
analyzes data
accurately
considerable clarity
and precision
terminology has
limited accuracy
(often relies on
general rather than
scientific terms)
limited sense of
audience and purpose;
campaign lacks
impact
terminology is
accurate and
effective; may adjust
for audience
terminology is used
with precision as
appropriate for
audience
some sense of
audience and purpose;
choice and
presentation of facts
and arguments has
some impact
clear sense of
audience and purpose;
choice and
presentation of facts
and arguments has
considerable impact
strong sense of
audience and purpose;
insightful choices of
facts and arguments
make campaign
highly effective
explains impact of
public awareness on
medical research with
limited understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
medical research with
some understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
medical research with
considerable
understanding
explains impact of
public awareness on
medical research with
thorough
understanding
effectively explains
most obvious social
and economic impacts
thoroughly and
effectively explains
obvious and subtle
impacts
Date: ________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- understanding of
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
- providing sufficient
information on the
chosen genetic
disorder to complete
the task
- applying concepts
correctly to explain
genetic technologies
Level 1
limited understanding
of the concepts
underlying the
transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 2
some understanding
of the concepts
underlying the
transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 3
considerable
understanding of the
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
Level 4
thorough
understanding of the
concepts underlying
the transmission of
hereditary
characteristics
some accurate
relevant information
sufficient accurate
and relevant
information
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to explain
genetic technologies
applies concepts
correctly to explain
genetic technologies
Inquiry
- researching different
perspectives
identifies few
perspectives, relies on
limited research, may
use own opinions
instead
identifies a few
possible misuses of
genetic information
applies a thorough
knowledge of
concepts to give
detailed explanations
of genetic
technologies
identifies many
different perspectives
on the issue, does
thorough research
identifies some
possible misuses of
genetic information
identifies several
possible misuses of
genetic information
communicates with
limited clarity and
precision
communicates with
moderate clarity and
precision
communicates with
considerable clarity
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy, may
use general rather
than scientific terms
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy, may
substitute general
terms in places
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
- identifying possible
social misuses of
genetic information
Communication
- communication of
information and
recommendations
- use of scientific
terminology
/2
identifies many
possible misuses of
genetic information
based on insightful
interpretations of both
social and scientific
factors
communicates with a
high degree of clarity
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
-2Making Connections
- quantifying the size
of potential benefit or
risk (e.g., in form of
number of lives
affected, dollar figure,
scale of 15)
- estimating the
probability of events
recurring
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of
benefits and risks may
be unrealistic
chooses an
appropriate form and
quantifies benefits
and risks realistically
has difficulty
estimating the
probability of events
makes reasonable
estimates about the
probability of events
- calculating the
probability values for
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
has difficulty
calculating
probability values for
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
decides on a
recommendation that
does not follow
logically from the
risk/benefit analysis
decides on a
recommendation that
is based on some
aspects of the
risk/benefit analysis
decides on a
recommendation that
follows logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis
- deciding on a
recommendation
about the future of
genetic research
accurately calculates
probability of most
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
decides on a
recommendation that
follows logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis and shows
insight
Date: __________________
Categories
Knowledge/
Understanding
- understanding of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
- providing sufficient
information
alternatives to
dissection to complete
the task
Inquiry
- identifying technical
skills used in
dissection
- identifying safety
procedures related to
formaldehyde
preservative
- organizing and
displaying data from
research on
perspectives
Communication
- communication of
information and ideas
- showing awareness
of audience (i.e.,
school board trustees)
- accomplishing
purpose
Level 1
limited knowledge of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
Level 2
some knowledge of
comparative anatomy
and physiology
Level 3
sufficient knowledge
of comparative
anatomy and
physiology
Level 4
thorough knowledge
of comparative
anatomy and
physiology
sufficient accurate
and relevant
information
identifies few
technical skills used
in dissection
identifies some
technical skills used
in dissection
identifies most
technical skills used
in dissection
identifies safety
procedures only with
assistance
identifies all
appropriate safety
procedures
identifies safety
procedures in detail
organizes data
ineffectively, may
choose inappropriate
form
limited clarity and
precision
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate analysis
considerable clarity
and precision
limited sense of
audience
some sense of
audience
clear sense of
audience
strong sense of
audience
establishes limited
sense of purpose; it is
not accomplished
demonstrates limited
command of the rules
and conventions of
letter writing
establishes some
sense of purpose that
is partially
accomplished
demonstrates some
command of the rules
and conventions of
letter writing
establishes and
accomplishes purpose
with a high degree of
effectiveness
demonstrates
extensive command
of the rules and
conventions of letter
writing
/2
demonstrates
considerable
command of the rules
and conventions of
letter writing
-2Making Connections
- provides relevant
information about
perspectives on
dissection (i.e.,
ethical/moral, social,
economic, political,
environmental)
- evaluating
information and
alternatives
collects limited
information about
perspectives, may use
own opinions instead
collects some
information about
perspectives, may
omit one or two
collects considerable
information about
each perspective
collects thorough
information about
each perspective
analyzes obvious
aspects of the issue
with moderate
effectiveness
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of costs
and benefits may be
unrealistic
has difficulty
calculating totals for
costs and benefits
chooses an
appropriate form and
quantifies costs and
benefits realistically
accurately calculates
totals for costs and
benefits
- using supporting
information to justify
recommendation
uses considerable
supporting
information to justify
recommendation
Communication
- communication of
information and ideas
- using scientific
terminology
Date: __________________
Level 1
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to explain
reproductive
technologies
Level 2
correctly applies
concepts to explain
some reproductive
technologies
Level 3
correctly applies
concepts to explain
most relevant
reproductive
technologies
Level 4
correctly applies
concepts to make
detailed explanation
of all relevant
reproductive
technologies
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to predict
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to predict
some possible
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic predictions
about several possible
outcomes
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic and insightful
predictions about
many possible
outcomes
provides limited
accurate and relevant
information
uses few appropriate
sources; may rely on
remembered
information
organizes data
ineffectively; form
may be inappropriate
for comparison
communicates with
limited clarity and
precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy; may
rely on general rather
than scientific terms
provides some
accurate and relevant
information
uses some appropriate
resources
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate comparison
communicates with
moderate clarity and
precision
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy; may
substitute general
terms in places
communicates with
considerable clarity
and precision
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
communicates with a
high degree of clarity
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
/2
-2- accomplishing
purpose
establishes limited
sense of purpose; it is
not accomplished
Making Connections
- choosing a form for
quantifying the size of
potential benefit or
risk to biodiversity
- estimating the
probability of events
recurring
may choose an
inappropriate form,
quantification of
benefits and risks may
be unrealistic
has difficulty
estimating the
probability of events
- calculating the
probability values for
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
has difficulty
calculating
probability values for
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
decides on a course of
action that does not
follow logically from
the risk/benefit
analysis
- deciding on a course
of action
establishes some
sense of purpose that
is partially
accomplished
chooses a form and
quantifies benefits
and risks fairly
realistically
makes reasonable
estimates about the
probability of events
decides on a course of
action that is based on
some aspects of the
risk/benefit analysis
decides on a course of
action that follows
logically from the
risk/benefit analysis
chooses an
appropriate form and
quantifies benefits
and risks realistically
accurately calculates
probability of most
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
establishes and
accomplishes purpose
with a high degree of
effectiveness
makes thoughtful and
insightful choices
about form and
effectively quantifies
benefits and risks
makes accurate and
thoughtful estimates
about the probability
of events
accurately calculates
probability of all
individual events and
totals for benefits and
risks
decides on a course of
action that follows
logically from the
risk/benefit analysis
and shows
considerable insight
Date: __________________
Level 1
has difficulty
applying concepts
correctly to predict
outcomes
Level 2
correctly applies
concepts to predict
some possible
outcomes
Level 3
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic predictions
about several possible
outcomes
Level 4
correctly applies
concepts to make
realistic and insightful
predictions about
many possible
outcomes
provides limited
accurate and relevant
information
uses few appropriate
sources; may rely on
remembered
information
organizes data
ineffectively; may
choose inappropriate
form
identifies few relevant
questions
provides some
accurate and relevant
information
uses some appropriate
resources
organizes data
competently
organizes data
effectively to
facilitate analysis
identifies some
relevant questions
identifies many
relevant questions
identifies a specific,
comprehensive set of
relevant questions
provides a limited
plan with a general
strategy
provides a detailed
plan with clear steps
and timelines
provides a moderately
clear plan including
some steps; may not
identify timeline
moderate clarity and
precision
considerable clarity
and precision
uses scientific
terminology with
limited accuracy; may
rely on general rather
than scientific terms
uses scientific
terminology with
some accuracy; may
substitute general
terms in places
uses scientific
terminology
accurately and
effectively
uses scientific
terminology with
precision
/2
limited sense of
audience
some sense of
audience
clear sense of
audience
strong sense of
audience
establishes limited
sense of purpose; it is
not accomplished
- includes required
features (e.g., charts,
tables, summary
overheads,
bibliography)
Making Connections
- connecting science
and technology
establishes some
sense of purpose that
is partially
accomplished
includes some
required features
establishes and
accomplishes purpose
with a high degree of
effectiveness
includes all required
features
- connecting scientific
concepts and
environmental
outcomes
makes limited
connections between
scientific concepts
and environmental
outcomes
identifies a limited
number of
perspectives; perhaps
only ones in direct
opposition
assumes most sources
of information are
credible; may
recognize obvious
exceptions
offers limited, often
inaccurate,
assessment of key
factors
makes some
connections between
scientific concepts
and environmental
outcomes
identifies some
obvious perspectives
accurately describes
the science concepts
that underlie genetic
modification with
limited accuracy
makes connections
between scientific
concepts and
environmental
outcomes
identifies most
obvious perspectives
attempts to confirm
some facts, but may
not consider
perspective and biases
of writers
offers some
competent assessment
of key factors
thoroughly and
insightfully evaluates
sources of
information
analyzes obvious
trade-offs with
moderate
effectiveness
bases opinions on
some relevant
evidence
analyzes trade-offs
with considerable
effectiveness
analyzes trade-offs
with a high degree of
effectiveness
bases opinions on
sound interpretation
of evidence
bases opinions on
thorough, insightful
interpretation of
evidence
- identifying
perspectives
- evaluating sources
of information for
credibility, bias, and
relevance
- assessing key factors
(e.g., safety, cost,
benefits to health,
availability,
environmental
impact)
- analyzing trade-offs
- use of evidence
bases opinions on
limited or
misinterpreted
evidence
includes most
required features